Mavroudis & Bournelli, Cogent Education (2016), 3: 1233843
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1233843
STUDENT LEARNING, CHILDHOOD & VOICES | REVIEW ARTICLE
The role of drama in education in counteracting
bullying in schools
Nick Mavroudis1* and Pagona Bournelli2
Received: 16 March 2016
Accepted: 05 September 2016
Published: 26 September 2016
*Corresponding autho: Nick Mavroudis,
Faculty of Physical Education and Sports
Science, National and Capodistrian
University of Athens, Efimou Street, 12,
11632 Athens, Greece
E-mail: [email protected]
Reviewing editor:
Yvonne Xian-han Huang, Hong Kong
Institute of Education, Hong Kong
Additional information is available at
the end of the article
Abstract: Bullying is a form of violent behavior that has a markedly negative effect
on many aspects of the daily lives of thousands of children. Through a literature
review, the present study investigates the term and the nature of bullying, as well
as its effect on those involved, and the conditions that prevail in Greek schools.
Moreover it contains information about the role of drama in education as a means
of counteracting bullying in schools, and the way various experiential drama activities can equip primary school children with the social and emotional skills in order to
successfully combat the phenomenon.
Subjects: Arts; Education; Humanities
Keywords: drama in education; bullying; bullies; victims; bystanders; empathy; education
1. Introduction
Drama in education provides a unique and irreplaceable educational experience involving both feelings and emotions in a way that results in a more effective form of education (Best, 1996). Through
role-play, participants are given the chance to explore and discover both themselves and the wider
world in a way that protects them from the consequences that would normally follow in the situations
they recreate (Edmiston, 2000). Research has also ascertained the effectiveness of educational drama
in improving pupils’ interpersonal relations (Joronen, Konu, Rankin, & Åstedt-Kurki, 2011), in the reduction of aggression (Graves, Frabutt, & Vigliano, 2007), in the cultivation of cooperation and in improving the general climate in the classroom (Catterall, 2007; Mages, 2010), as well as in the development
of self-confidence and general awareness of participants (Belliveau, 2007; Rousseau & Moneta, 2008;
Santomenna, 2010). Therefore it can be argued that dramatic education provides a secure way of
confirming identity and of enabling pupils to confront difficult social problems such as bullying.
Today bullying has become a serious personal, social and academic problem, which affects a large
number of pupils (Laeheem, Kuning, McNeil, & Besag, 2009) and causes widespread concern owing
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT
Nick Mavroudis teaches Physical Education at
the 87th Multicultural Primary School of Athens.
He has also studied at the Drama School of
the National Theatre of Northern Greece. He
is currently a Phd candidate at the Faculty of
Physical Education and Sports Science in the
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens.
Pagona Bournelli is Professor of Creative Dance
at the National and Kapodistrian University of
Athens, Greece Bournelli is also Faculty of Physical
Education and Sports Science.
This study concerns itself with the issue of bullying
in primary schools and contains information
about the role of drama in education as a means
of counteracting the phenomenon. The study is
relevant to educators and all those who participate
in the educational process, and, in particular, to
those who are involved in drawing up programmes
to combat school intimidation. Those interested
are likely to find interesting material on how
various experiential drama activities can be
beneficial in creating a climate in the classroom
that promotes cooperation between pupils, preempts and combats intimidation and facilitates
the learning process.
© 2016 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution
(CC-BY) 4.0 license.
Page 1 of 12
Mavroudis & Bournelli, Cogent Education (2016), 3: 1233843
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1233843
to its rapid spread, which is why it needs to be combated immediately. The purpose of this present
study is to show how drama in education can be used as an important tool to aid the effort to prevent and combat bullying among primary school children. In addition, the definition and nature of
the phenomenon are explored as well as its effect on those involved and the conditions that prevail
in Greek schools. The study is relevant to educators and all those who participate in the educational
process, and, in particular, to those who are involved in drawing up programs to combat school intimidation. Those interested are likely to find interesting material on how drama in education can be
beneficial in creating a climate in the classroom that promotes cooperation between pupils, preempts and combats intimidation and facilitates the learning process.
The research method followed was that of literature review. Evidence and information relative to
the aims and purposes of the study were collected from recent books, articles, studies, publications,
and the Internet, both Greek and international. However some of the articles reviewed in the paper,
were based on theories. The choice of the literature was influenced by the authors’ background and
experience as teachers and educators of drama education. Therefore educational and practical
texts were chosen as more helpful and relative to the educational process and everyday school
practice rather than theoretical ones. Moreover, an attempt was made to select the most recent
literature so that the study includes the most up to date information on the subject.
In the following chapter of the study, an attempt will be made to clarify the term and to explore
the phenomenon in Greek educational reality.
2. A clarification of the term “bullying” and its nature
The term “bullying” was described by Olweus (1993, 2007) as the aggressive behavior by an individual or a group of children aimed at harming another child or group of children, which is systematically repeated. There is inequality between the bully and the victim(s) in terms of strength, power or
numerical supremacy and this particular characteristic seems to be the most important in defining
an aggressive act as bullying (Bauman, 2008). So neither instances of violent behavior can be isolated, nor teasing and jokes not aimed at causing harm can be considered as bullying (Farrington &
Ttofi, 2010; Furlong, Soliz, Simental, & Greif, 2004).
Bullying is a form of violent behavior that can take on direct and indirect forms. Direct bullying
comprises physical intimidation such as injury or the threat of it, spitting, pushing and kicking (Rigby,
2008) as well as non-physical intimidation in the instance of a child being verbally victimized (Furlong
et al., 2004), including calling him/her names, insults, spiteful taunts and mockery (Giovazolias,
Kourkoutas, Mitsopoulou, & Georgiadi, 2010). The indirect forms of bullying are again connected with
the emotional stress of the victim, with the ultimate objective of harming his/her friendships and
social relationships. In this category are included malicious gossip, spreading rumors and ostracism
from the group (Bauman, 2008; Kokkinos & Kipritsi, 2012). Sexual and racial intimidation are also
considered to be forms of bullying (Rigby, 2008). Due to the rapid development of technology, bullying has been extended (Smith et al., 2008) and intimidation is being exercised through chat rooms,
mobile phones or emails (Bhat, 2008).
Researchers ascribe behavioral problems, such as bullying in schools, to poverty, lack of social
skills, poor academic achievement, the influence of films and the media, lack of parental supervision,
the general lack of morals in society (Timm & Eskell-Blokland, 2011). It can also be seen as a way of
attracting attention and an excuse for stealing (Besag, 2006). The view has also been expressed that
this phenomenon is a natural part of the evolutionary process in which dominance over the other is
the main objective in order to ensure survival (Rigby, 2004). As Merrell (2004) says, what can be observed in society is a value system of dominance of one over the other, which validates violence and
influences the bully, who, consciously or unconsciously, uses bullying as a means of climbing the
Page 2 of 12
Mavroudis & Bournelli, Cogent Education (2016), 3: 1233843
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1233843
social ladder, or maintaining his/her status (Kolbert & Crothers, 2003). Moreover, the social structures that serve the maintenance and reinforcement of male privileges by creating a sovereign male
identity, are the main factors of reinforcing the victimization of girls and boys who have not adopted
features of this male identity, such as a positive attitude toward aggressiveness, a way to control
others, a desire for dominance, a maximum performance in sports, etc. (Mills, 2001). The phenomenon also may represent a state of anomie in both formal and informal power structures in schools,
which have become dysfunctional communities unable to deal with bullying (Yoneyama, 2015). At
the same time it can be students’ way of compensating their sense of alienation and disconnectedness from school (Yoneyama, 2015). Hierarchical relationships in schools focusing on corporal punishment and teacher–student bullying (Yoneyama, 2015) as well as the existence of an authoritarian
and conflicted school culture, which provides intolerance for diversity, might encourage students
become bullies and justify their actions by claiming that the victims are responsible for bringing
­bullying on themselves, as they “deserved” to be bullied (Thornberg, 2011).
Nevertheless, Farrington (1993) mentions that the most important factor which favors the development of bullying is violence in the child’s own domestic environment. Social learning is a powerful
process, and when children see role models (e.g. parents) use intimidation tactics, they use similar
approaches to get their own needs met and solve problems (Bauman, 2008).
2.1. Bullies, victims, bystanders
Studies mention that there are three groups of children who get involved in instances of bullying:
persecutors (bullies), victims and children who are sometimes victimized and sometimes victimize
(Andreou, 2004). Besides, there are the rest of the children, the bystanders. Some of them, either
because they are frightened or because they think it’s in their own interests, are on the bully’s side,
without actually doing anything, regarding the phenomenon with indifference (Bakema, 2010).
Others, however, actively protect victims (Bakema, 2010).
Sullivan (2000), differentiating the bullies, distinguishes those who have great confidence and
belief in themselves, enjoying their popularity, and those who are insecure, ruled by anxiety and are
less popular. Furlong et al. (2004) however, referring to bullies, maintain that they are children who
have themselves been victimized at some time in the past and that they enjoy exercising their
strength and power over others. From the other point of view, the victims can be distinguished as
being either passive or aggressive, depending on how they react (Smith & Ananiadou, 2003). These
children have low self-esteem, a negative self-image, lower physical, psychological and social status
than their persecutors, and thus they make easier targets (Furlong et al., 2004). Boys and girls are
involved in bullying with the same frequency, even though boys have more connection to direct
forms and are as likely to be victims as victimizers (Espelage & Swearer, 2003). Girls, now, are associated with indirect forms of the phenomenon (Gini, 2008) and it seems that they are more ready to
show sympathy and understanding to victims than are boys (Espelage & Swearer, 2003; Gini, 2008).
It is worth mentioning that both the school environment and age can reduce direct forms of bullying, while these factors can increase the indirect forms of the phenomenon (Crick, Grotpeter, &
Bigbee, 2002).
Both the victims of bullying and bullies themselves present a series of emotional and social problems in their school lives (Bauman, 2008). Child-victims suffer from symptoms of depression (Gini,
2008) and have an increased tendency toward suicide (Gini & Pozzoli, 2009; Rigby, 2005). Also evident are anxiety in social relationships, fear of negative estimation, loneliness, lack of social skills,
difficulty in concentrating, while they regularly abandon school, for fear of further victimization
(Rigby, 2005; Sbarbabo & Smith, 2011). The repercussions of bullying may last for a long time, stigmatizing the victim’s future. In turn, the bullies also display anti-social behavior, such as vandalism,
absenteeism, alcohol consumption and the use of forbidden substances, while in early adolescence,
illegal behavior can be observed (Bowllan, 2011). There is also more likelihood that they will violently
mistreat their own children (Janson & Hazler, 2004). The “bystanders” seem to suffer equally, presenting disturbances similar to those of post-traumatic stress (Janson & Hazler, 2004). From the
Page 3 of 12
Mavroudis & Bournelli, Cogent Education (2016), 3: 1233843
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1233843
educational point of view, bullying has a negative effect on the class interacting process, creating a
climate of fear in the classroom which affects children’s ability to learn and the teacher’s ability to
teach (Tabone, 2003).
2.2. Bullying in Greek primary schools
Bullying in schools is as old as education itself (Galanaki, 2010). Therefore, proper attention has been
paid to it over recent decades, internationally and studies initiated which have revealed the seriousness of the situation in many countries: according to studies, 32.9% out of 1,440 primary school
students in southern Thailand reported having bullied others (Laeheem et al., 2009), in Northern
Ireland 17.1% of children declare that they are victimized 2–3 times a month (Livesey et al., 2007),
while in Italy the number of primary school children who mentioned experiences of victimization
reached 42% (Gini, 2004).
There has been an increase in recording bullying incidents internationally during recent decades,
probably due to the fact that the media, researchers, teachers, parents are now more aware of the
phenomenon than in the past; as a result, students are more informed, and can thus recognize bullying incidents (Burton, 2010). Moreover, a sudden spread of cyber-bullying has been observed lately,
due to the increased use of the Internet. Indentifying covert, indirect aggressiveness among adolescent girls as a form of bullying, could also be another possible interpretation of this observed increase (Burton, 2010).
The rapid spread of bullying internationally resulted in plans to systematically combat it. In Greece,
however, no strong attempt was made to formulate a national plan to combat bullying at school,
although a series of recent investigations indicate that the situation with regard to bullying in Greek
schools is far from satisfactory (Galanaki, 2010; Karkanaki & Kaffetzi, 2009).
According to Pateraki and Houndoumadi (2001), who conducted the first extensive research on the
existence and extent of bullying in a large sample of primary school students in Athens, found that
25% of the pupils were involved in instances of bullying (14.7% as victims, 6.2% perpetrators, 4.8%
victim/perpetrators). Another research by Boulton, Karellou, Laniti, Manousou, and Lemoni (2001) on
664 students of the wider area of Athens, raises the percentage of involvement in bullying incidents
to 58.9% for boys and 47.4% for girls. Moreover, research by Giovazolias et al. (2010) indicated a very
large number of children who defined themselves as victims of school intimidation (22.8%), while
similarly the results of the inter-state program “Daphne” about bullying in schools (2006–2008) indicated that 22.5% of children in primary education have experienced some form of intimidation or
violence 2–3 times a month. The differences that can be noted in the research results above can be
attributed to the fact that the estimated prevalence of bullying depends on the study design, definitions of bullying, methods and techniques of data collection, time of data collection and the nature
itself of primary school children (Laeheem et al., 2009). Other research carried out in recent years has
yielded further valuable evidence of the conditions prevailing in Greek educational actuality.
The most common form of bullying in Greek primary schools is verbal intimidation and the spreading of rumors (Karkanaki & Kaffetzi, 2009; Sapouna, 2008). The two sexes seem to be involved in the
phenomenon in different ways, perhaps on account of the way the children are approached both by
their families and the Greek educational system, which encourage more aggressive behavior from
boys, while girls are supposed to react in a more “feminine” way (Athanasiades & DeliyanniKouimtzis, 2010). The perpetrators are, in most cases, boys of Greek descent (Karkanaki & Kaffetzi
2009), who are usually in the same class as the victims (Sapouna, 2008) and have a poor academic
performance (Andreou & Metallidou, 2004). Most of the victimized are also boys, often of other nationalities or religions, with a developed educational culture and low self-esteem (Kalati, Psalti, &
Deliyianni-Kouimtzi, 2010). Most of the victims and perpetrators tend to deny incidents of bullying
(Psalti & Constantinou, 2007), while the victims believe that violence is shown to them on account of
their sex, their nationality or their good academic performance. Only 28% of them have mentioned
the problem to their teachers or parents (Kalati, Psalti, & Deliyanni-Kouimtzi, 2010), while foreign
Page 4 of 12
Mavroudis & Bournelli, Cogent Education (2016), 3: 1233843
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1233843
students more often mention their victimization than Greek ones (Sapouna, 2008) and 30% of the
students believe that neither parents nor teachers have done anything to stop the bullying (Psalti &
Constantinou, 2007). Most of the bullying that is done in Greek primary schools happens in the playground (Psalti & Constantinou, 2007), in the corridors (Kalati, Psalti, & Deliyanni-Kouimtzi, 2010), but
also on the way to and from school (Psalti & Constantinou, 2007).
Concern in the educational community over the occurrence of bullying in Greek schools continues
to mount, while internationally there is a continuing debate about the best strategies to be adopted
to combat the problem. In the next chapter we will discuss why the use of drama in education is
important in order to contain and handle bullying incidents, and several instances of the application
of educational drama, as part of an anti-bullying strategy, will be mentioned.
3. The role of drama in education in preventing and counteracting bullying in
schools
It has come to be realized more and more over recent years that school is the vital place for the
furtherance of the psychosomatic health of pupils. Even though actions taken to prevent and counteract bullying must include every area of the child’s life, such as school, home, society at large
(Espelage & Swearer, 2003), the basic axis of effective intervention must be the school. Firstly, because it is there that victims, bullies and bystanders and other children meet together and interact
within the framework of the group, but also because the knowledge gained by children through their
school lives will stay with them throughout their adult lives (Bakema, 2010; Malm & Löfgren, 2007).
Apart from that, the pupils themselves appear to agree that measures to counteract bullying are
most effective when taken by pupils and teachers in the area of the school (Crothers, Kolbert, &
Barker, 2006). It is the view of the researchers that since there is a tendency for pupils to “legalize”
such behavior (Salmivalli & Voeten, 2004) as they grow up and since primary school children show
greater sympathy to victims of bullying, it is at that age that programs aiming at the prevention and
counteracting of the phenomenon should begin (Belliveau, 2005).
Such a program should be based on cooperative, experiential learning that gives pupils the chance
to develop their cognitive, psycho-emotional and social means to a scale that furthers cooperation,
acceptance, awareness, trust between children and adults and an interest in others (Parker-Roerden,
Rudewick, & Gorton, 2007), basic qualities of behavior which are absent from bullies (Tabone, 2003).
Dramatic education includes all of these elements which help to improve the climate in the classroom
and to bring about the more effective form of learning through experience (Pecaski McLennan, 2008).
3.1. The contribution of drama in education to the development of socio-emotional
skills
Experiential education involves feelings and emotions, furthering the development of the children
both in these areas and with their social skills (Best, 1996), reinforcing them so as to be able to deal
with difficult situations in their everyday life. Because in educational drama each child is an inseparable member of the team to which he/she belongs, his/her social skills are naturally developed
through the need to work and play with other members (Ball, 2012).
Both, as part of the group effort to dramatize and reproduce a story or in the successful performance of an improvisation, each child manifests his/her knowledge, experience, personal background which has to cooperate and “communicate” with those of other children in order to complete
the communal act (Catterall, 2007). Communication, listening to what the other has to say, accepting his/her suggestions and ideas, giving constructive support, are skills which are cultivated when
people work together, just like those who collaborate in the dramatic activities (Stinson & Wall, 2003).
After the role-play, which is a basic activity in educational drama, the children attempt to put either themselves or others into a hypothetical situation. In order to play this role, they have to adopt
the point of view of the person they are playing, try to define themselves through the role and to see
the “other” in themselves. In their effort to metamorphose themselves into the person they are
Page 5 of 12
Mavroudis & Bournelli, Cogent Education (2016), 3: 1233843
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1233843
playing, to persuade and converse with others, they will be obliged to activate both their critical
thinking and their sensitivity (Kouretzis, 2008). The child becomes the “other” (Ball, 2012), while at
the same time maintains his/her identity by acting, communicating, observing, and exploring the
world through the eyes of others. The ability to see the world through the eyes of others can contribute to tempering interpersonal disagreement and leading people toward social support (Leiberg &
Anders, 2006). Besides, there is a negative connection between developed empathy and anti-social
behavior, such as bullying and aggression (Jolliffe & Farrington, 2006). According to Neelands (2002),
it is this ability to identify with others that frees the individual from prejudice and ideology, enabling
him/her to see that each individual is different and that this is the source of our strength. Through
role-playing, the borders between themselves and the “other” meet and merge, thus creating personalities who are able to comprehend, sympathize and empathize (Neelands, 2002; Somers, 2003).
Drama in education facilitates the sharing of experience and of open discussion to dispel myths
and unfounded beliefs, the detection of attitudes and suggestions for the development of many
outlooks concerning the question being tackled (Merrell, 2004). Through this process, bullies can
explore through their roles how victims feel and to understand the human pain they are causing, the
victims can find ways of resisting and reacting against what is being done to them, the bystanders
hesitate to intervene on their own, can be informed that many others share their altruistic unease
(Salas, 2005). Similarly, participants can comprehend how, in reality, bullies are themselves victims
and how it is the behavior, not the child, which is bad (Merrell, 2004). According to Malm and Löfgren
(2007), this kind of knowledge, gained through experience, is the best way of resolving conflict.
Besides, all of this happens in complete security, since the activity can be stopped at any moment
while still making a valuable impression on participants (O’Toole, 2002). Drama in education involves
children physically, and it does so in a way that is interesting and appealing. It has the power to
break everyday school routine and to lead pupils toward knowledge without the need to spend hours
sitting at desks (Boal, 2002).
Consequently, drama in education can modify pupils’ behavior and put a curb on aggression.
Which is why interventions and programs which have been applied internationally with the aim of
combating bullying, have relied on drama in education (Belliveau 2005, 2007; Burton & O’Toole,
2005; Joronen et al., 2011; Malm & Löfgren, 2007). Although theory suggests that this pedagogical
tool might be effective, research findings concerning its effectiveness in fighting bullying are limited
(Joronen et al., 2011). This is due to the lack of well-designed (valid and reliable) measurements and
theory-based research (theory on educational drama interventions and the specific issue of the intervention) (Joronen, Rankin, & Åstedt-Kurki, 2008). The effectiveness of an intervention is also
linked to observing certain basic principles; it should be continuous and longlasting (Laakso, 2010),
it should incorporate a whole-school approach involving the entire school community (Joronen
et al., 2011), the adults’ interest (Οlweus, 1993), including that of well-trained teachers in dramatic
techniques (Burton & O’Toole, 2009).
Win–Win Resolution is one such program-research that has been based on drama in education.
According to Graves et al. (2007), the survey lasted for 12 weeks, and 2,440 students from public
middle and high schools in the State of North Carolina, USA took part in it. The standardized curriculum was delivered within the school and included role-playing games and collaborative trust and
acceptance exercises that aimed at self-control and anger copying, self-management of feelings
and interpersonal problem-solving to build conflict resolution skills. The results of the program were
very encouraging. Αll the students showed a decrease in their relational aggression levels, while only
high schools students showed a decrease in their physical aggression levels, probably because in
middle school, the primary mode of aggression is relational rather than more overtly aggressive
(Graves et al., 2007). In addition, participants developed effective communication skills and increased their knowledge of strategies used to cope with school bullying. As limitations of the research reported that information about program evaluation outcomes was collected only from the
student, the survey did not include a control group for comparison and also the fact that it is not
possible to ascertain the long-term effect of the results on the participants (Graves et al., 2007). The
Page 6 of 12
Mavroudis & Bournelli, Cogent Education (2016), 3: 1233843
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1233843
short duration of the program is also included in its weak points, and so is the fact that it focuses
only on the students, without taking adults into consideration. According to Farrington and Tfofi
(2010), the intensity and duration of a program as well as attempts to raise parents’ awareness
about the issue of school bullying through educational presentations and teacher–parent meetings
are strongly related to program effectiveness.
Joronen et al. (2011) carried out a school-based drama program (with control and intervention
groups) on 190 primary school students in southern Finland in order to enhance social relationships
and decrease bullying at school. The drama program included classroom drama sessions, follow-up
activities at home and three parents’ evenings concerning issues of social well-being during the
school year September 2007–May 2008. Data on social relationships in the classroom and experiences of bullying were obtained before and after the program, using self-completed questionnaire
from the same students. The study resulted in improvement in social relationships and decrease in
the number of bully-victims, as bullying victimization decreased 20.7% units from pretest (58.8%) to
posttest (38.1%) in the intervention group (p < 0.05). The existence of a control group, the parents’
involvement in the program and the use of a controlled study design were among the strong points
of the program. Nevertheless the study did not take into account the whole school community, while
the generalization of the research findings, is limited by the small sample size and the homogenous
population. What is more, the information about the results was selected only from students,
whereas follow-up studies are vital to detect the long-term effects (Joronen et al., 2011).
Also in Australia, in the State of Queensland, a whole-school anti-bullying program “Acting against
bullying”, which is part of the wider international program “Dracon” (DRAma for CONflict), was applied and it focused on the use of drama in schools to combat bullying. The survey was implemented
in three phases, lasting one year each, and involved 20 featured urban and provincial schools, in
primary and secondary education (Burton & O’Toole, 2009). The funded research component of the
project finished in 2006, but a number of schools continued to implement the program on an annual
basis. The innovative features that emerged from this research program were the development of an
effective style of theater performance to address bullying (Enhanced Forum Theatre) and the integration of peer teaching and drama together as the core of the project. The results obtained with
qualitative methods (questionnaires and interviews with students and teachers, extensive researcher and teacher observations), showed that participants understand better the nature and causes of
bullying. Furthermore, their interest and knowledge significantly increased as well as their awareness of the consequences of the phenomenon and their own role in creating these consequences.
There was also a significant positive change in attitudes and behaviors of perpetrators, victims and
those attending the event-bullies, those being bullied and bystanders (Burton & O’Toole, 2009). A
primary limitation of the research was the lack of reliable statistical information on incidents of bullying within individual schools, which made it difficult to measure the impact of the program on
participants. Difficulty was faced during the implementation of the program in primary schools,
since none of them had a drama specialist, unlike secondary schools. It was also noted that many
primary teachers lacked confidence in using the drama techniques. A number were also wary of
overtly addressing bullying in their classrooms, sometimes for fear of exacerbating rather than ameliorating the incidence of real bullying (Burton & O’Toole, 2009). The lack of specially trained teachers, and the wariness they often display, when it comes to this issue, seems to be factors that
generally make research on drama in education harder.
3.2. A program against bullying based on drama in education
Taking international experience in view, an intervention with the aim of opposing bullying, largely
based on drama in education, should be enforced in Greek schools, because drama, as explained
above has the potential to improve school environment and to develop socio-emotional skills of children. Thus, an intervention focusing on drama, is a powerful ally to combat school bullying. However
such an intervention should be part of a well planned anti-bullying strategy addressed to the entire
student population of the country and will be under the auspices of the State and of local authorities,
in order to have the necessary institutional support. The long duration of the program (application for
Page 7 of 12
Mavroudis & Bournelli, Cogent Education (2016), 3: 1233843
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1233843
at least one school year) the engagement of parents, its embrace by special instructors, who in cooperation with teachers, will apply and will evaluate each phase of the program and the continuous exposure of children in dramatic activities are in accordance with the international experience, necessary
conditions for its success. Thorough training and education of teachers on the theory and techniques
of drama in education, it is crucial for the intervention to be adopted by the entire school community
and the whole project to be successful.
Some of the basic principles that should be followed during the implementation of drama activities are respect for the participants’ cultural background, class and gender, as well as the creation of
a safe space within the group where sensitive information about conflicts could be shared and transformed into distanced dramatic situations and explored without individuals being personally exposed (Malm & Löfgren, 2007). Such a program could include exercises in groups and pairs,
cooperative exercises which create a friendly climate in the classroom, dramatic plays, role play,
improvisation, exercises from the “Theatre of the Oppressed” of Boal, which aim at strengthening
the pupils’ investigation of the phenomenon, what causes it and its effect on those involved, as well
as the prospects of opposing it.
We will now proceed to concern ourselves with particular examples of techniques used in drama
in education, which could be drawn on to form part of an anti-bullying program that could be applied
in primary schools.
Let’s start with an example from role-play. In the first phase, it is necessary for whoever is conducting the sessions to have an initial discussion with the children about school violence and bullying (Österlind, 2011). The purpose of this discussion is to investigate and to enrich the knowledge of
the participants about this subject. Questions like the following could be asked: “What is bullying and
what sorts of bullying are there?”, “Why do children do these things?” “What’s it like to be picked on?
How do you feel?” The next phase is role-play. The organizer separates the students into teams giving each of them a different example of bullying that they have to play out between them. These
examples can be varied, referring to participants who are victimized for a number of different reasons (e.g. as a way of showing strength, in order to steal, religious or racial prejudice) by one or more
bullies, involving bystanders, too.
One such scenario might concern a child, physically victimized because of his/her appearance (e.g.
the clothes he wears), the bully’s “friends”, joining in and calling him/her names, while the victim
cannot do anything, and neither can the victim’s friends. Another group’s scenario might be about
the whispering of rumors that ends up with the child being chucked out of games, while a third might
be about children making fun of an immigrant who cannot speak Greek, while bystanders do not do
anything for fear of being victimized themselves.
The students enter discussion, share out the roles, and each group then plays out its story, finding
some sort of resolution for what has occurred. O’Toole (2002), notes that this gives children the
chance to learn through the models of behavior and actions they present within a secure dramatic
framework. So, allocating roles to children under the set term of bullying can enable them to discover their prejudices, to explore their way of thinking and feeling, to learn through physical experience, to perceive the savagery of the phenomenon and to be challenged to take a stand (Baer &
Glasgow, 2008; Malm & Löfgren, 2007). The acting-out of the role-plays is followed by a final discussion. The organizer has the chance to ask the participants what has happened, to define the phenomenon from the viewpoints of each of the roles and what might have happened in the internal
world of the characters, so that the children can explore the feelings, intentions and motives of the
roles through their own actions. Also, the children’s views about bullying are investigated after the
role-play and these are compared to the views they had at the beginning, in the first discussion. The
organizer can also ask which of the roles the participants found the most sympathetic and can also
ask the silent bystanders not just how they could have helped the victim, but also how the victim
Page 8 of 12
Mavroudis & Bournelli, Cogent Education (2016), 3: 1233843
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1233843
could have reacted better to the situation he/she found himself in. Finally, the participants can declare how they have reacted themselves in similar situations and how they intend to react in the
future (Österlind, 2011).
The exercises of the Image Theatre of Boal (a technique of the Theatre of the Oppressed) can also
be employed in such a program. In Image Theatre the participants, without using words, explore
situations of oppression, forming pictures with their own bodies and those of others (Boal, 2002). The
organizer calls upon the children in the group to form a “sculpture” on the subject of bullying, using
their bodies, immediately, without allowing time for thought to block their initial reactions. One after
another, the participants form their sculptures and, when the organizer goes and touches them,
they have to say out loud one word that expresses how they feel. Next, the organizer invites a child
to “chisel” the bodies of his/her classmates, so as to form a group-picture on the theme of school
intimidation. For example, three children are physically threatening a fellow pupil, involving supporters of the victim and the victimizers. If any of the children who are observing the construction disagree with the way in which intimidation is being presented, they can change the picture and create
a new picture. The aim is to finally arrive at a sculpture that all agree is a faithful representation of
the situation (real image). The next step is for the organizer to ask the students to create the ideal
image in the same way; that is, how the picture-sculpture would be without intimidation—again
working toward the consent of the whole group. Finally, the organizer may ask each child to show,
altering the picture, how the real image can be changed into the ideal one. Then, the children who
are acting as part of the sculpture, moving slowly, can take part in the formation of the desired ideal
picture. Thus, while at the beginning the sculpture can represent a situation of conflict, the children,
moving slowly, transform this into an ideal picture in which they are reconciled. An interesting variation of this could be, for some of the participants, to illustrate a certain kind of bullying with their
bodies, while the rest of the group form their own body-sculpture on the theme of how they see
themselves in relation to the representation of bullying. The organizer may ask the members of each
group to communicate with each other either by slow movements or by “freezing” in position. It’s
necessary that such exercises should be followed by a discussion, in which the participants should
be encouraged to talk about their feelings and thoughts, make suggestions and explore their attitudes and behavior, so that the phenomenon can be seen from many points of view.
Another technique, deriving from the Boal theatre, is the Forum Theatre (Boal, 2002), according to
which participants are confronted with an instance of oppression, based on their experiences and
points of view (Gourd & Gourd, 2011). At the start, students tell stories based on true instances of
bullying which actually happened to them or were witnessed by them or their classmates. The next
step is for members of the group to be given acting parts in one of these stories and then to play
them out. When the first presentation has finished, a Mediator (Joker) comes on and asks the audience to intervene to help solve the problem. There are three sorts of intervention: The childrenspectators can advise the one in the role of the victim how to act in order to manage the situation or
for them to take over the role of an actor, contributing their own ideas for solving the problem, which
can be done by taking on a new role (e.g. as an adult, such as a teacher), thus giving a new dimension to the production (Gourd & Gourd, 2011). The story has to be played over and over again, with
many interventions and suggestions from the audience, all of them aiming at finding the best way
of facing the problem. The Joker can at any time “freeze” the production and ask the actors what
they think, how they’re feeling and why they’re reacting in a particular way and to ask actors to tell
the audience what they intend to do. At the end, there follows a discussion to find out which of these
suggested strategies is the most suitable to combat bullying and which of them would worsen the
situation as well as whether the scenes presented represent a true picture (Gourd & Gourd, 2011).
Both with the Image Theatre and the Forum Theatre, Boal aimed at instituting drama as a force
for change and especially to change the condition of the oppressed. Through the above-mentioned
activities and discussions the aim is for the children to discover the nature of bullying and the means
by which the problem can be handled, but first and foremost to free them of fear, to act against the
oppression they suffer from and to put these solutions to work in their daily lives (Boal, 2002).
Page 9 of 12
Mavroudis & Bournelli, Cogent Education (2016), 3: 1233843
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1233843
4. Conclusions
The basic aim of this study was to show the seriousness of school intimidation and to put forward
drama in education as the main focus on which a systematic intervention against bullying in primary
schools can be built. Such an intervention to be successful should deal with the limitations of similar
programs that have been implemented and are associated with the proper planning, the duration and
the scope of its implementation, the institutional support of the part of the State, the preparation of
the whole school community for the project.
Through participation in drama in education children are able to study human nature in all of its
manifestations (O’Toole, 2002). We actually dramatize our world in order to comprehend how it
functions and to understand the how and why of our behavior (O’Toole, 2002). Just as basic values
and belief in oneself are deeply centered in the subconscious, making it difficult to comprehend and
change them, so are the hidden aspects of our identity, which inform us as to who we really are;
these can be explored through artistic and cultural experience, such as drama (Somers, 2003).
Therefore, drama in education as a basic component of an anti-bullying campaign has the capacity
to confront ethical and social issues such as bullying in schools.
Funding
The author received no direct funding for this research.
Author details
Nick Mavroudis1
E-mail: [email protected]
Pagona Bournelli2
E-mail: [email protected]
1
Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Science, National
and Capodistrian University of Athens, Efimou Street, 12,
11632 Athens, Greece.
2
Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Science, National
and Kapodristrian University of Athens, Lykeiou Street, 53,
15341, Agia Paraskevi, Athens, Greece.
Citation information
Cite this article as: The role of drama in education in
counteracting bullying in schools, Nick Mavroudis & Pagona
Bournelli, Cogent Education (2016), 3: 1233843.
References
Andreou, E. (2004). Bully/victim problems and their association
with Machiavellianism and self-efficacy in Greek primary
school children. British Journal of Educational Psychology,
74, 297–309.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/000709904773839897
Andreou, E., & Metallidou, P. (2004). The relationship of
academic and social cognition to behaviour in bullying
situations among Greek primary school children.
Educational Psychology, 24, 27–41.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0144341032000146421
Athanasiades, C., & Deliyanni-Kouimtzis, V. (2010). The
experience of bullying among secondary school students.
Psychology in the Schools, 47, 328–339.
Baer, A., & Glasgow, J. (2008). Take the bullies to task: Using
process drama to make a stand. The English Journal, 97,
79–86.
Bakema, C. (2010). How to stop bullying in schools. A Dutch
way. Bulletin of the Transylvania University of Brasov, 52,
77–82.
Ball, D. (2012). Dramatherapy with children who have been
bullied: Anne Bannister award 2010. Dramatherapy, 34,
35–46.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02630672.2012.674813
Bauman, S. (2008). The role of elementary school counselors in
reducing school bullying. The Elementary School Journal,
108, 362–375.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/589467
Belliveau, G. (2005). An arts-based approach to teach social
justice: Drama as a way to address bullying in schools.
International Journal of Arts Education, 3, 136–165.
Belliveau, G. (2007). An alternative practicum model for
teaching and learning. Canadian Journal of Education /
Revue canadienne de l'éducation, 30, 47–67.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/20466625
Besag, V. E. (2006). Understanding girls’ friendships, fights and
feuds: A practical approach to girls’ bullying. Milton Keynes,
UK: Open University Press.
Best, D. (1996). Research in drama theatre in education: The
objective necessity. In J. Somers (Ed.), Drama and theatre
in education: Contemporary research (pp. 3–25). North
York, ON: Captus Press.
Bhat, C. (2008). Cyber bullying: Overview and strategies for
school counsellors, guidance officers, and all school
personnel. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling,
18, 53–66.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/ajgc.18.1.53
Boal, A. (2002). Games for actors and non actors. London:
Routledge.
Boulton, M. J., Karellou, I., Laniti, I., Manousou, B., & Lemoni,
O. (2001). Aggressiveness and victimization between the
pupils of Greek primary schools. Psychology, 8, 12–29. (In
Greek).
Bowllan, N. (2011). Implementation and evaluation of a
comprehensive, school-wide bullying prevention program
in an urban/suburban middle school. Journal of School
Health, 81, 167–173.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/josh.2011.81.issue-4
Burton, B. (2010). Dramatising the hidden hurt: Acting
against covert bullying by adolescent girls. Research in
Drama Education: The Journal of Applied Theatre and
Performance, 15, 255–270.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13569781003700151
Burton, B., & O’Toole, J. (2005). Acting against conflict and
bullying. The Brisbane Dracon project, 1996–2004—
Emergent findings and outcomes. Research in
Drama Education: The Journal of Applied Theatre and
Performance, 10, 269–283.
Burton, B., & O’Toole, J. (2009). Power in their hands: The
outcomes of the acting against bullying research project.
Applied Theatre Researcher/IDEA Journal, 10, 1–15.
Catterall, J. (2007). Enhancing peer conflict resolution skills
through drama: An experimental study. Research in
Drama Education: The Journal of Applied Theatre and
Performance, 12, 163–178.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13569780701321013
Page 10 of 12
Mavroudis & Bournelli, Cogent Education (2016), 3: 1233843
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1233843
Crick, N. R., Grotpeter, J. K., & Bigbee, M. A. (2002). Relationally
and physically aggressive children’s intent attributions
and feelings of distress for relational and instrumental
peer provocations. Child Development, 73, 1134–1142.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cdev.2002.73.issue-4
Crothers, L., Kolbert, J., & Barker, W. (2006). Middle school
students’ preferences for anti-bullying interventions.
School Psychology International, 27, 475–487.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0143034306070435
Daphne Project. (2006–2008). Needs assessment and
awareness raising programme for bullying in schools
(Project No: JLS/DAP/2005-1-1040/YC).
Edmiston, B. (2000). Drama as ethical education. Research
in drama education: The journal of applied theatre and
performance, 5, 22–40.
Espelage, D., & Swearer, S. M. (2003). Research on school
bullying and victimization: What we learned and where
do we go from here? School Psychology Review, 32,
365–383.
Farrington, D. P. (1993). Understanding and preventing
bullying. In M. Torny (Ed.), Crime and justice (pp. 381–458).
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Farrington, D. P., & Ttofi, M. M. (2010). School-based program
to reduce bullying and victimization. Oslo: The Campbell
collaboration.
Furlong, M. J., Soliz, A. C., Simental, J. M., & Greif, J. L. (2004).
Bullying and abuse on school campuses. In C. Spielberger
(Ed.), Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology (pp. 295–301).
Oxford, GB: Elsevier .
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B0-12-657410-3/00851-5
Galanaki, E. (2010). School bullying: How effective
interventions are. Paper presented at 5th Panhellenic
Convention on: Learning how to learn, May 7–9, in Athens,
Greece. (In Greek)
Gini, G. (2004). Bullying in Italian schools: An overview
of intervention programmes. School Psychology
International, 25, 106–116.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0143034304028042
Gini, G. (2008). Associations between bullying behaviour,
psychosomatic complaints, emotional and behavioural
problems. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 44,
492–497. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jpc.2008.44.issue-9
Gini, G., & Pozzoli, T. (2009). Association between bullying and
psychosomatic problems: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 123,
1059–1065. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-1215
Giovazolias, T., Kourkoutas, E., Mitsopoulou, E., & Georgiadi,
M. (2010). The relationship between perceived school
climate and the prevalence of bullying behavior in Greek
schools: Implications for preventive inclusive strategies.
Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 5, 2208–2215.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.07.437
Gourd, K., & Gourd, T. (2011). Enacting democracy: Using
forum theatre to confront bullying. Equity & Excellence in
Education, 44, 403–419.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2011.589275
Graves, K., Frabutt, J., & Vigliano, D. (2007). Teaching conflict
resolution skills to middle and high school students
through interactive drama and role play. Journal of School
Violence, 6, 57–79.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J202v06n04_04
Janson, G. R., & Hazler, R. J. (2004). Trauma reactions of
bystanders and victims to repetitive abuse experiences.
Violence & Victims, 19, 239–255.
Jolliffe, D., & Farrington, D. P. (2006). Examining the
relationship between low empathy and bullying.
Aggressive Behavior, 32, 540–550.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(ISSN)1098-2337
Joronen, K., Konu, A., Rankin, H. S., & Åstedt-Kurki, P. (2011).
An evaluation of a drama program to enhance social
relationships and anti-bullying at elementary school: A
controlled study. Health Promotion International, 27, 5–14.
Joronen, K., Rankin, S. H., & Åstedt-Kurki, P. (2008). Schoolbased drama interventions in health promotion for
children and adolescents: Systematic review. Journal of
Advanced Nursing, 63, 116–131.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jan.2008.63.issue-2
Kalati V., Psalti, A., & Deliyianni-Kouimtzi, V. (2010). Greek
students’ perception of school bullying: The profiles of
victims and perpetrators. In K. K. P. Vanhoutte & M. Lang
(Eds.), Bullying and the abuse of power (pp. 91–98). Oxford:
Inter-Discriplinary Press.
Karkanaki, M., & Kaffetzi, P. (2009). The phenomenon of school
bullying in primary schools in the municipality of Heraklion.
Heraklion: School of Health and Social Welfare—Social
Work Department at Heraklion.
Kokkinos, C., & Kipritsi, E. (2012). The relationship between
bullying, victimization, trait emotional intelligence, selfefficacy and empathy among preadolescents. Social
Psychology of Education, 15, 41–58.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11218-011-9168-9
Kolbert, J. B., & Crothers, L. M. (2003). Bullying and evolutionary
psychology. Journal of School Violence, 2, 73–91.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J202v02n03_05
Kouretzis, L. (2008). Dramatic play and its dimensions. Athens:
Taxideftis. (In Greek).
Laakso, E. (2010). Three viewpoints on educational drama. In
A. Østern, M. Björkgren, & B. Snickars-von Wright (Eds.),
Drama in three movements. A Ulyssean encounter, (pp.
43–53). Âbo Akademi University & Novia University of
Applied Sciences.
Laeheem, K., Kuning, M., McNeil, N., & Besag, V. E. (2009).
Bullying in pattani primary schools in southern
Thailand. Child: Care, Health and Development, 35,
178–183.
Leiberg, S., & Anders, S. (2006). The multiple facets of
empathy: A survey of theory and evidence. Progress in
brain research, 156, 419–440.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6123(06)56023-6
Livesey, G., McAleavy, G., Donegan, T., Duffy, J., O’Hagan, C.,
Adamson, G., & White, R. (2007). The nature and extent
of bullying in schools in the North of Ireland (Research
report). Jordanstown: Northern Ireland Statistics and
Research Agency and Lifelong Learning Research Centre,
University of Ulster.
Mages, W. (2010). Creating a culture of collaboration: The
conception, design, and evolution of a head start theatrein-education program. Youth Theatre Journal, 24, 45–61.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08929091003732989
Malm, B., & Löfgren, H. (2007). Empowering students to handle
conflicts trough the use of drama. Journal of Peace
Education, 4(1), 1–20.
Merrell, R. H. (2004). The impact of a drama intervention
program on the response of the bystander to bullying
situations. New York, NY: University of Rochester.
Mills, M. (2001). Challenging violence in schools: An issue of
masculinities. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Neelands, J. (2002). 11/9—“A void in our heart”. In N. Govas
(Ed.), Theatre in education: An art form and a learning tool
(pp. 56–65). Athens: Metaixmio. (In Greek).
O’Toole, J. (2002). Drama: The productive pedagogy. Melbourne
Studies in Education, 43, 39–52.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17508480209556401
Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what
we can do. Oxford: Blackwell.
Olweus, D. (2007). Bullying prevention program, Olweus bullying
questionnaire—Standard school Report. Center City, MN:
Hazelden-PDA.
Österlind, E. (2011). Forum play—A Swedish mixture for
consciousness and change. In S. Schonmann (Ed.), Key
concepts in theatre/drama education (pp. 247–251).
Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6091-332-7
Page 11 of 12
Mavroudis & Bournelli, Cogent Education (2016), 3: 1233843
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1233843
Parker-Roerden, L., Rudewick, D., & Gorton, D. (2007). Direct
from the field. A guide to bullying prevention. Boston, MA:
Commonwealth of Massachusetts.
Pateraki, L., & Houndoumadi, A. (2001). Bullying among
primary school children in Athens, Greece. Educational
Psychology, 21, 167–175.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01443410020043869
Pecaski McLennan, D. (2008). The benefits of using sociodrama in the
elementary classroom: Promoting caring relationships among
educators and students. Early Childhood Education Journal, 35,
451–456. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10643-007-0195-2
Psalti, A., & Constantinou, K. (2007). Bullying in secondary
schools. The influence of gender and ethnicity.
Psychology, 14, 329–345.
Rigby, K. (2004). Addressing bullying in schools: Theoretical
perspectives and their implications. School Psychology
International, 25, 287–300.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0143034304046902
Rigby, K. (2005). Bullying in schools and the mental health of
children. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling,
15, 195–208. http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/ajgc.15.2.195
Rigby, K. (2008). Children and bullying: How parents and
educators can reduce bullying at school. Boston, MA:
Blackwell–Wiley.
Rousseau, C., & Moneta, I. (2008). Emotional expression
and regulation in a school-based drama workshop for
immigrant adolescents with behavioral and learning
difficulties. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 35, 329–340.
Salas, J. (2005). Using theatre to address bullying. Educational
leadership, 63, 78–82.
Salmivalli, C., & Voeten, M. (2004). Connections between
attitudes, group norms, and behaviour in bullying
situations. International Journal of Behavioral
Development, 28, 246–258.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01650250344000488
Santomenna, D. (2010). Are there benefits of theatre arts
programs in schools? New York, NY: St. John’s University.
Sapouna, M. (2008). Bullying in Greek primary and secondary
schools. School Psychology International, 29, 199–213.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0143034308090060
Sbarbabo, V., & Smith, T. E. (2011). An exploratory study
of bullying and cyber bullying behaviors among
economically/educationally disadvantaged middle school
students. American Journal of Health Studies, 26, 139–151.
Smith, P. K., & Ananiadou, K. (2003). The nature of school
bullying and the effectiveness of school-based
interventions. Journal of Applied Psychoanalytic Studies, 5,
189–209. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1022991804210
Smith, P. K., Mahdavi, J., Carvalho, M., Fisher, S., Russell, S., &
Tippett, N. (2008). Cyber bullying: Its nature and impact in
secondary school pupils. Journal of Child Psychology and
Psychiatry, 49, 376–385.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01846.x
Somers, J. (2003). Theatre and therapy. Paper presented at the 3rd
International Conference on Theatre in Education, Athens.
Stinson, M., & Wall, D. (2003). Dramactive: Book 1. Sydney:
McGraw Hill.
Sullivan, K. (2000). The anti-bullying handbook. New York, NY:
Oxford University Press.
Tabone, C. (2003). Addressing social issues in the early
childhood classroom with drama. Stage Art, 15, 18–21.
Thornberg, R. (2011). ‘She’s weird!’-The social construction
of bullying in school: A review of qualitative research.
Children & Society, 25, 258–267.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/chso.2011.25.issue-4
Timm, V. M., & Eskell-Blokland, L. M. (2011). A construction
of bullying in a primary school in an underprivileged
community: An ecological case study. South African
Journal of Psychology, 41, 339–350.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/008124631104100308
Yoneyama, S. (2015). Theorizing school bullying: Insights
from Japan. Confero: Essays on Education, Philosophy and
Politics, 3, 120–160.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3384/confero.2001-4562
© 2016 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license.
You are free to:
Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially.
The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as you follow the license terms.
Under the following terms:
Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
No additional restrictions
You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits.
Cogent Education (ISSN: 2331-186X) is published by Cogent OA, part of Taylor & Francis Group.
Publishing with Cogent OA ensures:
•
Immediate, universal access to your article on publication
•
High visibility and discoverability via the Cogent OA website as well as Taylor & Francis Online
•
Download and citation statistics for your article
•
Rapid online publication
•
Input from, and dialog with, expert editors and editorial boards
•
Retention of full copyright of your article
•
Guaranteed legacy preservation of your article
•
Discounts and waivers for authors in developing regions
Submit your manuscript to a Cogent OA journal at www.CogentOA.com
Page 12 of 12