The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™
ISSN 2307-8235 (online)
IUCN 2008: T22696038A80351871
Aquila nipalensis, Steppe Eagle
Assessment by: BirdLife International
View on www.iucnredlist.org
Citation: BirdLife International. 2015. Aquila nipalensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
2015: e.T22696038A80351871. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.20154.RLTS.T22696038A80351871.en
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THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™
Taxonomy
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Animalia
Chordata
Aves
Accipitriformes
Accipitridae
Taxon Name: Aquila nipalensis Hodgson, 1833
Regional Assessments:
• Europe
Common Name(s):
• English:
• French:
Steppe Eagle
Aigle des steppes
Taxonomic Source(s):
del Hoyo, J., Collar, N.J., Christie, D.A., Elliott, A. and Fishpool, L.D.C. 2014. HBW and BirdLife
International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Lynx Edicions BirdLife International.
Identification Information:
72-81 cm, wingspan 160-200 cm. Dark-brown, medium-large Aquila. Juvenile usually has broad whitish
band along greater underwing coverts. Primaries banded, iris brown (Meyburg and Boesman 2013).
Similar spp. Larger than Tawny Eagle A. rapax and separated by width and length of gape. Generally
darker than Lesser Spotted Eagle A. pomarina and paler than Greater Spotted Eagle A. clanga and has
oval nostrils rather than round as in both these species.
Assessment Information
Red List Category & Criteria:
Endangered A2abcd+3bcd+4abcd ver 3.1
Year Published:
2015
Date Assessed:
October 1, 2015
Justification:
This species has undergone extremely rapid population declines within its European range. The majority
of its range lies outside Europe where it was not thought to be declining at a sufficiently rapid rate to
approach the threshold for Vulnerable. However recent information suggests that the population
outside Europe may be exposed to greater threats than was previously thought and has also undergone
very rapid recent declines across much of the range. It is therefore classified as Endangered.
Previously Published Red List Assessments
2013 – Least Concern (LC) – http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-2.RLTS.T22696038A40710277.en
2012 – Least Concern (LC)
2011 – Least Concern (LC)
2009 – Least Concern (LC)
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Aquila nipalensis – published in 2015.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T22696038A80351871.en
1
2008 – Least Concern (LC)
2004 – Least Concern (LC)
2000 – Lower Risk/least concern (LR/lc)
1994 – Lower Risk/least concern (LR/lc)
1988 – Lower Risk/least concern (LR/lc)
Geographic Range
Range Description:
This species breeds east of 42°E in European Russia from the Astrakhan to Stavropol regions
(Hagermeijer and Blair 1997), across Kazakhstan into Kyrgyzstan, China and Mongolia (Meyburg and
Boesman 2013). It also breeds in a small area of Turkey. It formerly bred in Moldova, Romania and
Ukraine. Birds from European Russia, eastern Kazakhstan and Turkey (A. n. orientalis) winter in the
Middle East, Arabia and east and southern Africa (Meyburg and Boesman 2013). Birds from Altai, Siberia
eastwards (A. n. nipalensis) winter mainly in south and south-east Asia.
Country Occurrence:
Native: Afghanistan; Albania; Armenia (Armenia); Azerbaijan; Bahrain; Bangladesh; Bhutan; Botswana;
Bulgaria; China; Congo, The Democratic Republic of the; Djibouti; Egypt; Eritrea; Ethiopia; Georgia;
Greece; India; Iran, Islamic Republic of; Iraq; Israel; Jordan; Kazakhstan; Kenya; Kuwait; Kyrgyzstan;
Lebanon; Malawi; Malaysia; Mongolia; Myanmar; Namibia; Nepal; Oman; Pakistan; Palestinian Territory,
Occupied; Qatar; Russian Federation; Rwanda; Saudi Arabia; Singapore; South Africa; South Sudan;
Sudan; Swaziland; Syrian Arab Republic; Tajikistan; Tanzania, United Republic of; Thailand; Turkey;
Turkmenistan; Uganda; Ukraine; United Arab Emirates; Uzbekistan; Viet Nam; Yemen; Zambia;
Zimbabwe
Regionally extinct: Moldova; Romania
Vagrant: Angola (Angola); Belarus; Burundi; Cameroon; Chad; Croatia; Czech Republic; Denmark;
Estonia; Finland; France; Germany; Hungary; Italy; Korea, Democratic People's Republic of; Mali;
Netherlands; Niger; Nigeria; Norway; Poland; Slovakia; Somalia; Spain; Sweden; Tunisia
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Aquila nipalensis – published in 2015.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T22696038A80351871.en
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Distribution Map
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Aquila nipalensis – published in 2015.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T22696038A80351871.en
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Population
Even assuming densities as low as one pair / 100 km2 across eight million km2 range there would be
80,000 pairs or 160,000 mature individuals (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). The European population
is estimated at 800-1,200 pairs, which equates to 1,600-2,400 mature individuals (BirdLife International
2015). Europe forms approximately 9% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global
population size is 17,800-26,700 mature individuals. The estimate based on the European population is
much lower than the 160,000 mature individuals estimated by Ferguson-Lees and Christie (2001) and
may be explained by differing densities of the species across its range. Combined totals from across the
whole range estimate the number of pairs at 31,372 (26,014-36,731) which equates to 62,744 (52,02873,462) mature individuals or 94,116 (78,042-110,193) individuals (I. Karyakin in litt. 2015). The
population is placed in the band 100,000 to 499,999 mature individuals.
Trend Justification
The population is declining owing to habitat destruction (especially conversion of steppe into
agricultural land), persecution, and collisions with power lines. Locally populations are declining owing
to heavy predation of chicks (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). In Europe the population size is
estimated to be decreasing by 80% or more in 49.8 years (three generations) (BirdLife International
2015) however the European population represents only a small proportion of the global population.
Combined totals from across the species's range suggest a decline of 58.6% between 1997-2011 and
2013-2015 (I. Karyakin in litt. 2015).
Current Population Trend: Decreasing
Habitat and Ecology (see Appendix for additional information)
It inhabits areas of steppe and semi-desert, and is recorded breeding up to 2,300 m in mountainous
regions (del Hoyo et al. 1994). It feeds mainly on small mammals on its breeding grounds, with susliks
forming the vast majority of its diet in some areas; when wintering it appears to feed mainly on mole
rats in East Africa, and termites and Red-billed Quelea Quelea quelea predominate in southern Africa
(del Hoyo et al. 1994). Nests have traditionally been built as large platforms on the ground, although
recent habitat alterations seem to have caused a shift to building a few metres higher in bushes or trees
(del Hoyo et al. 1994). It also nests on artificial structures. The species is migratory, with birds wintering
in south-east Africa and southern Asia (del Hoyo et al. 1994). Migrants leave their breeding grounds
between August and October, returning between January and May (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). It
avoids sea crossings and thus forms large concentrations at bottleneck sites (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Snow
and Perrins 1998, Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001).
Systems: Terrestrial
Threats (see Appendix for additional information)
The species has declined in the west of its breeding range, including extirpation from Romania, Moldova
and Ukraine, as a result of the conversion of steppes to agricultural land combined with direct
persecution (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001, Meyburg and Boesman 2013). It is also adversely affected
by power lines and is very highly vulnerable to the impacts of potential wind energy developments (Strix
2012, Meyburg and Boesman 2013). It was recently found to be the raptor most frequently electrocuted
by power lines in a study in western Kazakhstan (Levin and Kurkin 2013). Young eagles are taken out of
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Aquila nipalensis – published in 2015.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T22696038A80351871.en
4
the nest in order to sell them to western European countries (Mebs and Schmidt 2006). A decline in the
number of birds and a reduction in the proportion of juveniles migrating over Eilat, Israel began
immediately after the Chernobyl nuclear accident in 1986, leading Yosef and Fornadari (2004) to suggest
that the species may have been affected by radioactive contamination. This species is vulnerable to the
veterinary drug diclofenac (Sharma et al. 2014).
Conservation Actions (see Appendix for additional information)
Conservation and Research Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. CITES Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no conservation
actions known to be in place for this species.
Conservation and Research Actions Proposed
Protect remaining grassland steppes in Europe and the rest of its range. Dangerous electric powerline
constructions should be replaced or fitted with protective devices. Educate herdsmen and other locals in
the ecological value and vulnerability of this species (Tucker and Heath 1994). Continue research into
the impacts of diclofenac and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to establish the sensitivity of
this species to veterinary drugs. Promote a ban on the use of diclofenac in Europe.
Credits
Assessor(s):
BirdLife International
Reviewer(s):
Symes, A.
Contributor(s):
Horvath, M., Karyakin, I., Perlman, Y. & Vyas, V.
Facilitators(s) and
Compiler(s):
Butchart, S., Ekstrom, J., Harding, M., Khwaja, N., Symes, A., Ashpole, J, Wright, L,
Pople, R., Burfield, I., Ieronymidou, C. & Wheatley, H.
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Aquila nipalensis – published in 2015.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T22696038A80351871.en
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Bibliography
BirdLife International. 2015. European Red List of Birds. Office for Official Publications of the European
Communities, Luxembourg.
Brazil, M. 2009. Birds of East Asia: eastern China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, eastern Russia. Christopher
Helm, London.
del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J. 1994. Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 2: New World Vultures
to Guineafowl. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain.
Ferguson-Lees, J. and Christie, D.A. 2001. Raptors of the world. Christopher Helm, London.
IUCN. 2015. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2015-4. Available at: www.iucnredlist.org.
(Accessed: 19 November 2015).
Levin, A. S. and Kurkin, G. A. 2013. The Scope of Death of Eagles on Power Lines in Western Kazakhstan.
Raptors Conservation 27(240-244).
Mebs, T. and Schmidt, D. 2006. Die Greifvögel Europas, Nordafrikas und Vorderasiens. Kosmos Verlag.
Meyburg, B.U. and Boesman, P. 2013. Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A.,
Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. and de Juana, E. (eds), Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive, Lynx Edicions,
Barcelona.
Sharma, A.K., Saini, M., Singh, S.D., Prakash, V., Das, A., Dasan, R.B., Pandey, S., Bohara, D., Galligan, T.H.,
Green, R.E., Knopp, D. and Cuthbert, R.J. 2014. Diclofenac is toxic to the Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis:
widening the diversity of raptors threatened by NSAID misuse in South Asia. Bird Conservation
International 24: 282-286.
Snow, D.W. and Perrins, C.M. 1998. The Birds of the Western Palearctic, Volume 1: Non-Passerines.
Oxford University Press, Oxford.
STRIX. 2012. Developing and testing the methodology for assessing and mapping the sensitivity of
migratory birds to wind energy development. BirdLife International, Cambridge.
Tucker, G.M. and Heath, M.F. 1994. Birds in Europe: their conservation status. BirdLife International,
Cambridge, U.K.
Yosef, R. and Fornasari, L. 2004. Simultaneous decline in Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis) populations
and Levant Sparrowhawk (Accipiter brevipes) reproductive success: coincidence or a Chernobyl legacy?
Ostrich 75(1&2): 20-24.
Citation
BirdLife International. 2015. Aquila nipalensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015:
e.T22696038A80351871. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T22696038A80351871.en
Disclaimer
To make use of this information, please check the Terms of Use.
External Resources
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Aquila nipalensis – published in 2015.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T22696038A80351871.en
6
For Images and External Links to Additional Information, please see the Red List website.
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Aquila nipalensis – published in 2015.
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7
Appendix
Habitats
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Habitat
Season
Suitability
Major
Importance?
2. Savanna -> 2.1. Savanna - Dry
Nonbreeding
Suitable
Yes
4. Grassland -> 4.4. Grassland - Temperate
Breeding
Suitable
Yes
4. Grassland -> 4.5. Grassland - Subtropical/Tropical Dry
Breeding
Suitable
Yes
4. Grassland -> 4.5. Grassland - Subtropical/Tropical Dry
Nonbreeding
Suitable
Yes
0. Root -> 6. Rocky areas (eg. inland cliffs, mountain peaks)
Breeding
Suitable
No
Threats
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Threat
Timing
Scope
Severity
Impact Score
2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.1. Annual &
perennial non-timber crops -> 2.1.3. Agro-industry
farming
Ongoing
Majority (5090%)
Rapid declines
Medium
impact: 7
Stresses:
1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.1. Ecosystem conversion
1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation
Ongoing
Majority (5090%)
Stresses:
1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation
2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality
Ongoing
Majority (5090%)
Stresses:
2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality
Past,
unlikely to
return
Majority (5090%)
Stresses:
2. Species Stresses -> 2.3. Indirect species effects ->
2.3.7. Reduced reproductive success
Ongoing
Majority (5090%)
Stresses:
2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality
Ongoing
Minority (50%)
Stresses:
2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality
2. Species Stresses -> 2.3. Indirect species effects ->
2.3.7. Reduced reproductive success
3. Energy production & mining -> 3.3. Renewable
energy
4. Transportation & service corridors -> 4.2. Utility &
service lines
5. Biological resource use -> 5.1. Hunting & trapping
terrestrial animals -> 5.1.1. Intentional use (species is
the target)
9. Pollution -> 9.3. Agricultural & forestry effluents ->
9.3.3. Herbicides and pesticides
12. Other options -> 12.1. Other threat
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Aquila nipalensis – published in 2015.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T22696038A80351871.en
Slow, significant
declines
Slow, significant
declines
Rapid declines
Slow, significant
declines
Slow, significant
declines
Medium
impact: 6
Medium
impact: 6
Past impact
Medium
impact: 6
Low impact: 5
8
Conservation Actions in Place
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Conservation Actions in Place
In-Place Research, Monitoring and Planning
Action Recovery plan: No
Systematic monitoring scheme: No
In-Place Land/Water Protection and Management
Conservation sites identified: Yes, over entire range
Occur in at least one PA: Yes
Invasive species control or prevention: No
In-Place Species Management
Successfully reintroduced or introduced beningly: No
Subject to ex-situ conservation: No
In-Place Education
Subject to recent education and awareness programmes: No
Included in international legislation: Yes
Subject to any international management/trade controls: Yes
Conservation Actions Needed
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Conservation Actions Needed
1. Land/water protection -> 1.1. Site/area protection
2. Land/water management -> 2.1. Site/area management
4. Education & awareness -> 4.3. Awareness & communications
5. Law & policy -> 5.1. Legislation -> 5.1.1. International level
Research Needed
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Research Needed
1. Research -> 1.5. Threats
Additional Data Fields
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Aquila nipalensis – published in 2015.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T22696038A80351871.en
9
Distribution
Continuing decline in area of occupancy (AOO): Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in area of occupancy (AOO): No
Estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) (km²): 6580000
Continuing decline in extent of occurrence (EOO): Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in extent of occurrence (EOO): No
Continuing decline in number of locations: Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in the number of locations: No
Lower elevation limit (m): 0
Upper elevation limit (m): 3000
Population
Number of mature individuals: 100000-499999
Continuing decline of mature individuals: Yes
Extreme fluctuations: No
Population severely fragmented: No
Continuing decline in subpopulations: Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in subpopulations: No
All individuals in one subpopulation: No
Habitats and Ecology
Continuing decline in area, extent and/or quality of habitat: Unknown
Generation Length (years): 16.6
Movement patterns: Full Migrant
Congregatory: Congregatory (and dispersive)
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Aquila nipalensis – published in 2015.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T22696038A80351871.en
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The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ is produced and managed by the IUCN Global Species
Programme, the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) and The IUCN Red List Partnership.
The IUCN Red List Partners are: BirdLife International; Botanic Gardens Conservation International;
Conservation International; Microsoft; NatureServe; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; Sapienza University of
Rome; Texas A&M University; Wildscreen; and Zoological Society of London.
THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™