Beneficial Effects of Compost
Application on Fertility and
Productivity of Soils
Literature Study
BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF COMPOST
APPLICATION ON FERTILITY AND
PRODUCTIVITY OF SOILS
Literature Study
Edited by
Federal Ministry for Agriculture and Forestry, Environment and Water Management
Authors: Florian Amlinger, Stefan Peyr, Jutta Geszti; Kompost - Entwicklung & Beratung, Perchtoldsdorf, Austria
Peter Dreher, Karlheinz Weinfurtner; Fraunhofer Institut für Molekularbiologie und Angewandte Oekologie,
Schmallenberg, Germany
Stephen Nortcliff, University of Reading, Department of Soil Science, United Kingdom
Cover fotos: Robert Tulnik, Bio Forschung Austria, Florian Amlinger
31.03.07
The Authors thank Christof Weissteiner for the valuable support in researching and
evaluating the literature.
We also want to express our gratitude to all colleagues who provided publications. Special
thanks we may attribute to Jacques Fuchs of the Research Institute of Organic Agriculture
(FiBL), Frick - Switzerland for letting his literature survey for translation.
Contents
CONTENTS .................................................................................................................5
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................1
1
THE QUESTION BEHIND ................................................................................9
1.1
Introduction.................................................................................................................9
1.2
Soil improvement – Soil fertility ..............................................................................11
1.2.1 Soil fertility – the central function of soil in agriculture .........................................11
2
2.1
BEHAVIOUR AND CHANGE OF SOIL ORGANIC MATTER IN
DEPENDANCE OF CLIMATE, SOIL AND SOIL MANAGEMENT ................14
Soil and Soil Organic Matter (SOM) ........................................................................14
2.1.1 The role of SOM for soil quality............................................................................14
2.1.2 Forms of soil organic matter.................................................................................16
2.1.3 Decomposition of organic materials applied to soil ..............................................17
2.1.4 Modelling the transformation of soil organic matter .............................................18
2.1.5 Soil properties influencing the level of soil organic matter ...................................21
2.1.5.1
2.1.5.2
2.1.5.3
2.1.5.4
2.1.6
Soil texture, parent soil material.............................................................................. 21
Aeration , impact of water ....................................................................................... 21
pH ............................................................................................................................ 22
Type and quantity of SOM, microbial Activity.......................................................... 22
Planning organic fertilisation ................................................................................23
2.2
Excursus: the formation of clay-organic compounds and complexes ...............23
2.3
Climatic impacts on SOM ........................................................................................25
2.4
Topography, relief ....................................................................................................28
2.5
Long Term Management and Soil Organic Matter levels......................................28
3
EFFECTS OF COMPOST FERTILISATION SYSTEMS ON SOIL ECO
SYSTEM AND PLANT PRODUCTION ..........................................................32
3.1
Compost fertilisation and soil organic matter (humus) ........................................32
3.1.1 Examples of humus reproduction through compost fertilisation...........................32
3.1.2 Summary considering the conclusions of he symposium “Applying Compost
– Benefits and needs” ..........................................................................................37
3.1.3 Compost fertilisation and soil organic matter – tabular survey.............................38
3.2
Excursus – assessment of compost as carbon sink and its contribution to
climate protection.....................................................................................................43
3.2.1 ECCP – European Climate change Programme; European Commission,
2001) ....................................................................................................................43
3.2.2 Further considerations – for a comprehensive evaluation of beneficial
effects contributing to the mitigation of green house gases .................................44
3.3
Effect of compost fertilisation on yield ..................................................................46
3.3.1 Basic conditions to estimate yield effects of compost fertilisation........................46
3.3.2 Examples of experimental results ........................................................................47
3.3.3 Economic assessment and competitive ability of compost ..................................49
3.3.4 Summary – yield effect of compost fertilisation....................................................51
3.3.5 Yield effect of compost fertilisation – tabular survey ............................................51
3.4
Compost and nutrient supply..................................................................................69
3.4.1 Phosphorus, Potassium, Magnesium...................................................................69
3.4.2 Substitution potential of plant nutrients ................................................................73
3.4.3 Conclusions from the symposium ........................................................................74
3.4.4 Plant nutrition by compost application: macro and trace elements – tabular
survey...................................................................................................................75
3.5
Enhancing buffer capacity, cat ion exchange capacity (CEC) and pH ................79
3.5.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................79
3.5.2 Compost effect on pH and CEC – tabular survey ................................................80
3.6
Compost and soil physical properties....................................................................84
3.6.1 Soil physical parameters - a short introduction ....................................................84
3.6.1.1
3.6.1.2
3.6.1.3
3.6.1.4
3.6.1.5
3.6.1.6
3.6.2
3.6.3
3.6.4
3.7
Soil structure, Aggregate stability............................................................................ 84
Hydraulic conductivity.............................................................................................. 87
Infiltration and erosion ............................................................................................. 87
Field capacity .......................................................................................................... 88
Soil air...................................................................................................................... 88
Soil temperature ...................................................................................................... 89
Effect of Compost on soil physical parameter – examples from literature ...........89
Conclusions from the symposium ........................................................................93
The effect of compost on soil physical parameters – tabular survey ...................95
Heavy metals – accumulation, mobility, uptake by plants .................................108
3.7.1 General aspects of heavy metal sorption and solubility .....................................108
3.7.2 Metal absorption rates in SOM...........................................................................108
3.7.3 Concepts of sustainable compost use ...............................................................108
3.7.3.1
3.7.3.2
3.7.3.3
3.7.3.4
3.7.4
3.7.5
Approaches on risk assessments ........................................................................ 110
Derivation of quality requirements and application regimes – weighing
benefits and precaution ......................................................................................... 111
Results of accumulation scenarios........................................................................ 117
Concept of limit values for an European regulation .............................................. 117
Heavy metal mobility as influenced by compost application –examples from
literature .............................................................................................................119
Effect of compost application systems on the heavy metal concentration in
soils, mobility and take up by plants – tabular survey ........................................122
3.8
Pesticides and organic pollutants ........................................................................131
3.8.1 Behaviour of organic pollutants during composting and in compost
amended soils ....................................................................................................131
3.8.2 Assessment of potential accumulation of persistent organic pollutants
(PCB, PCDD/F und PAK) by regular compost application .................................135
3.8.3 Experimental results on the behaviour of pesticides und organic pollutants
in composting and compost amended soils – tabular survey.............................139
3.9
Soil biology .............................................................................................................143
3.9.1
3.9.2
3.9.3
3.9.4
3.9.5
3.9.6
Introduction ........................................................................................................143
The function of soil organisms ...........................................................................144
Methods for quantifying biological and microbial activity of soils .......................146
General interaction: organic matter – organic fertilisation – micro-biology .....148
Brief excursus – micro-biology of composting....................................................149
Impact of compost use on (micro) biological activity of soils – examples
from literature .....................................................................................................149
3.9.6.1
Effect of compost application on soil biology– tabular survey ............................. 153
3.10 Phytosanitary effects of compost .........................................................................165
3.10.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................165
3.10.2 Mechanisms of disease suppressing effects......................................................166
3.10.2.1
3.10.2.2
3.10.2.3
Micro-biological parameter.................................................................................... 166
Chemical and physical parameter......................................................................... 167
Stimulation of soil microbial activity....................................................................... 167
3.10.3 Difference between compost and other organic fertilisers .................................167
3.10.4 Parameters influencing the suppressive properties of composts.......................168
3.10.4.1
3.10.4.2
3.10.4.3
3.10.5
3.10.6
3.10.7
3.10.8
3.10.9
Composition of source materials for compost production ..................................... 168
Application rate...................................................................................................... 169
Compost maturity .................................................................................................. 169
Measures to increase the disease suppressing effect of composts...................170
Long term effects / practical applications ...........................................................171
Compost and induced resilience ........................................................................171
Prospects and conclusions ................................................................................173
Experimental results ob disease suppressing effects of compost – tabular
survey.................................................................................................................173
4
OUTLINE OF THE REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR THE USE OF
COMPOST....................................................................................................178
4.1
Federal legislation ..................................................................................................178
4.2
Austrian Standards and Guidelines......................................................................181
4.3
Provincial regulations on soil protection (Soil Protection Act, Sewage
Sludge and Compost Ordinances of the provinces) ...........................................183
4.3.1 Upper Austria .....................................................................................................183
4.3.2 Lower Austria .....................................................................................................184
4.3.3 Carinthia.............................................................................................................184
4.3.4 Burgenland.........................................................................................................185
4.3.5 Salzburg .............................................................................................................185
4.3.6 Tyrol ...................................................................................................................186
4.3.7 Styria ..................................................................................................................186
4.3.8 Vorarlberg ..........................................................................................................186
4.3.9 Vienna ................................................................................................................186
4.4
European provisions ..............................................................................................187
4.4.1 Animal By-Products Regulation (EC) n° 1774/2002...........................................187
4.4.2 Elements of the EC draft amendment of the Waste Framework Directive.........188
4.4.2.1
4.4.2.2
Definition of recycling and recovery methods ....................................................... 188
End of waste regulation......................................................................................... 188
4.4.2.3
4.4.3
4.4.4
5
Exemptions of the scope ....................................................................................... 188
The Thematic Strategy on Waste Prevention and Recycling (COM(2005)
666 ) ...................................................................................................................189
The thematic strategy on soil protection ............................................................191
LITERATURE ...............................................................................................194
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................219
LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................................220
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................222
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The study summarises the literature and the current knowledge on the effect of compost
fertilisation on the soil plant system.
After surveying the principle significance of quantity and quality of soil organic matter (SOM)
for the maintenance of functions, health and fertility of soil (chapter 2) specific experimental
work and studies are examined. This is done by systematically evaluating beneficial effects on
relevant soil parameter and plant performance (chapter 3). Every chapter is structured in 3
sections:
1. Introduction on the functional importance of the specified parameter (e.g. SOM, crop
yield, plant nutrition, physical soil properties etc.)
2. Exemplary demonstration and summary of characteristic results from literature
3. table of literature examined with short description of experimental design and key
results
The most important contributions and conclusions drawn from the 2001 Symposium „Applying
Compost – Benefits and Needs“ (Amlinger et al., 2003c) a summarised.
Since the recycling of organic waste compost as soil amendment precaution is demanded in
order to prevent any substantial decrease of soil quality two chapters on potential adverse
effects caused by spreading pollutants were added (chapter 3.7 ‚Heavy metals’, chapter 3.8
Finally chapter 4 gives a survey on legislations and technical standards and guidelines on EU
level as well as for federal and provincial provisions in Austria.
A comprehensive knowledge of short to long term effects of continuous soil management (i.e.
compost application) is the pre-requisite for optimising land use measures in order strengthen
the soil ecosystem.
This expertise must provide the necessary orientation for legislative framework or
environmental subsidies programmes respectively.
The nitrogen fertilisation effect of compost use has been excluded from this work since this
was covered by a separate study of 2003 (Amlinger et al., 2003a;
http://www.umweltnet.at/article/archive/6954)
Key results of beneficial effects
Organic matter (OM) status und reproduction (chapter 3.1)
All long term application trials result in increased SOM concentrations. Important conditions
are: quantity, type and maturation of composts applied and soil properties (above all particle
size distribution) respectively. The majority of trials show highest SOM effects with composted
material. Only few experiments could not differentiate between the C sources (straw, manure,
compost). However, well matured compost leads to a higher SOM increase than fresh
compost. The stable C fraction responsible for OM reproduction is highest in mature compost
(50% of total compost C).
The mean SOM increase in compost amended plots amounts between 0.1 – 1.9 % whereas
control plots show a SOM decline. In average the SOM demand of agricultural soils is
balanced by applying 7 und 10 Mg ha-1 d.m. compost every year. Yet, plant residues not
withdrawn from the field must be taken into account.
1
Pot and laboratory trials indicate mid term C mineralisation ratios of 1 to 20 % of the total Corg
applied. This supports the hypothesis that compost serves as a carbon sink and contributes to
the mitigation of greenhouse gases (chapter 3.2).
On the other hand long term fertilisation trials demonstrate a rather low variation in
decomposable Corg e.g. 0,2 to 0,6% in manure fertilised plots. The results are well correlated
with the clay content. Clay soils show twice the humification rates of sandy soils. However,
composition and stability of SOM pools are still unsatisfactorily explored.
The main challenge to optimise compost fertilisation system under different cropping systems
and site conditions is to assess the specific impacts and interactions between plant nutrition
and long term soil improving effects.
The impact on SOM, the efficiency in OM reproduction by means of composition of source
materials for composting and compost process is another matter of needed research. Among
others this would require innovative analytical methods for a better characterisation of the
compost OM (humus stability, OM reproduction factor, mineralisation potential under typical
site conditions)
Effect on Yield and economic assessment (chapter 3.2)
Most of the investigations give appositive yield effect and productivity as compared to
unfertilised and in longer lasting experiments also mineral fertilised control plots.
Predominantly because of the low N availability in compost combined fertilisation schemes
often show good results.
Another consistent result is the fact that compost fertilised systems balance yearly climatic
variations, leading to a more stable productivity over the years.
Economic assessments of compost fertilisation show – especially in vegetable cropping
systems – a compensation of higher management (spreading) costs by more stable yields of
marketable products.
All results very much depend on the site specific biomass production potential and the crop
rotation. Crops with longer growth period show better responses than those with short ones.
Key factors influencing the crop production are:
quantity and frequency of compost application
crop rotation
site specific yield potential
supplementary mineral N fertilisation
Many experiments indicate that at common application rates (ca. 7 to 10 Mg d.m. y-1) the yield
effect occurs only after 3 to 6 years. In other words, field trials below 3 years cannot be
recommended since they would not allow any interpretation on the mid term crop response to
the fertilisation system. However, in the first years when compost is used, compost
applications every 2 to 3 years at higher rates lead to better effects than low rate yearly
applications.
Some investigations, e.g. with vegetables, do not show significant yield effects but give
evidence on improved quality parameters of harvested fruits (oil of pumpkin seeds, potatoes,
grass). Most vegetable show a positive response on compost use.
2
Plant nutrition (chapter 3.4)
Long term compost management lead to a constant increase of total and available stock of
macro nutrients (P, K, Mg) and calcium in the soil.
The nutrition efficiency of total compost inputs ranges between 30 - 50 % and 40 - 60 % for
phosphorus and potassium respectively.
Thus over a 3 years crop rotation a total compost rate 30 Mg TM ha-1 balances the P und K
demand and ensures the basic fertilisation. The lime supply ranges between 600 und 1600 Kg
and corresponds to a preservation liming measure.
In summary, compost can be defined as a organic multi nutrient fertiliser. Besides its soil
improving ability (humus reproduction, liming effect), macronutrients such as phosphorus,
potassium and magnesium can be fully accounted for plant nutrition during a crop rotation.
As a consequence compost substitutes mineral or synthetic nutrient sources in agriculture.
The substitution potential for Germany is estimated with 8 to 10 %, similar values can be
assessed for Austria. Estimating approximately 100 mill. Mg organic waste recycling on EU
level 500.000 Mg N, 300.000 Mg P2O5 and 600.000 Mg K2O could be replaced by the use of
compost.
Sulphur in compost has a similar low availability of 5 to 10 % in the year of application. In the
long run the S mineralisation would improve and the demand for additional sulphur fertilisation
in former S deficiency soils would be reduced.
As far a the supply with trace elements is concerned the experimental results can be
summarised as follows:
The elements loads do not effectuate measurable increase of concentrations in the soil
Though an increased plant uptake for Cu, Mn and Zn is reported
In any case compost is a multi nutrient source for soils with a micro nutrient deficiency
The experiments, supported by the contributions to the Symposium show that it would be
inadequate to judge compost mainly for its short term fertilisation effect due to the applied
plant nutrients. Compost
Compost supplies nutrients in the several binding forms to the soil matrix. It has an dynamic
impact on exchange processes between root system and sorption complex. This is mainly
caused by the humified OM and the colloid properties of the humic substances. In this context
the importance of amino acids and amino sugars for the formation of humic substances and
aggregation should not be neglected. This again is the basis for an improved water regime and
transformation processes.
This justifies the establishment of a comprehensive and long term concept in evaluating
compost in contrast to mineral nutrition driven fertilisation.
Enhancing buffer properties, cation exchange capacity (CEC), pH value (chapter 3.5)
An important benefits of compost fertilisation is the liming effect by adding calcium mainly in
form of calcium carbonate. This ensures a preservation liming measure at moderate
application rates of up to 10 Mg d.m. ha-1.
Acidification processes can be balanced by maintaining or enhancing soil pH through regular
compost use. Only very few experiments have lead to a pH decrease after compost
application.
The expected increase of CEC is confirmed by the examined literature.
3
Enhancing soil physical properties (chapter 3.6)
The most important soil physical indicators are aggregate stability and distribution; hydraulic
conductivity, infiltration, resilience against erosion, water retention capacity, pore volume and
distribution.
All these parameter are strongly related to quality and quantity of SOM
Further, there is a well documented interaction between microbial activity which has an
significant impact on aggregation via intermediate catabolic products.
In general terms it can be concluded, that the increase of the particulate SOM stock by
applying organic materials and compost will promote soil structure prominently in clay and
sandy soils. Positive effects can be expected by well humified (promoting micro-aggregates),
as well as fresh, low-molecular substances (promoting macro-aggregates).
Aggregate stability is the best and most frequently investigated parameter is positively
influenced through compost additions. Due to the slow transformation of organic components
inducing the stability of small particles, which can hardly be influenced by cultivation
measures, changes are often observed only for micro and macro aggregates > 20 µm.
In correspondence to this predominantly pore volume >50 µm is increased most prominently in
loamy soils. Erosion trials with stratified irrigation systems showed a clear correlation between
increased SOM, reduction of soil density and soil loss as well as runoff of surface water.
There is still a lot to learn about the interdependency between the different organic matter
pools, their specific properties and physical parameters. A better understanding would be
necessary in which way compost quality could be defined in order to achieve a more focussed
soil improvement under different soil conditions.
It became evident that soil quality – i.e. structure related properties – cannot be described
with only one single parameter. Only in combination, a set of parameters may give a robust
interpretation on the improving effect on soil quality and soil functions!
In the Symposium it was indicated that the addition of specific mineral components (stone
dust, clay minerals) the formation potential of stable aggregates during composting can be
increased.
The experimental results on the impact of compost fertilisation systems on soil physical
properties can be summarised as follows:
Reduction of soil density on the majority of investigations
Increase of aggregate stability
Increase of pore volume and hydraulic conductivity
Increase of the proportion of macro pores, predominantly at higher compost rates
Together with improvement of soil structure infiltration is increased
Reduction of erosion processes due to higher stability of aggregates and improved
infiltration
No consistent increase of field capacity
Results depend mainly on soil properties, compost maturation and application rate
Soil temperature:
o
o
o
4
Increase of soil temperature due to darker colour of soil
Reduced variation of soil temperature at high compost application rates
Compost mulching systems: reduced warming up in spring and cooling effect in
summer.
Heavy metals (chapter 3.7)
Organic mater and substances in compost (predominantly the complex polymer humic acids)
are absorbed by the soil matrix. Thus compost input to soils alters the sorption and exchange
dynamic for minerals and thus for potential toxic elements.
The additional sorption surface areas supplied with compost are only effective if they are not
occupied with metals already. This demands the production of quality assured composts
made from ‘clean’ source materials with low metal contamination.
The rotting process, above all the state of maturation and humification is decisive for mobility
of heavy metals. This mainly affects the formation of organo-mineral complexes. In general
terms it has been shown that with proceeding maturation the proportion of dissolvable OM
declines together with the soluble heavy metal fraction.
The derivation of limit values for pollutants in compost ensuring a long term compost
application in a n environmentally sound way needs a careful balancing of the identified
benefits with potentially negative effects on the soil-plant system. This concept follows the
principles: (i) application following good agricultural practice (GAP) optimising the benefits to
soil functions (e.g. humus reproduction, general soil improvement, nutrient supply); (ii)
respecting that scientifically approved soil threshold values for the multifunctional use of soils
are not exceeded in a long term scenario. As an orientation we used the precautionary
threshold values for sand/silt/clay soils of the German Soil Protection Ordinance. Only when
those values are exceeded additional load limitation would apply.
Primary prerequisite is the exclusive use of clean source separated raw materials in order to
guarantee the lowest possible pollutant input over time. Based on thousands of compost data,
this would fulfil the goal of precautionary soil conservation.
By respecting these principles of precaution (application rate according to GAP, consequent
separate collection and quality assurance) a mid term slow increase of heavy metals in the soil
can be tolerated. There is no science based or environmental reason to establish limits for
compost at a level which would exclude a considerable percentage of composts from the use
(e.g. at the level of soil background concentration).
In any case binding limits must consider coefficients of variation which are compost of a
number of components (seasonal and local variations, sampling errors, inhomogeneity of
sampled lot, analytical variances between laboratories etc.)
After evaluation of existing studies and investigations it can be concluded that the 90th
percentile of ten thousands of composts plus 50% tolerance would fulfil the above mentioned
criteria of technical viability (recycling security) and precaution (long term environmental
protection).
Pesticides and organic pollutants (OPs) (chapter 3.8)
The study does not describe potential concentrations of organic compounds but the sorption
and decay potential during composting and compost applied soils.
Due to the high level of humified OM composts contribute to sorption and immobilisation of
OPs, thus reducing adverse effects to other environmental compartments and consumers.
Further, based on increased biological activity the conditions for the oxidative biological
decomposition of pollutants are improved. Both mechanisms are supported by the examined
literature.
Also during composting, the microbial decomposition processes which require optimised
conditions (oxygen availability, humidity, temperature, C/N, pH etc.) is an important aspect of
quality improvement.
5
Abiotic (photolysis, hydrolysis) and biotic transformation processes take place in parallel, but
the latter are considered to be the most important.
Better maturation and humification promote organic sorption processes. Also mineralisation is
described as more effective in compost soil mixtures when well matured compost was used.
So called 'fresh compost' results in a less effective mineralisation rate. This was specifically
found for PAH and other hydrocarbons.
For PCBs decay rates during composting range up to 45 %. On the other hand a concentration
process can be found similar to the mineral fraction. Biologically degradation and volatilisation
affect mainly congeners with a low chlorination level.
Also PCDD/F show a trend to concentrate during composting. The formation of dioxins and
furans during the process can only be observed at temperatures > 70°C and if preceding
compounds are present (such as Trichlorophenol und Pentachlorophenol). Also here
biologically degradation affect only congeners with a low chlorination level.
AOX and Pesticides show a better decay during composting than in soils. Highest degradation
takes place during thermopile stages Background concentration in composts is well below
existing guide an limit values.
LAS, NPE, DEHP: those compounds, mainly found in sewage sludge, are efficiently degraded
under oxidative conditions.
Accumulation scenarios of persistent pollutants (PAK, PCB, PCDD/PCDF) show, that,
respecting realistic half life times in soil, continuous compost use will not lead to an increase of
soil concentration. Also in a worst case scenario for PAH the accumulation would be moderate
and precautionary soil threshold would not be reached by far. The natural decay in soil
generally over compensates the additional input by compost and atmospheric deposition.
However there is always the science based derivation of soil threshold levels which guarantee
a safe food production and ground water maintenance and which must be observed against
potential soil changes in time.
The results can be summarised as follows::
In principle the use of clean source materials from separate collection systems do not
result in critical concentrations of pesticides or other known organic pollutants
investigated in literature.
The composting process as such based on temperature effects as well as oxidative
microbial and biochemical processes contributes in many cases to en effective decay of
micro pollutants.
Scenarios of inputs of persistent organic pollutants (PCB, PAH, PCDD/PCDF) with
regular compost applications demonstrate – even under worst case conditions – no
critical accumulation in soil.
Specifically the use of well matured compost increases PAH and pesticede degradation
as well as stabilisation (fixation) in soil.
Soil biology (chapter 3.9)
Soil fauna and flora plays a key role for the ‚functioning’ of the soil eco system. However the
level of transformation and other biotic processes depends mainly on the existence and
availability of sufficient organic matter (organic carbon) sources. If a minimum of crop residues
and dead microbial biomass is not available exogenous organic matter must be added in order
to maintain the necessary for microbial soil functions
There are three essential impacts of compost application to soil with respect to biotic
transformation capacities:
6
Optimisation of the habitat soil (e.g. water and air household, increase of the specific
surface where accessible water is adsorbed)
Supply of food, providing the trophic level for soil biota; this is the basis for successful
development of a diverse microbial community and enzymatic activity
Introducing compost biota into soil as an inoculant.
Two fraction of organic matter are responsible for the level of microbial activity: easily available
organic substances may increase the short term transformation rate and biodiversity
significantly. This is only a temporary effect. A more long term persisting increase of microbial
biomass is only possible if the stable OM pool in soil is constantly increased by continuous
compost or other EOM addition. This maintains the necessary food source as well the physical
conditions of the microbial habitat.
Summary of experimental results: impact of compost use on biological activity in soils:
general increase of biological activity
increase of microbial biomass
increase of dehydrogenase activity
in most cases increase of protease activity
in most cases increase of urease
Substrate induced respiration (SIR) and β-Glucosidase: increase with stepwise
enhanced compost rates
Respiration: significantly enhanced
Mesofauna: higher numbers of species und
Increase of earth worm abundance
Suppression of plant deseases (antiphytopathogenic potential) (chapter 3.10)
The phenomenon of suppression of mainly soil born plant diseases by compost addition to
soils and growing media has been known since the 1960ies. Since then systematic research is
carried out.
The main mechanisms of biological control of plant disease are:
competition,
antibiosis und
hyper parasitism.
Further it is distinguished between a “generic” and a “specific” suppressive ability. The latter
means relates to biological control effects on definite diseases.
Today it is evident that stability (maturity) of the compost is of essential significance. Only
poorly matured compost may promote the growth of pathogens, whereas mature compost
suppresses their propagation.
Well stabilised organic material supports the activity of biological control mechanisms by
microorganisms. Further important conditions are: timing of compost application before
cropping, salt content, mobilisation of nutrients.
But the phyto-sanitary impact of compost is not limited to suppressive or lethal effects on
pathogens. Though the most prominent results were obtained with substrates under
controlled in green house conditions, plant health promoting effects are also reported from
field experiments. Here the mechanisms are not so specific, rather a more balanced nutrition
and crop development strengthens the resilience against plant diseases.
7
It seems that physiologic maturity, microbial community and diversity, as well as nitrogen
availability pay a more important role than the type of input material used for composting.
The poorer the microbial community the less is the probability of an effective disease
suppression might be. Consequently the suppressive effect is directly proportional to the
amount of compost added.
Here the conclusions are taken from Bruns (2003) presented at the Symposium „Applying
compost– benefits and needs“:
Suppressive effects of bio- and yard waste composts produced in model or in
commercial systems on P. ultimum could be demonstrated in standard bioassays
and in practical horticulture.
For large-scale utilisation of disease suppressive composts the production process
has to be defined and a quality assessment scheme has to be developed in order to
produce composts with consistent properties.
Procedures to assess the curing state of composts and predict the interactions of
plants, pathogens and beneficial micro organisms need to be developed.
Studies on suppressive effects of compost in soils are promising. Research to
increase the utilisation of suppressive composts in soils should be intensified. If this
is successful composts originating from source separation could have an improved
market potential.
Assessment of regulatory framework conditions in Austria (chapter 4) with respect to
the literature results
The existing regulations and guidelines for compost use provide little flexibility specifically for
short term humus build-up in depleted soils. This is also valid if further soil conserving
measures are considered (inter cropping, reduced tillage, green manure etc.).
The Austrian compost Ordinance introduced a maximum average application rate in
agriculture of 8 Mg d.m. compost ha-1 in the turn of a 5 years period. This figure has been
adopted also by some of the provincial sludge and compost regulations.
Though 80 % of the compost nitrogen is utilised for the formation and maintenance of humic
substances the total N-content is accounted with the N-limitations of the Austrian Water Act
and its implementation orders of the EU Nitrate Directive. Therefore compost is handled like
any other far more mobile N source. This problem has been tackled comprehensively by
Amlinger et al. (2003a, 2003b).
In conclusion it can be said that an application regime of up to 10 Mg TM ha-1 within a period
of 5 years, distributed in 2 applications at minimum, would give the desired humus and soil
improving effect still without endangering the soil eco system.
However, the principle of good agricultural practice must always be respected by considering
site and land use specific conditions, observing nutrient and SOM status over time.
Final remark
The literature provides robust and widespread evidence, that compost fertilisation contributes
to multiple benefits to the soil plant system improving and stabilising soil functions and
properties as there are: long term productivity including plant health, soil biodiversity and
transformation capacity, soil physical properties with all positive side effects of water and air
household and contributes to a better performance in sequestering carbon in soil.
8
1
1.1
THE QUESTION BEHIND
Introduction
Composting is one of the recycling methods for organic substances (R4) described in Annex 4
of the Waste Framework Directive (EC) n° 442/1975. Further more R10 is ‘land treatment
resulting in benefit to agriculture or ecological improvement’.
The assessment to what extent compost meets this recycling objective and under which
conditions is the task of the study.
The ecological benefit is indeed one of the key requirements for the acknowledgement of
recycling of organic waste also in many national regulations. In addition to demand that a
secondary waste derived material should be of equivalent quality and fit for use as a primary
product. In the case of compost it is frequently compared with commercial (organic) fertilisers
and the nutrition effect.
The main difference between a fertiliser and a soil amendment is the level of plant available
nutrients. Key parameter identifying an ‘Organic Fertiliser’ according to the Austrian Fertiliser
Ordinance is, besides a minimum content of organic matter of 20% d.m. also minimum
concentration for plant nutrients (Ntot 0.6%, P2O5 tot 0.3%, K2Otot 0,5% d.m.).
The designation ‘Full Fertiliser’ requires at least 1% d.m. of N tot, P2O5 tot und K2Otot.
In the case of compost this strict demarcation between soil amendment (or soil improver) and
fertiliser is inadequate. On the one hand compost supplies plant nutrients of different levels of
availability. In the case of phosphorous, Potassium or magnesium compost serves as a short
term fertiliser. On the other hand it is a classic organic soil amendment which fulfils its soil
improving benefits predominantly by long term repeated application over many years. In
addition, due to the wide range of source materials used composts represent a very wide
variation of nutrient levels.
Already this gives evidence that compost must be classified as multifunctional soil amendment
which reveals its specific effects on the soil-plat system in a dynamic manner depending on
the application regime, soil properties and cropping systems. A simplifying assessment, manly
reduced to nutritional effects would be inadequate.
In practice, farmers ask for the beneficial effects of compost. Therefore the proper application
system merely depends on a clear definition and knowledge of the beneficial effects in its
manifold aspects.
Once the benefits are defined, the perception or appreciation by farmers depend also of other
factors. Since biowaste or green waste composts are derived from waste, in the past it was
difficult to achieve an adequate price for compost when offered to farmers. Rather a “recycling
fee” was offered or compost was given for free in order to motivate farmers to accept the
“black box” compost.
This of course can only be overcome if – based on quality assured products and the
acknowledgement of the long term benefits – farmers can be convinced of the credibility of the
product compost
Due to the low nutrition effect (especially in the case of Nitrogen) experts often question the
definition of compost as organic fertiliser. Furthermore it is claimed that potential pollutants
must be evaluated in relation to nutrient supply (e.g. the Cd/P2O5 ratio). This of course leads to
a significant disadvantageous perception of compost against other fertilisers which contain
higher concentrations of nutrients.
9
A further problem is the unequal availability of the macro nutrients. If the application rate would
in theory be derived from the available N percentage of 5 - 10% in order to cover the demand
of the entire vegetation period, this would result in most cases to a far to high phosphorous or
potassium inputs. This has to be seen on the background of sometimes critical high level of
background concentration in many continental, middle European soils.
The second perception of a philosophy of soil management has its origin in the organic
farming movement, which defines fertilisation rather as soil nutrition or stimulation of soil
biology as a measure to maintain or improve soil fertility..
This goal is the key motivation for the use of compost.
Besides the nutrient supply two main aspects of soil improvement are considered
Organic matter (OM) or Humus supply (or Humus reproduction by providing a high
proportion of stable humic substances)
Liming effect (by providing components [CaCO3] with alkaline effects)
The following figure summarises the beneficial effects associated with regular compost
application
More STABLE SOIL
STRUCTURE
Higher NUTRIENT
SORPTION capacity
Increased soil
TEMPERATURES
better infiltration
better workability
Increased nutrient
availability
Improves plant
growth in spring
Higher WATER
RETENTION capacity
reduces impacts of
weather extremes
Better WORKABILITY
of soil
reduces energy
consumption
FIGURE 1-1:
Soil maintenance
through organic
[COMPOST]
fertilisation
Reduced susceptibility
for EROSION
Reduced soil loss
PHYTOSANITARY
effect
Suppression of soil
born plant diseases
Enhancing soil
BIODERVISITY
increases
transformation
THE MANIFOLD BENEFICIAL ECCECTS OF COMPOST FERTILISATION TO TO THE
SOIL – PLANT ECOSYSTEM (BGK, 2005)
Since the changes in soil properties and soil fertility indicators will not occur after one or two
subsequent compost uses, it needs long term trials and experience to achieve well
documented and justified results. However it can be argued that too strict restrictions for
nutrient loads would limit admissible compost applications at such a low level at which the
envisaged long term soil improvement (humus maintenance and enrichment) could not be
achieved.
Of course there is also the question how far the change of soil parameter may be interpreted
as indicator of a measurable direct effect of compost amendments in fulfilling the generic
criteria
10
sustainability
soil protection
savings of resources und
enhancement of soil fertility
In this context we may distinguish between direct effects (soil organic matter) and indirect
impacts (e.g. water content at field capacity, increase of aggregate stability) as indicators for
the desired ecological benefits (e.g. higher infiltration and thus diminishing erosion).
Consequently, the central task of the literature study was to view and evaluate the effects of
compost application systems on the improvement of soil and soil fertility based on:
general pedological knowledge and soil science and
results from field and laboratory experiments
and to compile the answers and conclusions presented in literature.
In this study the entire question of the effect of compost use on the nitrogen dynamic in soil,
(organic binding, risk being drained off with percolation water, uptake and usability by crops) is
not covered. This was drawn up extensively in the a survey1 by Amlinger et al. 2003a[FA1] (see
also Amlinger et al., 2003b).
1.2
Soil improvement – Soil fertility
In general terms, improvement means enhancing components of the qualitative status or of
functional processes of the productive soil horizon. In order to assess any improvement it is
necessary to define and quantify parameters which describe soil quality. This leads to the
questions: how is soil quality determined.
1.2.1 Soil fertility – the central function of soil in agriculture
A first attempt would describe functional objectives and target values, i.e. it is necessary to
define requirements in relation to functions, which the soil should satisfy as landscape
compartment and in fulfilment of a defined utilisation.
It is obvious that there will not be a universal soil quality and function parameter.
The common term soil fertility occupies agronomists and soil science since agricultural soil use
became a subject of scientific perception. There might be two aspects to be considered when
searching for a general definition of soil fertility and thus reflect the farmers key expectations:
1. It means the level of productivity, i.e. the output per unit of area and time period (e.g.
vegetation period)
2. It includes the constancy or stability of the production level that is sustained over more
than one production periods ( e.g. several vegetation periods, one or more crop
rotations, generation(s))
Further the term fertility implies, that soil is a part of a living entity which interacts with its
adjacent environment following not only physico-chemical but the rules of biological processes
1
„Kenntnisstand zur Frage des Stickstoffaustrags in Kompost-Düngungssystemen“ [State of knowledge of nitrogen
leaching from compost amended soils] ZL. 34 2500/48-III/4/99; http://www.umweltnet.at/article/archive/6954; not
available in English.
11
(metabolic transformation, respiration, growth, formation and degradation of organic
substances)
Quantifying crop yield (biomass productivity) over a number of years could be one approach to
define a site specific soil fertility. But fertilisation and other crop and soil management impacts
might distort an objective assessment. As an extreme example, high yields can also be
achieved without soil (hydroponics). Thus yield is an important criterion but as such not always
meaningful.
The output per unit of area is a sub-function of soil (soil as a habitat). The assessment of the
sustainability of this function might serve as a parameter describing soil fertility. If certain
management measures (e.g. soil conservation methods) aim for as enhancing this function,
productivity can be addressed as an relevant indicator.
Soil parameters as such may serve as indicators for soil fertility if those parameters – in
combination – sufficiently describe the level to which the desired soil functions are obtained.
However, besides the production aspect, today a science and environment orientated soil
management must include further ecological criteria (functions) in order to describe soil as
functional element of the landscape – and these directly and indirectly have a major impact on
the wider definition of soil fertility):
filter-, buffer- and transformation function
the function of soil as biological habitat und gene reserve (preservation of biodiversity).
This functional perspective is strongly linked to the perception of the precaution principle in soil
protection. The inclusion of “long term productivity” as one aspect of the natural soil functions
implies the thorough consideration of eventual adverse side-effects caused by any fertility
orientated soil management.
Consequently, the conservation and maintenance of the function “buffer, material balance”
(e.g. in avoiding to over-stress the buffer capacity for nitrogen with the goal to prevent nitrate
leaching into the ground water) is equally respected as the postulation of productivity
A single-edge intensive land management aiming at the one and only parameter output per
unit of area (e.g. high life stock units, high nutrient balances, mono cultures) would have an
undesirably competitive impact on the ecological functions
Depletion of filter, buffer and transformation functions for mineral and organic substances
caused by intensive SOM degrading management methods will under certain site conditions
result in negative impacts of ground water quality and quantity. Thus all measures which are
targeted on the maintenance of all the mentioned soil functions have a far reaching ecological
significance.
This perspective attributes a new dimension to the traditional definition of soil fertility.
The above made considerations imply two further aspects of soil quality:
the resilience against erosion (soil loss through wind and water)
the long-lasting maintenance of a site specific and land use adapted organic matter
level combating the tendency of on-going or complete mineralisation or desertification
(the latter depends mainly on climatic conditions and land management and is a major
threat in sub-tropic to tropic climates, semi-arid and arid regions)
Quantity and quality of SOM is tightly linked with soil physical properties (aggregation, pore
volume and pore size distribution) and surface structures. The formation of these structural
properties may influence the water household of entire landscapes and regions dramatically.
12
In addition to the need of a balanced spatial landscape and soil utilisation (Sealing; structural
depletion of agricultural land) the physical degradation of agricultural soils which in some
cases cover large land areas contributes significantly to flooding events of the recent years.
The key parameter involved is the specific surface area of soil aggregates with its ability of
water retention and as infiltration medium.
However, this study will concentrate on Middle European climate and soil conditions.
13
2
BEHAVIOUR AND CHANGE OF SOIL ORGANIC MATTER IN
DEPENDANCE OF CLIMATE, SOIL AND SOIL MANAGEMENT
2.1
Soil and Soil Organic Matter (SOM)
Soil organic matter in this study is defined as the entire solid organic soil matter including
humic substances and dead plant tissue. This definition does not distinguish between inert or
labile, active, soluble or insoluble, pure organic or organo-mineral compounds, humic or fulvic
acids, hydrophilic or hydrophobic, aliphatic or aromatic substances.
Topsoil is generally considered to consist of four broad components: 1. Mineral Matter
2. Organic Matter
3. Air
4. Water
The relative proportions of these vary, but on a volumetric basis it is likely that the proportions
in cultivated, medium textured topsoil would be of the order: 45% mineral matter; 5% organic
matter and 50% pore space. The pore space will be occupied by air and water depending
upon the moisture status of the soil. This organic fraction will consist of living plant and animal
material, dead plant and animal material where the origin of the material is clearly discernible,
and well decomposed organic material called Soil Organic Matter (SOM).
This SOM fraction will broadly consist of:
1.) partially decayed plant residues (no longer recognisable as plant material)
2.) microorganisms and microflora involved in decomposition
3.) by-products of microbial growth and decomposition
4.) a fraction often known as humus where the by-products have undergone alteration into
generally more stable forms
This ‘humus’ or stabilised organic fraction, material will often be expected to consist of 50-55%
Carbon, 4-5% Nitrogen and c. 1% Sulphur. This is a relatively stable component of the
organic fraction which may persist for a number of years within the soil, particularly when in
intimate association with components of the mineral fraction, particularly clay and silt sized
materials. Table 2-1 below provides guidance on the stability of materials and their
persistence in the soil. The light fraction may be broadly described as an intermediate or
transitory pool, between fresh residues and the well humified, stable organic matter. The light
fraction predominantly consists of plant debris, but may also include fungal hyphen, spores,
seeds and animal remains.
2.1.1 The role of SOM for soil quality
Organic additions to soil have long been considered important in maintaining the quality of
both natural and managed soils, principally because of their role in providing nutrients and
through their role in influencing soil physical properties.
In farming systems, before the
widespread introduction of manufactured fertilisers organic residues were the only means of
adding many nutrients to the soil, in particular Nitrogen. In non-cultivated soils it is likely that
more than 95% of the Nitrogen and Sulphur is found in the soil organic matter, and possibly as
much as 25% of the Phosphorus.
With the advent of manufactured fertilisers and their widespread use in farming, there has
been less reliance upon organic residues as a source of nutrients for plant growth. There are
however major differences between organic and inorganic sources of nutrients. In particular
organic sources of nutrients often consist of a substantial pool of relatively slow release
14
materials. Release of nutrients from this ‘slow release pool’ is very variable and is controlled
by a.) The nature of the organic materials and b.) The conditions prevailing in the soil. Low
ratios of Carbon to Nitrogen and Carbon to Phosphorus tend to result in faster rates of release
from these organic sources.
In contrast, SOM can also be comparatively stable at low C/nutrient ratios
It has been a widespread claim, particularly in the field of organic farming that soil organic
matter plays a major part in maintaining soil quality. Further, it is frequently claimed that
without adequate levels of SOM the soil will not be capable of functioning optimally. In recent
years there has also been a recognition that the soil is a major sink for carbon in the overall
global carbon cycle, and that maintaining or increasing the carbon held in soils will potentially
have a significant impact on the global carbon budget. Table 2-1, based broadly on
Stevenson (1994) lists some of the benefits claimed for SOM in soils.
TABLE 2-1:
ROLE OF ORGANIC MATTER IN SOIL
Property
Remarks
Effects on Soil
Colour
The typical dark colour of many soils is
often caused by organic matter
May facilitate warming in spring
Soil Biodiversity
The organic fraction in soils provides a
source of food for a diverse range of
organisms. The diversity of the organic
materials will generally be reflected in
the diversity of the organisms
Many of the functions associated with
soil organic matter are related to the
activities of soil flora and fauna
Water Retention
Organic Matter can hold up to 20 times
its weight in water
Helps prevent drying and shrinking.
May significantly improve the moisture
retaining properties of sandy soils. The
total quantity of water may increase but
not necessarily the AWC except in
sandy soils
Combination with clay
minerals
Cements soil particles into structural
units called aggregates
Permits the exchange
Stabilises
structure.
permeability
Reduction in the Bulk
Density of Mineral Soils
Organic materials normally have a low
density, hence the addition of these
materials ‘dilutes’ the mineral soil
The lower bulk density is normally
associated with an increase in porosity
because of the interactions between
organic and inorganic fractions.
Chelation
Forms stable complexes with Cu2+, Mn2+
and Zn2+ and other polyvalent cations
May enhance the availability
micronutrients to higher plants
Solubility in water
Insolubility of organic matter because of
its association with clays. Also salts of
divalent and trivalent cations with
organic matter are insoluble. Isolated
organic matter is partly soluble in water
Little organic matter is lost through
leaching
Buffer action
Organic matter exhibits buffering in
slightly acid, neutral and alkaline ranges
Helps to maintain uniform reaction in the
soil.
Cation exchange
Total acidities of isolated fractions of
organic matter range from 300 to 1400
cmolc Kg-1
May increase the CEC of the soil. From
20 to 70% of the CEC of many soils is
associated with organic matter.
Mineralisation
Decomposition of organic matter yields
CO2, NH4-, NO3-, PO34- and SO24-
A source of nutrients for plant growth
Stabilisation of
contaminants
Stabilisation of organic materials in
humic substances including volatile
organic compounds
Stability may depend on the persistence
of the soil humus and the maintenance
or increase of the carbon polls within the
soil
of gases.
Increases
of
15
Whilst the provision of nutrients is important, the table clearly shows that there are many other
soil properties, in particular related to soil physical conditions, which are influenced by the
presence of SOM and may indeed be controlled by the presence and amount of SOM. The
simple admixture of low density organic material with the mineral fraction will lower the soil’s
bulk density, but the more significant affects will be related to the influence of SOM on the
formation and stability of soil aggregates and the associated pore related properties such as
aeration and water flow through soil. The retention and release of water and the ability to
provide charged surfaces (variable with pH) where cations may be retained in a form available
to plants.
Organic materials in soils have long been associated with the complexing of heavy metals, but
recent work reported by the Environment Protection Agency in the USA has suggested that
adding composted materials to soil as an organic addition has produced significant increases
in the bioremediation of soils contaminated with organic compounds (including herbicides,
hydrocarbon products and volatile organic compounds). This increase is both due to the
increased amount of organic matter present, and also due to the increased biological activity
within the soil due to the fresh pool of organic substrate
Many of the mentioned soil functions and physico-chemical as well as biological reactions
associated with SOM (nutrient exchange processes, sorption and buffering ability, physical
and hydrologic properties) are well described in basic soil science.
Considerable uncertainty is still claimed when it comes to a distinct valuation of the humus
concentration in soil under agricultural or forestry use.
Can we identify a site and management specific optimum SOM content ? And, if yes, would it
be justified to establish humus guide values that should be used in extension or other
agricultural management programmes (e.g. in implementing good agricultural practice and
agricultural environmental programmes)?
Based on basic knowledge from soil science it seems justified to define at least ranges of
values depending on climate, site conditions, soil, and land use. It could be stated that SOM
concentrations below this range would provoke an impairment of soil structure and other soil
physical properties, but an excess value could bear the risk of nutrient leaching (nitrate) or
undesirable changes of the soil milieu (redox system).
In many cases and soils with a good SOM status those guide values could be achieved by
common tools of agricultural soil management (crop rotation, tillage, fertilisation etc.). But
management systems resulting negative humus balances, soils with degraded and low SOM
status the import of exogenous organic matter specifically in the form of compost must be
considered as a mean of soil improvement.
In addition it is necessary to distinguish between the SOM concentration on the one hand and
the SOM pool over the soil profile or the relevant soil horizon. This for instance is relevant for
the assessment of yield effect and nutrient release dynamics of compost amended soils in field
trials.
2.1.2 Forms of soil organic matter
As mentioned above the organic fraction of the soil is diverse, ranging from fresh clearly
discernible plant and animal material through to humus where there are no visible signs to
indicate the plant or animal from which the material is derived. The organic matter in soils is
subject to decomposition; indeed the decomposition of the organic matter is perhaps the key
determinant of many of the key roles associated with organic matter in soils. The rate of
turnover of the organic materials varies considerably. Table 2-2 presents information on
turnover times for some of the key fractions of SOM.
16
TABLE 2-2:
TURNOVER TIME OF ORGANIC FRACTIONS IN SOILS
Organic Material
Turnover Time (y)
Litter/crop residues
0.5 to 2
Microbial biomass
0.1 to 0.4
Macro-organisms
1 to 8
Particulate
5 to 20
Light Fraction
1 to 15
Stable Humus
20 to 1000
It is often difficult to separate the organic residues undergoing decomposition from the soil
biota carrying out the decomposition and the humic substances resulting from the processes.
2.1.3 Decomposition of organic materials applied to soil
The decomposition of organic materials in soil is dependent upon: C content, C:N ratio
Soil temperature
Soil moisture
The status of the soil including soil nutrients and pH
Method of application of the organic residues (soil incorporated> surface applied)
Rate of application
The decomposition of organic materials in soil is the same whether they are materials naturally
added to the soil or materials introduced artificially. The decomposition processes involve a
wide range of organisms. Initially the larger organism, such as earthworms and the macroand meso- soil fauna reduce the amount of material, subsequently the breakdown is
performed by the microorganisms. The initial phase of microbial attack is characterised by the
rapid loss of readily decomposable organic substances. Depending upon the soil micro-flora
and the synthesised microbial cells, the amount of the carbon utilised from the substrate will
vary from 10 to 70%. With high C:N ratios the proportions synthesised will be at the lower end
of this range. Carbon dioxide will be one of the products lost during this phase. There follows
further decomposition of the remaining by-products by a complex series of microorganism.
The final material is a stable humus material which will be subject to slow decomposition and
additions. The nature of the materials added and the nature of the soil will greatly influence
both the rate of decomposition of the residues and the nature of the organic by-products.
Where the source material is rich in carbon the rates of decomposition will be slow and there
will probably be substantial accumulations of relatively little altered materials. In addition to
the influence of the added organic materials, the soil environment also has a major influence,
ideally the soil should be moist but not saturated, and the soil should be reasonably fertile with
a pH near neutral. If these conditions prevail and the soil is warm there should be optimum
conditions for breakdown.
In addition to the nature of the material the mode of incorporation is important in determining
the rate of breakdown and production of the beneficial effects associated with soil organic
matter. Ideally the materials should be incorporated into the soil so that the soil and organic
materials are in intimate association. Where materials are applied as surface dressing the rate
of incorporation will most probably be slow, and with heavy applications there may possibly be
a sealing effect on the soil restricting fluxes of air and water between the soil and atmosphere.
17
In making applications of organic residues to the soil it must be recognised that the soil is a
living body. The soil system may not be able to function if excessively large single
applications are made. Both because of the need to optimise the breakdown process and to
optimise the benefits to the soil of the release of readily available nutrients, it is likely that the
most appropriate strategy is a small number of applications of residues rather than a single
application. The timing of the applications must coincide with the periods when the soil is
capable of breaking down the organic additions; cold and wet times of the year should be
avoided
The site and soil properties lead to balance between supply and degradation of organic matter.
In undisturbed, uncropped eco systems the SOM content is kept on a steady state balance
level driven by climate, topography, vegetation, fauna, parent soil material and soil properties,
time and the interrelations of all these framework conditions.
Agricultural use disturb this equilibrium and the impact of soil management leads to a constant
decrease of SOM (Jarvis et al., 1996[SP2]). Therefore natural, uncropped soils show higher
SOM contents followed by grassland and finally arable land.
The new equilibrium is determined by the following basic processes:
1. input of organic materials as there ar dead plant and animal biomass in the soil,
organic fertilisers and soil improver
2. mineralisation of SOM
3. export of organic materials, which otherwise would remain on-site (harvested crops and
crop residues)
Point 1. and 2. mainly depend on natural factors like climate and soil properties, but also soil
management fertilisation. Promotion or inhibition of biological processes, i.e. plant growth and
microbial activity are of central importance here. Performance of plant biomass formation as
well as the level of microbial transformation predominantly depend on the supply of
microorganisms with water, oxygen, nutrients and heat (in the case of plants also light).
Point 3. (export of organic materials) is a pure anthropogenic management factor.
2.1.4 Modelling the transformation of soil organic matter
Several simulation models have been used to consider the incorporation of fresh organic
matter into the soil and the dynamics of this material as it maintains the organic soil pools.
These models have frequently simplified the process of decomposition and additions to soil
pools by identifying a series of broad organic matter pools. These pools are largely
conceptual and are controlled by a number of chemical, physical and biological factors which
will vary with changes in the environment or as a result of the intervention through soil
management. Although the pools identified at the various stages of the decomposition
process may represent a grossly oversimplified perception of the various forms of organic
matter and indeed the processes involved in transformations between the pools, they do
appear remarkably capable of broadly predicting the rate of incorporation of fresh organic
materials, the relative sizes of the broad pools and the impact of changes as a result of
intervention through management or environmental changes.
18
Soil organic matter
Origin
Turnover
Complexity
Corg
Decomposing
fresh OM
CO2
soluble OM
(Particulate organic
matter)
-OH
Colloidal OM
Polysaccharides and
biomolecules
Humic substances
Microorganisms
FIGURE 2-1:
SOIL ORGANIC MATTER COMPOSITION AND TURNOVER (from Chenu und Robert,
2003[FA3] zit. In Van-Camp et al., 2004)
The model proposed by Jenkinson and co-workers at Rothamsted Experimental Station in the
United Kingdom (see for example Jenkinson and Rayner, 1977; Jenkinson 1990; see Figure
2-2), is a simple model which divides soil carbon into three pools, active, slow and passive
with different turnover times (2, 50 and 1980 years). The model initially identifies the input
materials to be decomposable plant material and resistant plant material, in subsequent
stages there are pools of microbial biomass and humus. In addition there is a pool of inert
organic matter.
Decomposable
plant material
Decay
Organic
inputs
CO2
Resistant plant
material
FIGURE 2-2:
CO2
Decay
Microbial
biomass
Decay
+/- active
Humus
Decay
Inert
passive Humus
Decay
CO2
CO2
CO2
THE JENKINSON “SOIL ORGANIC MATTER MODEL” (JENKINSON, 1990; SLIGHTLY
MODIFIED)
19
The model of Paul and van Veen (see for example Paul and van Veen, 1978; van Veen and
Paul, 1981) developed this simple model further by dividing the plant material into recalcitrant
and decomposable fractions and by including the concept of physically protected soil organic
matter. Physically protected soil organic matter has a much lower decomposition rate than
that which is not physically protected. They suggested further that disruption of the soil as a
result of actions such as cultivation or other actions will reduce the physically protected soil
organic matter and result in a decline in total soil organic matter levels which is difficult to
reverse.
The ‘Century Soil Organic Matter Model’ developed by Paton et al. (1993) uses similar pools
to those of the Rothamsted Model and that of Paul and van Veen, but adds the impact of soil
texture on processes of soil organic matter decomposition and build up. They model the soil
organic matter turnover as being greater in sandier textured soils and the stabilisation of active
soil organic matter into slowly decomposable organic matter to be greater in finer textured
soils.
SURFACE
ROOT
LITTER
LITTER
L/N
L/N
SURFACE
SURFACE
BELOWGROUND
STRUCTURAL
METABOLIC
STRUCTURAL
C
C
C
CO2
Lignin
M
CO2
Lignin
M
M
CO2
SURFACE
MICROBE
C
M
CO2
CO2
CO2
BELOWGROUND
METABOLIC
C
CO2
ACTIVE
ORGANIC
C
M
M
CO2
SLOW
ORGANIC
C
CO2
L/N = Lignin to Nitrogen ratio
M = multiplier for effects of misture,
temperature and cultivation
Clay
PASSIVE
ORGANIC
C
Sand
Leaching
LEACHED
C
M
CO2
FIGURE 2-3:
THE CENTURY MODEL DESCRIBING THE SOM POOLS (MODIFIIED FROM
PARTON ET AL. (1993[SP4])
The complexity of the Jenkinson and the Century Model is quite different. The Jenkinson
model suits better for describing the general processes, but its simplification a quantification of
20
the material flows is hardly possible. On the other hand the more complex models achieve no
significant improvement for the assessment of organic carbon pool changes.
2.1.5
Soil properties influencing the level of soil organic matter
2.1.5.1
Soil texture, parent soil material
Soil texture (particle size distribution) is considered to have a considerable impact on the SOM
content (Kuntze et al., 1988[SP5]; Scheffer & Schachtschabel et al., 1998[SP6]).
The significance of the parent soil material can be seen in determining the texture and the
associated secondary clay-minerals. The main qualitative differentiations can be summarised
as follows:
Clayey-loamy soils are generally richer in SOM than light sandy soils. The main reasons
are:
o
o
o
o
o
fine textured soils show a reduced gas exchange rates which diminishes the oxygen
supply for SOM decomposing organisms; anaerobic milieu conditions can me met
more frequently
heavy soils tend to a slower warming and consequently less biological activity
stable aggregates which are formed inside the fine clayey components are protected
against microbial degradation
the ability of clay-minerals and aluminium-ferrous oxides to absorb SOM or to
incorporate SOM in its structure decelerates decomposition (organo-mineral
compounds / complexes)
clay-minerals (in particular 3-layer minerals) can absorb extra-cellular microbial
enzymes and thus diminish their efficacy of biodegradation.
Following Körschens et al. (1998[SP7]) differences of SOM levels are a function of the
concentration of inert C (and N), which again is significantly correlated with the clay content.
The range of inert C concentrations in connection with the clay content has been investigated
in control plots of several long-term fertilisation trials in Europe. Following the linear regression
the C concentration decrease in non fertilised plots down to 0.5% in sandy soils. From clay
contents > 30% the C concentration would reach a steady state not below 2 – 2,5%.
Also the decomposable C fraction depends of the clay content. The range between sandy and
clayey soil is in this case tighter, between 0,1% (sand) to 0,6% (clay > 30%). This can be
explained with the fact that with an increasing clay ratio the (bio)degradation rate for
decomposable C fraction is reduced. This phenomenon is also observed in incubation trials
which show a clearly slower decomposition of humus associated with clay than for humus
associated with sand (Dalal & Mayer, 1986[SP8]; Hassink, 1992[SP9] und 1997[SP10]).
2.1.5.2
Aeration , impact of water
SOM degradation is over a wide range independent of the water content in soil. An inhibition is
only observable at water saturation (oxygen deficiency) or extreme dryness. A frequent
change of humid and dry conditions promotes the decomposition process.
SOM degradation is inhibited in soils with pronounced bound water (clayey soils), stagnant
water (soils with impermeable layers or horizons) or in soils which are influenced by ground
water dynamics.
21
2.1.5.3
pH
Basically, a neutral milieu (pH ± 7) favours biological activity and the transformation of SOM in
soils. Within the typical pH range of arable soils between pH 5.5 and 7.5 there is no direct
relation between pH and SOM degradation (Scheffer & Schachtschabel et al., 1998[SP11]), i.e.
pH increase induced by liming normally does not result in a decrease of SOM. The promotion
of higher pH values as a consequence of liming is compensated by increased biomass
production (root development. Crop residues)
2.1.5.4
Type and quantity of SOM, microbial Activity
SOM is the substrate of microbial activity. As a rule, soils rich in SOM are more active,
transformation processes are performed at higher rates (Rowell, 1997[SP12]).
Furthermore, mineralisation is higher at tighter C/N ratios of the material concerned. E.g. straw
from legumes (C/N = 15 - 25) mineralises fast, cereal straw (C/N = 50 - 100) slowly.
It is important to distinguish between organic waste or easily degradable organic materials
(crop residues, dead microbial biomass etc.) from SOM compounds of soil itself.
Fresh plant materials enter the soil body as dead plant tissue (leaves, roots) or root exudates
continuously during the vegetation period or they are incorporated at certain times of the year
as green manure (intercrops, underseeds) or crop residues.
The transformation of fresh organic materials applied to soil is 7 times faster as of soil inherent
SOM (Shen et al., 1989[SP13]).
One part of over long time spans well stabilised humic substances show a very low
mineralisation rate even at low C/N ratios. Here some typical C/N ratios of several soil types
which equally demonstrate a distinct enrichment of SOM in the upper soil layer:
Tschermosem & mull rendzina:
C/N = 10-12
Podzol:
C/N = 30-40
Low moor:
C/N = 15-30
These figures show that the C/N ratio might not be the most decisive parameter for the level or
degradation of humic substances. However, it would be more adequate to consider the C/N
ration of the organic matter as an indicator for SOM degradation status of soils. Especially
soils rich in clay but poor in humus may demonstrate a significant discrepancy between the
C/N ratio of SOM and the entire soil matrix as an effect of ammonium fixation in clay-minerals.
During mineralisation a continuous transformation of dead organic matter into humic
substances takes place. Humus formation can be differentiated in two processes. The
microbial re-synthesis, the selective enrichment of hardly degradable substances (waxes,
resins, tanning agents) and the direct transformation. This part of the SOM can be defined as
inert “carbon” or as inter SOM (Körschens et al., 1998[SP14]). SOM represents a continuum of
several materials which have reached diverse grades of stability against mineralisation. Those
different behaviour patterns towards mineralisation are defined as organic matter or humus
pools. The stability is caused by the properties of the molecular structure, the possible physical
separation (intra-aggregate area, micro pores) against the soil microbial biomass or by
sorption to inorganic soil compounds (clay-minerals).
By chemical/physical fractionising it is possible to separate substances of defined properties. A
distinct relation between these fractions of SOM and the C/N transformation has not been
approved yet (Paul, 1984[SP15]).
A physical separation in particle size fractions might be more promising. As mentioned above
organic associated with san is clearly more accessible to mineralisation than C associated with
clay (Dalal & Mayer, 1986[SP16]; Hassink, 1992[SP17] und 1997[SP18]).
22
2.1.6 Planning organic fertilisation
When organic matter is added to the soil it must be clear what are the purposes of such
additions.
The organic additions to the soil will provide the following:
1. A rapid release of nutrients for initial plant growth
2. A pool of slow release nutrients to maintain growth
3. A substrate for microbial activity both for release of nutrients and for development
of organic/inorganic relationships so important in the development of soil physical
properties.
In planning the programme of additions these broad functions must be considered. There may
be parts of the year when the growing cycle of the plants require readily available nutrients, in
other times of the year the demand may be to build up the pool of slowly available nutrients.
These demands will determine both the timing of the applications and should be considered
when determining the nature of the materials to be applied. There may be a need for an initial
large input to the soil during the initial phases of restoration, but subsequently after this initial
input of organic matter it may be appropriate to have regular additions. These regular
additions of fresh material will maintain the activity in the soil system and optimise the
beneficial effects of the additions. This is of particular importance where the improvement of
the levels of soil organic matter is coupled with the growth of a crop (including trees) where in
addition to improving the soil conditions to make the soil robust there is also a need to provide
optimal supplies of nutrients and a good environment for plant growth.
2.2
Excursus: the formation of clay-organic compounds and
complexes
Together with mineral soil constituents one part of the SOM forms organo-mineral compounds.
Clay minerals are the most important ones. These are compounds built of clay minerals in
junction with ferric and aluminium oxides with organic substances of diverse structure and
molecule size. In the case of clay-humus-complexes the organic compounds are humic
substances such as fulvic and humic acids and humic substances
Clay minerals consist of silicate layers which are kept together by cations or hydrogen bridges.
In the layer interspaces and the outer surface elements and substances can be adsorbed or
exchanged against other substance and thus released to the soil solution. Consequently they
play a major role for the behaviour of nutrients and contaminants respectively. The effective
sorption processes are caused be the negative loading of the inter space and outer surfaces.
Therefore the so-called 3-layer clay minerals also absorb organic cations like cationic tensides
or pesticides. The basic types of 3-layer clay-minerals Illite, Vermiculite und Smectite are
responsible for key properties of several soils, since they are presented in soils in varying
quantities and distributions. Other types of clay-minerals (e.g. caolinite, chlorites) play a minor
role in quantity and for the sorption properties of Middle European soils.
Illite, Vermiculite and Smectite are differentiated by the negative loadings per structural unit
andthe type of inter-layer cations. These features are responsible for the swellability of interspace layers and the ability to adsorb and exchange cations. Vermiculite and Smectite are
very swellable and can absorb exchangeable cations to a high extent (Vermiculite > Smectite).
Illite can expand only the outside margin and contribute to a less extent to the exchange
capacity of soils.
23
Also ferrous, aluminium and magnesium oxide are important. They contribute considerably to
sorption of heavy metals, phosphate and organic compounds. Not only the quantity, rather the
crystalline structure is decisive for the sorption capacity. E.g. amorphous ferrous oxides
feature large surface areas and sorption sites accounting for its high reactivity.
The forms of linkage and integration of clay-minerals and organic or humic substances
respectively cannot be explained comprehensively. The involved substances and compounds
are too complex. Investigations with defined organic materials and clay-minerals allowed to
derivate some bond types (Jasmund & Lagaly, 1993[SP19]; Scheffer & Schachtschabel et al.,
1998[SP20]; Stevenson, 1994[SP21]). Clay-organic complexes can be formed by:
Ionic linkage between negative loadings of clay-minerals and organic cations (alcylic
groups, amino sugar and acids)
Ionic linkage between metal complexes of humic and fulvic acids at side surfaces of
clay-minerals or ferrous and aluminium oxides
physical adsorption by van der Waals’ forces
substitution of water molecules in the inter-layer space by neutral organic molecules
(solvation) with a high dipole moment
exchange of inorganic inter-layer cations by organic cations
sorption of organic macro-molecules (polymers) by hydrogen bridges via H2O molecules
of the exchangeable cations
Ziechmann & Müller-Wegener (1990[SP22]) distinguish clay-humus complexes of 3 variants
which a formed in a chronological order:
Cork like structures in inter-layers and absorbed at clay-minerals surfaces. These are
transformation products of humic acids precursors with clay-minerals in the inter-layer
spaces with succeeding dislocation of further humification and polymerisation to the
clay-minerals surfaces
Organic matter in the inter-layers only, as a result of the separation of humic
substances from clay-minerals surfaces
Organic matter bound to the outer surfaces of clay-minerals after further transformation
with humic substances, which are refused from trespassing into the inter-layers
Besides humic substances also more simple organic compounds such as sugars, alcohols,
amino acids, phenols etc. can be adsorbed. The bond strength depends on site ( surface or
inter-layer space, loading, pKa value (acid dissociation constant), pH, salt content,
exchangeable cations etc.).
The formation of clay-organic complexes is encouraged by a high biological activity, because
in this case there is a continuous supply of reactive substances which are mixed with the
inorganic soil particles.
Thus the import of organic matter indirectly promotes formation of clay-organic complexes by
boosting the biological activity and the supply of reactive substances.
Cay-organic complexes influence manifold soil properties. They contribute prominently to soil
aggregation and the further physical soil properties linked thereto (see chapter 3.6). Cayorganic complexes stabilise the organic matter in soil. In the inside of aggregates they provide
an effective physical protection against oxidation and decomposition by microorganisms and
the sorption at clay-minerals as well as ferrous and aluminium oxides provide a better
chemical protection against decay (Oades, 1995[SP23]; Tisdall, 1996[SP24]).
24
This protective function is even strengthened ba y ability of clay-minerals to adsorb enzymes
and inhibit their activity (Gianfreda & Violante, 1995[SP25]).
Haider (1995[SP26]) notes, that 50% of SOM is found in organo-mineral compounds, in which
the predominant proportion is represented by clay-organic compounds. Thus clay-organic
compounds are an important source of carbon and particularly nitrogen mineralisation,
because C/N ratio is significantly lower in the clay fraction than the rest of the soil
compartments
The impact of clay-organic compounds on the sorption of pollutants must be assessed
differentially (see here also chapter 3.8)
E.g. investigations of Rützel et al. (1997[SP27]) have shown diverse results for the adsorption of
Cadmium. Though adsorption rates decreased in Illite-humus complexes compared to pure
Illite, it increased in Montmorillonite-humus complexes. Celis et al. (1997[SP28]) found a
decrease of the adsorption of the herbicide Thiazofluron in Montmorillonite-humus complexes
against the pure clay mineral.
To what extent an increase of clay-organic complexes supports or inhibits the adsorption of
pollutants cannot be answered with distinctness. This depends of a number of further
conditions such as types of present clay-minerals, pH, salt content etc. and the individual
contaminants concerned.
There is no specific information about the impact on soil management (fertilisation, tillage,
cropping systems etc.) on clay-organic complexes in literature. There might be two reasons for
this: most investigations focus on humus chemistry and clay mineralogy or concentrate on the
difficult measurement of clay-organic compounds,
Basically it can be assumed that the import of organic matter leads to an increased formation
of clay-organic complexes, whereas an intensive soil cultivation would have a declining effect.
With the help of new analytical methods (CPMS-13C-NMR technology) a better understanding
of the characteristics, formation and transformation of clay-organic complexes may be
expected.
2.3
Climatic impacts on SOM
It has long been recognised that the nature of soils and soil formation is controlled by the soil
forming factors, as outlined by Jenny (1942). In the same manner the components of the soil,
including the soil organic matter, are similarly influenced.
A major influence on both the
general nature of soils and soil development is the climate, and there are also strong
influences on the soil organic matter. The climate will control the biological productivity of the
soil, thereby influencing the input of organic matter into the soil system. In addition the once
organic materials have been added to the soil as fresh organic matter, the rate of breakdown,
the nature of the breakdown products and their stability will be strongly influenced by climate,
in particular the amount of precipitation (or perhaps more correctly the duration of the periods
when the soil is moist) and temperature. Post et al. (1982) in a review of soil carbon pools on
a global scale found the amount of soil organic carbon to be positively correlated with
precipitation, and at a given threshold of precipitation to be negatively correlated with
temperature. Leith (1973) drew a broad relationship with temperature suggesting that a mean.
annual temperature of 15oC was a threshold. When starting at temperatures below this it was
suggested increases in temperature will enhance decomposition more than net primary
productivity. Carter (1996) reviewed the relationships between climate and soil organic matter
levels and turnover, suggesting that wet, cool climates tend to slow organic matter turnover
and subsequently favour organic matter accumulation in soil, whilst moist, warm or hot
25
climates favour decomposition. These are of course generalised relationships and will be
modified by environmental factors and management.
On a more local scale, Burke et al. (1995) investigated relationships between climate and soil
organic matter on a more local scale in Colorado, USA. They noted that higher mean
temperatures resulted in lower plant production, higher decomposition rates, lower organic
matter storage capacity and associated lower mineralisation rates.
Similar contrasts were
noted between soils in a given area of different textures; coarser textured soils mirroring the
changes with temperature increases when compared with finer textured soils. Results across
a wide range of climates from Ladd et al. (1985) for soils of South Australia and Jenkinson and
Ayanaba for soils of the United Kingdom and Nigeria, suggest that there will be a doubling of
the rate of substrate C mineralisation for an 8-9oC increase in mean annual temperature. The
relationship of decreasing soil organic C content with increasing temperature suggests that
whilst both decomposition and net primary productivity are influenced by temperature, the
influence on decomposition appears to be more sensitive. It is to be noted however that the
relationship is probably also influenced by the moisture status of the soil and the quantity and
quality of the substrate.
Figure 2-4 demonstrates the geographic-climatic dependence of SOM with a clear gradient in
Europe from North(West) to South(East).
FIGURE 2-4:
26
GENERAL INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE ON SOIL ORGANIC
MATTER CONTENT IN EUROPE (AUS VAN-CAMP ET AL., 2004)
From Figure 2-5, it can be estimated that 45% of the soils in Europe are low (1-2%) or very low
(<1%) in organic carbon, and 40% have a medium content (2-6%).
Many of these soils are in agricultural use, and Table 2.3 shows the proportion of Europe
estimated to fall into the different organic carbon classes.
From this it can be seen how urgent it is perform an intensive and continuous information on
effective and sustainable measures to maintain or enrich SOM in soils under agricultural use
TABLE 2-3: ORGANIC CARBON CONTENT OF
SOILS IN EUROPE (VAN-CAMP ET AL., 2004)
ha
OC class
OC %
area %
66,558,238
Very low
<1
13
163,967,166
low
1–2
32
230,525,404
Σ vl + l
<2
45
232,325,106
medium
2–6
45
22,173,470
high
>6
5
One of the key recommendations of the
experts report on organic matter was:
“Land-use patterns in areas where the
OC Map of Europe identifies soil OC
(OM) <2.0% (3.4%) should be critically
examined, with a view to proposing
FIGURE 2-5: DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC CARBON CONCEN- changes in land management to
TRATION IN EUROPEAN TOP SOILS (VAN-CAMP ET AL.,
stabilise or increase soil OC(OM)
2004)
levels.” (Van-Camp et al., 2004)
The following shows that – though to a variable extent – measures to stabilise the humus
status of soil are needed in all European countries and climates. Even though methods of
sampling and analyses are not always standardised the tendency is evident: SOM
management is an issue that has to be followed with care.
TABLE 2-4:
PERCENTAGE OF AGRICULTURAL LAND COVERAGE WITH VERY LOW (< 2%) AND
LOW (2 - 4 %) SOM CONTENT IN SELCTED EUROPEAN COUNTRIES (UTERMANN
ET AL., 2004 [FA29])
% of land coverage of 3 SOM classes
Land:
< 2 % SOM
(= <1.2 % Corg)
2 - 4 % SOM
(= 1.2 – 2.4 % Corg)
Σ < 4 % SOM
(= <2.4 % Corg)
Austria
14.4
8.2
22.6
France
11.6
25.4
37.0
Germany
41.6
8.9
50.5
Ireland
4.6
3.0
7.6
The Netherlands
20.0
23.1
43.1
Estonia
---
73.2
73.2
Latvia
---
35.1
35.1
62.5
11.3
73.8
Romania
27
2.4
Topography, relief
Chapter 2.3 describes the direct influence of climatic conditions on the metabolism of SOM.
Topography and relief have a more indirect impact, by altering micro-climatic (temperature,
humidity) conditions. E.g. soils in higher locations are exposed to cooler and more humid
conditions than neighboured lower sites of the same region. This can occur already after little
altitude difference. South exposed soils frequently show higher SOM decomposition rates than
those of north exposure. On the other hand south exposed sites may be affected by higher
evaporation rates which leads to water deficiency and as a result would inhibit microbial
degradation. Thus, the circumstances depend on the site specific overall climate conditions
which may inverse the effects (Kuntze et al., 1988[SP30]; Scheffer & Schachtschabel et al.,
1998[SP31]; Rowell, 1997[SP32]).
Slopes may contribute to erosion and subsequently change the SOM contents of arable soils.
As a result of the run-off of fine-grained and humic soil particles the SOM stock of the upper
slope in the Ap-horizon declines. Downhill a colluvium is formed with a relative mighty humus
horizon in the top soil. This development is further supported if growing conditions are
favourable down the slop and compared to the eroded parts more root and crop residues
contribute to the organic matter enrichment (Burke et al., 1995[SP33]).
In depressions or valleys under the influence of the groundwater soil aeration might be
reduced, which induces humus accumulation. The developing half-bog or bog soils are
sometimes cultivated.
2.5
Long Term Management and Soil Organic Matter levels
It is well known that soils change through time, it is also recognised that soils will change in
response to agricultural management. It is not surprising therefore that soils under long term
agricultural management will also show changes. These changes may vary in relation to both
the nature of the management and the length of time under a particular management or
combination of management practices. In a number of places around the world there are long
term agronomic trials where the soil has been subject to the same management for many
years. Mitchell et al. (1991) reviewed the status and outcomes from long term agronomic
research. When many of these long term experiments were undertaken the principal source
of nutrients to meet crop demands were from manures, and management systems would
often include fallow years and legumes as part of the rotation to increase the input of nitrogen.
The Morrow Plots at the University of Illinois were established in 1876 to consider different
rotations and land management practices. Results from the first 64 years were reviewed by
Stauffer et al. in 1940. Table 3 illustrates the changes in soil organic matter on three rotations
with two contrasting managements. A comparison is also made with the adjacent uncultivated
land.
28
TABLE 2-5:
CHANGES IN SOM ON THREE ROTATIONS WITH TWO CONTRASTING
MANAGEMENTS (MORROW-PLOTS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS)
% organic matter
after 64 years
% change
None
Manure-Lime-Phosphorus
2.99
3.59
-45.6
-34.7
Corn - oats
None
Manure-Lime-Phosphorus
3.68
4.20
-33.1
-23.6
Corn – oats – clover
None
Manure-Lime-Phosphorus
3.92
5.76
-28.7
+4.0
5.50
0.0
Rotation
Treatment
Corn
Uncultivated site
These figures show that with no treatments there is a marked decline in SOM. They also
show how different crop rotations introduce variability in the response to manure-limephosphorus treatments. Guernsey et al. (1969) in reviewing the results from the Morrow Plots
concluded that in addition to the decline in SOM continuous corn without any manure or
fertiliser additions resulted in lower yields, increased bulk density, reduced porosity and
reduced aggregate stability on this silt loam soil. These changes however were only reflected
in the soil properties in the upper 25 cm.
In a similar study of a long term cropping experiment at Sanborn Field at the University of
Missouri established in 1888, Buyanovsky et al. (1996) noted that there was a marked
relationship between the decline in SOM and the number of times the land was tilled. They
also noted that manure applications of 15 Mg ha-1 a –1 with no fertiliser applications, seemed
to maintain SOM levels corn and wheat as the rotations. Buyanovsky and co-workers also
noted the recovery on the SOM content when a change of policy occurred and residues were
returned to the soil following 36 years of complete removal. The SOM was still showing
evidence of increase some 50 years after this change of management policy.
A similar long term experiment has been in progress at Rothamsted Experimental Station in
England since the 19th Century, with changes in management from grass to arable and long
term arable management. Johnson (1991) reports the following general trends in SOM. On
the soil ploughed out from grass the SOM level declined steadily but after 36 years it was still
not as low as that in the old arable soil retained in arable cropping. With changes in the sward
management there had been an increase in SOM in the grassland soil. In the arable soil laid
down to grass the SOM levels were still below the continuous grassland even after 36 years of
grass. Computations suggest that it will take at least 100 years from the equilibrium SOM
content of the arable soil converted to grass to reach the same level as the long term
grassland plot on the silty clay soil. Johnson also notes that the SOM levels on the sandy soils
of the Woburn Experiment close to Rothamsted were lower than the silty clay soils at
Rothamsted under all treatments. Thirty years of continuous arable cropping resulted in
marked declines in SOM levels on all treatments although the initial SOM was less than 2% at
the start of the experiment. Interestingly there has been no marked reduction in yield.
The long term trials in Rothamstead show that only the recycling of manure contributes to a
maintenance or increase of the SOM level.
29
FIGURE 2-6:
PERMANENT TRIALS ROTHAMSTEAD: IMPACT OF THE FERTILISATION SYSTEM
ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOM STATUS
Using data from 13 sites across Europe, Körschens et al. (1998) reviewed the turnover of
SOM. They concluded that in considering organic matter in soil it was important to consider at
least two fractions, a relatively inert fraction which is barely involved in the organic matter
dynamics except over periods of many years, and a decomposable fraction. The behaviour of
this decomposable fraction will depend both on soil and on management. Generally the rate
of loss of SOM during cultivation is more rapid on sandy textured than on clay textured soils.
Conversely sandy textured soils generally show a more rapid increase in SOM levels when
management involves additions of organic materials, whether manures, composts or plant
residues. They also noted a marked relationship with SOM levels and crop yields. Given the
current concerns about nitrogen losses to groundwater and to the atmosphere through
gaseous emissions, Körschens and co-workers noted that soils with a high SOM must be
carefully managed to avoid nitrogen losses.
Not all the changes in SOM as a result of land management have been negative. Nieder and
Richter (2000) report results of monitoring Carbon and Nitrogen levels in soils of Germany
between 1970 and 1998, during which time there had been a planned increase in the depth of
ploughing, from a previous practice of <25 cm to a new practice of ploughing to >35 cm. They
noted that this increased depth of ploughing had prevented the leaching of surplus nitrogen
and other nutrients because the deepened depth of cultivation was re-establishing the SOM
equilibrium in the 0-35 cm depth. Nieder & Richter (2000) suggest that for the majority of
loess soils the equilibrium will be reached in the early part of the 21st Century, and at this point
care must be taken in managing nutrient applications because the soil will no longer have the
buffering effect of the ‘build up’ process. At this point careful management must match the
inputs of nitrogen and other nutrients to the export in harvested crops. This is particularly
important on the coarser textured soil where change is likely to be more rapid and the
vulnerability to leaching greater.
In Therwil, Switzerland the DOC trial (bio-Dynamic, bio-Organic, Conventional) between 1978
and 1998 has compared three land management strategies that differed principally in terms of
the amount and form of fertilisers and the plant protection strategies adopted, with a no
30
fertiliser treatment and a conventional mineral fertiliser treatment (Fließbach et al., 2000a;
Fließbach et al., 2000b). Tillage operations were standard across the plots and a seven year
rotation prevailed consisting of:
2 years grass/clover – 1 year potatoes – 1 year winter wheat – 1 year cabbage/beetroot – 1
year winter wheat – 1 year winter barley (after two rotations this was replaced with
grass/clover)
The three major treatments were compared with a no-fertiliser treatment (NOFERT), and a
conventional treatment using only mineral fertilisers (CONMIN).
Major Treatments:
bio-Dynamic (BIODYN): No mineral fertiliser; Manure and slurry of 1.2 livestock units ha-1
per year (after 1994 1.4 units ha-1 per year); Aerobically composted manure; Mechanical weed
control; Indirect plant disease control; Plant pest control with plant extracted bio-control
agents; Biodynamic preparations for plant protection
Bio-Organic (BIOORG): Small amounts of mineral fertiliser; Manure and slurry of 1.2
livestock units ha-1 per year (after 1994 1.4 units ha-1 per year); Rotted manure; Mechanical
weed control; Indirect plant disease control (copper until 1992); Plant pest control with plant
extracted bio-control agents
Conventional (CONFYM): Mineral Fertilisers – 1978-91 120% of official recommendations,
after 1991 – 100%; Manure and slurry of 1.2 livestock units ha-1 per year (after 1994 1.4 units
ha-1 per year); Rotted stack manure; Mechanical and herbicide weed control; Plant disease
control using fungicide to threshold levels; Plant pest control with insecticides and plant
extracted bio-control agents; Growth regulators in cereals
After three rotations there were distinct patterns in terms of pH, organic C and microbial
biomass. The results for samples taken from 0 to 20 cm, are presented for pH (CaCl2),
Organic Carbon (%) and microbial biomass (expressed relative to the mean value for
CONFYM). These results are presented in Table 2-6.
TABLE 2-6:
NOFERT
CONMIN
BIODYN
BIOORG
CONFYM
PH, CORG AND RELATIVE MICROBIAL BIOMASS IN 1998 IN THE DOC TRIALS
AFTER 21 YEARS / 3 CROP ROTATIONS 1998 (FLIEßBACH ET AL., 2000A;
FLIEßBACH ET AL., 2000B)
pH (CaCl2)
%organic C
5.27
5.11
6.12
5.83
5.56
1.30
1.41
1.69
1.55
1.49
Microbial Biomass
relative CONFYM [%]
80.4
75.8
138.6
123.0
100.0
These results show a clear trend of increased soil organic matter and microbial biomass with
the management strategies involving cycling of added organic materials, which continued the
trends reported in the earlier stages of the trials.
31
3
3.1
EFFECTS OF COMPOST FERTILISATION SYSTEMS ON SOIL
ECO SYSTEM AND PLANT PRODUCTION
Compost fertilisation and soil organic matter (humus)
3.1.1 Examples of humus reproduction through compost fertilisation
Key elements on the central role of SOM for eco-systems and plant growth have been given in
chapter 2. The increase of humus content by compost application is documented in numerous
papers (Bohne et al., 1996[SP34]; Buchgraber, 2000[SP35]; Hartl et al., 1999[SP36]; Parkinson et
al., 1999[SP37]). With the supply of an average of 5 – 10 Mg d.m. compost corresponding to 1.5
– 3 Mg organic matter the humus decomposition caused by cultivation measures can be
balanced, respectively the C content of the soil will be increased by a long-term compost
application(Gutser, 1999[SP38]).
Based on a 6 year field test on a sandy loam soil Gutser (1996) computed the highest “humus
reproduction coefficient” (KHR : Mg Humus-C / Mg fertiliser-C) for compost (40% of total
fertiliser C is bound to humus-like substances) as compared to other organic amendments. In
the same experiment the Ctot-concentration increased from 1.36 by 0,5 % to 1,86 % (Table
3-2.
TABLE 3-1:
org. matter
total org. carbon
ORGANISCHE SUBSTANZ UND C/N-VERHÄLTNIS IN KOMPOSTEN [EIGENE
ERHEBUNGEN AN ÖSTERREICHISCHEN BIOKOMPOSTEN]
Unit
n° of
samples
10%
percentile
25%
percentile
MEDIAN
75%
percentile
90%
percentile
OS
% TM
220
20.6
25.1
31.0
36.3
44.2
TOC
% TM
219
11.9
14.6
17.9
21.1
25.7
201
10.9
11.7
12.9
14.4
16.0
C/N-ratio
On account of the usually differing properties of organic substances of compost and SOM a
long term compost fertilisation system leads to a qualitative change of the SOM pool. The
portions of aromatic C and Lignine are rising. The humification degree of SOM drops after
compost application and can lead to a reduced stability of the SOM (Mayer 2003[SP39]).
TABLE 3-2:
HUMUS REPRODUCTION OF DIFFERENT ORGANIC SOIL AMENDMENTS (GUTSER,
1996)
fertiliser
org. fraction fertiliser
2)
total solid matter
C/N
C/P
C/N
C/P2)
3-9
14
sewage sludge
0.15
7 - 10
80
slurry
0.20
14 - 16
170
7-9
35
manure
0.30
14 - 18
450
12 - 15
90
compost
0.40
15 - 23
800
13 - 20
80
1)
32
K HR 1)
K HR : Mg humus-C/ Mg compost-C; Kundler, 1986 [SP40];
2)
orientation values (∅)
The question of humus reproduction by compost use was pursued by Reinhold & Körschens
(2004) und Reinhold (2005[FA41]) together with the Federal Quality Assurance Organisation
Compost (BGK e.V.) in Germany. The results were summarised in “Organic Fertilisation –
Basics of Good Practice” issued within the series Compost for Agriculture published by BGK
e.V. and the Federal Research Institute for Agriculture (FAL) (BGK e.V., 2005[FA42]). Besides
the estimation of the humus consuming or humus supplying implications of crop rotations and
more or less preserving soil cultivation methods crop residues or the supply of organic fertiliser
and soil improving measures (compost) are most important tools for balancing the humus
demand. It is claimed that the question of fertilisation to maintain soil fertility should be
connected to the amount of humus supply.
Sufficient Humus
Supply
Latent Humus
Deficit
Acute Humus
Deficit
Demand = Input
Demand > Input
Demand >> Input
A further point is the efficiency in humus reproduction and replacement. Humified organic
matter will especially contribute to humus formation.
green manure, beet leaves,
grass clippings
< 15 %
slurry, straw, liquid
digestate
20 % - 30 %
fresh compost, stable
manure, solid digestate
35 % - 45 %
mature compost
FIGURE 3-1:
> 50 %
PROPORTION OF ORCANIC CARBON CONTRIBUTING TO HUMUS REPRODUCTION
ON DIFFERENT ORGANIC FERTILISERS (BGK E.V., 2005)
For the humus reproduction efficiency of an organic fertiliser the proportion of humus-C is of
decisive importance. This is the portion which can be credited for the humus formation
respectively for the humus replacement. The following table characterises the humus-C
portion and the resulting humus-C reproduction.
TABLE 3-3:
HUMIFIED ORGANIC CARBON ON ORGANIC FERTILISERS (BGK E.V., 2005)
Organic fertiliser
Organic matter
(d.m.) 1)
Organic carbon Percentage of
(d.m.) 2)
humus-C 3)
Humus-C
reproduction 4)
Mature compost
36%
21%
51%
2,6 Mg ha-1
Liquid manure (pig)
75%
43%
21%
0,1 ha-1
Straw (cereal)
85%
49%
21%
0,6 ha-1
Green fertilising, beet leaves
90%
52%
14%
0,5 ha-1
1)
2)
3)
4)
Volatile solids in % of dry matter
Organically bound carbon in % of dry matter (calculated from volatile solids x 0.58), to be determined more
exactly from direct C-analytic
Portion of effective humus-C at the organically bound carbon, according to Reinhold, (2005)
Humus reproduction at medium fertilisation rates: compost (40 Mg ha-1 in 3 years), pig slurry (30 m3 ha-1), straw
87 Mg ha-1), green manure/beet leave (60 Mg ha-1). Assumption: typical mean dry matter contents for all
materials.
33
Compost: 6 - 7 t/ha dm
OM demand moderate *
Compost: 10 t/ha dm
OM demand high **
2,5
1,0
≈ to +
Stable C
1,5
Total Carbon
Humus-C in t/ha
Mean values
2,0
The balance of humus demand
which can be calculated from
humus consumption and supply
is summarised in Figure 3-2
(Kluge, 2006). From this results
that with a compost application
between 7 and 10 Mg d.m. per
year an average of an even to
positive humus balance can be
achieved.
Regular compost application
increases the humus content of
the soil slowly but measurable in
0,0
the long run. The tests
total
C-reproduction
optimum
below optimum
Humus-C-Input Compost
SOM Level Soil
summarised in chapter 3.1.3
report a relative enrichment of 9
* moderate
– maize / winter wheat / winter barley
** high
– sugar beet / winter wheat / winter barley
– (478) % OM dependent on
application rates, soil, the period
FIGURE 3-2: COMPARISON OF COMPOST-C SUPPLY BETWEEN
of
examination
and
the
REQUIREMENT OF THE SOIL AT A MEDIUM AND HIGH HUMUS
cultivation
practices.
The
DEMAND DEPENDENT ON THE CROP ROTATION AND HUMUS
average increase of the humus
SUPPLY (KLUGE, 2006)
content in the compost plots of
various trials was 0.1 – 1.9% points, while a decrease of the humus content could be
assessed without organic fertilising. A few examples are described here in more detail.
0,5
After 9 years testing 4 different composts (annual compost application corresponds to 175 Kg
N-supply) Aichberger et al. (2000[SP43]) found a humus increase from 1.9 % to 1.98 up to 2.13
%. The maximum increase contrary to a calculated increase to be expected of 0.5 to 0.8% in
practice was found to be 0.3 %. From this was concluded that the calculatory difference was
mineralised over time. Pure mineral N-fertilising led to a SOM depletion of 0.06, 0.12 und 0.2
% at 40, 80 resp. 120 Kg N ha-1yr-1. The authors assume that compost is a fertiliser stabilising
humus respectively stimulating stable humus formation.
34
Compost Application [t/ha dm]
During a period of 9 resp. 12
experimental years and on an
average of different locations
Kluge (2006[FA45]) ascertained an
increase of humus content of
0.26, 0.61 resp. 1.31% at a
compost application of annually
5, 10 resp. 20 Mg ha-1 d.m.. This
is an increase of 10%, 24% or
52% compared the control
without compost application.
With an average compost
application of 6 to 7 Mg d.m. per
ha and year a humus supply was
calculated of 2.5 to 3 Mg ha1a1.
20
10
0,2 – 0,6 %
5
SOM without
Compost = 2,5 %
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
Increase of SOM in %
FIGURE 3-3: ANHEBUNGEN DER HUMUSGEHALTE NACH 9 BZW.
12 VERSUCHSJAHREN MIT KOMPOSTAUFBRINGUNG IM MITTEL
ALLER STANDORTE BEI KOMPOSTGABEN VON JÄHRLICH 5, 10
-1
BZW. 20 MG HA TM (KLUGE (2006[FA44])
6500
120000
110000
6000
100000
90000
80000
5000
70000
kg C ha-1
kg N ha-1
5500
60000
4500
50000
4000
40000
1
4
7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49
years
LZ0
LZ0
LHj
LHj
LHa N-content
LHa C-content
LZ0: mineral fertiliser; LHj: immature compost; LHa: mature compost
FIGURE 3-4: MODEL (DAISY) FOR C AND N PERFORMANCE
DURING 50 YEARS WITHOUT AND WITH COMPOST APPLICATION
(30 MG F.M. HA-13Y-1) (STÖPPLER-ZIMMER ET AL., 1999)
This increase of SOM through
compost fertilisation is confirmed
by many authors (e.g. Bohne et
al., 1996, Buchgraber, 2000
Hartl, 1999, Parkinson et al.,
1999).
In correspondence with most
long term researches (e.g. Diez
& Krauss 1997[SP46], Gutser &
Ebertseder
2002[SP47],
Buchgraber
2002[SP48])
a
medium-sized increase of humus
content of 0.1 to 0.2% can be
anticipated. It can be concluded,
with applications of 6 – 7 resp.
up to 10 Mg ha-1 d.m.. the
reproduction of the SOM is
guaranteed
according
to
Timmermann et al., 2003[SP49],
even a positive balance usually
exists which is reflected in the
gradual increase of the humus
content.
Another clear picture of the effect
of compost fertilisation is shown
in the Swiss long-term field trial,
where conventional fertiliser
systems have been compared
with bio-dynamic and organic-
biological fertiliser and cropping systems (see Table 2-5)
Modelling (computer simulation-model DAISY, Stöppler-Zimmer et al., 1999) long term
compost management (loamy soil, compost: 30 Mg d.m. ha-1 3y-1; crop rotation: sugar beet –
winter wheat – winter barley, followed by rape as intercrop) vs. mineral fertilisation over a
period of 50 years, showed declines in the N- and C-levels in the inorganically managed sites
and increases with compost fertilisation. The C/N ratio became wider with the duration of
compost application (Figure 3-4).
35
Hogg et al. (2002[FA50]) calculated a model for potential C-sequestration in compost amended
soils The model is based on the following basic assumptions:
means
humus
C%
C: 2.5 %
stable OM
X: 20 %
X%
Z%
Y: 10 %
compost
Z: 2%
readily available OM
Y%
mineralisation
C% ... Initial value of SOM
X% ... OM incorporated with compost which is transferred in the stable organic soil pool
Y% ... The available OM portion incorporated with compost which is subject to mineralisation
Z% ... OM portion of the „SOM-pool“ which is mineralised, however, at to a distinctly minor extent than the
one which originates from compost.
The change of SOM, which
induces a regular compost
fertilisation over the years, is
therefore dependent on the
assumptions for the parameters
X, Y and Z, from the initial
concentration and the compost
quantity applied.
Change of SOM
6
SOM % (m/m)
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
21
41
61
81
101 121 141 161 181 201 221 241 261 281
year
0 tonnes/ha.yr
5 tonnes/ha.yr
10 tonnes/ha.yr
15 tonnes/ha.yr
Half-life
values
for
the
mineralising rate (Z) are given for
soil humus from decades to
several 1.000 years. By this
different values for the annual
mineralisation are obtained.
Our example shows typical values
for the moderate continental
climate: X = 20%, Y = 10%, Z =
2% (half-life value ca. 35 years at
a relatively low initial background concentration of 2.5% SOM).
FIGURE 3-5: EFFECT OF DIFFERENT RATES OF COMPOST
APPLICATION ON SOIL ORGANIC MATTER LEVELS (FOLLOWING
A MODEL BY HOGG ET AL., 2002)
36
SOM [% rel. increase]
50
40
30
20
10
y
(p
as
[4
tu
]B
re
W
[5
)
C
]M
/3
SW
2,
5
/1
t/5
5
[5
y
t/2
]M
0
SW
y
(lo
/1
es
5
s)
t/2
0
y
(g
ra
[6
ve
]M
l)
SW
/3
[7
0
]M
t/6
C
y
/1
.1
LU
/1
4
y
t/5
/<
20
t/5
y
t/5
C
/<
20
[3
]B
W
C
[3
]B
W
/1
5
W
C
[2
]B
[1
]B
W
C
/1
9
t/
9
y
y
0
The organic matter content in
compost is 35%. Furthermore
different application quantities are
compared: 0, 5, 10 and 15 Mg
d.m. ha-1a-1 over a period of 300
years. Referring to the made
assumptions a light increase and
stabilisation of the SOM may not
be achieved below ca. 10 MG
d.m. ha-1a-1.
Figure 3-6 summarises some
examples of the relative increase
of the humus content through
regular compost fertilisation.
BWC…biowaste compost; MSW…solid waste compost; MC…manure
compost; LUlifestock units per ha; ‘19 Mg’ … 19 tonnes f.m. compost
per ha*year
Daten von Aichberger et al., 2000[SP51]; Bragato et al., 1998[SP52];
Buchgraber, 2000[SP53]; Hartl & Wenzl, 1997[SP54]; Diez & Krauss,
1997[SP55]; Businelli et al., 1996[SP56]; Alföldi et al., 1995[SP57]
FIGURE 3-6: RELATIVE INCREASE OF SOM IN COMPOST
AMENDED SOILS IN SEVERAL FIELD TRIALS
3.1.2 Summary considering the conclusions of he symposium “Applying
Compost – Benefits and needs”
All of the long-lasting compost field trials result in an increase of SOM. The essential
influencing factors for SOM-enrichment are quantity, type and degree of humification of
compost and the soil properties (soil type; clay content). Mature compost achieves a higher
increase of SOM. There are trials which show no significant differences in SOM at varying Csources (straw, manre, compost) but the majority of field experiments have proven a better
humus reproduction for composted materials. The type and quantity of crop residues which
stay on the field must be considered, too. Laboratory conditions show a medium-term Cmineralisation of only 1 to 20% of the applied compost Corg. This proves that compost
fertilisation contributes to enhanced carbon sequestration in the soil and thus to climate
protection (see chapter 3.2).
A positive correlation of compost fertilisation and the connected increase of SOM to an
enhanced microbiological activity of soils can frequently be found. (Mäder, 2003).
However, the assessment of long-term fertilisation trials, according to Körschens (2003), show
a relatively small variability of the degradable Corg e.g. with manure of 0.2 to 0.6 %. The result
is dependent on the clay content in the soils. The humification rate in clay soils is double as
high as in sandy soils, whereby the composition of SOM and stability is researched
insufficiently.
Thus the question arises, what is the more specific intention and objective of the application of
organic carbon when addressing short- and long-term benefits for the soil functions. The
definition and understanding of those specific benefits (change of functional SOM pools,
dynamic of C-N fixation and mobilisation contribution to stabilise the soil food web, change of
microbial and active nutrient mobilisation etc.) needs certainly further basic and applied
research.
37
A country-wide test in France pleaded for compost as a supplementing C-source considering a
minimum content of Corg in the soil of 1.1 to 1.5% besides the return of crop residues and
manure (Le Villio et al., 2003[FA58]).
Regulations for compost utilisation in agriculture should in any case offer sufficient flexibility in
order to achieve both the short-term effects (e.g. increase of microbial metabolic efficiency)
and the long-term aims (soil improvement by preservation and increase of the humus pool).
The local conditions (soil properties, climate, water balances, soil utilisation and crop rotation)
must be considered adequately.
In order to increase efficiency of compost utilisation a better understanding of the effective
functional properties of composts in relation to composition of input materials and composting
process is needed. Among others here exists a demand of innovative analytic methods for the
characterisation of the behaviour of the organic matter applied with compost (contribution for a
middle-term humus reproduction, mineralisation potential under different site and management
conditions).
3.1.3 Compost fertilisation and soil organic matter – tabular survey
38
TABLE 3-4: COMPOST FERTILISATION AND SOIL ORGANIC MATTER – TABULAR SURVEY
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Remarks
Aichberger et al.,
2000[SP59]
Field trial 1991 – 1999; FF: KM-SWWG; random. Block, 4 replications
loamy silt
BWC, GWC,CM, SSC; Basis: 95
resp. 175 Kg N ha-1; + 80 Kg N ha1
from NAC (Nitramoncal) on
Corn-M, 60 Kg on cereals, 0-40-1
-1
80 20 kgN ha mineral (NAC),
Standard = 80 Kg N ha-1
Average increase of SOM on the Comp plots 0,1 – 0,3 %points (equivalent to 12 % relative enrichment in comparison
to the original content). By calculation the enrichment would
be 0,5 – 0,8 %-points.
Humus ↑
Alföldi et al.,
1995[SP60]
Longterm field trial since 1978;
Comparison organic-dynamic (D),
organic (O) conventional (K) and
mineral (M) cultivation (DOKexperiment)
random. block; 3 plots (3 crops
parallel; 4 replications.
4 systems of cultivation, 2 fertilisation
steps (96 plots)
lessivé on loess
CR: Pot, W-W, BR, W-W, B, 2x Ley
Input of org. matter during 7 years
(2nd CR-period): (D1): 1010 Kg
ha-1; (D2): 2.020 Kg ha-1 as CM
Results at the end of the 2nd CRperiod; (O1) & (O2): RotM; (K1) &
(K2): StabM ca 1.000 resp. 2.000
Kg ha-1 each.
nd
Topsoil (0-20cm): D2 (CM 2 stage) shows the highest Ccontent during the 2 CR-periods, by mean of the the 3 plots.
nd
At the end of the 2 CR-period (after 14 years) D1, D2 and
O2 differed significantly from all other methods. D2 with
almost 20% more C-content than K2.
Humus ↑
Bohne et al.,
1996[SP61]
Field trial; 1992 – 1993;
acer pseudoplatanus;
random. block, 4 replications;
decalcified lessivé from loess over
terracegrit
BWC 78,5 Mg ha-1, 300 Mg ha-1,
-1
MCH 53,5 Mg ha (f.m.); single
application; control without
fertilisation
SOM increase solely by means of high compost application
(300 Mg f.m. ~ ca. 10 matter% on 20 cm !!!) increase from
1,78 – 1,93 % to 2,75 % (relative increase ca. 50 %).
Humus ↑
(extremely high
compost
application)
Bragato et al.,
1998[SP62]
Field trial, 5 years
CR: M, W-W, SB
random. Block, 4 Wh.
silty loam;
SSC, Slu annually 7,5 and 15 Mg
f.m. ha-1; control: min. Nfertilisation
The application of dehydrated Slu and SSC-compost caused
an increase in the TOC-content of the soil (from 0,71 to 0,86
%; relative increase 21 %); not significant
Humus ↑
Buchgraber,
2000[SP63]
6 fieldtrials, on different sites, 1994 –
1998; M, W-W, W-Bar, S-Bar, Pu,
Ra, IC; 1 trial random. block, 6
replications; grassland
BWC 7,5 – 20 Mg ha-1; MC 10-25
-1
-1
Mg ha , with M and Ra 54 Kg ha
min. N - supplement, granulated
BWC
SOM increased on arable land by an avarage of 1,1 % (from
3,1 to 4,2 %;), on grassland by 0,9 % (from 6,3 to 7,2 %);
equivalent to a relative enrichment by 35 resp. 14 %.
Humus ↑
Businelli et al.,
1996[SP64]
Field trial, 6 years, M monoculture;
random block; 4 replications;
MWC, 25 – 30 cm incorporated,
1) 30 and 90 Mg f m ha-1 and year
Significant, proportional increase of TOC in soil after 6 years, Humus ↑
in both fertilisation steps (from 0 76 to ca 0 9 with 30 Mg and
In the subsoil the relative difference of D2 to K2 increased by
9% after 2 CR-periods.
39
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
-1
Remarks
1996[SP64]
random. block; 4 replications;
argillaceous Loam, pH 8,3; Corg
0,76%,
1) 30 and 90 Mg f.m. ha and year
2)each 30 Mg ha-1 during the 1st
th
and the 4 Jahr min. NPKsupplement
3)control: NPK without compost
in both fertilisation steps (from 0,76 to ca. 0,9 with 30 Mg and
almost 1,5 % with 90 Mg/ ha*a) (relative increase with 30
Mg-variation 18 %, with 90 Mg-variation 97 %).
Delschen,
1999[SP65]
Long-term trial, recultivation after
mining, since 1969 resp. 1981 –
1996, Loess
Manure, MWC, Slu, NPK regional
standard application
Increase of SOM between 0,02 and 0,08% per year, the
increase levels off, with the years. Type of organic fertilizer
has less influence than the fertilisation rate. Slight increase
of microtoxins, but much below background contamination.
Diez & Krauss,
1997[SP66]
Field trial, 20 years, 2 sites: CR: SBW-W - S-Bar sandy loam,
CR: Pot - W-W – S-Bar Loess loam;
no information to statistics
MWC, year 1 – 12: every 3rd year
40 – 45 Mg d.m. ha-1, year 13 –
20: annually 15 Mg d.m. ha-1, with
and without min. NPK-supplement;
control: without fertilisation and
NPK without compost
At a mean org. matter supply of 4,4 Mg ha-1*year, increase of Humus ↑
SOM by 0,4 – 0,5 %-points (equivalent to ca. 17 % relative
enrichment) at both sites, without org. fertilisation: 0,5 %
decrease (relative decrease 16 – 19 %)
Hartl & Wenzl,
1997[SP67]; Hartl
et al., 1999[SP68]
Hartl & Erhart,
2001[SP69]
Field trial „STIKO“ to date 9 years;
CR: W-R, Pot, W-W, O, SP, Pot, WW, W-Bar
latin square, 6 replications.
calcareous grey alluvial soil,
sandy/loamy silt
watersoluble organic substance
(WOS), NIRS-analytics for N & C.
combined fertilzation:
3 Comp- + 3 min.N-supplementary
levels
-1
Comp fertilisation total 1992 996:
BWC 669, 1139 and 1610 Kg N
ha-1, in various combinations with
mineral fertilisation
BWC 1(12,5), BWC 2 (22,5) and
BWC 3 (32,5 Mg f.m. ha-1 and
year),
SOM 1997: BWC 1: 3,51; BWC 2: 3,94 (sign.); BWC 3: 3,99
% (sign.) in comparison to 3,23 % with non-fertilized
variation, relative increase 9 % to 24 %. After 4 years of
increasing compost application changes in the formation of
humic substances: increase of watersoluble organic N as
well as watersoluble org. C, and Ctot (from 2,31 to 2,95 2,66
% = rel. enrichment max. +28 %) and Ntot ( from 0,26 to 0,29
and 0,28 %).
Humus ↑
Klaghofer et al.,
1990[SP70]
Field trial, 4 years, vineyard, 5 – 8 °
slope, latin square, 4 replications.;
shallow, calcareous, high
sandcontent, erodible, rainsimulator
experiments
control, NPK, BWC 75 Mg ha-1,
150 Mg ha-1 (single application,
1983)
SOM in topsoil 1983: 2,0%; 1986: control: 1,7%, NPK:1,6%,
MC 75t: 2,0%; MC 150t: 2,2%.
Humus ↑
Field trial, 10 years,
lessivé from loess
pedological basic parameters, degree
of humification of polysaccharides,
MC 60 Mg f.m. ha-1, BWC 60 Mg
f.m., NPK, control without
fertilisation
2 years after the last fertilisation Corg-increase in
comparison to control from 1,17 to 1,4 % (rel. enrichment
32 %), highest C- and N-increase found in the clay fraction,
BWC shows stronger effect than MC. Degree of degradation
Leifeld et al.,
1998[SP71]
40
Humus ↑
increase 0,3 – 0,5%
Humus ↑
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
lignins and lipids, composition of the
C-pools
Results
Remarks
of polysaccharides and lignin content increased through MC.
Organic fertilizers have an effect on the organic matter
content, but not on composition.
Maynard & Hill,
2000[SP72]
Field trial, 3 years, onions, 3
replications. (1994 only 1)
Leafcompost 50 T/A, NPK on both
plots
Increase of SOM from 3,4 to 4,3% after 3 years.
Humus ↑
Parkinson et al.,
1999[SP73]
Field trial, 3 years,
10-year For-M-monoculture
random. block, 3 replications; humic
(8,8% OM) silty loam
GWC: 0, 15, 30, 50 Mg f.m. ha-1*a
with and without min. NPKsupplementation (125:27:56 Kg
ha-1)
SOM increases after 3 applications of compost on all Comp
plots. Significant increase but only from 50 Mg f.m. ha-1 (total
150 Mg in 3 years; from 8,9 to > 11% d.m., which
corresponds to a relative increase of 24 %).
Humus ↑
Tenholtern,
1997[SP74]
Largeplot facility 3 years, no
replications., Kultosol, single
application
SMC 0, 20, 40, 80 Mg ha-1 moist
with and without NPK; 0, 40, 120
-1
and 360 Mg ha fresh matter.
SOM in topsoil (0-15 cm): 0: 0,40 %; 40: 0,81%; 120: 0,90%;
360: 2,31%; rel. SOM enrichment of 102% (40); 125% (120)
und 478% (360).
Humus ↑
Schwaiger &
Wieshofer,
1996[SP75]
Field trial, 1989 – 1996, Longplots, 3
replications.
CR: W-W, W-R, W-R
calcareous grey alluvial soil;
sandy/loamy silt,
BWC: 20, 40, 80 Mg ha-1; MCH: 20
Mg ha-1; 3x 1989 – 1996;
provisional result 1992
Deviation from control in percentage Corg: BWC 20: +6%,
BWC 40: +13%, BWC 80: + 44%
Humus ↑
Timmermann et
al., 2003[SP76]
Comp-longterm-experiment (8 resp. 5
years): duofactorial splitplot design
with 12 variations at 4 replications
each, randomized
48 experimental
plots per trial
6 locations : lS, uL, uL, utL, uL, sL
CR: Corn – W-W – W-Bar
Comp application: 0; 5; 10; 20 Mg
ha-1
N-complementary fertilisation
level N0: no additional Naoolication
level N1: 50 % of the optimal Napplication level N2: 100 % of the
optimal N-application
on basis of the Nmin-content of
the soil as well as further aspects,
like precrops etc. (Comp
nitrateinformationservice - NID).
Original SOM was increased by compost applications of 5,
Humus ↑
10 resp. 20 Mg ha-1 d.m., meanvalue at 0,23 %, 0,46 % resp.
0,92 %.
8-year field trial (1993–1999),
CR: Corn-M-So-W-W-W-Bar-FEWRa- Corn-M- W-W
4 replications
loamy silt
BWC/MC some +/–
compoststarterbacteria [MCB],
-1
12,5 – 24 Mg d.m. ha (= 21 –
38,4 Mg f.m.) and year, 7
variations; (with and without min.
At an average application of 3 Mg ha-1y-1 organic compost
matter the SOM increased from 1,9% by ca. 0,3 to 0,4%
(relative increase 16 – 21%) within 5 years.
Weissteiner,
2001[SP77]
Humic substance fractionation: trend towards a clear
increase of humic acids and a lesser increase of fulvic acids
with increased compost application rates and with it the Cdose, whereas the according fractions are site-specifically
different.
Accordingly the results show a trend towards a „matured“
organic matter.
Humus ↑
41
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Remarks
19 months after application: lowering of pH, rise of
conductivity, Corg-total content was in BWC, Bedminster
CoComp and SSC 4-, 3- and 2-times higher than in control
and NPK, BWC increased Corg-total content within the
gravelfraction 4- (0-10 cm) resp. 3-fold (10 – 22 cm), more
than the other Comp. Corg-enrichment decreased in greater
depth in allen variations in soil fraction (<2mm), but not in
gravel fraction (>2mm), signicficant increase of Corg-content
in humus, humin- und fulvic-acids through BWC
Humus ↑
NPK-supplementation, with and
without application of chemicalsynthetic fertilizers), standard =
customary conventional NPK
fertilisation without compost)
Zinati et al.,
2001[SP78]
42
Field trial since 1996, calcareous soil
with 67 % pebblecontent (>2mm);
vegetables
BWC (100 %), Bedminster CoCompost (75% BWC and 25%
SSC) and SSC (100%);
application 1996 and 1998, 72,
-1
82,7 and 15,5 Mg ha d.m., = 168
-1
Kg N ha *a; control = 0 and NPK
treatment
3.2
Excursus – assessment of compost as carbon sink and its
contribution to climate protection
3.2.1 ECCP – European Climate change Programme; European
Commission, 2001[FA79])
The European Climate Change Programme (ECCP) was set-up in June 2000, in order to
develop the most efficient additional measures to achieve the EU reduction target of the Kyoto
Protocol for greenhouse gases of 8% during the first reduction period from 2008 – 2012
(decision of the Council, 2002/358/EC).
Calculations of the European Environmental Agency (EEA) resulted in an amount of 336 Mt
CO2eq to be reduced in order to meet the –8% Kyoto target.
The final report of the Working Group Agriculture of the ECCP (2002[FA80]) concludes: carbon
sequestration in agricultural soils has a potential to significantly contribute to climate change
mitigation. There is a potential to sequester up to 60-70 Mt CO2 y-1 in agricultural soils of EU15 during the first commitment period, which is equivalent to 1.5 – 1.7% of the EU’s
anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Promising technical measures are linked to reduced soil
disturbance and increased input of organic materials to arable fields.
The most important measures are:
the promotion of increased carbon input from organic amendments (animal
manure, compost, crop residues, sewage sludge)
organic farming
conservation tillage
permanent re-vegetation of set-aside areas with perennial grasses
woody bio-energy crops instead of rotational fallow
In 1990 the CH4 emissions from agriculture amounted to 41% of the total of CH4 emissions.
The portion of N2O was 51%. The agricultural portion of the total climate gas emissions
(inclusive CO2) was 11%.
The Bonn (Germany) conference on climate change acknowledged agricultural soils as valid
C-sinks. Following from this the DG Environment assumed 20% of the agricultural soils in the
EU as potential sinks. This would result in a sorption potential of 7.8 Mt C, corresponding to
8.6% of the total EU reduction target of -8 %. The ECCP report ECCP (2002) designs
scenarios of carbon storage in soils under realistically “feasible” frame conditions. A potential
of 60 to 105 Mt of compostable household wastes is estimated for composting (without
residues from agro-industries, sewage sludge etc.) that corresponds to 21 – 37 Mt compost
y-1, (i.e. 13-22 Mt y-1 d.m.). At an average application rate of 10 Mg d.m. ha-1 y-1 this results in
a farmland demand of 1.3 – 2.2 million hectare. From this deduced was a realistic, mediumtermed storage potential of 11 Mt CO2 y-1. Related to 1 ha this represents a contribution of
1.38 Mg CO2 ha-1 y-1 at an estimated error of +/-50%.
43
TABLE 3-5:
Measure
Promote organic input
on arable land
(crop residues, cover
crops, farm yard
manure, compost,
sewage sludge)
ASSESSMENT OF CARBON SEQUESTTRATION BY COMPOSTING AND COMPOST
APPLICATION ON SOILS (ECCP, 2002)
Sequestration
Potential per unit
area
Potential in EU-15
during first
commitment
period1
[Mg CO2 ha-1a-1]
[Mt CO2 a1]
1-3
20
Environmental side effects
Impact on farm income
Chemical fertiliser can be partly
replaced, leading to reduced N2O
emission and reduced nitrate leaching.
Positive long-term tendency due to
better soil fertility.
Accounting of additional nitrogen input
is required to avoid nitrogen overdose
and nitrate losses.
Erosion control and reduced nitrate
leaching under cover crops.
Danger of contamination by heavy
metals and other pollutants, as well as
bio-safety issues, are controlled under
Community and national legislation.
Reduced pathogen risk from
composted material.
Easy implementation, but potentially
higher costs due to transport and
purchase of organic material and
compost production
On-farm composting can provide an
additional source of income. Capital
and operational costs incurred by
setting up a composting facility at farm
level may be offset by (1) a fee for
taking organic waste (2) income from
selling compost (3) savings in fertiliser,
water consumption, disease
suppression.
3.2.2 Further considerations – for a comprehensive evaluation of
beneficial effects contributing to the mitigation of green house
gases
According to Hogg et al. (2002[FA81]) for the possible savings of climate gases especially in
regard of eco-balances the following must be considered:
carbon sink of the SOM and the applied compost which is incorporated in the SOM polls
the improved supply of plant nutrients by the application of compost
the reduced energy consumption equivalent to the saved mineral fertiliser (substitution
effect)
Reduction of nitrous oxide emissions (N2O) by the reduction of available N-surplus from
easily soluble N-sources (e.g. mineral fertiliser)
But secondary effects which can be quantified only in the long run should be also included in
order to obtain a comprehensive picture of the ecological performance of compost utilisation.
Reduction of pathogenic pressure in agricultural crops (hereby reduction of the energy
demand for production and application of pesticides).
Better resilience of soils against erosion (here it must be questioned in which way soil
losses would have to be assessed in the frame work of life cycle analyses).
Improved workability of the soil (lower energy demand for ploughing, tilling etc.)
Peat substitute and the substitute of farm fertilisers are also ranking among the climate
relevant functions of compost according to Grontmij (2005[FA82]). Assuming a C-content of
about 50%, 1 m3 peat with a bulk density of ca. 300 Kg m-3 contains approx. 150 Kg C. At a
90% mineralisation of peat after decomposition 222 Kg CO2 for each m3 peat could be saved
which would be substituted by compost.
Grontmij (2005) assessed the CO2 Äqu –balances of composting of organic waste (VFG =
Vegetable Fruit and Garden Waste) and of compost application. Without consideration of peat
substitution (-40,2 Kg CO2 Äqu Mg-1) and for two scenarios for the substitution of mineral
44
fertilisers the authors computed an emission reduction between -26.2 and -54.7 Kg CO2 equ
Mg-1 of organic waste. Assuming a 40% compost output this corresponds to saving of approx.
-66 to -137 Kg CO2 equ Mg-1 compost (details see Table 3-6).
TABLE 3-6:
CO2 EQU –BALANCE OF COMPOSTING ORGANIC WASTES (VFG = VEGETABLE,
FRUIT AND GARDEN WASTE) AND COMPOST APPLICATION (GRONTMIJ, 2005)
Net Emission
[Kg CO2 equ Mg-1 organic waste]
1. Energy consumption of composting
2. Emission climate gases (predominantly N2O, CH4)
3. Compost functions
3a. Substitution of peat
3b. Substitution mineral fertilisers low (high)
3c. Substitution of farm fertilisers
3d. Carbon sink in the soil
4. Reduced N2O emissions compared with mineral fertilising
5. Disposal of residues from composting (MBT/incineration-mix)
+ 17,4
+ 35,4
Total
– 26,2 (– 54,7)
-1
Total [Kg CO2 equ Mg Compost]
[-40,2; not calculated]
– 28,7 (– 57,2)
0
– 24,2
– 22,9
– 3,2
– 66 (– 137)
The authors point out that the additional positive effects (i) resistance against plant pathogens,
(ii) yield, (iii) long-term increase of soil fertility (soil functions) must be included in future and
the corresponding calculation models developed.
Allocated on 1 ha arable land the savings would result in 1.066 Kg to 2.192 Kg CO2 equ ha-1
y-1at an application of 16 Mg f.m. ha-1 y-1.
Schubert et al. (2004[FA83]) assessed a reduction potential of greenhouse gases between 13.5
and 22% comparing pure incineration respectively MBT options and separate collection with
subsequent compost use on a basis of fertiliser equivalents.
Related to the land area the authors calculated a reduction potential for the exclusive compost
scenario (without anaerobic pre-treatment) between 6700 Kg und 8500 Kg CO2 equ ha-1 y-1.
Depending on the assumptions made respectively the chosen reference scenario the
figures show a considerable variability. But all studies and models come to the result that
separate collection, composting and compost utilisation in agriculture are leading to
remarkable reductions of greenhouse gas emissions. This claims for a Europe-wide
acknowledgment for crediting emission certificates on C-sinks created by composting and
compost use.
45
3.3
Effect of compost fertilisation on yield
3.3.1 Basic conditions to estimate yield effects of compost fertilisation
Most of the evaluated literature is dealing with yield effects. The contribution of compost
application to biomass production is an essential success indicator from an agronomic and
operational perspective. The cost-benefit view would ask: Does the “time involved” in compost
fertilisation pay off considering achieved yields?
Here it is necessary to distinguish between a short-term “annual effect” and the long-term “soil
improving effect” which indirectly would enhance soil productivity factors in time. The latter
cannot be necessarily measured in direct success rates like any other long-term investment
and needs an anticipating thinking of business or rather soil management in the sense of a
sustainable economy.
Three types of experimental designs can be distinguished which
1. apply compost in practice relevant quantities - also regarding nutrient supply (on an
average up to approximately 10 Mg d.m. ha-1y-1)
2. apply quantities above average on account of experimental efficiency in the frame of
the test design (e.g. 20 Mg d.m. ha-1y-1 and more)
3. examine a long-term effects of repeated compost applications or a one-time
applications of large quantities aiming for specific soil amelioration
Furthermore a wide range of local site conditions (soil and climate) and land use must be
taken into account for in depths interpretation of the results. E.g. the latter are
crop rotation
time of application
application technique (incorporation, mulching)
combination with other fertilising measures
compost quality and type (C/N ratio, nutrient level, type of initial materials – sewage
sludge, green cuttings, manure compost etc.)
These parameters are strongly varying and systematic information is often missing.
This high variation of operational and site factors and the specific combination of each do
exclude an assessment in which causal relations to individual factors (e.g. a definite nutrient
load; compost characteristics) can be allocated.
The effect of compost fertilisation on yield has been researched in both potting tests (see
Table 3-11) and field trials (see Table 3-10). A transfer of findings from pot tests to field
conditions is limited. The typical compost portions realised in pot experiments under lab or
greenhouse conditions a well suited for testing substrates in ornamental and intensive
horticulture. However, pot trials under controlled experimental conditions help a lot in
researching principle impacts and behaviour patterns of compost amended cultivation
systems.
Besides nitrogen the nutrients phosphorus, potassium and magnesium play an important role
for plant nutrition. In this context some questions are asked for the agricultural praxis:
What is the concentration of nutrients in compost?
How is the plant availability of these nutrients?
46
Does compost increase the yield?
Does compost influence the quality of plants?
Is compost a competitive fertiliser (in the sense of a cost-benefit analysis respectively
fertilising efficiency?
3.3.2 Examples of experimental results
There are a lot of different studies especially about the effect of compost on yield. These
studies often differ in methods and tasks but nevertheless it is possible to make some
conclusions.
The most studies showed a positive effect on compost on yield. This is valid in comparison
with unfertilised control plots and in some cases also against treatments with mineral
fertilisation.
loes soil
relative yield (1992-1995)
120
sandy soil
b
a a
a a
MF
30 t FC + N
100
a
a a
a a
30 t MC + N
100 t MC
80
60
40
20
0
100 t FC
FIGURE 3-7: RELATIVE YIELD OVER 4 YEARS (1992–1995) MF ...
MINERAL FERTILISER, FC…FRESH COMPOST; MC… MATURE
COMPOST (PETERSEN & STÖPPLER-ZIMMER, 1996)
FIGURE 3-7:
YIELD DEVELOPMENT WITH COMPOST AND
MINERAL FERTILISATION SYSTEMS (HARTL & ERHART,
1998[SP84])
Petersen & Stöppler-Zimmer
(1996) compared the effect of
different types of compost
(fresh and finished compost)
and different amounts of
applied compost on two soils
with mineral fertilisation. On a
sandy soil they could not found
any difference in yield between
mineral
fertilisation
and
compost fertilisation within a
four year period, whereas on a
loess soil application of 100 Mg
ha-1 (= 25 Mg ha-1y-1) of fresh
compost indicated a significant
higher yield in comparison to
mineral fertilisation (Figure 1-1).
Fresh compost supplies a
slightly higher level of available
nutrients (N-P-K)
Hartl & Erhart, 1998[SP85])
ascertained in a long-term trial
that
by
fertilisation
with
biowaste compost higher yield
safety is achieved than with
mineral
fertilisation.
An
undersupply of nutrients was
measured during the initial
years (see Figure 3-7). After
the first too years the compost
led to an equal nitrogen supply.
Contrary to the initial fears of
an
uncontrolled
nitrogen
mineralisation as compared to
mineral fertilisation compost did
not lead to an over nutrition of
plants. An supplementary N
fertilisation in compost plots
47
must be considered with caution and a good adjustment with crop rotation is decisive.
yield (dt/ha)
Klasnik & Steffens (1995) investigated the effect of compost at different application rates and
levels of nitrogen supplementation in comparison to a recommended PK control. In the
treatments with no nitrogen mineral fertilisation the yield increased from 1.5 to 2.5 Mg ha-1 with
increasing rates of compost. This increase in yield can be attributed to the effect of nitrogen.
But even at the highest rate of compost (120 m3 ha-1y-1) the effect of compost nitrogen is much
less than 100 Kg ha-1 mineral N-fertiliser which increased the yield from 1.5 to 3.4 Mg ha-1.
They also proved that compost could influence the plants quality.
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
without N
without compost
Application of compost could
increase the amount of crude
protein from 10.6% up to
13.2% at different compost
rates.
with 100 kg min.N/ha
40 m3/ha
compost
80 m3/ha
compost
120 m3/ha
compost
FIGURE 3-8: INFLUENCE OF COMPOST WITH AND WITHOUT
SUPPLEMENTARY MINERAL N FERTILISATION ON YIELD OF
TRITICALE (KLASNIK & STEFFENS, 1995)
80%
% of Control
%. of N-P-K
Hartl et. al. (1998) also found
positive changes in plant
quality with an increasing
amount of gluten in wheat
after
compost
treatment.
Warman & Harvard (1997)
investigated the influence of
compost
on
quality
characteristics too, but they
found no difference in the
amount of vitamins in carrots
and
cabbage
between
conventional and compost
fertilisation.
Diez
&
Krauss
(1997)
compared the effect of
compost on yield with an
40%
unfertilised control and a
recommended NPK control in
20%
a long term investigation (Fig.
3). Compost application at a
0%
rate of 20 Mg ha-1/y could
Pot.
Wheat
Barley
SB
Wheat
Barley
increase
the
yield
in
-20%
Gravel
Loes
comparison to the unfertilised
control between 20 and 60 %
-40%
but could not reach the yield
of the mineral fertilised
-60%
control. On the loess soil the
effect of compost application
FIGURE 3-9: EFFECT OF COMPOST ON YIELD IN COMPARISON TO
is much better than on the
AN UNFERTILISED CONTROL AND A RECOMMENDED NPK
“gravel” soil. Similar results
CONTROL (POT: POTATO, BARLEY: SPRING BARLEY, SB: SUGAR
were reported by Buchgraber
BEET (DIEZ & KRAUSS, 1997)
(2001), Reider et al. (2000)
and in a study of HDRA Consultants (1999). These results let suppose that compost could not
be compared with mineral fertilisers because of the different dynamic of fixation for nutrients.
rel. yield ["0" & NPK]
60%
48
40%
0%
SuB
WW
SB
BWC GC
MC
SSC
-20%
-30%
CR: 7 x 3 years
20%
10%
0%
-10%
CR: 3 x 3 years
[Maize - SW - WB]
-40%
PA
10%
30%
Pu-S
+N
20%
%. N-P-K
WW
30%
S-M
+N
40%
C-M
+N
50%
-10%
Mean relative yield
% control
SB
%. v. N (80 kg)
rel. yield ["0" & "N-P-K"]
% v. Kontr.
60%
rel. yield "0" & 80 kg N/ha
50%
Mean relative yield
70%
-20%
FIGURE 3-10: MEAN RELATIVE YIELD OF
COMPOST PLOTS COMPARED TO CONTROL AND
-1
MINERAL FERTILISER PLOTS (80 KG HA ); SUB ...
SUGAR BEET; WW...WINTER WHEAT; SB...SPRING BARLEY;
SW…SPRING WHEAT; WB…WINTER BARLEY;
BWC...BIOWASTE COMPOST; GC...GREEN COMPOST;
MC...MANURE COMPOST; SSC...SEWAGE SLUDGE COMPOST
(AICHBERGER ET AL., 2000)
FIGURE 3-11: MEAN RELATIVE YIELD OF
COMPOST PLOTS (ALSO WITH SUPPLIMENTARY
MINERAL N ADDITIONS) COMPARED TO CONTROL
AND MINERAL FERTILISER PLOTS (N-P-K); CM...CORM MAIZE; S-M...SILAGE MAIZE; SB...SPRING BARLEY;
WW...WINTER WHEAT; PU-S...PUMPKIN SEEDS;
PA...PASTURE (BUCHGRABER, 2002)
3.3.3 Economic assessment and competitive ability of compost
The represented studies mostly did not investigate the question about competitive ability of
compost because only in a few of them an economical consideration was made.
30.000
25.000
min. fertilisation
compost
in Dollar
20.000
15.000
10.000
5.000
0
expenses
gross income
net return
Steffen et. al. (1994[FA86]) Steffen
et. al. (1994) compared the
expenses, the gross income and
the net return of a tomato
plantation
with
compost
fertilisation
and
mineral
fertilisation. The expenses for the
compost
fertilisation
were
substantially higher compared with
mineral
fertilisation
but
the
additional expenses were more
than compensated by the profit as
an result of higher yield and better
quality after compost application
(Figure 3-12).
FIGURE 3-12: EXPENSES, GROSS INCOME AND NET RETURN
HDRA Consultants (1999) got
other results. They calculated for
the different compost treatments in
every case a worse net return in comparison to mineral fertilisation. The net return was
partially negative because of high expenses for compost application and a missing higher
yield.
OF A TOMATO PLANTATION WITH AND WITHOUT COMPOST
FERTILISATION (STEFFEN ET AL.,1994)
49
TABLE 3-7:
NET RETURN (DEFICIT) IN £ AT DIFFERENT TREATMENTS (HDRA CONSULTANTS,
1999[FA87])
winter wheat
winter barley
rape (oil seed)
NPK
952
201
276
39 Mg compost + NPK
635
-42
117 Mg compost + P
-241
117 Mg compost + NK-reduced
16
89
-424
-1
-352
-1
19
55
The following figure from the brochure Organic Fertilisation (BGK e.V., 2005) summarizes the
economical assessment of compost utilisation as follows:
The monetary value of organic fertilisers results from
the contents of plant nutrients and alkaline effective material (lime)
the content of organic matter
The value of mineral fertiliser equivalence is calculated from the chargeable content of
nitrogen necessary for fertilising and the total content of phosphate, potassium, magnesium
and lime.
TABLE 3-8:
VALUE OF NUTRIENTS (RANGES DUE TO NUTRIENT CONTENT AND DRY MATTER)
Nutrients (N, P, K, CaO)
-1
Organic fertiliser
€ Mg f.m.
compost
(1)
€ ha-1 (2)
5,80
digestate, liquid
230
4,50
140
1)
-1
-1
-1
Equivalent costs for mineral fertilisers. N 0.60 € Kg ; P2O5 0.51 € Kg ; K2O 0.26 € Kg ; CaO 0.03 € Kg-1;
magnesium, sulphur, trace elements and organic matter are not included. [Chamber for agriculture Hannover &
-1
Weser-Ems]. Prices for mineral fertilisers in € Kg nutrient.
2)
Value per ha at medium nutrient and dry matter contents. Application rates: Compost – 40 Mg 3y , digestate
-1
liquid – 35 m³ ha .
-1
The economical value of organic matter is much more complex. It proves e.g. in the
stabilisation and increase of revenues per hectare, which result from the enhanced soil fertility
due to proper humus management and the easier cultivation of the land. Compared with other
organic fertilisers compost shows here its actual strength. The benefit becomes effective in the
long run.
TABLE 3-9:
INCREASE OF SPECIFIC INCOME IN CASH CROP FARMS WITH ENHANCED HUMUS
-1
MANAGEMENT (FROM BGK E.V., 2005; DIMENSION: € HA ; LUFA
AUGUSTENBERG, 2003[FA88]; SCHREIBER, 2005[FA89])
€ ha-1
year 1
year 2
year 3
year 4
year 5
year 6
year 7
-1
-1
38
48
52
53
54
55
55
-1
-1
53
78
90
97
102
106
108
15 Mg d.m. compost ha 3a
30 Mg d.m. compost ha 3a
Economic comparison on farm level, all relevant cost factors are considered; compost delivered to the field.
According to calculations of the FAO the world-wide phosphate stocks last for approximately
90 years. Stocks for the actually used phosphate poor in potassium are retreating distinctly
faster. Therefore the closing of phosphate loops is not only important for the protection of the
50
soil but also on account of a safe and long-term maintenance of agriculture. Plant nutrients are
absolutely limiting food production. Consequently prices for phosphate will increase in a short
term.
3.3.4 Summary – yield effect of compost fertilisation
The application of compost stabilises and increases the yield potential together with qualitative
attributes of crop products. The results depend very much on the yield potential of the location
and crop rotation. Cultures with a longer vegetation time have an improved utilisation of
compost use. Compost can be seen as an organic multi-nutrient fertiliser and substitutes,
besides the predominantly soil improving (humus, alkaline effective components) components
a phosphor and potassium fertilisation.
The yield effect is usually realised in medium-scale at a regular compost application during the
2nd and 3rd period of crop rotation, i.e. after approximately 3 to 6 years. Short-term tests (of up
to 3 years) may not be recpommended for a valid and robust interpretation. (Ebertseder
1997[SP90], Gutser 1999[SP91], Buchgraber 2002[SP92], all in Timmermann et al., 2003[SP93]).
Few experiments do not verify an influence on yield, but on quality parameters (e.g. oil
pumpkin, potatoes, green land, vegetables).
Long-term field trials proved the equalising effects of compost of annual/seasonal fluctuations.
Thus a higher yield safety can be expected than with a pure mineral fertilisation.
Some tests showed best results with combined compost and mineral N-fertilisation. Better
results could often be achieved if during the first years higher compost quantities were applied
every 2 to 3 years contrary to the annual fertilisation with lower quantities (< 10 Mg d.m.).
The literature as well as the expert discussions during the symposium confirmed that compost
cannot be assessed exclusively on account of the short-term fertilisation effect. Compost
provides nutrients in different bonding and mobility forms. It changes the soil conservation and
formation processes and the exchange dynamics for nutrients as well as the water household
and material transformation. This stands in close connection with the properties of the
humified organic matter i.e. the colloidal structure of humic matter. In this context the
importance of amino acids and amino sugars in humic matter and aggregate formation has to
be reflected (Scheller et al., 1997[FA94])..
From this a more comprehensive and long-term system approach is necessary in assessing
compost than for mineral, purely nutrient-related fertilisation.
3.3.5 Yield effect of compost fertilisation – tabular survey
51
TABLE 3-10: YIELD EFFECT IN FIELD TRIALS – TABULAR SURVEY
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Effect on yield – Field trials
Aichberger et
al., 2000[SP95]
Field trial 1991 – 1999; loamy
silt
CR: Corn-M-SW-W-Bar;
random. Block, 4 Wh
BWC, GWC,MCC, SSC; basis: 95 resp. 175 Kg N
ha-1; + 80 Kg N ha-1 from NAC (Nitramoncal) with
-1
-1
Corn-M, 60 Kg with cereals, 0-40-80 20 Kg N ha
mineral (NAC), standard = 80 Kg N ha-1
Average yield reduction compared to control by mean of all Comp,
crops and trial years: -15,5 % (equivalent to ca. 40 Kg mineral-Nequivalents). Best effect on yield through MCC, GWC 3 % less, SSC 4
% less, BWC 7 % less.
Amlinger &
Walter,
1993[SP96]
longplots, 3 replications.
CR: W-W, W-R
calcareous alluvial soil;
sandy/loamy silt,
BWC:, 40, 80; MKP: 20 Mg ha-1; 3x 1989 – 1996;
provisional results 1992
1st year, W-W 0: 1750 Kg; BWC/20t: 1880 Kg; BWC/80t: 2760 Kg
(+39,5% > ‚0‘); BWC/40: 2450 Kg (+27,8% > ‚0‘, p<5%); generally
low yield
nd
> 4000 Kg; BWC/40t and BWC/80t +10% rel. to ‚0‘;
2 year, W-R
3rd year, W-R
BWC40 Mg +26 %, 80 Mg +31% from ‚0‘ (sign.
p<5%)
Amlinger et al.,
2000[SP97]
Preliminary trial skislope
recultivation 1800 m sea-level,
slate, brown loam, alpine
pasture (maintenance
fertilisation) talus
(recultivation); effect on yield,
feed quality, phytosoziology,
soil-physics
BWC resp. GWC w/manure, 1998:(20, 40, 80 Mg
f.m. ha-1 resp. 15, 30, 60 Mg f.m. ha-1 on pasture),
0, Biosol
No statistical evaluation, but distinct increase of yield with Comp
application compared to control and Biosol variations on all soils;
distinct increase of legume fraction in comparison to grasses.
Asche et al,.
1994[SP98]
2-year field trial
7 sites on loess-lessivé;
CR: SB - W-W
7 different BWC, non finished & mature Comp;
BWC: 30 Mg d.m. ha-1 each plot
min. N: according Nmin-method
BWCraw & BAKmature+min.N accord. Nmin-method
1st year, SB
no significant effect on yield
possible influence
might be superimposed by the good ‘fertility’ of the experimental sites;
nd
W-W: significant increase in grain yield compared to
2 year,
control, by mean of 7 sites (p ≤ 5%) only with BWCfresh
Baldwin &
Shelton,
1999[SP99]
2 years, Nicotiana tabacum
1994 & 1995;
claysoil
soil- and
leafsamples with and without
lime application 3 times / year
MWC, SSC and MWSC
2 years; Comp application only 1994: 0, 25, 50
and 100 Mg TM ha-1;
0 and 4000 Kg lime resp. pH 5,8 & 6,5;
224 Kg N, 56 Kg P;
1995: only lime, N and P
1st year (1994)
+ liming: MWSC ∅ of all treatments:–21% of control
(attention: high salinity of comp (!), 50% loss (necrosis)
st
– liming: SSC ∅ of all treatments: +16% of control
1 year (1994)
nd
no differences; lower yield because of Peronospora
2 year (1995)
tabacina
Boguslawsky &
Lieres,
Long-term experiment 42
years; deep lessivé on loess;
St 6t ha-1; Comp 25 Mg ha-1; f.m. 20 Mg ha-1;
StoM 30 Mg ha-1; DBM 25 Mg ha-1; sheepfold 17
SB mean value: clear effect of org. fertilizer on N0-site, declining with
increased N-level. Positive influence on W-yield through Std
52
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Effect on yield – Field trials
1997[SP100]
SB – SW - O
hours;
combination with ‚0‘- and 3 N-level (N0, N1, N2, N3)
org. fertilisation every 3 years with SB
application. During 2nd year positive effect of Comp on O, and - like W
– positive reation to StabM. No absolute figures, no statistical
information.
Bohne et al.,
1996[SP101]
Decalcified lessivé from loess,
Acer pseudo platanus (twoyear trial)
BWC1: 75,8 Mg f.m. ha-1; BWC2: 300 Mg ha-1,
-1
StabM (horse, 9 months stockpiled) 53,5 Mg ha
single application
f.m. of young shoots
strongest growth BWC2 ( + 51%); BWC1 and
control good growth as well; only StabM statistically significant (clearly
lower, –17%;p = 0,05) figures on young shoots in g f.m./plant
Buchgraber,
2000[SP102]
6 field trial, on various sites,
1994 – 1998; M, W-W, W-Bar,
S-Bar, Pu, Ra, IC; 1 trial
random. block, 6 replications;
pasture
BWC 7,5 – 20 Mg ha-1; MC 10-25 Mg ha-1, with M
-1
and Ra 54 Kg ha min. N–supplementation ,
granulated BWC
M
dry grain yield: BWC+54N: 114,1 dt ha-1; +25 % of control (stat.
sign.), reference sites no differences; higher energy content with BWC
and MC.
BWC and MC+54N: 177,0 dt resp. 174,6 dt ha-1, +20 %
Sil-M
significant on control. Quality yield BWC 104 % compared to other
variantions, 20 % higher than control.
S-Bar and W-Bar
43,9 resp. 40,5 dt ha-1, same as NPK, but less
lodging.
W-W
ca. 52,4 dt ha-1, –12 % of NPK., control –30 % of NPK.
Ra
30 dt ha-1 inspite of haildamage, BWC –10%, control –20 % of
NPK. Ra-grain yield with BWC 7% below NPK, rapeoil yield with BWC
5% above NPK.
Pu-seedoil: BWC +12 % of NPK, +17 % of MC +200 Kg ha-1
Pu
mineral fertiliser (NPK): +38 % of control.
NPK: 886 Kg d.m. ha-1, BWC: 44 – 76 %, control 20%.
IC/ÖR
ley
‚0‘: 1000 Kg d.m. ha-1, NPK 1400 Kg ha-1, Comp variation
–20 to 25% of NPK.
pasture
P-K (3 cuts) 54,9 dt d.m. ha-1, BWC 55,7 dt d.m. ha-1
-1
StabM: 61,7 dt ha , control –25% of BWC.
Businelli et al.,
1996[SP103]
Field trial, 6 years, M
monoculture; random. block; 4
replications; argillaceous
loam, pH 8,3; Corg 0,76%,
MWC, 25 – 30 cm incorporated,
1) 30 and 90 Mg f.m. ha-1 and year
-1
2) 30 Mg ha during 1. and 4. year min. NPKsupplementation, each
3)control: NPK without Comp
During 3rd and 6th year yield of 90t/year variation similar to NPK-plot,
during 6th year the 30 Mg/year variation as well.
Fauci et al.,
1999[SP104]
Comp quality with different
feedstocks; W-W
10 different SSC and MC with variing additions of
ash (0 + 11% v/v), shredded wood and St (44, 50,
67, 75 % v/v)
W-W
Comp plots in spring more robust and darker, yield: 5,1 Mg
ha-1 on control, 5,8 Mg ha-1 on Comp plots, no statistical difference
between the different Comp (SSC & MC), tendency towards higher
1
53
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
ca. 70 Mg TM Comp ha-1
yield on W-W with lower chaff content.
Effect on yield – Field trials
Note: single high application rate of 70 Mg d.m. ha-1
Gagnon et al.,
1997[SP105]
Two-year field trial on 2 soils
(clay + sandy loam)
SW
RotMC, MCC, Peat/MC (CC1), Peat/Shrimp-wasteComp (CC2): application on N-equivalent basis: 0,
90,180, 360 Kg N ha-1;
min. N-fertilisation (0, 45, 90, 180 Kg ha-1)
Comp (90 Kg N) +. min. N-supplementation
Differing results during two trial years. Linear increase of yield and Nuptake with increasing Comp application (CC1). During first year
clearly lower yield on Comp plots compared to min. N. By means of
min. supplementation surplus yield of 100 – 1500 Kg ha-1 (p<0,05).
Highest Comp applications (corresp. 360 Kg N ha-1) and min. N
fertilisation (180 Kg) caused partial lodging of SW.
Gent et al.,
1998[SP106]
SMC and StMu with and
without fumigant in
potatoproduction
SMC (from horsemanure) 15 Mt ha-1, StMu, SMC
+ StMu, 0
Vegetative growth stimulated through SMC, no increase in yield.
Synergetic effect between Comp application and St-mulch on plant
nutrition only on non-fumigated soils. Figures on yield in Kg/m²
Hartl,
1996[SP107]
Field trial, amount of comp
and frequency
permanent R crop 1992 –
1997
calcareous grey alluvial soil;
sandy/loamy silt
BWC; ‚0‘; annually 20 Mg; 2-annually 40 Mg; 2x60
bzw. 70 Mg; 1x 60 bzw. 70 Mg f.m. ha-1 in 6 years
no information to statistics
Higher Comp applications in fall (40 or 60 Mg f.m. ha-1) resulted in
nd
rd
increase in yield during the 2 and 3 subsequent year. Low annual
-1
Comp applications (20t f.m. ha ) produced no difference to control.
Hartl & Erhart,
1998[SP108]
Hartl et al.,
1999 a[SP109]
STIKO-trial since 1992;
CR: W-R, Pot, W-W, O, Sp
calcareous grey alluvial soil;
sandy/loamy silt
BWC 12,5, 22,5 and 32,5 Mg f.m. ha-1 and year,
NPK according to crop/fertilisation
recommendation, combined fertilisation
Comp+min.N-supplementation
Starting with the 3rd trial year highest yield with Comp variations.
Halmlänge (H) bei 32,5 Mg f.m. Kompost entsprechend 30 Kg
mineralischer N-Düngung Keine konkreten Ertragsangaben
Erhart et al.,
1999 a[SP110]
2-year field trial; compost
mulch; Apple production
(Games Grieve)
BWC-mulch: 28 Mg d.m. ha-1 within the row (1);
56 Mg d.m. ha-1 within the row (2); 56 Mg d.m. ha1
spread (3); control without fertlisation (0)
BWC: 1,06% N; 0,78% K2O; 0,64% P2O5; 21,8%
OM; 11,9 C/N.
Increment of trunk circumfrence: increased at 56 Mg
row-mulch application in comparison to control (p=0,05)
apple yield: 1st year no significant differences;
2nd year: row-mulch (1) and (2) sign. (p=0,05) > (0); positive
correlation between Nhotwatersoluble in soil and apple yield (r=0,76); sign.
higher number of flower clusters in (2) compared to control.
3 different GWC, Basis: 250 Kg N ha-1, x2 and x3,
f.m., poultry manure, Slu
Pot 1997
No significant differences in yield between the different
treatments, but highest yield with LMU, lowest yield on the plots
without organic fertilisation.
Erhart & Hartl,
2000
HDRA
Consultants,
1999[SP111]
54
Sandy, silty loam
HDRA-Research Grounds:,
ecolog. cultivation,
CR: Pot-onion-Ca-carrotgrass/clover
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Effect on yield – Field trials
sandy loam
Onion 1998
lowest yield with no fertilisation, slight increase with
low and medium Comp application rates, statistically not significant.
HDRA
Consultants,
1999[SP112]
Shepton Farms Ltd.; 7 sites;
loam, clay and limestone;
ecolog. cultivation, various
CRs; one year trial
GWC 30 Mg ha-1 (=250 Kg N ha-1)
HDRA
Consultants,
1999[SP113]
Staple Farm, loam, difficult to
cultivate, convential
cultivation;
CR: W-W – W-Bar – Ra ;
four year trial,
SOM: 3,5 – 6 %
GWC, 4 variantions: no Comp + customary
fertilisation; little Comp (302 Kg N ha-1) + small
NPK application; much Comp (605 Kg N ha-1);
-1
much Comp (605 Kg N ha ) + small NPK applic.;
W-W und W-Bar (1996, 1997)
lowest yields on plots without NPK,
statistically not confirmed. Acceptable yield with combined fertilisation
and only NPK.
Ra 1998: slight differences in yield between variations.
Hein,
2000[SP114]
Sandy silt
CR: Sil-M – S-Bar with ley
undersowing – ley – Pot – SR.
6 years
MC, RotM, Slu, NPK, PK per 2 LU-equivalent ha-1.
Sil-M and S-Bar with ley
one year trial
Yield recorded with Pot, swedish clover and FB: variing results:
postivie effect on Pot, in all other cases no or negative effect.
NPK>Slu>RotM>MC.
KG
varying for during the years 1993-98. highest yield 93: Slu, 94,
95, 97 and 98: MC, 96: RotM.
Pot
NPK>Slu, then RotM and MC. Starch%: MC, RotM>Slu>NPK.
S-R
Slu>RotM, MC. NPK causes high storage losses with grains.
Only slight differences between MC and RotM fertilisation.
With ley best results on MC.
3
-1
Klasnik &
Steffens,
1996[SP115]
Field trial, 3 years, low humusand -nutrient podzol, CR: W-R,
M, Pot.
GWC 0, 30, 60 m ha ; min. N-fertilisation 0, 30,
-1
60, 90, 120, 150 Kg N ha
Minor effect on yield, with M lower yield with sole Comp application,
0-15 % mineralfertilisation equivalent , (temporary N-immobilization)
Kluge et al.,
1997[SP116]
Field trial since 1995, 1995 M,
1996 W-W
BWC and GWC
0, 50, 100, 200 % and Nfertilisation
0, 50, 100 % of „good agricultural
practice “ (GAP), almost 10 Mg d.m. Comp ha-1 on
the „optimalvariation“
No significant effect of Comp during initial year, during 2nd year
significant increase in yield on the Comp plots (Comp100% &
Comp200%) of 250 resp. 320 Kg ha-1 d.m. with W-W. Comp100%; with
min. N-supplementation effect on yield lower
balanced N-, and P-balance with Comp100%
Lindner,
1995[SP117]
Field trial since 1994, sandy
loam, kohlrabi, leeks
400 dt ha-1 finished Comp per year
Kohlrabi and leek no statisctically verifyable differences in yield
MacLeod et al.,
Field trial, 7 sites, randomized
BWC with or without one-way diapers, application
Bar: no significant change on 4 sites, on 3 sites reduction in yield, one
1
55
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Effect on yield – Field trials
2000[SP118]
block, 4 replications., CR: Bar
– red clover, Pot; fine sandy
loam
before Bar, 15 Mg ha-1 d.m.
of them with diaper-Comp (because of manganese toxicity); increased
P, Na, Cu and Zn-values in plant tissue of the Comp fertilized plants
in comparison to control, P, K, Ca and Mg-values in diaper-Comp
variation higher. Average leaf yield in mean of all sites 25% higher
than on Comp variation. Increase in all macronutrients N, P, K, in the
leaf, distinct increase of P and K through nappy Comp. No influence
on Ca, Mg and B.
Madejón et al.,
2001[SP119]
Field trial, two years, random.
block, 4 replications., M, SB,
SF; calcareous , loamy sandy
soil
3 different sugar beet-Vinasse-Co-Comp, 1.year:
15 Mg ha-1, 35 Mg ha-1, 7,5 Mg ha-1 ,2. year: 14,
22 and 14 Mg ha-1 plus 600 Kg NPK; 3. year aftereffects, NPK (1000 Kg ha-1 N-15 P2O5-15 K2O), 0;
300 Kg Urea (except for control);
Increase in M-yield on all Comp variations and NPK-plot in
comparison to control, significant only for one Comp, with the
subsequent crop (SB) increase in yield in comparison to control,
significant with all variations. SB with Comp application higher yield
than min. fertilisation. Comp fertilized SF higher yield than control and
min. variations.
Soil: no influence on pH; slight increase of salinity, significant increase
of SOM-content through Comp application in most variations, same
trend with average C-content of the humus extract; constant sign.
increase of the humic acid fraction.
CEC-increase after 2nd crop, decrease after 3rd crop, each higher than
in control and min. variation.
N (Kjehldahl) at the end of the trial period higher in Comp plots than
min. plots and control, some significant. P-content similar on all
variations.
Marinari et al.,
1996[SP120]
Field trial, M, green harvest
after 150 days
calcareous, humuous soil
-1
-1
NPK. (100 Kg N ha ), StabM (30 Mg ha ) as well
-1
as MCC (60 Mg ha ) (both incorporated 10-15 cm).
Comp-amounts equivalent to min.N-variations.
Combination. MCC + NPK (30 Mg MCC + 145 Kg
NH4NO3 ha-1 (50 Kg N).
1 control. All fertilisation variations with and
without herbezide application.
Generally ca. 30% reduction in yield without Atrazine, because of
weed pressure, with StabM-variation –58%, no increase with NPK.
Maynard,
2000[SP121]
Field trial on 2 sites, 2 years,
Tom, sandy loam, sandy
terraced soil, random. block, 4
Leaf-Comp, 50 Mg/a d.m., NPK: 0, 650 and 1300
lb/A, control 1300 lb/A, cotton seed meal 2166
lb/A
1995: differences in yield only sign. compared to Comp variations
without NPK, 1996: yield on Comp plots with full and half NPKsupplementation 34% resp. 19% higher than control (number of
f
/
)
f
O
56
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Effect on yield – Field trials
replications.
Maynard & Hill,
2000[SP122]
Field trial, 3 years, onions, 3
replications. (1994 just 1)
fruits/plants), same fruit weight as control. One site no statistical
differences in yield between control and Comp variation without NPK.
Plots with sole Comp application showed less blossom-end rot.
Leaf-Comp 50 Mg/a, NPK on both variations
Differences in yield between the years because of changing
precipitation rates sign. lower (3% variation) with Comp plots than
variations without Comp (52%). After 3 years yield of Comp plots sign.
higher, also higher onion weight. Reduction of bacterial wet rot.
After 3 years yield on Comp variations sign. higher, also higher onion
weight. Suppression of bacterial wet rot through Comp application.
Increase of SOM from 3,4 to 4,3% after 3 years.
Ouédraogo et
al., 2001[SP123]
2 field trials in Burkina Faso,
random. block, 4 replications.,
Sorghum bicolor with sowing
delay; loamy sand (0-20 cm)
resp. sandy-argillaceous loam
(40 cm);
BWC, manure, plant residue and ashes,
composted during rainy season, 0 and 10 Mg ha-1
-1
resp. 0 and 5 Mg ha .
Increase in yield 45% (5t ha-1), sign. 3-fold increase with 10t ha-1.
Comp plots no yield reduction in spite of seeding delay for 1 month.
Pape &
Steffens,
1998[SP124]
5-year field trial,
6 sites (4 eroded lessivé from
loess, 1 lessivé from bunter, 1
rendzina from slate)
BWCfresh, BWCmature 30 Mg d.m. ha-1 each 1. and
3. year, min.N-fertilisation, BWC+min.-Nsupplementation
Sign. lower yield in BWC+min.N-supplementation in comparison to
rd
storage); Sole BWCmin.N-fertilisation only during 3 year (W-Bar
sites correspond to min. fertilisation on 6 sites and during 5 years.
Parkinson et
al., 1999[SP125]
Field trial, 3 years,
For-M-monoculture for 10
years
humuous (8,8% OM) silty
loam;
GWC: 0, 15, 30, 50 Mg f.m. ha-1 with and without
-1
supplementation (125:27:56 Kg ha )
Effect on yield compared to control varies every year. In mean of the
years:
sole GWC
15 Mg ha-1: +11,9%; 30t ha-1: +9%; 50 Mg ha-1: +13,6%
GWC+min.NPK
0 Mg ha-1: 54,6%; 15 Mg ha-1: +51,6%; 30t ha-1:
-1
+71,3%; 50 Mg ha : +74,8% (compared to sole min.NPK: +20%)
Petersen &
StöpplerZimmer,
1996[SP126]
Field trial; 4 years, Ca, Pot,
BR, W-W
loamy sand, semi-loamy silt
BWCfresh (12 – 21 days), BWCmature (3 months)
No statistical differences in yield on sandy soil (96 - 103% of control).
On loess by mean of all years an increase in yield on all Comp
variations. (102 - 114%).
BR
positive effect on yield with immature Comp
Pot
positive effect on yield with mature Comp.
W-W
no difference.
Petersen et al.,
Field trial; 10 years;
3 different MCC, 1 BWC, 30 Mg f.m. ha-1 each and
All fertilized variations exceeded yield of control. Every kind of Comp
1
57
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Effect on yield – Field trials
1996[SP127]
ecol. cultivation;
CR
BR/Ca – W-W – Pot SW/W-Bar-ley-ley
lessivé from loess, loamy silt
-1
60 Mg f.m. ha ; control [‚0‘], NPK, horn meal
[HM]+P+K, MCC+HM; MCC+⅛HM
Comp application; org. fertilisation with root crops
application resulted in yield increase (108 - 121 % of control). The
higher fertilisation level (60 Mg f.m. ha-1) did not result in clearly
higher yield. Only slight differences in yield with MCC-variation. BWC
with both application levels slight decrease in yield compared to MC
(statistically not significant).
In mean of all trial years the MCC with N-supplementation resulted in
131%, with NPK 123 % and the organically fertilized 122 %.
Peverly &
Gates,
1994[SP128]
2-year field trial with M
silty-argillaceous loam
MWC: 0, 46, 92 and 184 Mg d.m. ha-1
MWSC with shredded wood: 0, 31, 62, 124 Mg
d.m. ha-1
1 week before planting;
min. N-supplementation: 26 Kg; NPK: 114-105-105
Kg ha-1
1st year
control: 3,5 Mg ha-1; NPK: 5,4 Mg ha-1; MW-SSC124: 7,5
-1
Mg ha , MWC184: 6 Mg ha-1,
2nd year
control: 3,5 Mg ha-1 NPK: 5,6 Mg ha-1; MW-SSC 124: 7,9
-1
-1
Mg ha , MWC184: 8,5 Mg ha ; MW-SSC 31 und MWC46 ≥ NPK-plot
-1
with 114 Kg N ha .
N was the limiting factor, no toxic effects of Comp on germination and
growth of M.
Pötsch,
2000[SP129]
Field trial 1992-1998, pastures
with CM/LMU /Slu/MCC
3 cuts/year;
loamy sand
Organic fertilizer: level
1,5 LU and 3 LU each:
NPK; PK; diluted Slu untreated (1:0,5 with water);
MCC/S (Stable manure + urine); MKC/P (packed
manure + urine), RotM (stable manure ½-rotted +
urine)
1,5 LU
65,4 – 73,9 dt d.m. ha-1, no significant difference between
different fertilisation systems, tendency of MCR/A and MCR/T towards
highest yields.
-1
3,0 LU:
80,4 – 93,5 dt d.m. ha , NPK-plot significant higher (except
for RotM + LMU variation). MCC/S and MCC/P showed higher yield than
Slu and RotM+ LMU as well as PK.
N-efficiency of MCC/S and MCC/P: 7,6 –10,7% of total N input
Roe et al.,
1993[SP130]
Field trial with compos tmulch,
random. block site, 4
replications.
Part I.: Capsicum annuum (bell pepper); MWC:
13, 40, 121 Mg ha-1; PE-foil (without Comp); +
min. NPK-supplementation: within the row and
spread
Part II: Cucurbita pepo L. (spaghetti-Pu) MWC;
dried sewage sludge; shredded wood, 1 year
stockpiled: 224 and 336 Mg ha-1
sign. higher yield on PE-foil (8,9 Mg ha-1; p<0,01) also
Peppers
larger fruit with higher yield loss due to disease on PE-foil; with MWC
yield 1,9; 4,6; and 7,2 Mg ha-1 with increasing applications of Compmulch.
Roe et al.,
1997[SP131]
58
Field trial, vegetables,
random. block site,
5 replications.
loamy sand and sand
Part I.: Capsicum annuum (bell pepper), SSC
(with yard waste): 0 and 134 Mg ha-1 with min.
NPK-supplementation of 0, 50 % and 100% of
horticultural standard application. Succeeding
crop: cucumber, without additional fertilisation.
on PE-foil highest yield/plant and largest individual fruits; but
Pu
lower total yield than on MWC and dried Slu, most yield loss trough
disease on PE-foil (79% [!])
Capsicum
with Comp yield 30, 35, 31 Mg ha-1 at 0, 50 und 100%
-1
min.NPK-supplementation , without Comp 19, 31 and 32 Mg ha with
0, 50 and 100 % NPK.
cucumber (succeeding crop)
yields higher on Comp plots (+ 18 %).
At 50 % min. NPK-supplementation the yields were comparable on
C
C
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Part II: 0 and 134 Mg ha-1 SSC (a. paper waste;
b. yard waste, refuse-derived fuel) with NPK 0, 50
and 100 % of horticultural standard application.
both Comp. Comp combined with low NPK-rates resulted in higher
yields (pepper) than on other variations. Also on part II higher yields
with cucumbers (no additional fertilizer application!).
Effect on yield – Field trials
Roe &
Cornforth,
2000[SP132]
Field trial, sandy loam,
Cucumis melo, then broccoli
MCC, 22, 45, 90 Mg ha-1, additionally 23N-14P-0K
Increase in yield on all fertilisation levels.
Selivanovskaya
et al.,
2001[SP133]
Field trial, randomised block, 4
replications., Bar, grey forest
soil
Untreated Slu, anaerobically treated Slu (10 Mg
ha-1 d.m. each), SSC (30 Mg ha-1 d.m.); control
Sign. SOM-increase on all trial sites in comparison to control, but
below Russian and European limits.
Smith,
1996[SP134]
Nationwide researchprogram
in Florida
diverse MWC resp. BWC with and without Slu
Yield increases (e.g. Pot, Tom, watermelon up to 30 %)
Steffen et al.,
1994[SP135]
3-year field trial;
CR: Tom-SC-beanbroccoli/Ca;
3 replications.
silty loam
Single application 1990: 64 Mg d.m. ha-1 SMC; 57
Mg d.m. ha-1 RotM (= je 2.700 Kg N ha-1 [!]), NPK.
incorporation 20 cm, NPK with black PE-foil; SMC
and RotM with 10 cm St mulched. With
aucceeding crop only NPK-plot fertilisation
according to crop.
Tom (1990)
SMC and RotM +73 % compared to NPK (p=0,05);
cost/benefit-relation
SMC and RotM: 1,68; NPK: : 1,40
M (1991)
SMC and RotM +75 % compared to NPK (p=0,05);
Bo (1992)
no differences in yield,
Bro (1992)
yield +13% compared to NPK
Kohl (1992)
no differences in yield.
Stewart et al.,
1998a[SP136]
4-year field trial,
CR: M-Ca-Pot-Ca
Split-Plot-Design; 4
replications.
fine, sandy loam
SMC: addition to ech crop 0, 20, 40, 80 Mg f.m.
ha-1 with and without min. NPK-supplementation
M- and Pot-yield were increased through SMC-applications in the
absence of anorg. fertilizers (exception M at 20t SMC ha-1), Pot-yield
increased independently of min. N-supplementation (increase of 38%,
82 – 96% and 26-46 % with cobs, Ca and tuber fresh weight; p=0,05).
Anorg. Fertilizers increased yield more clearly than SMC. A lack of
anorg. soil N was the most important limiting factor for plant growth
after SMC-application.
Stoffella &
Graetz,
2000[SP137]
Field trial, planting beds,
randomised block, 4
replications., fine sand, Tom
Sugarcane filtercake compost 188 Mg ha-1, NPK 0
and two levels
22 days after transplanting the Comp fertilized plants were larger than
control, but not with higher fertilisation rates. Independently of
application rates the Comp variations yielded better: Kg/plant,
stronger stems, number of fruits (total and precocious), fruitweight,
size of fruit.
Stopes et al.,
1989[SP138]
3 lettuce varieties, yield and
nitrate increase
MCC (13,2 und 26,4 Mg f.m.) and NPK, fertilisation
level
N-equivalent with 0, 80 and 160 Kg N ha-1
MCC increase in yield compared to control (at 160 Kg
Weight/head
N sign.; p=0,05); min. NPK increase in yield compared to control and
C
(
)
Sign. increase in yield on all trial sites in comparsion to control.
59
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Effect on yield – Field trials
random. Block site; 4
replications.
argillaceous loam on clay
Timmermann et
al., 2003[SP139]
Long-term compost trial (8
resp. 5 years): duofactorial
split-plot design with 12
variations at 4 replications
each, replications. random.
48 plots per trial
6 sites : lS, uL, uL, utL, uL, sL
CR: Ma – W-W – W-Bar
MCC/80 Kg N sign. (p=0,05)
NO3-content in lettuce f.m.
12% Anstieg in MCC compared to
control (not sign.); 30% increase on min. NPK plot compared to
control, 20% compared to MCC (p=0,05)
Comp application: 0; 5; 10; 20 Mg ha-1
N-supplementation
level N0: no additonal N-application
level N1: 50 % the optimal N-application level N2:
100 % the optimal N-application
on basis of the Nmin-content of the soils as well
as further aspects, like pre-crop etc. (comp.
nitrateinformationservice - NIS).
Complete removal of crops.
Yield increase with higher Comp application rates, also at application
rates of 20 Mg ha-1 d.m. (K3), which is considered excessive by
judgement of GAP, because of the positive nutrient balance.
The mean yield increase with Comp applications from 5 to 10 Mg ha-1
d.m. (level K1 and K2) and reduced N-supplementation (between
levels N1 and N2) is approx. 5 – 8 %. Besides the nutrient supply, the
ameliorative effects of Comp, regarding soil structure and biology,
contribute to these results on claybased soils, whereas on sandy soils
the predominant amelioration effect stems from improvement of
waterbalance and reduction of drought stress.
With regular conditions of production, where St is used as
compensation regarding the humusbalance, such explicit effects (as
with Comp accliaction) on yield are not to be expected.
Vogtmann &
Fricke,
1989[SP140]
1-year field trial
kohlrabi
random. block site
soil: ???
BWC 60t ha-1 (=60 – 90 Kg N ha-1); NPK 70 Kg N
ha-1; 0; with 0, 25, 50 and 100% addition of
shredded bark
Sign. increase in yield (p=0,05) compared to control, no difference
between BWC and NPK (neither with tubers not leaf yield).
Warman &
Havard,
1997[SP141]
3-year field trial
2 crops Ca, carrot,
5 replications.
sandy loam, yield, vitaminand mineralcontent
mature MCC and MCPou from cattle or poultry, 170
Kg N ha-1 for carrots, 300 Kg N ha-1 for Ca
(assumption: 50 % available).
NPK-plot according to conventional fertilisation
recommendation
Carrot
sign. higher yield in MCC only during 1st year.
Ca
Sign. higher yield in MCC only during 1st year.
Warman,
1998[SP142]
7-year field trial 1990 – 1996
(continued),
CR: Ca-onions-M-Pot-carrotM-broccoli
no statistics
sandy loam
MC and/or, BWC, GWC + St; calculation of
amounts on basis of the assumption: 50 % Navailability;
60
NPK – conventional cultivation
During 3 years no detectable difference in yield and vitamin content.
Since 1993 yields of Comp plots are higher or same as on NPK.
Pflants with high N-demand (broccoli, onions, cauliflower) did better
with NPK, Tom and carrots did better on Comp. Larger marketable
fraction of carrots with Comp (Comp: 76%; NPK: 67 %).
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
MC and/or, BWC, GWC + St; calculation of
amounts on basis of the assumption: 50 % Navailability;
Yield of onions is sign. higher with Comp application (contrary to
Warmann, 1998); Differences with other crops inconsistent.
Effect on yield – Field trials
Warman,
2003[SP143]
Continuation of above trial
(1999-2000)
NPK – conventional cultivation
Weissteiner,
2001[SP144]
8-year field trial (1993–1999),
CR: Corn-M-So- W-W – W-Bar
– FE – Wra – Corn-M – W-W
no statistics
loamy silt
Whyatt &
Putwain,
2003[SP145]
2 years, 2 sites, 3 replications,
CR1: Pot-bean; CR2: Bar-O
Wong et al.,
1999[SP146]
Chinese cabbage, M, loamy
soil
BWC/MC partially +/– compoststarterbacteria
[MCB], 12 – 24 Mg d.m. ha-1 and Jahr, 7
variations; (with and without min. NPKsupplementation, with and without application of
chemical-synthetic fertilizers),
standard=customary, conventional NPK (NPK
without compost)
1st year Corn-M no difference between variations
3rd year W-W and 4th year W-Bar variations with Comp and no
application of chem-synthetic fertilizers show yield reduction,
5th year FE: balanced yield.
th
th
th
similar yield as W-W
6 year WRa, 7 year M and 8 year WW
and W-Bar.
Year 1: 0, 20, 40 Mg ha-1 + customary fertilisation,
-1
40 Mg ha without additional fertilisation; year 2:
Comp application increased by 50 %
1st year Pot yield: -29,3% no anorg. fertilisation, -8,11% with anorg.
fertilisation; N-content of tubers with sole comp application – 25%. No
difference in Bar yield. 11% less N-content in Bar with sole Comp
nd
application. 2 year: beans: yield –6%, N-content + 5%; O: yield –
18% (no anorg. fertilisation) resp. –10% (with anorg. fertilisation). Ncontent – 2% (not sign.).
MC, 0, 10, 25, 50 and 75 Mg ha-1
Partially sign. increase in yield, highest yields with 25 Mg ha-1 for M,
-1
50 Mg ha for Chinese cabbage. Sign. increase in porosity and hydr.
conductivity, decrease of bulk density. Increase of SOM, macro- and
micronutrients (Cu, Zn, Mn) in soil according to fertilisation
applications.
61
TABLE 3-11: YIELD EFFECT IN POT TRIALS – TABULAR SURVEY
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Effect on yield – Pot trials
Abou-Hadid et
al., 2001[SP147]
greenhouse, 2 years, random.
block, 5 replications.,
cucumber
Poultry manure and cucumber waste, 50
Kg/plot (12x1m), control
Comp application causes: increase of N-content in cucumbers: early stage
34%, maturation stage 86% above control. P-concentration: 73% resp.
260% above control. K-concentration: 93% resp. 99% above control.
Increase in yield during whole growht period : 17,6% (early stage) and 15
% at maturation (fresh weight).
Bernal et al.,
1998[SP148]
Greenhouse experiment five
variations
Calcareous silty loam soils
Comp and N-mineralization in
various stages of maturation,
Lolium perenne
Fauci & Dick,
1994[SP149]
(4x4x4), soil x org. waste (in
greenhouse) x N-fert. (in
greenhouse)
pots with PE-bags (2kg d.m.)
Maize
harvest 35 days after planting.
(S) without fertilisation, (S) with 20-20-20
NPK mineral fertilisation; (S+I) soil with (I),
(S+E) soil with + E; (S+M) soil with (M)
Soil (S)
Comp: Comp from Slu with cotton waste
(46:54 f.m.), 3 diff. stages: (I) initial blend, (E)
end of active phase, (M) mature comp.
Both contain wheatSt + one of the following
treatments in 2-year intervals: (i) anorg. N
(34 Kg until 1966 and 90 Kg ha-1 from 1967 –
1989), (ii) cattle manure straw bedding (22,4
-1
Mg d.m. ha ), (iii) pea/vine-waste (2,24 Mg
-1
d.m. ha ) or (iv) St without addition (control).
Organic waste (a) pea/vine-waste, (b) MCC
(c) MKG.
Various N-fertilisation with 0, 200, 400 and
400 mg N/2kg both to plant 1, but in sum
cumulative 0, 400, 800 and 1600 mg N/2 Kg
both (3 consecutive crops)
Gajdos,
1997[SP150]
62
greenhouse,
MWC, BWC, 8 – 12 weeks
(day 16°C, night 12°C, 90 %
rel humidity, 16.000 bis 20.000
)
Blend with commercial peatsubstrate 0, 10,
20, 30 and 40 % vol., 60 – 70 % d.m.
N-immobilization with immature Comp (N-deficiency in plants). These
Comp are able to re-mineralize N at a later stage (from the immobilized
pool). The greatest N-efficiency was found for mature Comp (M) (high NO3content).
No additional min. N, waren die Bd., welchen lange Zeit org. Abfälle
zugeführt wurden (Mist oder Erbsen-Reben-Abfälle) produktiver und hatten
höhere C und N-Gehalte als Bd. mit min. Düng oder keiner Düngung.
Obwohl Erbsen-Wein-Abfälle und Rindermist ähnliche C/N-Gehalte hatten
(21 und 24 resp.), immobilisierte Rindermist N, während Erbsen-Wein-Abf.
eine nachhaltige Netto-N-Mineralisierungsrate aufwies. Das C/N-Verhältnis
mag nicht immer der ideale Indikator für die N-Verfügbarkeit sein, in
diesem Falle beachte man auch den Lignin-Gehalt (6 % für Erbsen-Wein,
28 % für Rindermist). Unter Glashausbedingungen konnte bei Rücknahme
der min N-Düngung die Produktivität am besten durch Übergang auf
Geflügelmist bzw. Erbsen-Wein-Abfälle gesichert werden.
Keimung: Salat- und Rettich im Vergleich zu konventionellen
Wachstumsmedien vor allem bei MüK verzögert, Lolium perenne,
Gartenkresse und Tagetes unbeeinflusst.
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Effect on yield – Pot trials
Lux, 16 hrs day)
Liquid micronutrient fertilizer
Lactuca sativa, Lepidum
sativum, Lolium perenne,
Raphanus sativus and
Tagetes teniufolia
Torfsubstrat mit MüK deutlich niedrigere Erträge
Kompost als „unausgeglichener Hauptlieferant“ von Nährstoffen braucht
nur geringe Menge an zusätzlichem flüssigen Mikronährstoffdünger
..., yield (f.m. and d.m.) after
31 days,
Greilich &
Jänicke,
1988[SP151]
6 month vesseltrial (5,5 Kg
soil, 3 soiltypes: silty loam,
sandy loam, sand)
CR: green oats, perko
sunflower
Assessment for total yield of
the 3 crops
Frisch- und Trockenmasseanalysen: Torfsubstrat mit BAK nach einem
Monat gleiche oder höhere Erträge, insbesondere bei Zugabe flüssiger
Dünger.
MWC (waste:Slu = 4:1), 4 months, blended 3
times
N-utilization = N-extraction (extraction is difference of total extraction minus
extraction of control) / N-application 100:
StabM (well rotted), min. N-supplementation
(0,5 + 0,4 g)
For sole Comp (single and double application each): highest utilization with
sandy soil: betw. 45 resp. 37%; with sandy loam: 21 resp. 24%; with silty
loam: 30 resp. 26%.
Min. PK-supplementation for all
Org. fertilisation in relation to C-Gehalt,
variations: O, MWC 20, StabM 20, MWC 40,
StabM 40, MWC 20+N, StabM 20+N, MWC
40+N, StabM 40+ N,
With combined fertilisation (Comp+mineral; single and double application
each): utilization with sandy soil: 42 resp. 36%; with sandy loam: 32 resp.
18%; with silty loam,: 44 resp. 33%.
With MWC 40, StabM 40 N from StabM 40 was utilized better
In mean of the 3 soils and the 2 application rates of MWC: MWC 90%
higher d.m. yield than control, achieves 85% of the min-N-variation and
66% of the StabM variation.
Mostly sign. higher effect of StabM, because of 50% higher total N
application through StabM and more intensive mineralization of StabM.
With the lower Comp application rates, with and without mineral
supplementation, the N-utilization rate is comparable with the lower StabM
application rate.
Herrero et al.,
1998[SP152]
greenhouse, (4 months)
vessel
sandy loamy soil, pH 8,38,
2,27% OM,
Lolium perenne
14 different org. products (composts, sludges
and manures) with application rates of 25
and 50 Mg ha-1 Comp and C = 0-variation
with 4 applications of min. fertilizer. N1 50,
-1
N2 100, N3 200 N4 300 Kg N ha as
ammoniumsulphate,
Yieldweights were sign. higher than control C on N2, N3, N4, E1-E5, E7,
E10-E13 (25 and 50 Mg ha-1), E8, 9, 14 (50t ha-1).
Application org. products gnerally increased yield, but not always according
to application rate. The min. fertilisation increased yield, most on N3 but not
on N4, but N3 was lower than the highest yield with org. products.
63
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Effect on yield – Pot trials
products: E1: (raw CM), E2 (MCC), E3 (raw
GM), E4 (MC), E5 (SSC), E6, E7 (MWC), E8
(MKP and pomace), E9 (Comp from
citrusbranches), E10 (commercial Comp
mainly from cocoa), E11 (commercial Comp
mainly from pomace), E12 (commercial
Comp mainly from MCC), E13 (worm Comp),
E14 (commercial GWC).
Hountin et al.,
1995[SP153]
greenhouse
vesseltrial
(20 Var., 4 replications.)
loamy sand, lime application,
low SOM
Bar (Hordeum vulgare)
Hue &
Sobieszcyk,
1999[SP154]
greenhouse
soil: 58 % clay, 35 % silt, 1,85
% Corg, 0,15 % Nt
Tom (42 days)
Peat/shrimp-waste-Comp
Comp applications increased growth of Bar
-1
0, 60, 120, 240, 480 Mg ha (moist),4 NPKapplication amounts: Ammoniumnitrate (33
% N), triple superphosphate (45,8 % P2O5)
and potassiumchloride (60 % K2O) at
following amounts: 0, 0,25x, 0,5x and 1x
-1
-1
which is x=70 Kg N ha , 80 Kg P2O5 ha
-1
and 90 Kg K2O ha .
Highly sign. influence of Comp on straw and grain yield.
Pelletized chicken manureSlu, untreated
biowaste, unfinished GWC, „ground fresh
corn stovers“ and commercial peat.
Growth media with kitchen waste (C/N-ratio of <15), released anorg. N and
caused an increase of d.m., several times more than that of control. Growth
media with a C/N-ratio of > 20 immobilized anorg. N, reduced plant-growth
and caused a N-lack in Tom (N-concentrations of < 2,0 %) and chlorosis
Soil-biowaste-blend: for vegetable waste 25
and 50 % vol, für animal waste 2,5 and 5 %
Above Comp applications of 240t ha-1 no yield increase.
The yield increase was better on Comp+NPK, compared to the individual
fertilisation variations.
urea 0, 70 and 210 mg N/Kg.
Lopez et al.,
1998[SP155]
greenhouse, vesseltrial
Pelargonium zonale, 8 per
variation
plantheight on day 45 and
100, fresh- and dryweight of 4
plants on day 45; weighing,
drying and analysis on day
100.
64
(C), commercial substrate from peat and
min. fertilizer, (M) commercial substrate from
MC and composted waste from cotton
ginning,
(M2P1) M and peat 2:1 (vol),
(M1SW1P1) M, MWC (49 days on open
windrows with 6 blendings, then 60 days
maturation) and peat 1:1:1 (vol),
All Comp substsates caused hypogenesis of the verursachten eine
Unterentwicklung der Geranien im Vergleich zur Kontrolle (ev.
verschlechterten physikalische Eigenschaften, N-Immobilisation auf Grund
des hohen C/N-Verhältnisses der Rinde und vielleicht einem Mangel an
verfügbarem P wegen dem hohen Ca-Gehalt und hohem pH)
Die N-Düngung und die Verlängerung der Kultivierungsperiode verringerte
die Unterschiede.
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Effect on yield – Pot trials
(M1B1) M and bark (2 years matured, but not
composted) 1:1 (vol).
Manure and cottonwaste composted
separately, matured for one year;
From day 45 sprinklers with 150 mgN/lLösung,
Lütke-Entrup et
al., 1989[SP156]
longterm (2 years)
Kick-Brauckmann (9 liters)
welsh rye grass, winter-Ra,
oats (O), phacelia, lettuce and
kohlrabi; ornamental plants
(germination tests)
BWC: (windrow, 16 weeks, C/N ca. 20:1,
0,4-0,6 % Ntot, from that ca. 10 % NO3 and
NH4, 0,28-0,41 % P2O5, P2O5-available 29
mg/100g, 0,5-0,7 % K2O, K2O-available 194
mg/100g, 0,41-0,62 % MgO. arsenicincreased
Min N-supplementation: 120 Kg N ha-1,
welsh ryegras + 60 Kg N ha-1 after 1. cut,
urea: 20, 60 and 100 Kg N ha-1.
Min PK–supplement
with <60 % Comp generally increase of yield
addition of P- and K-single fertilizers had no effect on d.m.-yield, except for
nd
2 cut of ryegrass. Increasing N-application rates resulted in yiled increase
only with <40 % Comp.
similar effect through dehydr. slurry: <50 % Comp as well as 10 and 20 %
dehydr. slurry resulted in distinct increase of yield. Similarly the addition of
the liquid fertilizer Basfoliar 12-4-6. Barkmulch and barkComp caused a
decrease in d.m.-yield. Positiv effect of 5 % St. No negative effect through
barkmulch and barkComp with an addition of peat. No effect through
bentonite.
Pure Comp: N-supply and PK-supply (?!) not sufficient. NPK-fertilizer
addition recommended.
Madrid et al.,
1998[SP157]
greenhouse, sandy soil
Control without org. fertilizer
Tom
MWC: OM 26 %, N 0,6 %, P2O5 0,62 %,
K2O 0,55%; 21 Mg d.m. ha-1
leaf samples after 30, 87 and
192 days; fruitsamples after
127 and 185 days.
yield documentation: number,
weight and average fruitweight
every 3 days.
Maher,
1994[SP158]
greenhouse (5 months)
pots (4 liters) greybrown
Commercial Comp from sheepmanure: OM
52 %, N 3,4 %, P2O5 0,5 %, K2O 2,39 %;
5 Mg d.m. ha-1
-1
NPK for all variations: 181 Kg ha N, 22 Kg
-1
-1
ha P2O5, 108 Kg ha K2O.
SMS Spent Mushroom Substrate (4,5 to 72
Kg d.m. m-3 = 25 to 400 Mg FS ha-1)
The average fruit-weight and the yield increased considerably with the
application of commercial Comp (204 g, 104,6 Mg ha-1), in contrary to
-1
MWC, which increased yield only slightly (180 g, 92,3 Mg ha ) in
-1
comparison to control (166 g, 90,7 Mg ha ).
Compared to control, the org. fertilisation caused an increase in SOM and
soluble nutrients.
The Comp applications increased the K-, Mg- and Ca-content of Tom-fruit
and Tom-leaves and accordingly the EC of the Tom-juice was increased as
well. The Comp applications had no influence on N- and P-content of
leaves and fruit.
1st harvest: positive influence of the additives (up to 50 Mg f.m. ha-1),
beyond that a negative effect probably because of increased conductivity;
65
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Effect on yield – Pot trials
podsol, with argillaceousloamy texture
Totalyield (DS from 4 cuts): positive effect up to highest addition (400 Mg
f.m. ha-1), reduction of conductivity through plantextraction and leaching.
4 harvest dates
Concurrent experiment: supplementary
fertilizer (PK as well as Calzium Ammonium
Nitrate)
Marcos et al.,
1995[SP159]
vesseltrial, silty clay, Tom
4 Comp types, good chemical properties
3 of the 4 Comp (Comp 1 possibly phytotoxines) increased yield in
comparison to control.
McCallum et
al., 1998[SP160]
greenhouse, sandy loam; NIndex 0.
control: only soil
Immature Comp: higher germinationrate caused by the cryoprotective
effect during a cold snap.
Lolium perenne,
SW (since 1980)
three replications. in boxes (23
x 16,5 x 5 cm), 24 seeds per
box. Germination rate on day
20, d.m.-yield on day 36.
Negro et al.,
1996[SP161]
Field trial, 32 l-pots,
poor soil
Sorghum bicolor vr. Dale
(Sweet sorghum)
Prasad &
Maher,
2001[SP162]
2 experiments, 11 cm pots,
temp >15°C; peat, Tom
2 GWC: 17 months, mature, OM 54,36 %, Nt
1,38%, Ct 31,78 %, C/N 22,78; 7 weeks,
instable, OM 28,09%, Nt 1,38 %, Ct 16,3%,
C/N 22,78;
3 applications (100, 200, 300 Mg ha-1),
3 intervals between application and seeding
(0, 1 and 2 weeks), control.
Sewage Sludge (SS) Sweet sorghum
residues(SSres), pig manure (PM), Slu
Slu (15 Mg ha-1) and PM (15 Mg ha-1 and 30
Mg ha-1) from blended windrows, NPKsupplementation towards equal application
rates.
Min. NPK sole application
Control: without fertilisation
2 irrigation variations
1: 7 blending levels from 5 – 50% GWC/peat
v/v; 100% GWC, 100% peat
2: 3 various GWC, blends: 0, 10, 20, 50% v/v
No effect from P, K-application
Mature Comp: slight, but not constant lowering of the germination rate.
Significant germination improvement through higher application rates. A
cold snap lowered the germination rate on all variations between
application and seeding, however the seeds with immature Comp were
less affected than the others.
Mature Comp increased d.m.-yield an all variations, immature compost
lowered d.m.-yield. The application rates had no influence on d.m.-yield.
Based on the relatively low C/N-ratio of immature Comp, the influence on
the d.m.-yield is based on the presence of phytotoxins.
-1
SSres/PM (30 Mg ha ): highest yield SSres (total and d.m.) in both
irrigation variations, higher than traetments with min. NPK (37% increase of
air dried d.m.);
SSres/PM (15 Mg ha-1): similar yield as min. NPK;
SSres/SS (15 Mg ha-1): lowest yield except for control without fertilisation;
No difference in sugar yield.
GWC-addition increased bulk density and lowered pore volume. 50%
addition lowered the water availability. pH-increase on all substrates.
Experiment 1: 50%-rate no influence on initial growth, but nhibition on later
growth (decreased N-availability); Experiment 2: 50%-rate slight growthd
66
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Effect on yield – Pot trials
inhibition during early growth, with 2 GWC, strong effect on 3rd, 20%
addition had no effect on plant growth
Shiralipour et
al., 1996[SP163]
greenhouse, plasticpots, three
typical californian soils
BWC 1:1 vol ; 3,32 % N, pH 6,4, C/N 10
0, 15, 30 and 60 Mg d.m./acre
broccoli, lettuce
Stoffela &
Graetz,
1996[SP164]
greenhouse, plasticpots 3,7 l
10 replications.
Tom
25 days
partial experiment 2
Valdrighi et al.,
1996[SP165]
plasticpots, 1,8 Kg soil,
sandy soil, pH 7,6; SOM 1,43
%; N 0,11 %, K 0,2 %, Kverf.
63 mg/Kg
chicory
All Comp applications increased yield and height of broccoli, as well as the
d.m. of lettuce shoots.
Optimal application rates on loam and argillaceous loam were 30 and 60
Mg d.m. acre-1 for broccoli and 15 and 30 Mg d.m. acre-1 for lettuce, on
loamy sand between 30 and 15 Mg. With high Comp application rates
broccoli had less phytotoxic symptoms than lettuce, possibly because of
better salt tolerance.
Comp. from filter cake from sugarcane
processing;
Increase in diameter, higher plants, more sprout- and rootmatter as well as
larger sprouts: root-ratio with (a) and (c)
Comp
Sandy soil
Comp: soil 1:1 (vol)
Comp-humic-substances appl. rates 0, 250,
500, 1000, 2000, 4000, 8000 mg/Kg soil.
block with KCl-solution at same application
rates as Comp-humic-substances.
Tween 80 with 0, 100, 200, 1000, 2000
mg/Kg soil.
Tween 80 combined with Hoagland’s
mineralsolution at a ratio 10:100.
Comp-humic-substances >1000 mg/Kg sign. increased yield weight, was
not only based on the K-content of the humic acids. (KCl-plots showed no
change in comparison with control). The cause may be changes in
membrane permeability, which are affected by the humic substances.
Similarly high yields with Tween 80 at application rates of 100 and 200
mg/Kg.
Tween 80 with Hoaglands solution did not result in a change of the chicorybiomass.
Comp-humic-substances 0, 1000, 2000
mg/Kg soil with 10 % Hoagland’s
mineralsolution.
Vogtmann et
al., 1993[SP166]
vesseltrial (40 and 80 l)
glasshouse
tomatos
Potting soil (60 % BWC, 25 % peat, 15 %
loamy sand) (KKS-O)
Commercial potting soil (40 % Ton, 60 %
peat) (EE)
Fertilisation with (a): lowest yield and marketable crop,
Yield of (c) in range of (b);
Sensory analysis Tom: (a) before (c) and (b)
67
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Effect on yield – Pot trials
peat) (EE)
fertilisation: urea with irrigation, (KKS-O); 155-25-5 with irrigation, (EE); (KKS-O) without
N-irrigation but with hornmeal addition
Zachariakis et
al., 2001[SP167]
68
vesseltrial, field trial, 2
varieties grapevines,
calcareous loamy sand,
humusfraction extracted from mature
olivleaf-Comp, 50 resp. 500 ppm humicsubstances, control
The addition of humic substances supports plant growth, (root- and shootdryweight) as well as the chlorophyllcontent of the leaves. Nutrient
enrichment in roots and leaves P, K and Ca (mostly significant), also Fe,
Mn and Zn.
3.4
Compost and nutrient supply
3.4.1 Phosphorus, Potassium, Magnesium
Especially relevant for the evaluation of nutrient supply with compost is the ratio of the total
and the fraction directly plant available in the course of one to three vegetation periods.
The latter are determined in a water or neutral salt extract or using “exchanging agents”
simulating the ion exchange between soil solution and clay-humus complex.
TABLE 3-12:
PHOSPHORUS AND POTASSIUM – MEDIAN AND FREQUENCY PRIORITIES IN
BIOWASTE - AND COMPOST OF GREEN CUTTINGS, SEWAGE SLUDGE AND
MANURE
BAK
GK
KSK
Manure compost
3,25
(n=153)
2,45
(n=27)
0,62
(n=153)
3,55
(n=27)
0,51
(n=141)
1,28
(n=26)
4,58
(n=132)
5,36
(n=22)
[% TM]
ZAS (2002[p168]) n = 17500
P2O5 gesamt
Zethner et al. (2001[SP169])
P2O5 gesamt
Peyr (2000[p170])
P2O5 gesamt
Charonnat et al.
(2001[p171])
ZAS (2002[p172]) n = 17500
P2O5 gesamt
Zethner et al. (2001[SP173])
K2O gesamt
Peyr (2000[p174])
K2O gesamt
Charonnat et al.
(2001[p175])
ZAS (2002[p176]) n = 17500
K2O gesamt
Zethner et al. (2001[SP177])
MgO gesamt
Peyr (2000[p178])
MgO gesamt
Charonnat et al.
(2001[p179])
Zethner et al. (2001[SP180])
MgO gesamt
CaO gesamt
Peyr (2000[p181])
CaO gesamt
ZAS (2002[p182]) n = 17500
CaO gesamt
Charonnat et al.
(2001[p183])
Zethner et al. (2001[SP184])
CaO gesamt
P2O5 CAL
Amlinger (1997[SP185])
P2O5 CAL
Peyr (2000[p186])
P2O5 CAL
Zethner et al. (2001[SP187])
K2O CAL
Amlinger (1997[SP188])
K2O CAL
Peyr (2000[p189])
K2O CAL
K2O gesamt
MgO gesamt
0,65
0,34 – 1,08 (10%-90%il)
1,0
0,65
0,6 – 1,2
0,48 – 0,8
0,95
0,70 – 1,3
0,94
0,69
(n=41)
(n=272)
1,08
0,55 – 1,68 (10%-90%il)
1,5
1,1
1,25 – 1,75
0,8 – 1,5
1,31
0,99 – 1,6
1,5
1,25
(n=39)
(n=272)
0,71
0,34 – 1,31 (10%-90%il)
2,2
1,8 – 2,8
1,52
1,0 – 2,1
0,88
0,56
(n=38)
(n=268)
9,9
7,9 – 12,3
6,6
4,0 – 8,6
4,0
2,0 – 7,6 (10%-90%il)
7,55
4,97
(n=37)
(n=278)
0,26
0,18 – 0,31
0,44
0,33
– 0,53
– 0,48
0,29
0,21 – 0,41
0,6
0,4
0,5 – 0,75
0,25 – 0,6
1,07
0,84
– 1,39
– 1,1
0,96
0,66 – 1,3
69
TABLE 3-13:
TYPICAL RANGES OF PLANT AVAILABLE MAIN NUTRIENTS IN BIOWASTE AND
GREEN COMPOST (MG/L F.M.) (STÖPPLER-ZIMMER ET AL., 1993[SP190]; ZAS,
2002[p191])
Nutrient
Biowaste compost
Green compost
-1
mg l f.m.
-1
mg l f.m.
N lösl
ZAS (2002[p192]) median; n = 17500
N (CaCl2)
Stöppler-Zimmer et al. (1993[SP193])
P2O5 (CAL)
ZAS (2002[p194]) median; n = 17500
P2O5 (CAL)
K2O lösl
Stöppler-Zimmer et al. (1993[SP195])
K2O (CAL)
MgO lösl
Mg (CaCl2)
216 (Med)
24 – 655 (10% - 90% percentile)
100 - 400
50 - 200
934 (Med)
409 – 1644 (10% - 90% percentile)
1000 - 2000
500 - 1400
3306 (Med)
1490 – 5655 (10% - 90% percentile)
3000 - 7000
1000 - 3000
216 (Med)
137 – 343 (10% - 90% percentile)
150 - 300
150 - 300
ZAS (2002[p196]) median; n = 17500
Stöppler-Zimmer et al. (1993[SP197])
ZAS (2002[p198]) median; n = 17500
Stöppler-Zimmer et al. (1993[SP199])
It is obvious that the nutrient ranges fluctuate on account of the great variety of input materials
and the varying maturity and screening degrees of the investigated composts. Despite of this
fact especially in the range of main nutrients good forecasts and assessments can be made
for their nutrition efficiency on account of the achieved experiences. The data in Table 3-12
and also other tests (e.g. Boisch,1997[FA200]) show that biowaste composts contain higher
nutrient concentrations than green composts. Compost from sewage sludges have a distinctly
higher P concentration on account of phosphate separation, mostly higher N levels but very
low potassium contents.
Contrary to nitrogen most of the authors assume a nearly complete attribution of the fertilising
effect in the course of up to 3 vegetation periods with phosphor and potassium. Table 3-14
summarises the concentration ranges of the total and available nutrients in biowaste and
green compost.
TABLE 3-14:
LIMITS OF VARIATION OF TOTAL AMOUNTS AND PLANT AVAILABLE AMOUNTS
FOR P, K AND MG IN COMPOSTS
Total amounts
(mg Kg-1 d.m.)
supply with 20 Mg
compost ha-1
(Kg ha-1)
plant available
amounts
(mg Kg-1 d.m.)
supply with 20 Mg
compost ha-1
(Kg ha-1)
1000-5000
20-100
200-2000
4-40
Potassium
-1
5000 2000
100-250
-1
1600 0000
32-200
Magnesium
1200-4000
25-80
100-600
4-15
Phosphorus
Only few papers are dealing with the importance of trace nutrients applied with compost. A
exemplary survey on the contents of some trace nutrients gives Table 3-15.
TABLE 3-15:
TRACE ELEMENTS – MEDIAN AND RANGE IN BIOWASTE AND GREEN COMPOST,
SEWAGE SLUDGE AND MANURE COMPOST
BAK
Kehres 1991
70
Fe
GK
[mg Kg-1 TM]
12000
KLS
Manure
compost
---
---
Charonnat et al.
(2001[p201])
Kehres 1991
Charonnat et al.
(2001[p202])
Kehres 1991
Charonnat et al.
(2001[p203])
Kehres 1991
Charonnat et al.
(2001[p204])
Charonnat et al.
(2001[p205])
ZAS (2002[p206])
Charonnat et al.
(2001[p207])
ZAS (2002[p208])
Charonnat et al.
(2001[p209])
Fe
Mn
Mn
B
B
Mo
Mo
Se
Zn
Zn
Cu
Cu
11640
(n=12)
6600
(n=27)
580
430 (MW)
(n=10)
262
(n=32)
26
-----
52
(n=15)
3
1,8 (MW)
(n=9)
0,5
(n=14)
1,6
(n=19)
0,4
(n=32)
183
242
(n=27)
170
(n=119)
45
89
(n=25)
44
(n=120)
8450
(n=25)
--294
(n=26)
--21
(n=13)
--1,2
(n=10)
2,8
(n=12)
--294
(n=99)
--119
(n=99)
----------------------------600
(n=22)
--215
(n=22)
Dependent on the compost type and soil properties the nutrient effect (efficiency) can vary in
wide ranges.
Ebertseder (1997[FA210]) proved e.g. that the P efficiency on slightly sandy soils amounted to
70% however on soils with pH values > 7 only approximately 20%.
A series of investigations proved increasingly available portions of phosphorus and potassium
on soils fertilised with compost (e.g. Martins & Kowald, 1988[FA211], v. Fragstein et al.,
1995[FA212], Hartl et al., 1998[FA213], Pinamonti, 1998[FA214], Kluge, 2006). It must be
considered that in these tests sometimes a surplus of compost quantities based on the
experimental design, but partly to compensate the low N-availability. Locations with a regular
compost application proved to have higher contents of soluble phosphates and potassium
dependent on compost rates applied (Ebertseder & Gutser, 2003[SP215]b)
According to Ebertseder & Gutser (2003[SP216]b) approximately 35 % of phosphorus in
compost can be assumed to be plant extractable (CAL-extract) and approx. 20% are
organically bound.
Potassium has a soluble portion of over 75% (CAL-extract). Compost prove to have a
relatively good P-fertilising effect, yet still less effective compared to mineral fertilisers.
The solubility of phosphorus (like the one of heavy metals) in compost is based on the actual
conditions like pH value and redox potential (Berner, 2003[SP217]). Do these change with the
incorporation into the soil the soluble components of these materials will change, too. Thus it is
not possible to conclude from values in compost on the later solubility characteristics when
applied on soil.
Kluge (2003[SP218]) proved in field trials on six locations over several years also the fertilising
efficiency related to P- and Potassium supply (Table 3-16):
71
TABLE 3-16:
FERTILISING EFFICIENCY OF P AND K SUPPLY BY COMPOST AT AN APPLICATION
-1
–1 –1
RATE OF 6 0T D.M. HA Y (KLUGE, 2003[SP219])
Phosphorus
P2O5
Potassium
K2O
60 – 80
110 – 130
30 – 50 %
40 – 55 %
4–8%
3–6%
25 – 40 %
35 – 50 %
- in the year of application
15 – 20 %
50 – 60 %
- over 10 to 20 years
40 – 50 %
100 %
Supply - absolute (Kg ha-1)
relative efficiency of total fertilisation - (% supply)
- increased plant uptake
- Increase of the soluble pool in the soil
relative efficiency of mineral fertilisation
With an annual compost application of 6 to 10 t d.m. ha–1 y–1 an annual input of 60 – 80 Kg ha1
P2O5 and of 110 - 130 Kg ha-1 K2O is applied (see Table 3-16). While the consumption by
harvested products is at maximum 10% of the supply a distinctly increase of plant available
pool in the soil is achieved. Considering phosphorus this portion increases to 25 – 40% and
regarding potassium to 35 – 50% of the supply by compost. Hereby a relatively good
correlation exists between nutrient supply by compost and the plant available pool in the soil.
Also mineral fertilisers do not have a fertilising efficiency of 100%. In the application year the
efficiency of phosphorus fertilisers ranges only from 15 – 20%, potassium fertilisers from 50 –
60%. Considering this fact the total fertilising efficiency with compost can be estimated as high
at levels of 30 – 50% for phosphorus and of 40 – 60% for potassium.
According to the BGK e.V. (2005) phosphate (P2O5) and potassium (K2O) serve as basic
fertilisation in crop rotation.
TABLE 3-17:
CONTRIBUTION OF COMPOST SUPPLYING NUTRIENT TO SOILS AND PLANTS
Compost type:
Mature compost
Fresh compost
Concentration (1) [Kg Mg-1 f.m.]
P2O5
K2O
CaO
4,1
6,8
30
4,8
7,7
28
Compost type:
Mature compost
Fresh compost
made assumptions
(1): content [% d.m.]
P2O5
K2O
CaO-equ. *)
0,64%
1,1%
4,7%
0,73%
1,2%
4,4%
*) as alkaline effective materials
72
Fertilisation (2) [Kg ha-1]
P2O5
K2O
CaO
160
270
1.200
180
300
1.100
-1
(2): application quantity [Mg ha ]
25 Mg d.m. (40 Mg f.m.) every 3 years
TABLE 3-18:
NUTRIENT BALANCE OF A 3-YEARS CROP ROTATION WITH PURE COMPOST
FERTILISATION (FROM BGK E.V., 2005)
P2O5
Crop rotation:
Sugar beet
Winter wheat
Spring barley
Sum demand
Supply with compost (30 Mg d.m.)
Balance
K2O
Targeted
pH
Nutrient demand [Kg ha-1]
59
88
56
203
~ 200
+/– 0
147
160
42
349
~ 335
+/– 0
CaO
Preservation
liming
[Kg CaO ha-1]
5,6 – 7,0
depending
on soil type
600 – 1.600
1)
~ 1.300
+700 to –300
1)
target pH-values at supply stage C of the soil: sand: 5.6; loamy sands to silts: 6,0; strongly sandy loams to loamy
silts: 6,4; sandy, silty loams to loams: 6,8; silty clay loam to clay: 7,0.
According to Beisecker et al., 1998[SP220] phosphorus and potassium are usually the limiting
factors of compost supply. Specifically for sewage sludge (composts) the P content limits the
possible application rate. Beisecker et al. (1998[SP221]) judge a compost rate of approx. 10
Mg d.m. ha-1 and year for both N, P and K beyond crop demand.
This assumption cannot be agreed upon unqualified considering the example of an average
balance shown in Table 3-18. However in long-term regular application systems quantities of
over 10 Mg d.m. ha-1y-1 would in many cases also lead to clear surplus of the humus balance.
On farm level there is general trend to reduce livestock to 1.2 – 1.5 livestock or manure units
ha-1. Farms keeping livestock with a good humus equipment and a corresponding livestock
number of > 1,5 GVE ha-1 would not need external organic amendments such as sewage
sludge and compost.
As a principle in the judgement of nutrients a sufficient margin should be given for the compost
fertilisation in order to allow for well designed humus reproduction and soil melioration even if
in the short run positive nurtient balances might arise. Of course this should be accompanied
by soil analyses.
3.4.2 Substitution potential of plant nutrients
On account of the plant nutrients contained in compost and digestion products corresponding
quantities of mineral fertilisers can be substituted. Reliable analytical data for composts are
available. According to that a substitution potential in Germany lies at 8 – 10%. Similar or even
higher values can be assumed for Austria.
TABLE 3-19:
Fertiliser 1)
Phosphate fertiliser
(P2O5)
Potassium fertiliser
(K2O)
Lime fertiliser (CaO)
SUBSTITUTION POTENTIA FOR PLANT NUTRIENTS BY COMPOST UTILISATION IN
GERMANY (BGK E.V., 2005)
Nutrients in mineral
fertilisers 1)
Nutrient quantities in
compost 2)
Substitution
potential %
280.000 Mg
28.000
10 %
490.000 Mg
43.000
9%
2.100.000 Mg
175.000
8%
1)
Plant nutrients from mineral fertilisers applied in Germany (Statistisches Bundesamt Wiesbaden, 2004[FA222])
2)
Amount of plant nutrients per year in composts from separate collection of biowaste
73
According to an inquiry by Amlinger (2006[FA223]) a collection potential of biowaste of 115 Mt
can be assumed Europe-wide and a compost production of approximately 50 Mt. This results
in the following Europe-wide substitution potential for nutrients from synthetically produced
mineral fertilisers.
TABLE 3-20:
SUBSTITUTION POTENTIAL FOR NUTRIENTS FROM SYNTHETICALLY PRODUCED
MINERAL FERTILISERS BY COMPOST UTILISATION AT EXPLOITATION OF THE
UTILISATION POTENTIAL IN EU25.
Biowaste potential (Mg)
Compost production (Mg))
-1
Nutrients in compost (Kg Mg f.m.)
Substitution of nutrients
from mineral fertilisers (Mg)
N
115.000.000
50.000.000
P2O5
K2O
10
6
12
500.000
292.500
585.000
Related to the supply with trace elements and micronutrients the test results can be
summarized as follows
As a rule inputs from compost don’t have any measurable effects on the total contents
of trace elements in soils
An increase of the plant uptake of Cu, Mn, Zn can be observed in compost amended
systems
In any case composts are a valuable multi-nutrient source for soils with a lack of trace
elements
3.4.3 Conclusions from the symposium
The papers presented at the symposium (Amlinger et al., 2003c) confirmed that with an
average compost application sufficient amounts of macro nutrients are applied, however, the
contents and the nutrient effect are fluctuating considerably with the used source materials
and soil conditions. Furthermore compost creates a favourable environment for root growth
and the active nutrient absorption through exchanging processes.
A long term compost management leads to an increase of the total and available contents of
phosphorus and potassium in soils. Contrary to nitrogen (see Amlinger et al., 2003[FA224]) the
direct effect of fertilisation of the total P, K and Mg input with compost is distinctly higher (>
20 – 70 %). Despite of that plant availability of phosphorus stays lower during the first years of
compost fertilisation than with mineral P-fertilisers. Some tests even proved the phenomenon
of a low additional P and K uptake from compost by the plant (< 10%) at a simultaneous
increase of available P and K fractions in the soil.
Nevertheless it was suggested to consider the entire load of P and K when computing fertiliser
balances in the course of a crop rotation.
For sulphur a short-term availability – similar to nitrogen – of 5 – 10% of the total sulphur input
was stipulated.
A further remark was that an inappropriate application could lead to an excessive supply
mainly of P and K. On a national level compost can cover a nutrient demand between 8 and
10% in agriculture if the collection and production potentials are utilised.
Interesting is the result of a Swiss survey where 50% of the consulted farmers evaluated
compost above all because of its humic effect besides the positively assessed nutrient supply.
74
In all, the nitrogen value was classified to be low, what would make an additional nitrogen
source necessary (farm manure, mineral N-fertiliser).
3.4.4 Plant nutrition by compost application: macro and trace elements –
tabular survey
75
TABLE 3-21: PLANT NUTRITION BY COMPOST APPLICATION: MACRO AND TRACE ELEMENTS – TABULAR SURVEY
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
-1
-1
Remarks
Bohne et al.,
1996[SP225]
deep, decalcified lessivé from
loess over terracegravel, tree
nursery, Acer pseudoplatanus
BWC 785 dt ha , 3000 dt ha ,
horse manure 535 dt ha-1
P- and K-content of soils increased especially with high
Comp application rates (P by 6,09 mg/100 g soil).
P and K ↑
Boisch, 1997[SP226]
Field trial, (1991 – 1994),: 6
sites: sandy brown soil (konv.,
Sil-M; LMC, N / P min. as
initiationdose; pseudogley-gley,
pseudogley-lessivé (konv. Ra –
W-W – W-W); c) gleypseudogley (Ra – W-Bar – WBar, mineral) d) sandy ground
moraine, sandy brown soil
(ecolog. Pot-R-O-SW).
-1
BWC: 6 to16t d.m. ha , according
to demand, resp. 32 Mg d.m. ha-1
as ameliorationfertilisation on the
light sites, reference site (ecolog.
resp. non fertilized plots);
Nutrient-load from Comp no influence on the soluble
content of P, K and Mg. Total nutrient application of P, K,
and Mg from Comp contribute clearly to plant nutrition.
Ameliorative fertilisation increases availability levels of P
and Mg. Available nutrient contents were raised in
comparison to non-fertilzed control, no differences between
conventionally and Comp-plots. Nutrient leaching was
detected only with K. Comp applications every few years
as a reserve fertilisation is a possibility for argillaceous and
loamy soils, sandy soils should be fertilized annually.
available P- , Kund Mgconcentration in
Buchgraber,
2000[SP227]
6 field trials, on various sites,
1994 – 1998; M, W-W, W-Bar,
S-Bar, Pu, Ra, IC; 1 trial
random. block, 6 replic.; pasture
BWC 7,5 – 20 Mg ha-1; MC 10-25
Mg ha-1, with M and Ra 54 Kg ha-1
min. N – suppl. , granulated BWC
P, K and Mg in soils after 5 year BWC-fertilisation
increased.
P, K und Mg im
Businelli et al.,
1996[SP228]
Field trial, 6 years, M
monoculture; random. block; 4
replications; argillaceous loam,
pH 8,3; Corg 0,76%,
MWC, 25 – 30 cm incorporated,
1) 30 and 90 Mg f.m. ha-1 and year
2) 30 Mg ha-1 each during 1. and 4.
year min., NPK-supplementation
3)control: NPK without Comp
Statical significant increase of available P and
exchangeable K.
P, K im Boden ↑
Cortellini et al.,
1996[SP229]
Field trial, 6 years, silty loam,
CR: W-W, IC, M; Sil-M in plants
and soil, OM, Ntot and available
P in Boden
SSC + St, liquid and concentrated
anaerobically treated Slu (7,5 and
15 Mg d.m. ha-1 and year); NPK
After 6 years increase in SOM, Ntot, available P,
extractable Zn and Ni according to application rate.
Cuevas et al.,
2000[SP230]
Field trial, thin vegetation cover,
degraded, semiarid soil,
randomised block, 4
replications, soil analysis 1 year
after compost application
BWC 0, 40, 80, 120 Mg ha-1,
Significant increase of anorganic N, P, K, conductivity, no
significant increase of Corg, Ntot, CEC and pH. Increase of
all all HM-concentrations, significant only with Zn, Pb and
Cu with medium and high application rates.
76
soil ↑
Boden ↑
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Delschen et al.,
1996[SP231]
Theoretically demanded
limitation of nutrientinput with
landscaping and recultivation
Gagnon & Simard,
1999[SP232]
Incubationexperiment; 23
agricultural Comp, 6 industrial
Comp,
application rates equivalent to c. 35
–40 Mg f.m. Comp.
Except for SSC all industrial Comp showed similar N
and/or P supply similar to most agricultural Comp.
Materials with high P and OM and low C/P supplied more N
and P to P-deficient soils. Netbalance for N and P negative
for almost all materials.
Hartl et al.
(1999[SP233])
STIKO-trial: latin rectangle with
6 replications.
CR: W-R, Pot, W-W, O, Sp, new
Pot
BWC 12,5, 22,5 and 32,3 Mg f.m.
ha-1/year, averaged on trial years.
Increase in total-K and plant available K. No significant
increase in total-P, sign. increase in plantavailable P with
high Comp application rates; low application rates
no
difference to min. variations; influence of Comp fertilisation
within the top 30 cm, below (up to 1,5 m) no influence
Hartl et al.,
2003[SP234]
Continuation STIKO-trial: CR:
W-R, Pot, W-W, O, Sp, new Pot
BWC: 11, 19 & 28 Mg f.m. ha-1/year
averaged on 8 trial years
-1
min. fertile.: 27, 44, 62 Kg N ha +
-1
-1
39 Kg ha P2O5 + 71 Kg ha K2O
Availability of P from Comp similar to superphosphate or
tripplephosphate;
Comp use positive for Cd-content of crops
Maher, 1994[SP235]
vesseltrial, greenhouse, 5
months, argillaceous loam,
ryegrass, Nst., EC, yield,
leaching
SMC, 0, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400 Mg
ha-1
Major effect on EC. Increase of SOM and P, K and Mgcontent of soils, but not on NO3-N. As P- and K-source:
not much positive effect above 5 %; as N-source: increase
in yield up to 25 % SMC.
Martins & Kowald,
1988[SP236]
lessivé, uL; CR: SW, O, W-W,
SW; 1976 - 1984
6 variations, control, 40, 80, 120
Mg MWC without, 40, 120 Mg with
min. fertilisation
During the first trial period (81 – 84) the amounts of
plantavailable P increased on all Comp variations, in
comparison to min. fertilisation, later immobilization. 1981
clear differences in K-content, contrary to P major seasonal
fluctuations.
compostapplication biannually
Pfundtner & Dersch,
2001 [SP237]
veseltrial, 1997 : Pot, ryegrass ;
1998 : spinach, Pot
soil/quartz sand substrate 1 :1 ; 4
BWC, 2 Slu, P- and K-fertilizer,
control
P: Sign. yield-increase in comparison to conrtrol; stronger
effect of Comp than that of Slu on P-availability, utilization
rate of Comp from 37 – 88 % (compare min. fertilizers).
K: Sign. yield-increase in comparison to control, 2 Comp
achieved yield levels of min. fertilisation . Recovery rate of
54 – 95 %.
Pinamonti,
1998[SP238]
Field trial, 6 yeary, vineyard,
calcareous soil 15 % slope
control, PE(Polyethylen-mulch), 2
Comp (Slu+bark; MSW)
Both Comp increased the amount of available P and
exchangeable K in the soil
Remarks
P and K ↑
P and K ↑
77
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
1998[SP238]
calcareous soil, 15 % slope,
semysandy, gravel
Comp (Slu+bark; MSW)
exchangeable K in the soil.
Tagmann et al.,
2001[SP239]
Longterm field trial since 1978;
comparison bio-dynamic (D),
organic (O) conventional (K) and
mineral (M) cultivation (DOKtrial)
random. block; 3 plots (3 crops
parallel; 4 replications.
4 cultivation systems, 2
fertilisation levels (96 plots)
lessivé on loess
CR: Kam, W-W, BR, W-W, Bar,
2x ley; soil samples 0-20 and
30-50 cm of N (control), D2, O2
(organic) and M2, K2 (convent.)
Supply of org. substance during 7
years (2. CR-period): (D1): 1010 Kg
-1
-1
ha ; (D2): 2.020 Kg ha in form of
MCC
(O1) & (O2): RotM; (K1) & (K2):
StabM ca. 1.000 resp. 2.000 Kg ha-1
each
Ptot and plantavailable P (1 minute isotopically
exchangeable) after 21 trial years: medium P-supply
through fertilizers (except in K2) less than P-extraction
through crop,
mostly negative mean P-balance (N: 21,
D2: -8, O2: -6, M2: -5, K2: +4): 1977 – 1998: topsoil: mean
P-loss of 5,5 to 10,9 Kg P ha-1/year, subsoil: increase of P-1
content from 7,0 – 8,7 Kg P ha /year. Decrease in plantavailable P-content from 12 mg P/Kg soil at trial-start until
1998 to11 in K2, 8 in M2, m6 in O2, 5 in D2 and 2 in N.
Timmermann et al.,
2003[SP240]
Long-term comost trial (8 resp. 5
year): duofactorial split-plot
facility with 12 variations at 4
replications. random.
48 plots
per experiment
6 sites : lS, uL, uL, utL, uL, sL
CR: M – W-W – W-Bar
Comp application: 0; 5; 10; 20 Mg
ha-1; N-supplementation
level N0: no additional N-application
level N1: 50 % of the optimal Napplication level N2: 100 % of the
optimal N- application on basis of
the Nmin-content of the soil as well
as further aspects, like preliminary
crop etc. (comp. Nitrate information
service - NIS).
Increase in mean of experiments with staggered Comp
application rates (K1, K2 and K3) in comparison to K0:
Bartl et al.,
1999[SP241]
STIKO since 1992, CR: O, Sp,
Pot 1996 - 98
Highest mineral fertilisation, highest
BWC-variation, 0
After 6 years no lack of trace elements on control, but
increase in uptake of Cu, Mn, Zn caused by nutrient supply
He et al., 2000[SP242]
Field trial, incubatioexperiment,
sandy soil, analysis after 0, 240
and 360 days
SSC, farmwastes (green waste,
shredded wood) , West Palm Beach
CoComp (= combination);
Availability of N, P and K raised, also a few micronutrients
like Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn. Microbial biomass-C and -P clearly
increased. SSC produced less biomass-C than the Comp,
inspite of high C- and nutrient-content.
78
• P: 1, 4 and 8 mg P2O5/100 g (base value without Comp16
mg P2O5/100 g)
• K: 3, 7 and 12 mg K2O/100 g (base value without Comp
21 mg K2O/100 g)
Remarks
3.5
Enhancing buffer capacity, cat ion exchange capacity (CEC) and
pH
3.5.1 Introduction
Soil organic matter (SOM) is a very important component of pH buffering in all surface soils,
even those that contain relatively little SOM. SOM contains carboxyl and phenolic groups that
can donate protons. Most of the acidity in SOM is contributed by the humified components,
humic and fulvic acids. These acids can bind Al3+ ions, altering the proton donation behaviour
of SOM.
SOM buffers pH over a wider range of pH values than might be predicted from a simple mixture
of the two basic components of SOM benzoic acid and phenol. Results from laboratory analysis
have shown the ability to buffer over a very wide pH range, suggesting a very diverse chemical
composition of the functional groups. It has been suggested that this ability to buffer over a
wide range of pH conditions may occur because of substitution within the humic acids. There
are also negative charges produced by ionisation of the acid site. These negative charges bind
exchangeable cations. Organic matter in soils is a major contributor to the variable charge
shown by most soils.
SOM provides much of the pH buffering in surface soils. It has been shown for 60 mineral soils
from Wisconsin that the mean cation exchange capacity of the soil organic matter was 200
cmolc Kg-1 (Helling et al., 1964[SP243]). This provides a reasonable estimate of the capacity of
SOM to buffer pH in the range of 3 to 8 within which the vast majority of temperate soils are
found.
Addition of organic matter to soil may result in increases or decreases in soil pH, depending on
the influence the addition has on the balance of the various processes that consume and
release protons. The factors which need to be considered include the chemical nature of the
soils and that of the organic material added as well as environmental properties including water
content and extent of leaching.
The net effect of adding organic matter to acidic soils is generally an increase in pH. The main
processes leading to this increase are:
a de-complexation of metal cations
mineralisation of organic N
denitrification
the net effect of adding organic matter to alkaline soils tends to acidify them especially under
waterlogged and leaching conditions. The main processes are:
mineralisation of organic S
mineralisation followed by nitrification of N
leaching of the mineralised and nitrified organic N
dissociation of organic ligands
dissociation of CO2 during decomposition
An essential utilisation effect of compost fertilisation is the supply of so-called alkaline effective
materials, mainly in form of calcium carbonate.
According to Timmermann et al. (2003[SP244]) lime supply by compost has a dimension of
preservation liming. This can be looked upon as a saving potential of other lime sources. In
79
Compost rate in t/ha DM .
correspondence with Ebertseder (1997[SP245]), Pissarek & Pralle (2001[SP246]) und Buchgraber
(2002[SP247]) this at least stabilises respectively often even increases the pH values of the soil.
20
10
+ 0,2 – 0,4
pH value without
compost = 6,4
5
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
Increase of pH value
After further 3 years of the above
mentioned trial (Timmermann et
al., 2003) on several locations
Kluge
(2006)
confirmed
a
significant increase of the pH
value even at moderate compost
applications. A mean increase of
the pH value of 6.4 to 6.8 at 10 Mg
d.m. compost ha-1a-1 appeared.
(Figure 3-13). Thus a supply of
annually 200 – 400 Kg CaO ha-1 at
compost applications between 6
and 7 Mg d.m. ha-1 corresponds to
a preservation or maintenance
liming and stabilisation of the pH
value.
In a ten years field trial with
vegetables
(beans,
broccoli,
carrot, onions, chilli, tomatoes)
Warman (2003) stipulated an
increase of the pH value with
applied compost quantities between 13 and 63 Mg f.m. ha-1a-1 what, however, was not
statistically significant. Contrary to the mineral fertilisation plots in the compost amended soils
there was a distinct increase of the cation exchange capacity (CEC; + 1,5 cmol Kg-1) and the Ca
concentration (increase of the Mehlich-3 extractable Ca by 15-30%)
FIGURE 3-13: MEAN VARIATION OF THE PH VALUE IN
DIFFERENT SOILS AFTER 8 – 11 YEARS OF COMPOST
APPLICATION (KLUGE, 2006)
The results can be summarised in the following statements
Regular compost application keeps the pH value of the soil respectively in most cases
steadily increased; there are only rare papers where a lowering of the pH value is
reported
Lime supply through a regular compost application corresponds to at least a preservation
liming even at amounts less than 10 Mg TM ha-1a-1
The theoretically assumed increase of the cation exchange capacity compared to
treatments without compost is confirmed in the evaluated literature.
3.5.2 Compost effect on pH and CEC – tabular survey
80
TABLE 3-22: COMPOST EFFECT ON PH AND CEC – TABULAR SURVEY
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Remarks
Boisch, 1997[SP248]
Field trial, (1991 – 1994),: 6
trialplots: sandy brown soil
(konv., Sil-M; LMc, N / P min as
initiation dose; pseudogley-gley,
pseudogley-lessivé (CR: conv.
Ra – W-W – W-W); c) gleypseudogley (Ra – W-Bar – WBar, mineral) d) sandy ground
moraine, sandy brown soil (CR:
ecolog. Pot – S-R – O – SW).
BWC: 6 to16t d.m. ha-1, according
to demand, resp. 32 Mg d.m. ha-1
as amelioration fertilisation on the
same sites, control (ecolog. plots
non fertilized);
No effect on soil-pH, SOM, CEC. Increase in salinity
directly after application, detectable in leachate., but not
any more after ½ year. Comp applications every few years
as a reserve fertilisation is a possibility for argillaceous and
loamy soils, sandy soils should be fertilized annually.
No effects on pH,
CEC, SOM
Diez & Krauss,
1997[SP249]
Field trial, 20 years, 2 sites: CR:
SB – W-W – S-Bar sandy loam,
CR: Pot – W-W – S-Bar
loessloam; no information on
statistics
MWC, year 1 – 12: every 3rd year
40 – 45 Mg d.m. ha-1, year 13 – 20:
-1
annually 15 Mg d.m. ha , with &
without min. NPK-supplem.; control:
without fertilisation and NPK no
Comp
Increase in pH-value gravel-loam-soil: 6,7
loam-soil: 6,6
7,3
pH
Eghball, 1999[SP250]
Field trial, start 1992, random.
block, 4 replications, M, silty,
argillaceous loam, pH 6,2,
f.m. resp.annual resp. biannual
application accoring to N- and Pdemand of M (151 Kg N ha-1, 26 Kg
P ha-1), 368 to 1.732 Kg CaCO3 ha1
on demand min. Nsupplementation, NPK
Topsoil sample (0-15 cm) from 1996; NPK: pH drops from
6,2 to 5,6; StabM- and Comp application keep the original
pH, N-based fertilisation raised the pH-value more than
control and P-based fertilisation. Significant correlation
between pH and CaCO3-content of manure and MC.
Kahle & Belau,
1998[SP251]
Mitscherlichvessel with field trial
(semiloamy sand),
incubationexperiment (slightly
loamy sand); annual reygrass
vessel: BAK 10, 20, 40, 80, 100 Mg
ha-1 f.m.
Raised Corg- and Ntot-content, linear increase of the CEC,
maximum increase almost 10% of the potential CEC.
Increase of base saturation, the sorbed CA- and K-content
and pH. No change in SOM contents. Increase in TOCcontent and chloride content. NO3-content varies clearly in
dependency of N. Soil density decreases. 70% of org.
matter of the BWC proved to be stable in incubation test
with a balanced N mineralization-immobilization pattern.
Effects on pH and CEC
7,3; loess-
↑
CEC and pH ↑
81
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Kögel-Knabner et al.,
1996[SP252]
incubationexperiment, 18
months, lessivé, brown soil
2 BWC different rotting degrees
Short- and long-term increase of pH and CEC
Madejón et al.,
2001[SP253]
Field trial, 2 years, random.
block, 4 replications., M, SB, SF;
calcareous, loamy sandy soil
3 different subarbeeet-Vinasse-CoCompo, 1st year: 15 Mg ha-1, 35 Mg
-1
-1
nd
ha , 7,5 Mg ha ,2 year: 14, 22
-1
and 14 Mg ha plus 600 Kg NPK;
3rd year aftereffects, NPK (1000 Kg
ha-1 N-15 P2O5-15 K2O), 0; 300 Kg
urea (except 0-plot);
Soil:no effect on pH; slight increase of salinity, SOMcontent increased sign. through Comp application, in most
cases, same trend with average C-content of humic
extraction; continuous sign. increase of the humic-acidfraction.
Remarks
pH and CEC ↑
CEC-increase after 2nd crop, decrease after 3rd crop, each
higher than in control and min. variation.
At the end of the 1st trial period N (Kjehldahl) of Comp plots
higher than min. and control, partially significant.
P-content in all variations similar.
Martins & Kowald,
1988[SP254]
since 1976, lessivé, uL,
MC 40, 80, 120 Mg TS with and
without NPK; every 2 years, 25 cm
incorporation
On Comp-plots pH-value increase after 2 applications.
Ouédraogo et al.,
2001[SP255]
2 fieldtrials in Burkina Faso,
random. block, 4 replications.,
Sorghum bicolor with
seedingdelay; loamy sand (0-20
cm) resp. sandy-argillaceous
loam (40 cm);
BWC, f.m., plant residue and ash,
composted during rainy season, 0
and 10 Mg ha-1 resp. 0 and 5 Mg
ha-1.
Soil color: slightly brownish grey (0) → brown (5 and 10 Mg
-1
ha ); soil consistency hard (0) resp. crumbly (5,10); clear
differences in colonization through fauna and rooting.
During bloom and 3 months after harvest: no sign.
differences in Corg-content. All Comp fertilized plots pH
and CEC increase. At the time of harvest raised nutrient
content in the soil dependent on application rate.
Increase in yield 45% (5t ha-1), sign. 3-fold increase at 10
Mg ha-1 application. No yield recuction on Com fetilized
plots, despite seeding delay of 1 month.
Timmermann et al.,
2003[SP256]
82
Longterm compost trial (8 bzw.
5 Jahre): duofactorial split-plot
facility with 12 variations at 4
replications. random.
48 plots
per experiment
6 sites : lS, uL, uL, utL, uL, sL
CR: M – W-W – W-Bar
Comp application: 0; 5; 10; 20 Mg
ha-1
N-supplementation
level N0: no additional N-application
level N1: 50 % of the optimal Napplication level N2: 100 % of the
optimal N- application on basis of
the Nmin-content of the soil as well
The Comp applications at the least maintained soil pHvalue, but mostly raised it gradually (starting at a mean
base pH-value of 6,1 without Comp - every application step
effected an increase of = 0,2 pH units. Raise of 0,4 pHunits through annual Comp applications of 10t ha-1 d.m..
pH ↑
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Remarks
as further aspects, like preliminary
crop etc. (comp.
nitrateinformationsservice - NIS).
Wong et al.,
1998[SP257]
incubation, 14 days, 3 tropical
soils: spodosol (Sumatra), oxisol
(Burundi), utisol (Cameroon)
4 composts : GWC, MWC, MC; 1,5
% w/w
pH-raise directly proportional to proton absorption capacity
of the OM. The proton absorption capacity ist a precise
measurement unit for the capacity of Comp to raise pHvalue and to reduce the Al-saturation.
Stamatiadis et al.,
1999[SP258]
Field trial, silty argillaceous
loam, broccoli
Comp (origin unknown) 0, 22, 44
Mg ha-1, NPK 165 Kg N ha-1
Benefits of Comp: rise and stabilization of pH-value,
decrease of the water-infiltration-rate. The stabilization of
the pH-value prevents an acidification of the soil, in case of
NPK-application.
pH ↑ and
stabiliziert
Zinati et al.,
2001[SP259]
Field trial since 1996,
calcareous soil with 67 %
gravelfraction (>2mm);
vegetables
BWC (100 %), Bedminster CoComp
(75% BAK and 25% SSC) and SSC
(100%); application 1996 and 1998,
72, 82,7 and 15,5 Mg ha-1 d.m., =
-1
168 Kg N ha *a; control 0 and NPK;
19 months after application: significant lowering of the pHvalue, increase of conductivity.
pH ↓
83
3.6
Compost and soil physical properties
3.6.1 Soil physical parameters - a short introduction
3.6.1.1
Soil structure, Aggregate stability
Soil structure is a physical parameter, including size and spatial distribution of particles,
aggregates and pores in soils. A structure to be achieved by a corresponding soil management
is featured above all to support plant growth and minimise erosion. Central components of the
soil structure are soil aggregates in a size ranging from 1 to 10 mm, staying stable even at
humidification (Piccolo, 1996[SP260]). Various authors (Oades & Waters, 1991[SP261]; Tisdall &
Oades, 1982[SP262]; Piccolo, 1996[SP263]; Golchin et al., 1998[SP264]) postulate a so-called
aggregate hierarchy with three levels:
(1) Micro aggregates: < 20 µm = packages of flocculated clay plates,
(2) Micro aggregates: 20 – 250 µm = stabile aggregated packages of clay plates,
(3) Macro aggregates: > 250 µm = aggregated micro aggregates
sand
< 0.1
loam
0.1 - 1
5 - 400
clay
5 - 500
soil
humified
org. matter
800 - 1000
0
200
400
600
m²g
800
1000
-1
FIGURE 3-14: SPECIFIC SZRFACE OF SOILS AND HUMIFIED ORGANIC
MATTER (BGK E.V., 2005; SCHFFER & SCHACHTSCHABEL, 1998)
An essential factor of the
aggregate and pore properties
of a soil depends on the
specific surface connected
with these properties. On
these surfaces of the macro to
the micro scale the storage
and exchange processes of
water
and
substances
between
soil
fauna,
microorganisms and root hairs
take place. These “active”
surfaces ideally covered by a
water film are the habitat of
microorganisms, which on the
other hand create the prerequisite for an optimum soil
formation.
According to the prevailing
debate among experts the aggregation and thus the soil structure can be distinctly declined by a
considerable SOM-degradation (e.g. as a consequence of a corresponding soil management).
This judgement needs, however, a closer look on aggregation processes on different scales
(micro and macro aggregates) and under consideration of the different SOM-fractions and their
transformation rates.
Starting point for the aggregate formation and stabilisation on the first hierarchy level is the clay
mineral floccation, which is supported by the presence of SOM, but can also be observed
between “naked” clay mineral plates. These flocculated small particles (mostly < 2 µm)
according to Tisdall & Oades (1982[SP265]) are connected and stabilised through inert organic
aromatic materials, connected and stabilised by polyvalent cation bridges (complexes) with
silicates (clay minerals) to aggregates in sizes of 2-20 µm. A further mechanism of micro
aggregation arises from bacteria colonies or fungi hyphen surrounded by a clothing of
carbohydrates (polysaccharide) and adherent clay particles. This structure remains after the
organisms died off, as the dead bacteria are protected from degradation by the clothing with
84
clay. In this case one speaks of an inert organic matter which is not stabilised by the process of
humification and cannot be influenced directly by fertilisation.
Micro-aggregates in the range of 20-250 µm are also stabilised by inert humified SOM besides
oxides and clay minerals. A further role play temporarily living and convertible dead SOM (fine
roots and hyphen networks glue like Polysaccharide, which are root and microbial exudates;
Piccolo, 1996[SP266]; Baldock & Nelson, 1999[SP267]). Soil cultivation affects mainly macroaggregates. These are stabilised by a fine network of roots and fungi hyphen but also by plant
residues and added organic material. (Piccolo, 1996[SP268]; Baldock & Nelson, 1999[SP269]).
Frequently, there is nor clear evidence for a relation between aggregate stability and SOM
content. In fact the portion of individual SOM fractions influencing the aggregates of the different
hierarchy levels must be considered. Hereby a “periodical” hierarchy for SOM may be important.
Macro-aggregates are stabilised above all by living respectively lately died off biomass (fungi
hyphen, fine roots, root hair, microorganisms) with a high portion of easily degradable
polysaccharide, showing high transformation rates and short transformation periods (few days
up to some months). Stronger degraded organic groups are increasingly responsible for the
stabilisation of smaller aggregates, the transformation periods of which can lie between some
years and several thousand years (Carter, 1996[SP270]; Elliot et al., 1996[SP271]; Tisdall,
1996[SP272])
The resilience of soil aggregates against destruction and being dispersed (aggregate stability) is
decisive for the maintenance of the pore systems of soils. The stability of aggregates results
primarily from clay-metal-SOM-complexes. Besides this experimental results have discovered
the formation of additional intermolecular links between SOM components. Soils with low AI and
Fe oxides and high SOM contents showed these effects increasingly following desiccation
(Haynes, 1993[SP273]). Primarily the hydrophoby of aggregates after desiccation and the herein
contained organic matter respectively was discussed for being a key pre-requisite for stability as
well as for the erosion resilience of soils. The hydrophobing of aggregates decelerates the
infiltration of water and reduces the aggregate deterioration which is especially advanced by
rapid penetration of water by enclosed air (air explosion) (Zhang & Hartge, 1992). Most effective
are organic substances with numerous methyle and methylene groups. According to Piccolo &
Mbagwu (1989[SP274]) the content of these materials in soil can be promoted by cultivation
measures, i.e. cultivation of cultures producing water-resistant humified organic substances or
by application of hydrophobic organic substances. How this could be achieved in practice and if
e.g. mature composts are to be preferred under this aspect couldn’t be gathered from the
viewed literature.
Besides the hydrophobic components the carbohydrates proved to have an aggregate
stabilising effect, too. The substantiated stability of artificial aggregates after adding e.g.
glucose, didn’t last, as glucose can rapidly be degraded by microorganisms, whereby the
degradation products may have an aggregate-stabilising effect.
85
FIGURE 3-15: THE ROLEOF ORGANIC MATTER FOR SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
86
In summary it can be said, that except of soil temperature the soil structure and the aggregate
stability are the most important influencing factors on the observed soil-physical parameters.
The influence of organic matter and the possibility to influence the soil-physical properties with
the application of organic amendments must be assessed in dependence of the scale of
aggregates. The first hierarchy level (micro-aggregates < 20 µm) seems to be a function of the
clay content and inert SOM and cannot be influenced basically in a short or medium course by a
certain soil management. The obvious question whether the clay content is exclusively
important hereby has not been solved as well to what extent silt fractions, the clay and silt
mineralogy and further parameters (exchange balance, pH value, humus quality) are essential
for aggregating effects. The same factors are effective for the formation and stabilisation of
micro-aggregates of 20 – 250 µm as for the smallest aggregates. In addition the influence of
the plant population (root exudates) and the supply of organic fertiliser must be considered if
this is carried out with higher molecular and extensively humified material (Piccolo, 1996[SP275]).
The macro-aggregate formation is encouraged by the supply of organic materials, requires,
however, the presence of micro-aggregates (< 250 µm) as components, the formation of which
can only be influenced indirectly over the increased formation of bacteria colonies or fungi
hyphen quasi as “aggregating germs”.
In total it can be concluded that the enlargement of the transformable SOM-pool can support the
soil structure by the supply of exogenous organic matter above all in cohesive soils (clay) or in
sandy soils. Hereby on the one hand well humified (micro-aggregates) but mainly fresh, lowmolecular substances (macro-aggregates) can have a positive effect.
3.6.1.2
Hydraulic conductivity
Hydraulic conductivity means the percolation rate in soils per area and time unit. It is dependent
on both the actual soil-moisture tension and the actual water content of the soil, but on the other
hand also on the number, size and formation of the pores existing in the soil. The pore volume
and the pore size distribution is a function of particle size. Generally it can be assumed that the
pore volume and the portion of fine pores will accelerate with diminishing particle size, while the
portion of macro pores will decrease. Besides these particle driven primary pores there is
another group of secondary pores which is decisively determined in its number, size and form
by the SOM. The secondary pores are mostly a matter of root and animal tubes which for the
most part can be allocated to the macro pores (> 10 µm) and are often showing a distinct
continuity. But also the soil structure and thus the aggregate stability contributes to the
formation of secondary pores. By these means incorporated organic matter improves the water
conductivity by forming a nutrient basis for soil organisms and through a direct structurestabilising effect. Mainly in cohesive clay and silt soils the hydraulic conductivity can be
increased distinctly. Well rooted top soils having a high number of macro-fauna the secondary
pores are predominantly influencing the water conductivity, in the sub-soils this influence
deteriorates on account of decreasing portions of SOM in favour of the primary pores.
3.6.1.3
Infiltration and erosion
Infiltration is the movement of leachate from the surface or above layers into the soil. Infiltration
comes along with precipitation, irrigation and flooding. The course of infiltration is marked by the
infiltration rate which indicates how much water per time unit is drained. The hydraulic
conductivity of a soil is the measure for infiltration. As soon as the infiltration decreases by
aggregate destruction ( clogging of macro pores), silt-up and caking of the soil respectively,
infiltration diminishes and surface run-off (erosion) increases at high water supply rates.
Among other components the aggregate degradation is promoted by swelling and air explosion.
At air explosion the air in the aggregates is compressed by infiltrating water up to pressures of
6000 hPa. As a consequence the aggregates burst as soon as the cohesive power is
surpassed. Zhang & Hartge (1992[SP276]) proved that air explosion and swelling has a far
stronger effect the faster the water enters the aggregates.
87
The infiltration velocity is reduced by organic matter as it reduces the moistening of the
aggregates. The efficacy of organic matter increases hereby with an increasing humification
degree of the organic material.
The aggregate size plays also a role during degradation. The degradation rate of aggregates
from 10-20 mm diameter decreases, because the ratio between the rain drop diameter and
aggregate diameter decreases and thus reduces the humidification velocity (Freebairn et al.,
1991[SP277]; Frielinghaus, 1988[SP278]). Larger aggregates reduce the surface run-off and the
erosion further on through coarsening of the micro relief. This leads to an increase of the
effective surface and to a reduction of drop impact energy per area unit.
Additionally a coarse micro relief causes the formation of cavities where arising surface water
can be retained. By this the beginning surface run-off can be delayed and the tortuosity of the
discharge channels increased. This leads to a reduced run-off velocity (Helming, 1992[SP279];
Kaemmerer, 2000[SP280])
The stability and size of the aggregates can be distinctly increased through cultivation measures
combined with a supply of organic matter (direct and mulch drilling, cultivation of catch crops
and undersown crops) (Kaemmerer, 2000[SP281]; Stott et al., 1999[SP282]). Organic matter
applied as mulch does reduce erosion by covering of the soil surface, because it buffers the
energy of the impinging rain drops and so only a part of the energy affects the soil aggregates.
3.6.1.4
Field capacity
Field capacity (FC) means the water amount which a soil can retain against gravity. Decisive
here is the pore volume which characterises the portion of cavities existing in the soil and the
pore size distribution as only pores below a pore diameter of 50 µm are responsible for the
water storage. From the viewpoint of plant cultivation it is not the field capacity being the
decisive parameter for water supply of the plants but the effective field capacity (FCe) as plants
can extract water from the soil only up to a certain soil moisture tension and pore size.
Therefore the FCe comprises only the pores with a diameter of 0.2 µm to 50 µm (meso and
small macro pores).
FC or FCe respectively is influenced by the particle size, the structure and the content of organic
matter. The FC increases with decreasing particle size, as both the pore volume and the portion
of meso and fine pores increases with a decreasing particle size. Therefore the FCe achieves a
maximum in silt soils, because there the portion of meso pores is at the highest, while fine pores
are preponderant in clay soils the water of which cannot be used by the plants.
Via its impact on the secondary pores structure and organic matter have a strong influence on
the field capacity (Baldock & Nelson, 1999[SP283]). Thus the effect of organic matter above all in
soils with low portions of primary meso pores can be assessed positively. The SOM increases
the portion of meso pores through an improved aggregate formation and stabilisation in sand
and clay soils. Furthermore fungi hyphen and roots contribute to an increase of field capacity by
formation of secondary meso and macro pores. The organic matter contains a high water
storage capacity which also has a positive effect on the field capacity. Humus is able to take up
a three to fivefold of its own weight of water, humic materials up to a twentyfold of their own
weight (Hayes et al., 1989[SP284]; Scheffer & Schachtschabel et al., 1998[SP285]). According to
Hudson (1994[SP286]) the FCe of a soil is duplicated by –– increase of the Corg-content of 0.5%
to 3% (admittedly this is an extreme increase and would not be achievable through cultivating
and fertilising measures)
3.6.1.5
Soil air
The composition of soil air is variable and partly deviates strongly from the composition of the
atmosphere. As a rule it contains less oxygen and more CO2. Furthermore it possesses
increased contents of H2S, methane and N2O above all under reducing conditions (O2-lack).
Therefore good aeration of the soil is not so much beneficial for the soil biota but it avoids
respectively reduces the emission of greenhouse gases like methane and N2O (Dörr et al.,
1992[SP287]; Flessa & Dörsch, 1995[SP288]; Granli und Bøckman, 1994[SP289]).
88
The air portion in the soil results from the difference between total pore volume and the pores
filled with water. That means that the air supply of the soil is predominantly assured with the
coarse particles > 50µm. As a rule sand soils have a proper aeration with a great portion of
primary macro pores dependent on the particles, while clay soils on account of the low portion
of macro pores may have problems with air supply. Thus the influence of the organic matter on
the air supply is especially high in these soils as it contributes decisively to structure and
structure stabilisation and thus stimulates the formation of secondary macro pores. Especially
channels of roots and animals as a consequence of the supply of organic matter with their
continuity have a positive effect on air supply.
3.6.1.6
Soil temperature
The soil temperature is predominantly viewed because of its influence on the velocity of
chemical reactions, metabolism and growth processes of organisms. Temperature fluctuations
arise daily and seasonally and are connected to the conditions of the atmosphere, but decrease
with the depth in the soil. The organic matter is effective over the influence on the absorption
capacity on the caloric household of a soil. Soils with high contents of organic matter are dark
coloured on account of the dark colour of the humic substances and thus can absorb a higher
radiation. In spring they warm-up faster than light-coloured soils. With a high portion of organic
matter in soils (bog soils, lowland bog) increases the danger of night frosts. These soils absorb
during the day a lot of radiation und warm-up quite strongly, however, the radiated energy is
hardly passed in deeper layers, as the heat conductivity of organic matter is very low. During
night a lot of energy is radiated and on account of a missing supply of heat from lower soil
layers night frosts are possible. Organic layers (mulch) can reduce the soil temperature and
smooth the fluctuations depending on day and seasonal times. So, Pinamonti (1998[SP290])
found higher soil temperatures in early summer and late fall below mulch layers, whereas in the
middle of the summer he found lower soil temperatures in topsoil than in uncovered soils.
3.6.2 Effect of Compost on soil physical parameter – examples from
literature
A positive influence of compost on soil physical parameters above all by influencing an
aggregate stability (measured as “percolation resistance”) can be expected. The effect of the
organic matter created by compost can be attributed hereby to three important aggregate
stabilising factors (Goldbach & Steffens, 2000[SP291], Scheffer & Schachtschabel et al.,
1998[SP292]):
The microbial activity is encouraged by the application of organic matter. This contributes
to aggregate stability by the formation of interim products from microbial degradation and
metabolic products of microorganisms with sealing properties. But this stabilisation has
only a temporary effect, as with an increasing degradation of the easily transformable
organic matter the microbial biomass deteriorates.
The activity of earthworms is encouraged over the supply of organic matter. Their faecal
aggregates do also have a positive effect on soil structure and are additionally influencing
the air household by the formation of wide macro pores.
A long-term aggregate stabilisation is caused over the supply of high-molecular humic
material. The portion of which is higher in compost than in “fresh” organic matter, as
these are formed by the transformation and degradation processes during composting.
The numerous researches about the influence of compost on soil-physical properties do not
result in a homogenous picture. In fact the aggregate stability and further soil-physical
properties do improve (see e.g. Martins & Kowald, 1988; Figure 3-16) when compost is applied
in nearly all of the tests, however, a significant compost effect is not always the case.
Investigations which stipulated a significant compost effect were carried out with high portions of
compost which were higher than a practice-relevant application amount (z. B. Aggelides &
Londra, 2000[SP293]; Buchmann, 1972[SP294]).
89
It can be concluded that
composts mostly have a
positive effect on soil-physical
properties, but it is not finally
clarified which influence the
different organic components
of the composts have on the
aggregate stabilising processes in the soil and how far
conditions of soils and
location are influencing these
effects (also see general
relations in Figure 3-15)
160
relative stability of aggregates (%)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
NPK
C40
C80
C120
C40+NPK
C120+NPK
NPK: ONLY MINERAL FERTILIZER, C40 – C120: 40, 80, 120 MG HA-1,
C40/C120+NPK: COMPOST+MINERAL FERTILISER)
relative hydraulic conductivity (%)
FIGURE 3-16: RELATIVE STABILITY OF AGGREGATES BY DIFFERENT
AMOUNTS OF COMPOST APPLICATION (MARTINS & KOWALD,
1988[SP295])
300
clay soil
200
c
b
150
100
d
loamy soil
250
a
b
d
c
a
50
0
control
C39
C78
C156
Aggelides & Londra (2000)
e.g. found a significant
increase of the hydraulic
conductivity and the field
capacity above all on clay
soils, which have been
fertilised with compost (Figure
3-17).
Distinct
results
can
be
expected only with long-term
trials (at least 7 – 10 years)
with a special attention on the
experimental design and the
homogeneity of the location.
Therefore some studies could
not detect an influence on the
soil-physical
parameters
(Asche et al., 1994).
Besides the compost quantity
the type of compost (fresh or
mature compost), the intervals
of application and above all
FIGURE 3-17: RELATIVE HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY AT DIFFERENT
the soils on which compost
AMOUNTS OF COMPOST APPLICATION IN TWO SOILS (AGGELIDES &
will be applied are influencing
LONDRA, 2000)
factors of the compost effect.
The field trials of Petersen &
Stöppler-Zimmer (1995[SP296]) showed better effects of mature composts on the aggregate
stability and pore volume than fresh composts, whereby the improved effect on the pore volume
could only be proven on sand soils ((Figure 3-18).
control: no compost, C39-C156: amount of application in tons, different
letters indicate significant statistic difference (p=0,05)
From the results of Lamp (1996) it can be supposed that a yearly application of small amounts
is more effective on stabilisation of aggregates and the pore size distribution as the singular
application of high amounts (Figure 3-19). The low effect of a compost fertilisation carried out
every 3 years of 51 Mg d.m. ha-1 on the aggregate stability compared with an annual application
of 12 Mg d.m. ha-1 is based on the low effect of the microbial incorporation and a too low
amount of stabilising humic materials.
90
pore volume (%)
52
loess soil
sandy soil
a
49
46
a
a
a
a
bc
c
c
ab
a
43
40
control
C30 fresh
C100 fresh C30 finished
C100
finished
control: only mineral fertiliser, C30/C100 amount of application in tons,
different letters indicate significant statistic difference (p=0,05)
relative stability of aggregates (%)
FIGURE 3-18: PORE VOLUME AT DIFFERENT AMOUNTS AND TYPES
OF COMPOST IN TWO SOILS (PETERSEN & STÖPPLER-ZIMMER,
1996)
b
140
120
100
a
a
This conclusion is supported
by Kögel-Knabner et al.
(1996[SP297]) who researched
humification processes after
compost application. They
found a strong increase of
microbial
biomass
after
application above all with fresh
composts (high portion of
easily degradable organic
matter). After approx. 2
months the microbial mass
decreased by 60-85 % and
after one year reached the
level of soils without compost
application.
Strauss (2003) examined soil
erosion and surface run-off
from soils fertilised for over 7
years with compost and not
fertilised plots (particle size
distribution: sand: 17%; silt:
60%; clay: 23%) with a rain
simulator.
Soil erosion in the compost
plots was reduced by ca. 1/3
(Figure 3-20). The drain
60
decreased from 25 mm to 12 –
40
18 mm. Increasing drain
values result in increasing soil
20
erosion. Soil erosion in the
0
control plot starts earlier
control
C12 yearly
C51 singular
during irrigation and in higher
rates. That indicates distinctly
control: only mineral fertiliser, C12/C51 amount of application in tons,
different letters indicate significant statistic difference (p=0,05)
different hydraulic properties
FIGURE 3-19: RELATIVE STABILITY OF AGGREGATES AT DIFFERENT of the untreated soil. The
compost
fertilised
soils
AMOUNTS AND TYPES OF COMPOST APPLICATION (LAMP, 1996)
distinguished
themselves
between the parameters of
soild density, Corg and saturated hydraulic conductivity. The differences have been statistically
significant (p=0,05).
80
The test also shows that the increasing humus content on account of compost application
improves both soil structure (lower soil density) and – as an subsequent effect – soil erosion
decrease. (Figure 3-21). This relation was also shown in other papers (Adams, 1973 [FA298];
Morgan, 1995[FA299]). These results indicate a slower compaction of soils with good SOM
equipment during rainfall. Interesting is that the field trials shows distinctly better results
regarding the actual soil erosion than this could be expected in a model calculation on basis of
the given soil data.
91
1000
Total Soil Loss (kg/ha)
800
600
400
200
0
Control
CMC-Compost
Standard Compost
FIGURE 3-20: TOTAL SOIL LOSS (KG HA-1) OF THE INVESTIGATED
TREATMENTS. ADDITIONAL BARS INDICATE STANDARD DEVIATION
(STRAUSS, 2003)
2.2
1.46
Mean Soil Loss (L)
Bulk Density (R)
1.44
1.8
3
1.42
1.6
1.40
1.4
1.38
1.2
1.36
1.0
1.34
0.8
1.32
0.6
0.4
1.2
BulK Density (g/cm )
2
Mean Soil Loss (g/min/m )
2.0
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.30
1.8
Organic Carbon (%)
FIGURE 3-21: ORGANIC CARBON CONTENTS COMPARED TO MEAN
SOIL LOSS AT CONSTANT RUNOFF RATES AND BULK DENSITY OF
THE PLOTS (STRAUSS, 2003)
TABLE 3-23:
MEAN PLOT VALUES FOR BULK DENSITY, SATURATED HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
AND ORGANIC CARBON (STRAUSS, 2003)
bulk density
(g/cm3)
Corg
(%)
hydraulic conductivity
mm/h
control
1.41
1.34
3.9
standard compost
1.35
1.63
6.9
CMC compost
1.38
1.69
5.9
Treatment
92
200
Percent
10 t/ha compost
20 t/ha compost
150
100
50
0
loamy soil St (6)
loamy soil El (3)
loamy sand Fo (6)
-50
FIGURE 3-22: EFFECT OF COMPOST ON AGGREGATE STABILITY RELATIVE INCREASE IN RELATION TO CONTROL WITHOUT COMPOST
(= 100 %) RESULTS OF YEAR 2000 (KLUGE & BOLDUAN, 2003)
1,5
1,4
g DM/100 ml
(-)
(-)
ns
ns
1,3
Kluge & Bolduan (2003)
confirmed that the physical
soil properties are changing
only over longer periods of
constant
cultivation.
Only
trends could be determined
after 6 years of compost
application of 10 Mg TM ha-1in
field tests.
First of all loamy locations
reacted on a regular compost
application
with
distinctly
improved
structures
(aggregate stability) (Figure
3-22)
Parallel to this, soil density
was reduced predominantly on
more cohesive soils (Figure
3-23). Ebertseder (2003) could
also prove in long-term tests
(22 years) with relatively high
compost supplies (52 resp.
104 Mg d.m. ha-1 every 3
years) the correlation between
increasing Corg contents and
increasing aggregate stability.
1,2
1,1
1
loamy soil El
(3)
loamy soil He
(3)
loamy sand
Fo (3)
loamy sand
Fo (6)
A positive effect on water
household shows Figure 3-24.
The water capacity was
improved on three locations,
here also on a light sandy soil.
This assures the water supply
of
plants
even
under
unfavorable weather condiFIGURE 3-23: EFFECT OF COMPOST ON BULK DENSITY – RESULTS
tions (drought) for a longer
ABS. IN G SOIL (D.M.)/100 ML SOIL – LOCATIONS EL, HE AND FO,
time. On the other hand the
YEARS (3) AND (6), N.S. – NOT SIGNIFICANT, (-) – TENDENCY TO
infiltration of heavy soils
DECREASE (KLUGE & BOLDUAN, 2003)
improves. The uptake of
heavy rainfalls is improved, soils can dry faster, the increased retaining power is a contribution
to the reduction of run-off and flooding.
without compost
10 t/ha compost
20 t/ha compost
Finally both long-term tests over 22 years (Ebertseder, 2003) showed a distinct increase of the
pore volume above all with pores of > 50 µm.
3.6.3 Conclusions from the symposium
The papers presented at the symposium (Amlinger et al, 2003c) confirmed the throughout
positive effects of compost on soil structure and other soil physical properties (e.g. pore volume,
soil density, water capacity, hydraulic conductivity and infiltration rate etc.) Concerning the
physical soil properties aggregate stability seems to be the most important parameter of all.
Contrary to many other parameters it can be easily measured.
93
0,5
(+)
(+)
0,4
(+)
ns
0,3
0,2
loamy soil El loamy soil Pf loamy sand
(3)
(6)
Fo (3)
without compost
10 t/ha compost
loamy sand
Fo (6)
20 t/ha compost
For aggregate stability a
change
could
only
be
stipulated
with
macro
aggregates
and
micro
aggregates > 20 µm. This is
due to a slow transformation
rate
of
such
organic
components,
which
are
responsible for the stability of
the smaller particles and
which cannot be directly
influenced over the cultivating
measures. It proved that
compost application most
effectively improved the soil
structure of sandy or silt soils.
The pore portion of >50 µm,
predominantly in loamy soils,
was increased in both longterm and short-term tests.
Erosion tests proved: together
with the decrease of bulk density and the increase of SOM compost causes a significant
reduction of soil erosion and surface run-off.
FIGURE 3-24: EFFECT OF COMPOST ON WATER CAPACITY –
RESULTS ABS. IN G WATER/G SOIL (D.M.), LEGEND SEE FIGURE 3-23
(KLUGE & BOLDUAN, 2003)
The dynamic character of infiltration and erosion properties leads to the assumption that the
latter do change over a longer period than the infiltration rate.
It was suggested that through a use of mineral components (stone dust, coal slate etc.) the
potential for aggregate formation of compost can be enforced. This production of soils
respectively a focussed management of soil functions is only possible with the help of compost.
In this way mineral soil amendments can be improved through the incorporation into the soil
formation process “composting” and the market value of compost possibly increased.
A lack of know-how about the correlation between the different organic fractions („pools“) of the
soil and the physical soil properties does certainly exist. Here is some research work still to be
done in order to use composts of different qualities more purposefully for soil improving
measures under the different soil conditions.
Connected with the structural effects of compost utilisation it was stipulated that it is not
sufficient to consider one parameter as indicator, but several soil parameters together would
allow an interpretation of soil improving effects.
The test result can be summarised in the following statements
Reduction of soil density in most cases
Increase of aggregate stability
Increase of pore volume and the saturated hydraulic conductivity
Reduction of soil erosion by increased stability of soil aggregates and the improved
infiltration capacity
With the improved soil structure (aggregate stability, coarse particle fraction) usually also
increase of water infiltration of soils
No unique trend of an increase of effective field capacity
Results depend on soil, compost maturity and application rates
Increase of macro pores, above all with higher compost rates
Increase of soil temperature through darker soil colour
94
Reduction of temperature fluctuation at very high compost rates
Slower warming in spring through soil mulching and cooling effect at high temperatures in
summer
3.6.4 The effect of compost on soil physical parameters – tabular survey
95
TABLE 3-24: THE EFFECT OF COMPOST ON SOIL STRUCTURE RESP. AGGREGATE STABILITY – TABULAR SURVEY
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
0, 39, 78, 156 Mg MWSC ha1
, (1994) single application,
Bulk density decreased sign. on both soils, by up to 20% (loam)
resp. 17% (clay) at highest application rate
Remarks
Effects on Aggregate Stability and Soil Structure
Aggelides &
Londra,
2000[SP300]
4 treatments on two soils
(loam/clay)
Asche et al,.
1994[SP301]
7 loess-lessivé;
Asche &
Steffens,
1995[SP302]
7 loess-lessivé;
Bazoffi et al.,
1998[SP303]
grass cover
Increased aggreagate stability
No information
whether significance
also applies to lowest
application rate
30 Mg RotM- and Comp
each, with and without min.
fertilisation, control
Bulk density decreased, not sign.
30 Mg RotM- and Comp
each, with and without min.
fertilisation, control
aggreagate stability (in percolation-test) raised by 56% in mature
Comp and by 66% in immature Comp, differences not sign.
argillaceous-loamy soil; effects
of Comp and tyres on erosion
and soil properties
Single application of 64 Mg
d.m. ha-1
Comp increased aggreagate stability sign.
Buchgraber,
2000[SP304]
Field trial, 5 years, 6 sites (1
grassland)
BWC, MC, gr.BWC
Soil aggreagate stability: pasture: 90 %; 3 farmland sites: 35 –
40 %, 20 – 30%, 10 – 15 %. NPK-fertilisation reduced stab. by
1-5%, gr BWC kept it at almost same level stability-increase in 5
years, detectable as trend.
Buchmann,
1972[SP305])
vineyard, stony-sandy loam from
slate
control, 200 Mg ha-1 resp.
400/200 Mg ha-1 each MWC
1959 and 1965
With high application rate 1959 statistically confirmed increase of
aggregate stability and lower bulk density
Cole et al.,
1995[SP306]
Silty soil contaminated with
pestizides
Contaminated and non
contaminated soil blend
resp. GWC (dil. rates:
contaminated soild.: 0; 1,5;
6; 12,5; 25, 50; 100 %)
Comp application reduced the bulk density.
Bulk density ↓
Ebertseder &
Gutser,
2003a[SP307]
lessivé, loamy
Control without Comp
trial I: 84 Mg d.m. BWC in 2
applications
Porevolume and –distribution:
Comp application increased porenvolume, mainly because of an
increase of the wide macropores > 50µm, slight increase of
↑ soil respiration,
↑ waterinfiltration,
↓
i
i k
96
single compost application
single compost application
trial I: 3 years
trial II: 22 years
Bulk density increased.
Increase of BD
caused by high
content of inert
material (glas)
aggregate stability ↑
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
trial II: 22 years
trial II: 52 Mg resp. 104 Mg
d.m. Comp every 3 years
narrow macropores between 10 and 50µm, with meso-pores and
fine-pores no sign. difference
aggreagate
stability increased through Comp application on both trialplots
↓ erosion risk
Fliessbach et al.,
2000[SP308]
longterm field trial since 1978;
compare bio-dynamic (D),
organisc (O) and conventional
(K) cultivation (DOK-trial)
CR: Pot, W-W, BR, W-W, Bar,
2x ley
Luvisol on loess
Addition of org. matter during
7 years (2. CR-Periode):
-1
(D1): 1010 Kg ha ; (D2):
-1
2.020 Kg ha in form of MCC
(O1) & (O2): RotM; (K1) &
(K2): StabM ca 1.000 resp.
2.000 Kg ha-1 each
High aggreagate stability in fertilized, low in unfertilized
variations.
aggregate stability ↑
Fortun & Fortun,
1996[SP309]
Laboratory, sandy loam,
argillaceous loam, clay
BWC, SSC, CM, 0%, 0,5 %
and 1 %
Sandy loam: clear increase in aggreagate stability especially on
aggregates with pre-treatment of water resp. beneze (2-6%),
particularly with BWC, with benezene treatment also clearly on
MC and SSC. Clay: increase of 2-5 % with different variations.
Argillaceous loam: increase only for MC at low application rates
and BWC at high rates (2-7 %).
aggregate stability ↑
Hein,
2000[SP310]
Sandy silt, compostproject
Gumpenstein CR: Sil-M, SB,
leyseed incorporation; ley during
main season – Pot - S-R.
variations: Comp; RotM; Slu;
NPK; PK. As assesment
basis for fertilisation 2 LU ha1
, fertilisation cropspecific
application in spring.
All in all clear differences between different crops and within
fertilisation variations high aggreagate (65 – 75%), with all leyvariations higher than 70 %. Mineral complete fertilisation has
lowest aggreagate stability, but differences only 2 – 3 %.
aggregate stability ↑
Illera et al.,
1999[SP311]
Field trial, 1 year, random.
block, 3 replications., degraded,
semiarid soil
Anaerobically treated Slu
and BWC (with increased
Cd, Pb and Zn-values) 0 and
80 Mg ha-1 d.m.,
12 months after application slight increase of SOM, compared to
control, 26% with BWC (sign.) and 12% with SSC. BWCvariations darker soil colour. Slight decrease in particle- and
bulk-density, slight increase in watercontent. Total Cd and Zn
increased above 50%, Cu above 150% in comparison to control
-1
in 0 5 cm.
Lamp,
1996[SP312]
Brown soil from loessloam,
several trials with MWC and
BWC
Application amounts from 12
to 84 Mg d.m. ha-1 year
Percolation stability increased sign. on all trials; exception: MWC
at applicationrates of 51 Mg d.m. ha-1 every three years;
lessivé, uL;
6 variations. control, 40, 80,
120 Mg MWC without, 40,
120 Mg with min fertilisation
Martins &
Kowald,
1988[SP313]
CR: SW, O, W-W, SW;
Bulk density decreased sign. with applications above 20 Mg
d.m./year.
Aggreagate stability increased sign. with all Comp variations, no
stat. differences between variations, at 40 Mg application ~
approx 30% increased stability
Remarks
Percolation stability ↑
Bulk density ↓
aggregate stability ↑
97
Authors
1988[SP313]
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Compostapplication biannually
120 Mg with min. fertilisation
approx. 30% increased stability.
Remarks
Buld density decreased sign. with increased Comp application.
Mbagwu &
Piccolo,
1990[SP314]
5 soils from sL to T, aggregates
were examined
40 Mg d.m. ha-1 SluP- resp.
200 T ha-1 SluC, resp. 8 Mg
d.m. ha-1 Slu
Petersen &
Stöppler-Zimmer,
1996[SP315]
lU and lS; FF. Ca, Pot, cereals,
BR
5 variations:
control, 30 resp. 100 Mg
RotM- and MC each
Aggregate stability slightly increased:
Bulk density decreased. No correlation betw. Corg content and
aggreagate stability, but sign. correlation between aggreagate
stability and humus resp. humic acid content.
Mature Comp stronger effect on aggreagate stability (as fraction
of aggregates from 1- 2 mm) than immature Comp. Immature
(fresh) Comp showed no effect at 30 Mg, immature (fresh) Comp
at 100 Mg application rate shows same effect regarding
aggreagate stability as mature Comp at 30 Mg application.
no information
regarding significance
no statisctical
significance regarding
aggregate stability
Poren volume increase sign. through immature (fresh) Comp
(100t) and mature Comp application, but only on sandy soils.
Reinhofer et al.,
1997[SP316]
3 years, loose sediment brown
soil and pseudogley on
dustloam, Corn-M – S-Bar -(Ra)
- Corn-M
NPK and BWC in various
combinations
No significant results
Steinlechner et
al., 1996[SP317]
Sandy loam, inhomogenous,
org.
-1
MC(172 Kg N ha ) and RM
-1
(93 Kg N ha ) 1995
No influence on soil temperature and aggreagate stability.
Stewart et al.,
1998c[SP318]
Field trial, sandigy loam,
CR: M, Ca, Pot, Ca
0, 20, 40, 80 Mg ha-1
mushroom-substrate-waste
before each seeding
Bulk density decreased significantly only in the variation with the
highest application rate
Timmermann et
al., 2003[SP319]
98
Longterm compost trial (8 resp.
5 years): duofactorial split-plot
facility with 12 variations at 4
replications. random.
48 plots
per experiment
6 Standorte : lS, uL, uL, utL, uL,
sL
CR: M – W-W – W-Bar
Comp application: 0; 5; 10;
20 Mg ha-1
N-supplementation
level N0: no additional Napplication
level N1: 50 % of the optimal
N- application level N2: 100
% of the optimal Nf
bulk density↓,
aggregate stability ↑,
Aggregate stability increased significantly after 4 applications
with all variations compared to 0-application (at 13 – 16 %)
temperature
Decrease in daily temperature fluctuation.
fluctuations ↓
Aggreagate stability: relatively high fluctuation rate of MV,
especially with the controls, generally the Comp application has
a positive stabilizing effect on aggreagate stability of the
soilaggregates. Bulk density: judged on the whole trial period, in
the mean of all dates a decrease of bulk density with Comp
applications was observed for all sites, with relativley high
fluctuations.
aggregate stability,
bulk density
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Remarks
application on basis of the
Nmin-content of the soil as
well as further aspects, like
preliminary crop etc. (comp.
nitrateinformationsservice NIS).
99
TABLE 3-25: THE EFFECT OF COMPOST ON HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY – TABULAR SURVEY
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
0, 39, 78, 156 Mg MWSC
ha-1, (1994) single
application,
Pore volume and saturated hydraulic conductivity increase sign.,
conductivity increases more with clay and pore volume with silt.
Remarks
Effects on Hydraulic Conductivity
Aggelides &
Londra,
2000[SP320]
4 variations on two soils
(loam/clay)
grasscover
Increase of macropores.
Pore volume ↑
saturated hydraulic
conductivity ↑
No statement for
lowest application
rate
Asche et al,.
1994[SP321]
7 loess-lessivé;
30 Mg RotM and MC, with
and without min.
fertilisation, control
Pore volume and fraction of macropores did not increase sign. with
immature (fresh) Comp.. Sign. increase of the mediumpore
fraction. Fine pore fraction decreased.
Lamp,
1996[SP322]
Brown soil from loessloam,
several trials w. MWSC and BWC
Application amounts from
12 to 84 Mg d.m. ha-1 year
Conductivity increased with all Comp applications, because of high
deviation no statist. vailidity
Mamo et al.,
2000[SP323]
Field trial, 3 years, loamy sand,
irrigated M, soil moisture, water
retention capacity
0 and 90 Mg ha-1 1993 and
1995, single application of
270 Mg ha-1 1993.
Comp application did not increase laboratory tested water
availability. Single, high comp application increased waterstress of
the plants during the year of application, but did not cause yield
reduction. During 2nd year increase in plantavailable water and
grain yield, compared to annual applications and control.
Martins &
Kowald,
1988[SP324]
lessivé, uL;
6 variations. control, 40, 80,
120 Mg MWC without, 40,
120 Mg with min.
fertilisation
-1
Pore volume increased, sign. starting at 80 Mg ha , further
increase of application rates did not raise total pore volume;
Petersen &
StöpplerZimmer,
1995[SP325]
lU and lS; CR: Ca, Pot, cereals,
BR
5 variations:
Pore volume increased sign. through application of immature
(fresh) Comp (100 Mg) and both mature Comp, but only on sandy
soils.
100
single compost application
CR: SW, O, W-W, SW;
compost application every two
years
control, je 30 resp. 100 Mg
RotM and MC
The fraction of macropores was increased, but narrow macropores
and mediumpores showed no sign. increase.
No statement on
type of pores found.
TABLE 3-26: THE EFFECT OF COMPOST ON INFILTRATION AND EROSION – TABULAR SURVEY
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
0, 39, 78, 156 Mg MWSC
ha-1, (1994) single
application,
Pore volume and saturated conductivity increase sign., conductivity
increases more with clay and pore volume with silt.
30 Mg RotM and MC, with
and without min.
fertilisation, control
Pore volume and fraction of macropores did not increase sign. With
immature (fresh) Comp sign. increase of the mediumpore fraction.
Fine pore fraction decreased.
Remarks
Effects on Infiltration and Erosion
Aggelides &
Londra,
2000[SP326]
4 variations on 2 soils (loam/clay)
Asche et al,.
1994[SP327]
7 loess-lessivé;
Bazoffi et al.,
1998[SP328]
argillaceous-loamy soil; effects of
compost and tyres on erosion and
soil properties
Single application of 64 Mg
d.m. ha-1
Run-off and erosion were reduced during the 3-year observation
period, sign. not always given.
Bosse,
1968[SP329]
vineyard, 58 % slope, 9 years,
slopeloam from shale and
sleitsandstone, measurement of
waterdischarge and soil erosion
MWC, 1959: 200 resp. 400
Mg ha-1; 1965: 200 resp.
-1
200 Mg ha
Erosion reduced through MWC, to 58,5% (400 Mg ha-1) resp. 33,3
% (600 Mg ha-1). Total tun-off (soil and water) reduced to 77,1 and
55,1 %. Eroded soil of control contained 29 % clay, Comp plots 24
% and 16 %.
erosion ↓
Klaghofer et al.,
1990[SP330]
Field trial, 4 years, vineyard,
5 – 8 ° slope, shallow, calcareous,
high sandfraction, erosion
endangered, rainsimulator
experiments
BWC 75 Mg ha-1, 150 Mg
ha-1
In Sept. 1984, during a natural strom-water incident (strom-water
incident, 28,3 mm) on control 11 Mg ha-1, on 75 Mg MC ha-1 7 Mg
ha-1 and on 150 Mg MC ha-1 8 Mg ha-1 were eroded. The
application of MC reduced erosion only by 40%. During the
irrigation-sprinkler-trials 1984 the highest erosion was found on 150
BWC-plot, the lowest on 75 BWC-plot, 1985 the least erosion was
found on control, the highest on 150 MC-plot.
erosion ↓
Lamp,
1996[SP331]
brown soil from loessloam,
several trials w. MWSC and BWC
Application amounts from
12 to 84 Mg d.m. ha-1 year
Pore volume and fraction of macropores increased sign. with
application amounts above 20T/d.m. ha-1/year
Martins &
Kowald,
1988[SP332]
lessivé, uL;
6 variations. control, 40, 80,
120 Mg MWC without, 40,
120 Mg with min.
fertilisation
Pore volume increased, sign. starting at 80 Mg ha-1, further
increase of application rates did not raise total pore volume;
Ozols et al.,
1997[SP333]
lessivé-pseudogley (Ut3),
rainsimulator 62 7 mm/h four
100 m³ f.m. ha-1 GWC, 10
Mg d m ha-1 BWC;
Run-off: 7 – 8 l/m2*min. The mulch-layer counteracted erosion
considerably: GWC 93% Comp 64% compared to control A
grasscover
single compost application
CR: SW, O, W-W, SW;
Compost application every two
years
No information, on
sign. Results at
lowest application
rate
The fration of macropores was increased, but narrow macropores
and mediumpores showed no sign. increase.
erosion ↓
101
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
-1
Results
Remarks
1997[SP333]
rainsimulator 62,7 mm/h four
weeks after application of Comp
and chaff. Continual sampling of
surface runoff.
Mg d.m. ha BWC;
soilcoverage on mulch
plots: 75 – 90%, control: 15
– 30%.
considerably: GWC 93%, Comp 64% compared to control. A
surface application of Comp is not recommended on erosionendangered soils, das Eutrophication potential is considerably
higher for BWC than for GWC.
Petersen &
Stöppler-Zimmer
(1995[SP334])
lU and lS; CR: Ca, Pot, cereals,
BR
5 variations:
Pore volume increased sign. through application of immature
(fresh) Comp (100 Mg) and both mature Comp, but only on sandy
soils.
No statement on
type of pores found.
Schonbeck &
Evanylo,
1998[SP335]
Field trial, 5 soils: IS, sL, L, uL, sL
No mulch, GWC, barkmulch
(5 resp.10 cm layer each)
Comp had a cooling effect on the soil, the soilmoisture below the
mulch was the highest, resulting from possible infiltration and
reduced evapoaration.
temperature ↓,
Stewart et al.,
1998c[SP336]
Sandy loam, CR: M, Ca, Pot, Ca
0, 20, 40, 80 Mg
mushroom-substrate-waste
before each seeding
Infiltration rate increased after 4 applications on all levels, but not
sign., (by 130 – 207 mm/h)
crust formation ↓,
control, MC, CMC-Comp at
application rates from 12 to
24 Mg
Soil loss on the compost variations about 1/3 compared to control,
earlier and more runoff on control
Strauss,
2003[SP337]
102
pseudogleyified loose sediment brown soil;
rainsimulator: 1 mm/min for 1 h
control, 30 resp. 100 Mg
RotM and MC
Reduction of lumping and crust formation (16 – 31 and 18 – 94 %)
sign. above application rates of 40 Mg
soilmoisture ↑
infiltrationrate ↑,
erosion ↓
TABLE 3-27: THE EFFECT OF COMPOST ON FIELD CAPACITY – TABULAR SURVEY
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Remarks
Effects on Field Capacity
0, 39, 78, 156 Mg MWSC ha1
, (1994) single application,
Field capacity increases significantly only on loam.
30 Mg RotM and MC, with
and without min. fertilisation,
control
Pore volume and fraction of macropores did not increase sign.
With immature (fresh) Comp sign. increase of the mediumpore
fraction. Fine pore fraction decreased.
deep, decalcified lessivé from
loess over terrace gravel
BWC 785 dt ha-1, 3000 dt ha1
, horse manure 535 dt ha-1
Total pore volume, especially the fraction of macropores
increased. At the end of the 2nd year only the Comp plots with high
Comp application had a tendencially higher pore volume, which
was then based on the increase of meso pores in comparison to
control.
Porenvolumen ↑
Eyras et al.,
1998[SP341]
Vesselexperiment, Tom
Seaweed Comp at various
application rates on different
soils
The water retaining capacity increased in the lowest case by 5%
(at 10% Comp) in the highest case by 32% (100% Comp) from
20% (in washed sand) to 52,6% absolute (on the 100% variation).
On all Comp variations the yield loss caused by water stress 0% in
comparison to 83% on control.
water retaining
Gagnon et al.,
1998b[SP342]
Sandy loam and clay soil
4 Comp with 4 N-levels (0,
45, 90 u. 180 Kg N ha-1),
twice
The higest comp application on all comp plots increased soil
mositure sign. on all sandy loam soils, no effect on clay soil.
application rates
between 3 and 30
Mg d.m. in 2 years
Lamp,
1996[SP343]
Brown soil from loessloam,
several trials w. MWSC and
BWC
Application amounts from 12
to 84 Mg d.m. ha-1 year
No change on meso pores.
Martins &
Kowald,
1988[SP344]
lessivé, uL;
6 variations. Control, 40, 80,
120 Mg MWC without, 40,
120 Mg with min. fertilisation
Pore volume increased, sign. starting at 80 Mg ha-1, further
increase of application rates did not raise total pore volume;
Aggelides &
Londra,
2000[SP338]
4 variations on 2 soils
(loam/clay)
Asche et al,.
1994[SP339]
7 loess-lessivé;
Bohne et al.,
1996[SP340]
grasscover
single compost application
CR: SW, O, W-W, SW;
Compost application every two
years.
No information
whether
significance is also
valid for lowest
application
capacity ↑
The fration of macropores was increased, but narrow macropores
and mediumpores showed no sign. increase.
103
Petersen &
Stöppler-Zimmer
(1995[SP345])
lU and lS; CR: Ca, Pot, cereals,
BR
Pore volume increased sign. through application of immature
(fresh) Comp (100 Mg) and both mature Comp, but only on sandy
soils.
Keine Aussagen
welche Poren
verstärkt
vorkommen
Pickering et al.,
1997[SP346]
Mulch on sandy claysoil
control, PE(Polyethylenmulch), 2 Comp (Slu+bark;
MWC)
Mulch increased soil moisture sign. during summer months, GWC
better than bark mulch.
No information on
data
Pinamonti,
1998[SP347]
Field trial, 6 years, vineyard,
calcareous soil, 15 % slope,
semisandy, stony
5 variations: control, 30 resp.
100 Mg RotM and MC each
Both Comp improved porosity as well as water retaining capacity.
porosity ↑, water
Pinamonti &
Zorzi,
1996[SP348]
Field trial since 1986, 16
vineyards, 14 fruit orchards, and
damaged land (skislopes,
devastated roads, abandoned
quarries, eroded regions)
MWC and SSC (Slu: poplar
barc 1:2 vol), various
application types and rates
Sign. increase of available soilmoisture and porosity.
Schonbeck &
Evanylo,
1998[SP349]
Field trial, 5 soils: IS, sL, L, uL,
sL
No mulch, GWC, bark mulch
(5 resp. 10 cm layer)
Comp had a cooling effect on the soil, the soilmoisture below the
mulch was the highest, resulting from possible infiltration and
reduced evapoaration.
Temperatur ↓,
Serra-Wittling et
al., 1996[SP350]
Argillaceous silt
Comp, plastic, hay, papermulch
Fieldcapacity increased sign.
Extremly high
addition, goal was
effect on substrates
Shiralipour et al.,
1996[SP351]
Greenhouse, broccoli, lettuce,
yield, water retaining capacity,
loamy sand, loam and
argillaceous loam
BWC; 0, 15, 30 and 60 Mg
d.m./acre
Increase of water retaining capacity at 60 Mg d.m./acre by 15 %
on sandy loam, 14 % on Lehm, 5 % on argillaceous loam.
Smith,
1996[SP352]
Natioanwide research
programm in Florida
Various MWC resp. BWC
with and without Slu
Soil-water-retention increased
Steffen et al.,
1994[SP353]
3-year Field trial;
CR: Tom – Sweet-Corn – bean
– broccoli/Ca;
3 replications.
silty loam
Single application 1990: 64
Mg d.m. ha-1 SMC; 57 Mg
-1
d.m. ha RotM (= je 2.700
Kg N ha-1 [!]), NPK.
incorporation 20 cm, NPK
with black PE-foil; SMC and
RotM with 10 cm mulched
1990: no sign. increase of the average available soilwater content,
1991: available soilwater content 2,7 times greater than without
Comp application
104
retaining capacity ↑
Bodenfeuchte ↑
St., succeeding crop
fertilized only in NPK-plots
according to drop demand.
Stewart et al.,
1998c[SP354]
Field trial, fine, sandy loam, 2
years, vegetables
0, 20, 40, 80 Mg ha-1
mushroom-substrate-waste
before each seeding
Bulk density decreased, increase of aggregate stability (by 13 – 16
%), reduction of lumping and crust formation (16 – 31 and 18 – 94
%), increase of infiltration rate (by 130 – 207 mm/h), increase of
soil-water content ( by 0 – 7 % w/w), decrease in daily temperature
-1
fluctuations, partially above 80 Mg ha .
bulk density ↓,
aggregate stability
↑, crust formation
↓, infiltrationrate ↑,
water content ↑,
temp.
Stewart et al.,
1998b[SP355]
Incubation experiment,
Lysimeter on field, sandy loam,
CR: M, Ca, Pot, Ca
Soil with Comp addition of
10, 30 and 100 % f.m.
No effect on field capacity and soil moisture.
Tenholtern,
1997[SP356]
Large parcel facility, 3 years, no
rep., Kultosol, single application
SMC 0, 20, 40, 80 Mg ha-1
moist with and without NPK;
0, 40, 120 and 360 Mg ha-1
f.m.
Sign. increase of meso pores (10-0,2 µm) with application rates of
-1
360 Mg ha
Timmermann et
al., 2003[SP357]
Long-term compost experiment
(8 resp. 5 years): duofactorial
split-plot facility with 12
variations at 4 replications.
random.
48 plots per
experiment
6 sites : lS, uL, uL, utL, uL, sL
CR: M – W-W – W-Bar
Comp application: 0; 5; 10;
20 Mg ha-1
N-supplementation
level N0: no additional Napplication
level N1: 50 % of the optimal
N- application level N2: 100
% of the optimal Napplication on basis of the
Nmin-content of the soil as
well as further aspects, like
preliminary crop etc. (comp.
nitrateinformationsservice NIS).
No uniform trend toward an increase of usable field capacity.
Site specific changes in the pore spectrum, caused by Comp.
105
TABLE 3-28: THE EFFECT OF COMPOST ON SOIL AIR AND POROSITY – TABULAR SURVEY
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
0, 39, 78, 156 Mg MKK ha-1, (1994) single
application,
Fraction of wide macropores increased sign. ,
higher increase with silt.
30 Mg RotM and MC, with and without min.
fertilisation, control
No sign. increase in porevolume and fraction
of macropores not Porenvolumen.
Remarks
Effects on Gasdiffusion
Aggelides &
Londra,
2000[SP358]
4 variations on 2 soils (loam/clay)
Asche et al,.
1994[SP359]
7 loess-lessivé;
Buchmann,
1972[SP360])
Vineyard, stony-sany soil from slate
control, 200 Mg ha-1 resp. 400/200 Mg ha-1 MWC
1959 and 1965
With high application rate 1959 statistically
confirmed increase of macropores.
Lamp,
1996[SP361]
Brown soil from loess, several trials
w. WSC and BWC
Application amounts from 12 to 84 Mg d.m. ha-1
year
Porevolume and fraction of macropores
increased sign. with application rates above
-1
20 Mg d.m. ha /year
Martins &
Kowald,
1988[SP362]
lessivé, uL;
6 variations. control, 40, 80, 120 Mg MWC
without, 40, 120 Mg with min. fertilisation
Pore volume increased, sign. starting at 80 Mg
ha-1, further increase of application rates did
not raise total pore volume;
grasscover
single compost application
CR: SW, O, W-W, SW;
Compost application every two years
The fraction of macropores was increased, but
narrow macropores and mediumpores showed
no sign. increase.
Tenholtern,
1997[SP363]
Large parcel facility, 3 years, no rep.,
Kultosol, single application
SMC 0, 20, 40, 8 Mg ha-1 moist with and without
NPK; 0, 40, 120 and 360 Mg ha-1 f.m.
Sign. increase of wide macropores (>50 µm) at
an application rate of 40 Mg ha-1
Timmermann
et al.,
2003[SP364]
Long-term compost experiment (8
resp. 5 years): duofactorial split-plot
facility with 12 variations at 4
replications. random.
48 plots per
experiment
6 sites : lS, uL, uL, utL, uL, sL
CR: M – W-W – W-Bar
Comp application: 0; 5; 10; 20 Mg ha-1
N-supplementation
level N0: no additional N-application
level N1: 50 % of the optimal N- application level
N2: 100 % of the optimal N- application on basis
of the Nmin-content of the soil as well as further
aspects, like preliminary crop etc. (comp.
nitrateinformationsservice - NIS).
Different site specific effects of Comp on the
air volume (increase resp. tendency towards
decrease)
106
no information
whether sign. also
applies to lowest
application
TABLE 3-29: THE EFFECT OF COMPOST ON SOIL TEMPERATURE – TABULAR SURVEY
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Remarks
Effects on Soil Temperature
Mulch may cause a slower warming of the soil in spring.
Baldock &
Nelson,
1999[SP365])
Hartmann
(2003[SP366])
cit according to
Mayer FAL
Podsol and lessivé
Compost
application 60 m3
-1
ha
Darker coloration – during the day more energy-intake; during the night less energy
emission
more balanced daily radiation-balance amplitude.
Surfacetemperature: no difference on light Podsol, lessivé tendencially higher with Comp
application
Mean soil-temp. in 3 cm and 5 cm depth: no difference;
Minimal-temp. on Comp fertilized plots slightly increased.
Temperature amplitudes more
balanced.
Up to two days after Comp application the mulch causes a decrease in the daily maxima
Bis zwei Tage nach Kompostapplikation bewirkt Mulchschicht Verringerung der
Tagesmaxima by 1 – 2 °C in 3 and 5 cm depth, reduced temperature radiation during the
night.
Pickering et al.,
1997[SP367]
Mulch on sany clay soil
Without mulch,
GWC, bark mulch
(5 bzw. 10 cm
layer each)
Mulch decreases soil temperature sign. during summer months, sign. with GWC only in
May.
Pinamonti,
1998[SP368]
uS, vineyard, Comp as
mulch
2 Comp, 37 resp.
42 Mg d.m. ha-1
Mulch decreases soil temperature during summer months by ca. 1°C and increased it in
spring and early summer by ca. 1°C in comparison to non-mulches plot
Poletschny,
1995[SP369]
Comp fertilisation caused humus enrichment
warming especially in spring (up to 1° C)
darker coloration of the soil
better
Schonbeck &
Evanylo,
1998[SP370]
Field trial, 5 soils: IS, sL,
L, uL, sL
Comp, plastic, hay
paper-mulch
Comp had a cooling effect on soil
Stewart et al.,
1998c[SP371]
Sandy loam, CR: M, Ca,
Pot, Ca
0, 20, 40, 80 Mg
ha-1 SMC before
seeding
With the highest application rate, the temperature fluctuation of the soil decreased
No information on
data
No information
from experiments
temperature ↓,
soilmoisture ↑
107
3.7
Heavy metals – accumulation, mobility, uptake by plants
3.7.1 General aspects of heavy metal sorption and solubility
Soil organic matter has probably the greatest capacity and strength of bonding with most trace
metals of any soil component (the possible exceptions are some non-crystalline minerals with
very high surface areas). As a consequence there are often statistically significant correlations
between solubility of trace metals such as Cu, Hg and Cd, and Soil Organic Matter Content.
Frequently organic soils or organic soil horizons with high values of trace metals, for example
Holmgren et al. (1993) showed for a range of soils from the USA correlation between levels of
Cd, Cu, Zn, Pb and Ni and soil organic matter content. The strongest relations were for total Cd
and SOM (g Kg-1 soil)::
CdT = 0,10 + 0,0094 SOM r = 0,51 (P<0,01)
The relationship possibly relates to bio-accumulation and retention against long term leaching.
The functional groups in soil organic matter, principally carboxylic and phenolic, but also amine,
carbonyl and sulphhydryl groups are the key to the bonding of metals. The bonding strength of
these functional groups varies considerably. Large metal additions force bonding onto the
predominant groups (carboxyl). In this case Cu is often found to have weak bonding strength.
3.7.2 Metal absorption rates in SOM
The sorption reactions with SOM generally follow the following patterns:
Cr(III) > Pb(II) > Cu(II) > Ag (I) > Cd (II) = Co(II) = Li(II).
Generally the metals that bond most strongly to SOM tend also to be the most rapidly adsorbed.
Most metals Pb3+, Cd2+, Cu2+ and Fe3+) when complexed with soil organic matter have low
lability. In contrast dissolved humic and fulvic acid-metal complexes of metals such as Cu2+,
Ni2+ and Co2+ appear to be largely labile. Lability is particularly sensitive to pH and
metal/organic ratio, decreasing as pH is raised and as the metal/organic ratio is decreased.
(Petruzzelli & Pezzarossa, 2003; Leita et al., 2003).
The phenomena described is that compost amendments result in a re-distribution of metals from
exchangeable to less soluble fractions. This is preferably true for stable (well humified) organic
materials (Schuman 1998 and 1999 for Cd, Pb and Zn).
The humic substances can interact with the metals forming complexes and chelates of varying
stability. The complexes of the heavy metals with the organic matter of the soil can have
different solubility and therefore a different environmental mobility. The thermal and water
regimes of the soil influence the processes of oxide-reduction of the heavy metals and the more
general decomposition processes of the organic matter of the compost. The depth of soil tillage
is also important because it determines the nature of the contact and the reactions between the
metals and the soil constituents (Pertuzzelli & Pezzarossa, 2003[SP372]).
3.7.3 Concepts of sustainable compost use
The recycling and use of secondary resources (i.e. nutrients, OM) may be accompanied by the
import of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) into the agro-eco system. The beneficial effect of
nutrient recovery from reuse of organic waste-products in agriculture should not counter
108
environmental or specifically soil protection policies. However in most cases admissible heavy
metal inputs to soil via fertilisation exceed the average export by harvested crops, erosion or
leaching. So the result would be a positive balance (Gäth, 1998[SP373]).
Obviously the environmental evaluation of this imbalance is discussed controversially. On the
one hand short to mid term practical field studies show no measurable change in soil
concentrations. On the other hand some accumulation scenarios consider some 10 up to
several 100 years until it can be expected that a critical soil threshold value may be reached
(Gäth, 1998[SP374]; Sauerbeck, 1994[SP375] and 1995[SP376]).
Since heavy metals show little mobility and react in manifold ways with solid soil phase
(Scheffer & Schachtschabel et al., 1998[SP377]) a positive balance lead to accumulation and
increase of metal concentration in soil. This of course depends on cultivation depths, soil
density and balance.
The key question for the derivation of environmentally sound and practicable quality
requirements therefore is: can a certain heavy metal accumulation in soil be tolerated (in
addition to atmospheric deposition) as long as scientifically derived threshold values for the
multifunctional use of soil would not be exceeded?
Following the logic of such a soil threshold which already respects concerned pathways and
subjects of protection in a precautionary way, the answer can only be yes. But, at the same time
it is agreed that for any fertilisation system all management tools must be applied to minimise
the input of potential toxic elements. The latter implies to achieve the best achievable quality by
the way of exclusion of potential contaminated source materials, the reliance on source
separation systems org organic waste materials an the application of a quality management
and assurance system at all steps of production.
Critical Concentrations/
Guide Values
Sink
Source
Multifunctionality of Soil
Increasing Stresses due to Accumulation of Metals
- Agric. Inputs
- Air Immissions
Preventive Measures
Adverse Impacts on
•Soils and on
- Plants, Animals, Men
- Ground Water, Surface Water
- Air
Curative Measures
FIGURE 3-25: CRITICAL CONCENTRATION DECIDES WHETHER
THE SOIL SERVES AS SINK OR SOURCE OF POTENTIAL
POLLUTANTS (GUPTA, 1999[FA378])
Contaminants that accumulate
might not have adverse effect until
their active concentration exceeds
a
(critical)
threshold
value.
Contaminants might also be
substances that when render the
soil,
may
constitute
a
contaminating source for other
media, for example a substance
that is deposited on soil and then
transferred to water.
This leads to the necessity of soil
reference, guide or threshold
values which enable us to judge
whether a potential charge with
pollutants might cause a risk or
not:
The critical concentration marks
the threshold from where, when exceeded, the soil pass from a sink into a potential source of
‘risk compounds’ to a receptor. This critical concentration must be based on experimental and
field experience derived from eco-toxicological effects over defined pathways. With this static
value still nothing is said, if the released contaminant would have a toxicological relevance for
the final receptor media or entity concerned.
The final definition of a guide value for the multifunctional (predominantly agronomic) use of soil
depends very much on the traditional perception of the value of soil as such and the qualitative
109
and quantitative assessment of soil functions. This can then lead to a more or less
precautionary approach (introducing a wider or smaller safety buffer).
This makes clear that – besides identifying a distinct ecological or agronomic benefit – in order
to assess a long term fertilisation system with respect to a potential heavy metal accumulation
precautionary, critical soil threshold values serve as the orientating starting point.
Thje concept that has been proposed by Amlinger et al. (2004) is here summarised.
3.7.3.1
Approaches on risk assessments
Starting point for a number of concepts which have been put forward for the use of secondary
raw materials as fertilisers is an equitable estimation of the beneficial effects balanced against
the potential risks caused by potentially present contaminants (Wilcke and Döhler, 1995[FA379];
Hackenberg and Wegener, 1999[FA380]; Bannick et al. 2001[FA381]; Kranert et al., 2001[FA382];
Bannick et al., 2002[FA383]; Severin et al., 2002[FA384] among others).
In a first approach we may distinguish 2 basic concepts:
1.) Risk based assessment such as the No Observable Adverse Effect Levels (NOAEL)
concept
2.) Mass balance or No Net Degradation (precautionary approach)
Between those two polarities manifold hybrid systems such as PNEC (predicted no effect
concentration) are discussed.
What is commonly agreed is that any concept should provide long term safe food and feeding
stuff production and the protection of the water recourses.
The Part 503 NOAEL risk assessment identifies various potential routes for exposure following
the use of sewage sludge in agricultural production. 14 different pathways were assessed. On
the basis of available data the risk associated with each of the pathways has been calculated.
The threshold for a particular contaminant is the value generated by the pathway resulting in the
lowest concentration that represented an acceptable risk according to the US EPA analysis. For
5 of the 9 regulated contaminants the pathway of direct ingestion of sludge by children was the
limiting path, generating the lowest acceptable level.
Many of the assumptions and the underlying approach have been commented and criticised
(Harrison et al., 1997, Fürhacker et al., 1999) US EPA approach exceeds the maximum load
(1,6 - 2,5 Mg ha-1-1a d.m.) of existing sludge regulations in European countries (e.g. CH, A, FR)
1.5 to 4 times. In effect the admissible yearly or cumulative load for Cd of US EPA Part 503
would lead to the following increase of Cd concentration in the soil (20 cm soil depth with 3,000
Mg ha-1):
BULK SLUDGE: Cumulative load = 39 Kg Cd ha-1
BAG SLUDGE: Yearly load
= 1.9 Kg Cd ha-1
~ + 13 mg Kg-1 soil d.m.
~ + 0.63 mg Cd Kg-1soil d.m. year-1
Drawing the baseline at typical background concentrations for Cd in European soils (0.20 – 0.70
mg Kg-1 d.m ) it becomes evident that the NOAEL strategy uses soil as a sink for Cd until an
actual adverse effect may be expected for any of the exposures adopted. Protective aspects in
the sense of maintaining the soil quality on an existing level are of no relevance.
In contrast No Net Accumulation concepts concentrate on the preservation of soil quality as
such. Thus all possible inputs into the soil (also seen together with water protective aspects)
must be evaluated and limited, also on the background of all future exposures. The most purist
interpretation demands: no increase of the contaminant pool. A first level of tolerance takes into
account all exports by harvested crops and leaching and limits any input to a quantity that would
not change soil concentration.
110
Respecting the compost qualities produced from source separated biowaste and garden waste
this concept would limit compost rates to 2-3 tons d.m. per ha and year. As a result the intended
benefits of humus reproduction etc. could not be achieved following good practice of compost
fertilisation.
The concept proposed by Bannick et al. (2002[FA385]) derives permissible concentrations in
(organic) fertilisers (sludge, compost, manures and slurries) from the precautionary values of
the Soil Protection Ordinance in Germany. The principle adopted here was the “limitation of
pollutant loads to a concentration level corresponding to soil background concentration ”
TABLE 3-30.
PROPOSED LIMIT VALUES FOR COMPOSTS FOLLOWING BANNICK ET AL. (2002) IN
COMPARISON TO EXISTING QUALITIES IN EUROPE.
Soil type
Cd
Cr
Cu
Hg
Ni
Pb
Zn
1.63
107.01
70.08
1.10
75.94
107.63
260.57
1.10
64.41
48.78
0.56
54.64
75.68
207.32
0.46
32.46
27.48
0.14
17.36
43.73
111.47
BWC low (1)
0.50
23.0
45.1
0.14
14.1
49.6
183
BWC high (2)
0.87
39.9
73.9
0.30
27.0
87.6
276
limits from
clay
Bannick et al.
(2002)
Loam/silt
sand
(1) average of mean or median values from European compost surveys (biowaste composts;)
th
(2) average of 90 percentile values from European compost surveys (biowaste composts)
It has been estimated that in Germany on facility level only 10 %, 42 % and 62 % of 376
composting plants may guarantee in average the proposed limit values for sand, loam and clay
soils respectively.
An evaluation of the Austrian data showed that only 38.9 % of 582 biowaste (=501) and green
compost (=63) meet the requirements for biowaste compost use of the EU Regulation (EEC)
No. 2092/91 on organic farming. Compost from cities fulfil this requirement only in 20 – 26 %
whereas for rural areas this proportion amounts 44.5 %.
3.7.3.2
Derivation of quality requirements and application regimes – weighing
benefits and precaution
Some of the principles or basic considerations of the aforementioned no net accumulation
concepts can be endorsed as reasonable step within a comprehensive perception of fertilising
systems. At least one is the definition of beneficial effects and the adoption of GAP in terms of
soil improvement and plant nutrition.
In order to recognise the full range of benefits, specifically of organic soil amendments such as
compost the potential adverse effects by contaminants inputs have to be assessed on a midterm basis independently from the application regime which has been derived from GAP
requirements.
The latter can differ significantly when considering the site and management specific demands.
This can be e.g. (i) a continuous low rate for the maintenance of a given SOM status or (ii) a
short-term humus amelioration on degraded sites with higher application rates for a period of
e.g. 10 years.
The following general, step-wise approach, here explained with compost, would be a feasible
procedure which can be applied for all types of fertilisers and contaminants. The variable
111
parameters like (background concentrations in soils, leaching rates, applications rates of
fertilisers etc.) can be adapted for any individual scenario and fertilisation system.
Step 1: Identify the benefits of the fertiliser/soil amendment to the agro system (relevant
amounts of om or plant nutrients)
Agronomic benefit follows good agricultural practice (GAP) (Nutrient/OM supply) including
eventual necessary limitations related to e.g. water conservation or N2O emissions. This must
also include enough flexibility considering the organic sorption/binding dynamic of nitrogen. This
cannot be neglected in the comparison of e.g. compost, liquid manure or mineral N-fertiliser
(Amlinger et al., 2003a; Amlinger et al. 2003b[DFA386], Timmermann et al. 2003).. Thus shortterm and mid-term effects of added organic matter and plant nutrients in terms of plant nutrition,
build-up of nutrient and SOM stocks and the likelihood of being leached to the groundwater
have to be considered in order to define best practice of beneficial management. This gives an
optimum range of quantities to be applied under the diverse agronomic/site/cultivation
conditions (also for soil amelioration on degraded sites).
Step 2: Identify potential pollutants which may have any adverse effects to the agroecosystem, to the environment or the food chain
Identify the potential pollutants (inorganic and organic) and evaluate the potential risks under
short/mid and long-term management scenarios identified for good agricultural practice in step I.
For PTEs (heavy metals) this is apparently an easy exercise though we still have to distinguish
between metals which play an essential role as trace elements (Cu, Zn and partly Cr) and
others where up to now no beneficial effect was identified. But consider, in some cases a “too
much” of copper and zinc could be identified. In the case of xenobiotic organic pollutants the
answer to the question if a certain substance occurring in manure or compost pause a risk is
much more complex. (Uncertainties of concentration-dose relation in the considered pathways
as well as still unknown dynamics of decay, sorption and metabolism of the huge number of
specified compounds exist).
Step 3: Define the limiting factor and evaluate an application regime considering the
aspects of precaution
This follows GAP with balanced OM and nutrient supply (preventing a surplus over a certain
time frame) by observing potential accumulation of PTEs against threshold values for
multifunctional use of soils (e.g. Austria: ÖNORM L 1075; Germany: Federal Soil Protection
Ordinance, BBodSchV, 1999). Subsequently the potential accumulation of pollutants in time
(e.g. between 50 and 200 years) must be evaluated and decision must be taken whether the
speed of the accumulation or the probable exceeding of precautionary soil thresholds are
acceptable or not.
Step 4: Response to the outcome of step 3
This could be:
reducing the input by means of technological improvement of the material (waste or
product) or limiting the quantity to be applied (plant/soil use)
or
accepting the management system (GAP) due to the fact that on a long-term scale
multifunctional threshold values of soil are not exceeded.
setting maximum concentrations for fertilisers taking into account tolerances of local,
seasonal, sampling and analytical variances
112
When considering the adoption of scenarios in which we would accept a controlled and very
slow input of PTEs to the soil, which does not constitute any risk in a given time horizon, this
approach
1. does take full advantage of beneficial effects of organic matter and nutrients supply
especially from compost to the soil eco system
2. constitutes a driver for an overall technological improvement of industrial processes over
time, in order to have a steady improvement of quality of composts or digestates, its input
from feedstock and overall immissions to the environment – this arguably would not
happen in the case of a regulatory approach which would imply cutting off any possible
application for much of the composted products (e.g. ‘similar to similar concept’)
A concept based purely on absolute figures of annual metal loads might be simple but from a
scientific and ecological standpoint it must be objected.
In the following the assumptions made for the accumulation model of PTEs in the soil are
summarised.
Soil guide respectively threshold values assuring multifunctional use of soils
o Precautionary values of the German Soil Protection Ordinance for “sand” und
“clay”(BBodSchV, 1999 [FA387])
o Proposal for a revision of soil limit values in the frame of an EC Sewage Sludge
Directive by the Joint Research Centre (JRC) of the EU Commission, Institute for
Environment and Sustainability, Soil and Waste (Langenkamp et al., 2001[FA388])
Soil guide value “SAND”
Soil guide value “CLAY”
JRC proposal soil: pH 6-7
Cd
Cr
Cu
Hg
Ni
Pb
Zn
-1
0.4
30
20
0.1
15
40
60
-1
1.5
100
60
1.0
70
100
200
-1
1
75
50
0.5
50
70
150
mg Kg d.m.
mg Kg d.m.
mg Kg d.m.
Concentration of PTEs in composts
Median (Med) and 90th percentile of BWC of national investigations and statistically
weighted figures used as representative concentration (data of 7 European countries)
Heavy matel exports
Mean export by harvested crops (cereals, maize, sugar beet, potatos) and leaching
taken from Bannick et al. (2001[FA389])
Time frame as a tool of flexibility
For the accumulation model a time frame of 100 and 200 years was chosen to
demonstrate scenarios which may be considered a “ceiling situation” and lead to
additional precautionary strategies, so as to stay well within the assumed soil limit
values.
Soil horizon and density
30 cm; ρ = 1.5 g cm-3 (4,500 Mg ha-1)
Background value soil as base line for the accumulation of PTEs in the soil
Mean values of sand and clay soils of the country surveys from DK, FR and DE;
Yearly compost application
113
Limiting factor is a yearly P2O5 load of 60 Kg ha-1y-1 based on a mean compost
concentration of 0.65 % d.m.. This results in an application rate of 9.2 Mg d.m. ha-1y-1.
At a mean organic carbon concentration in Compost of 20.8 % Corg, 9.2 t d.m. compost
ha-1y-1 result in a yearly input of 1,920 Kg Corg ha-1y-1. This figure balances mean
Carbon losses from arable land (Scheffer and Schachtschabel, 1998).
In the case of nitrogen an important question is the beneficial effect of compost
application as far as the N supply and efficiency is concerned. It is well documented
that N availability of the mainly organically bound compost N pool is available to a very
low degree. (Amlinger et al., 2003; Nortcliff and Amlinger, 2003; Amlinger and Götz,
1999). N-efficiency is reported as 0 to 15 % of the initial N input by compost in the year
of application (Zwart, 2003; Berner et al., 1995).
The potential N supply from compost at the quantity derived from the maximum P2O5
load of 60 Kg ha-1 may range between 100 and 180 Kg assuming typical N
concentrations in compost. Therefore compost N will not be a limiting parameter.
Taking into account mineralisation of compost organic matter when
incorporated in soil
Some authors calculated that up to 8 % of the organic carbon applied with compost
would remain in the soil on a mid to long-term basis (Bannick et al., 2002; Smith et al.
2001[FA390]). Respecting a more careful approach towards a reliable accumulation
scenario for PTEs we assume 6 % retainment of the total organic matter (OM) which
accumulate together with the mineral substance applied with compost over the years.
At an estimated OM level of 36 % d.m. this equals a mineralisation rate of 30 %
relative to the total dry matter mass. In other words 70 % of the total dry matter would
remain in the soil. This accounts for the resulting accumulation of the PTE
concentration in the compost on dry matter basis. Accordingly, the increase of soil
mass was set to 70 % of the annually added compost dry matter mass. Therefore the
calculation is always related to the soil mass at the assumed soil depth (20 or 30 cm)
plus 70 % of the yearly applied compost mass. That is 6.44 t in case of a yearly
compost application of 9.2 t ha-1y-1.
114
TABLE 3-31:
ASSUMPTION FOR ACCUMULATION SCENARIOS FOR HEAVY METALS
Atmospheric deposition
Cd
Cr
Cu
Hg
Ni
Pb
Zn
(1)
-1
g ha y
2.315
15.2
87.45
0
44.9
59
332.6
(2)
g ha-1 y-1
-1
Export
Export via leaching
Export via harvest
(3)
Total export
- 0.28
- 9.2
-8
- 0.28
- 17.8
- 0.56
- 38
-1
-1
- 0.67
- 5.27
- 33.92
---
- 10.29
- 5.92
- 172.9
-1
-1
- 0.95
- 14.47
- 41.92
- 0.28
- 28.09
- 6.48
- 210.9
g ha y
g ha y
Background value soil as base line for the accumulation of PTEs in the soil
sandy soils
clay soils
(4)
(4)
mg Kg-1dm
-1
mg Kg dm
0.13
7.65
7.27
0.04
6.6
17.57
26.9
0.27
22.45
16.2
0.06
22.53
24.83
61.57
0.50
23.0
45.1
0.14
14.1
49.6
183
0.87
39.9
73.9
0.30
27.0
87.6
276
Heavy metal concentration in compost
Weighted median BWC
Weighted 90%ile BWC
(5)
(6)
mg Kg-1dm
-1
mg Kg dm
Quantity of compost per ha and year applied
P2O5 compost: 0.65 % d.m.
Soil depths and density
max. 60 Kg P2O5 ha-1 y-1
9.2 Mg d.m. compost ha-1
soil density: 1,5 g cm-3
30 cm;
4,500 Mg ha-1
Time frame for the accumulation model
200 years
(1) taken from the latest investigations on the atmospheric deposition of PTEs in the east and south part of Austria
from 10 locations (Böhm & Roth, 2000[FA391] and 2001[FA392])
(2)
average total export of heavy metals via leachate water (at a percolation rate of 200 mm) taken from figures in
Germany (Bannick et al., 2001[FA393]):
Concentration in the
-1
leachate water [µg l ]
Cd
Cr
Cu
Hg
Ni
Pb
Zn
0.14
4.6
4
0.14
8.9
0.28
19
(3)
average total export of heavy metals via harvest (cereals, maize, sugar beet, potatoes) taken from figures in
Germany (Bannick et al., 2001[FA394])
(4)
mean values of sand and clay soils of the country surveys from DK, FR and DE; see also Table 3–3 in chapter 3;
latest Version of the report “Trace elements and organic matter content of European soils” are available on the web
page http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/waste/sludge/index.htm
(5)
average of median (mean) values from compost surveys (biowaste composts) in seven European countries
(6)
th
average of 90 percentile values from compost surveys (biowaste composts) in seven European countries
Figure 3-26 shows the accumulation curve for seven PTEs. The amount of annual compost
applications – as calculated by limit P loads – is 9.2 Mg d.m. ha-1.
The time frame is 200 years. From the computation of accumulation in a certain soil layer it is
evident that the graph is not linear and it would approach an asymptotic curve in relation to the
element concentration in compost, taking into account the site and management specific longterm mineralisation rate of the compost.
The lower and the higher starting point (background concentrations) of the accumulation graphs
represent sandy and clay soil background values. Accordingly, the lower threshold value (Soil
limit “SAND”) refers to the graphs “sand” and the upper threshold of the shaded range (Soil
limit “CLAY”) refers to the graphs “clay” (see Table 3-31).
The two PTE concentration levels (weighted median and 90th percentile) were computed for
each of the soil types (“sand” and “clay”)
115
Example graph:
mg kg-1 soil
[30 cm]
Soil limit JRC:
6<pH<7
background concentration soil; year '0'
100
Soil limit “CLAY”
100
Soil limit “SAND”
10
"clay"
10
"sand"
90%ile BWC
median BWC
1
1
0
50
100
150
200
years
soil limits; DE
JRC prop. 6<pH<7
MED [4.6 t dm ha-1]
90%ile [4.6 t dm ha-1]
CHROMIUM: Accumulation in Soil
10
1
1
0,1
0,1
0,01
50
100
150
100
10
10
1
0,01
0
100
[30 cm]
10
mg kg-1 soil
mg kg-1 soil
[30 cm]
CADMIUM: Accumulation in Soil
1
0
200
50
200
soil limits; DE
JRC prop. 6<pH<7
soil limits; DE
JRC prop. 6<pH<7
MED [9.2 t dm ha-1]
90%ile [9.2 t dm ha-1]
MED [9.2 t dm ha-1]
90%ile [9.2 t dm ha-1]
COPPER: Accumulation in Soil
MERCURY: Accumulation in Soil
100
10
10
1
1
1
1
0
50
100
150
200
mg kg-1 soil
[30 cm]
100
[30 cm]
mg kg-1 soil
150
years
years
0,1
0,1
0,01
0,01
0
50
years
116
100
100
150
200
years
soil limits; DE
JRC prop. 6<pH<7
soil limits; DE
JRC prop. 6<pH<7
MED [9.2 t dm ha-1]
90%ile [9.2 t dm ha-1]
MED [9.2 t dm ha-1]
90%ile [9.2 t dm ha-1]
NICKEL: Accumulation in Soil
LEAD: Accumulation in Soil
10
10
100
1
1
0
50
100
150
200
mg kg-1 soil
mg kg-1 soil
100
[30 cm]
100
[30 cm]
100
10
10
0
50
years
100
150
200
years
soil limits; DE
JRC prop. 6<pH<7
soil limits; DE
JRC prop. 6<pH<7
MED [9.2 t dm ha-1]
90%ile [9.2 t dm ha-1]
MED [9.2 t dm ha-1]
90%ile [9.2 t dm ha-1]
ZINC: Accumulation in Soil
1000
100
100
mg kg-1 soil
[30 cm]
1000
10
10
0
50
100
150
200
years
soil limits; DE
JRC prop. 6<pH<7
MED [9.2 t dm ha-1]
90%ile [9.2 t dm ha-1]
FIGURE 3-26:
3.7.3.3
ACCUMULATION SCENARIOS FOR HEAVY METALS WITH MEDIAN AND 90TH
PERCENTILE PTE CONCENTRATIONS IN EUROPEAN COMPOSTS
Results of accumulation scenarios
Chromium will not reach the soil limits under any of the assumed scenarios.
In the case clay soils, soil threshold values – with the exception of Zn – will not be
exceeded within to 200 years of compost application.
If it is assumed that target values of sandy soils must not be exceeded within 100
years, allowable PTE concentrations could – with the exception of Zn – be even higher
than the median values of European BWC. This is valid even if 9.2 Mg compost per ha
and year are applied.
Cu and Zn concentrations which would exceed the 90th percentile significantly might
require a site specific evaluation on sandy soils if such composts are to be used
continuously in the long run.
3.7.3.4
Concept of limit values for an European regulation
Limit values for composts, intended for the use in food and fodder production make sense only
if they do not set unreasonably high standards for compost qualities.
On the other hand they have to fulfil the task of minimising risks to the environment while taking
into account the agronomic needs for the benefits of soil-plant system.
Regarding temporal and regional variations as well as the variation within an individual
composting plant, setting a tolerance factor in addition to the calculated 90th percentile value of
European biowaste composts would be a reasonable way feasible.
117
In Germany, the seasonal coefficient of variation in composting plants averages 28% and
ranges up to 50-60% (Kranert, 2002[FA395]; see also chapter 4). In addition, unavoidable
deviations of incremental samples within one compost batch range between ±30 and ±40 %
from the mean value. The highest individual variations were found for Cd (100 %) and Lead
(73 %) (Breuer et al., 1997; see chapter 7.4.2)
Comparing the statistically weighted 90th percentiles on EU level to two countries in the starting
phase of source separation, Spain and the UK, the PTE concentration of the latter is increased
by 7 % (Cr) to 56 % (Ni).
Based on these considerations a 50 % tolerance is added to the 90th percentile value of
European BWC and the averaged 90th percentile of ES and UK composts. These concentration
values are named [level 1] and [level 2] respectively.
Sand 90%il [9.2 t]
Clay 90%il [9.2 t]
70
60
Years
50
40
30
20
10
0
Cd
Cr
Cu
Hg
Ni
Pb
Zn
0,13
0,27
7,65
22,5
7,27
16,2
0,04
0,06
6,6
22,5
17,6
24,8
26,9
61,6
minimum
measurable
increase
0.02
1.5
2.0
0.02
1.5
1.5
2.5
90%il conc, in
compost
0,87
39,9
73,9
0,30
27
87,5
276
Start
soil*
sand
clay
* Background concentration in sand and clay soil in year ‘0’
application rate: 9.2 Mg compost d.m. ha-1y-1
FIGURE 3-27: PERIOD OF TIME FOR MEASURABLE INCREASE OF
HEAVY METAL CONCENTRATION IN THE SOIL
118
Figure 3-27 demonstrates the
period
until
an
analytical
detectable increase may be
measured when compost of a
certain quality is applied. As a
precaution, the heavy metal
concentrations assumed are the
90th percentile of the European
BWC. Depending on the distance
from background levels of the soil
(“sand” and “clay”), an increase in
heavy metal contents in soil to an
analytically detectable extent may
be expected within a period of 5
(Zn) to 60 (Hg) years.
Table 3-32 gives a comparison of
the resulting concentrations with
the proposed limit values of the
Working Document “Biological
treatment of biowaste” (2nd draft)
and the averaged limit values for
BWC in European countries.
TABLE 3-32:
KONZEPT FOR HEAVY METAL LIMIT CONCENTRATIONS FOR A EUROPEAN
-1
BIOWASTE AND COMPOST PROVISION (MG KG D.M.)
Cd
Cr
Cu
Hg
Ni
Pb
Zn
(1)
0.50
23.0
45.1
0.14
14.1
49.6
183
90%ile EU + 50 % [level 1]
(2)
1.3
60
110
0.45
40
130
400
mg Kg-1dm
Weighed median/mean in
biowaste compost in the EU
Warranty values –
(3)
1.1
70
110
0,5
60
120
380
Means on plant scale
90%ile UK&ES + 50 % [level 2]
(4)
1,9
64
170
0,65
63
200
470
Warranty values –
(5)
1.8
100
180
1.1
80
190
530
Single measurements on plant
scale
(1) average of median (mean) values from compost surveys (biowaste composts) in seven European countries.
(2)
average of 90th percentile values from compost surveys (biowaste composts) in seven European countries + 50
% tolerance.
(3)
Warranty values calculated on the basis of 376 Composting facilities in the average of 4 subsequent
measurements at a precision of p < 0.05 (Reinhold, 2003)
(4)
average of 90th percentile values from compost surveys (biowaste composts) in UK and Spain (Catalonia) + 50
% tolerance.
(5)
Warranty values calculated on the basis of 376 Composting facilities for individual samples at a precision of p <
0.05 (Reinhold, 2003)
3.7.4 Heavy metal mobility as influenced by compost application –
examples from literature
Following Timmermann et al. (2003[SP396]) a positive heavy metal balance in compost
application systems cant be avoided even at optimum organic fertilisation rates. The metal
inputs cannot be compensated by plant uptake and leaching (Poletschny, 1995[SP397]; Wilcke &
Döhler, 1995[SP398]). Specifically this is the case for Pb, Cr, Ni and Cd (mean output by harvest
<10 % of input), and to a less extent for Hg, Cu und Zn (mean output by harvest 10 - 30 % of
input). The positive balance can be minimised considerably by
use of high quality composts with low heavy metal concentration
lowering compost rates
increasing output rates (crop rotations with high take-up rates and complete utilisation
and removal of harvest and crop residues)
The authors conclude that quality and of harvested food crops are not endangered by heavy
metal inputs from compost if food practice of compost fertilisation is respected.
119
NH4NO3 Extractable Cd in the Soil
[Scherer et al., 1997]
Cambisol
0,020
Luvisol
mg kg soil
0,016
-1
0,012
0,008
0,004
0,000
10 t
Contr
30 t
10 t
Comp 1
30 t
10 t
Comp 2
Contr
30 t
10 t
Comp 1
30 t
Comp 2
FIGURE 3-28: SIGNIFIKANT REDUKTION DES NH4NO3LÖSLICHEN CADMIUMS AN ZWEI MIT KOMPOST GEDÜNGTEN
STANDORTEN
Cadmium Konzentration in Salat & Senf
[Parabraunerde, Scherer et al., 1997]
Salat
4,00
3,50
Senf
*
*
mg kg TM
3,00
Cadmium:
Boden:
0.6 mg/kg
Komp 1: 1.7 mg/kg
Komp 2: 1.1 mg/kg
*
*
-1
2,50
2,00
*
1,50
1,00
0,50
0,00
10 t
Kontr
30 t
10 t
Komp 1
30 t
Komp 2
* ... Unterschied zur Kontrolle signifikant (p<0.05)
FIGURE 3-29:. CD KONZENTRATION IN IN SALAT UND
SENFPFLANZEN NACH KOMPOSTAPPLIKATION IM
TOPFVERSUCH (PARABRAUNERDE; 2 KOMPOSTE; 10 UND 30
MG KOMPOST HA-1)
Cadmium in Grain & Potato
0,18
[Bartl et al. 1999]
c
0,16
0,14
mg kg d.m.
0,12
b
-1
0,10
a
b
0,08
a
a
0,06
0,04
0,02
0,00
0
N3
BWC3
b
a
a
Oats
Dinkel
Potato
0,011
0,008
0,007
0,077
0,06
0,058
0,106
0,155
0,089
difference significant where differing letters (p<0,05)
CONTROL (0 - FERTILISATION) A MINERAL FERTILISED SYSTEM (N3) AND A
-1 -1
COMPOST PLOT (BWC3; MEAN DOSAGE: CA. 32 MG HA Y IN 6 YEARS)
FIGURE 3-30: CADMIUM IN THE GRAIN OF OATS, DINKEL AND
POTATOS
120
The example of Figure 3-28 may
be given to demonstrate that the
exchangeable or soluble part of
metals can be reduced in compost
amended
soils.
In
a
pot
experiment it could be shown that
even at a rate of 30 tons compost
per ha in a Cambisol and Luvisol
respectively the amount of Cd
extractable in NH4NO3 was
reduced significantly (Scherer et
al. 1997). At the same time the Cd
uptake by the crops (statistically
significant for lettuce at both
application rates and with two
composts)
were
decreased
(Figure 3-29).
The result of another field
experiment is shown in Figure
3-30. After 6 years of continuous
compost application (loamy silt; 6
repetitions; ca. 32 Mg ha-1y-1) the
Cd content in potatoes was
significantly lower than in the
control and the mineral fertilised
plots. The Cd concentration in the
mineral fertilised variants was
assumed to be related to the use
of the Cd containing phosphorus
fertiliser super–phos (Bartl et al.,
1999). These results may support
the hypothesis that the application
of high quality compost contributes
to the enhancement of active
surfaces and thus meliorating the
sorption capacity and strength for
heavy metals.
In
the
framework
of
the
symposium Applying compost –
Benefits and Needs” (Amlinger
2003) further examples
from
experimental experience were
presented.
In field tests for compost
application over several years,
which are carried out since 1995
in Baden-Wuerttemberg (Germany) on six field locations, the
heavy metal contents of the
harvest products after 6 years
remained unaffected by the
compost application.
100
Percent (without compost = 100 %)
Cd
80
Ni
Zn
60
40
20
0
5
10
20
Compost dosage in t DM/ha and year
FIGURE 3-31: MOBILE HEAVY METAL CONTENTS (SOIL
EXTRACTION WITH 1M NH4NO3) OF SOILS IN RELATION TO
COMPOST DOSAGE (AFTER 6 YEARS) [IN % OF
UNFERTILISED CONTROL); KLUGE (2003)
The very small heavy metal uptake
of the harvest products amounts to
max. 10 - 15 % of the heavy metal
supply with composts. As a result
the total contents in soil were not
raised. The mobile heavy metal
contents of Cd, Ni and Zn even
decreased with rising application of
com-posts (Figure 3-31). According
to these results an increase in
heavy metal contents in soil to an
analytically measurable extent even
in medium-term periods of 10 - 20
years is not to be expected.
Organic matter (specifically complex
polymer humic substances) in
compost are absorbed by the soil
matrix. Thus compost amendments
alter the entire sorption and
exchange dynamic for metals.
Figure 3-32 und Figure 3-33 show sorption isotherms for Zinc and Cadmium in untreated and
repeatedly sludge treated soil (Petruzzelli & Pezzarossa, 2003).
80
q
64
160
s.s
o.s.
s.s.
o.s.
q
120
48
80
32
40
16
20
40
60
C eq
80
100
40
80
120
160
Ceq
FIGURE 3-32: SORPTION ISOTHERMS OF ZINC IN
FIGURE 3-33: SORPTION ISOTHERMS OF CADMIUM
ORIGINAL (O.S.) AND SLUDGE TREATED (S.S.) SOIL IN ORIGINAL (O.S.) AND SLUDGE TREATED (S.S.)
(PETRUZZELLI & PEZZAROSSA, 2003)
SOIL (PETRUZZELLI & PEZZAROSSA, 2003)
The absorption capacity for the investigated metals increased in soil treated with composted
sludge. The degree of the amount adsorbed increased of more than 75% for zinc and more than
27% for cadmium.
It is important to stress that since the soil sorption capacity is inversely related to the amount of
metal absorbed, low-metal biomasses (‘clean compost’) are more suitable to provide new
absorbing sites.
This fact alone demands the production of compost processed from source separated organic
materials of high quality.
This protective effect can be mainly due to the added organic matter and can be considered
effective even for a long time after the cessation of compost addition. The half-life of
121
decomposition of organic matter in soil has been estimated to be about 10 years (Bell et al.,
1991).
Also inorganic materials contained in the compost as carbonates, oxides, and phosphates, are
known to be able to retain metals in relatively insoluble forms (Brown 1998). The inorganic
component is an important fraction of biowaste, which does not decrease with time, and can
positively contribute to reduce phyto-availability of trace metals.
As indicated, ion sorption and exchange processes depend – among others - of pH, cation
exchange capacity (CEC) and the existence of reactive surfaces. Compost increase the buffer
capacity and absorption efficiency of soil also because this properties are enhanced by the
alkaline effective substances of compost
A key question is if there is a link between compost maturity and solubility of heavy metals. Leita
et al. (2003) investigated the portion of disolvable organic carbon (DOC) during composting and
the extractability of heavy metals connected therewith. The CaCl2- extractable DOC already
decreased mainly during the first rotting stage from 3.5% finally to 0.5% at the end of the
mesophilic maturation phase. This observation has been made also by other authors (Chen and
Inbar, 1993, Chefetz et al., 1996, Kaschl et al., 2002). The highest metal concentrations
extractable in CaCl2 can be found in the first week of composting in a still acidic milieu. It is the
soluble Cd and Zn which significantly decrease with proceeding rotting (Figure 3-34).
a
3
y = 7.207x
-0.6 53
2
R = 0.795
2
1
b
7
CaCl 2 Soluble Zn/Total Zn (%)
CaCl 2 Soluble Cd/Total Cd (%)
4
6
-0.580
y = 10.865x
2
5
R = 0.828
4
3
2
1
0
0
0
30
60
90
days of composting
FIGURE 3-34:
120
150
0
30
60
90
120
150
days of composting
SOLUBLE FRACTION OF CD (A) AND ZN (B) DURING COMPOSTING (LEITA ET AL.,
2003) .
In addition the CaCl2- extractable Cd and Zn correlated strongly only with non-humic
substances identified in DOC.
It can be concluded that during the rotting process maturation (humification) determines the
heavy metal mobility. The most important chemical process herein is complexation.
3.7.5 Effect of compost application systems on the heavy metal
concentration in soils, mobility and take up by plants – tabular survey
122
TABLE 3-33:
RESULTS FROM LITERATURE REGARDING THE EFFECTS OF COMPOST ON THE
HEAVYMETAL CONTENT IN SOILS AND PLANTS.
Impact on Soil
Impact on Plant
Fieldtrials
Authors
Baldwin & Shelton,
1999[SP399]
↑
↓
↑
Pb
Boisch, 1997[SP401]
Cd, V, Cu und Zn
(leaching)
―
Pb, Ni
Ni, Cd
Bragato et al.,
1998[SP402]
HM
Zn, Cu, Ni, Pb
(total)
Zn, Cd, Pb
Cd (leaching)
Buchgraber, 2000[SP404]
Pb, Ni, Cd
Businelli et al., 1996
Cu, Pb, Zn
Cortellini et al.,
1996[SP405]
Zn, Ni
Cuevas et al.,
2000[SP406]
Cu, Zn, Pb
Gigliotti et al.,
1996[SP407]
Cu, Zn, Pb, Cr
Zn, Cu
Gäth, 1998[SP408]
SM
Hartl et al., 2003[SP409]
In spite of higher
abs. Cd-input
(Compost)
Pb, Zn
Cd immobilisation
HDRA Consultants,
1999[SP410]
Cd
Zn, Cd, Cr, Cu,
Pb, Ni
Leita et al., 1999[SP411]
Cd, Cu, Ni, Zn
Moreno et al.,
1996[SP412]
Cd, Zn
Cd, Zn
Peverly & Gates,
1994[SP413]
Zn, Ni
Ni, Cu
Pinamonti, 1998[SP414]
Zn (DTPA)
Zn, Ni, Pb, Cd, Cr
(total)
Ni, Cd, Cr
(BWC)
Timmermann et al.,
2003[SP415]
Cu
(mobile content)
Vogtmann et al.,
1996[SP416]
Weissteiner, 2001[SP417]
↓
Zn, Cd, Ni
Bartl et al., 1999[SP400]
Breslin, 1999[SP403]
―
Cd, Ni, Zn
(mobile content)
Pb (Cr)
(mobile content)
Cd (compare
Cd, Zn
control)
Ni, Cu
Ni, Pb,
Cd, Cr
(SSC)
HM
Zn
Vessel resp. Incubationexperiments
Scherer et al.,
1997[SP418]
Shuman, 1998[SP419]
Shuman, 1999[SP420]
Warman et al., 1995
Pb, Cd
Zn
Cd, Cr,Hg
Zn, Cu, Ni, Pb
Pb, Cd (availability)
Zn (non exchangable
fraktion)
Zn (exchangable
fraktion)
↑ ... increased values;
↓... decreased values;
― no tendency detectable
HM ... Heavy Metals general; BWC ... Biowaste compost; SSC ... Sewage sludge compost
123
TABLE 3-34: EFFECT ON HEAVY METAL CONCENTRATION IN SOILS, MOBILITY AND TAKE UP BY PLANTS – TABULAR SURVEY
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Remarks
Effects on Heavymetal Content in Soils and Plants
Baldwin & Shelton,
1999[SP421]
Field trial, 2 years, Nicotiana
tabacum cultivated in 1994 and
1995; claysoil with and without
lining, soil- and leafsamples 3x
per year
BWC, SSC and blend 1994: 0, 25,
50 and 100 Mg Comp ha-1; 0 and
4000 Kg lime; 224 Kg N, 56 Kg P;
1995: only lime, N and P
Soil: linear increase of DTPA-extractable Zn, Cd and Cu
with higher application rates. No influence of the pH-value
on extractable metals, also not with high metal contents of
Comp. Plant: with the exception of Cd, 1994 no Cd, Ni and
Pb-content detectable in leaves. No influence of oH on Cuand Zn-concentrations in leaves.
soil: Zn, Cd, Cu ↑
plant: Pb, Ni no
influence
Bartl et al.,
1999[SP422]
Field trial, 1992 – 1998
grey alluvial soil, sandy to loamy
silt, pH 7,6; analyses of the
harvest 1996-1998 (O, Sp, Pot).
Latin rectangle, 6 replications.
12 fertilisation variations with BWC
+/- min. N-supplementation, 19921
998
Here only 3 var. evaluated: BWC
(1992-1998): 30 – 60t f.m. ha-1 for
the years 1992-98 ; NPK; „0“
Soil: after 6 years no accumulation of Ni and Cd through
Comp application, but of Pb.
Plant: yield crops: Pb not detectable (detection limit of 0,1
mg/Kg). No raised Cd-content in plants. Oats and spelt
showed the highest Cd-concentrations in grains of control.
soil: Pb ↑; Ni and
Cd no influence;
plant: no influence
Boisch, 1997[SP423]
Field trial, (1991 – 1994),: 6 trial
sites: sandy brown soil (conv.,
Sil-M; Sluc, N / P min. als
initiation dose; pseudogley-gley,
pseudogley-lessivé (conv. RaW-W – W-W); c) gleypseudogley (Ra – W-Bar – WBar, min.) d) sandy ground
moraine, sandy brown soil
(ecolog. Pot – S-R- O – SW).
BWC: 6 to 16t d.m. ha-1, according
to demand, resp. 32 Mg d.m. ha-1
as amelioration fertilisation on light
sites, control (on ecolog. cultivated
plots unfertilized);
No difference in nutrient - and toxin-load of plants between
different fertilisation variations. Toxin extraction of plants <
Comp loads. Toxin loads, except for Cd, above the ones
from NPK. The loads of Cu and Zn from Comp were
comparable with the ones from Slu. Only with Pb an
increased accumulation potential is assumed. In the
leachate of sites with low humus content and low pHvalues slightly raised concentrations of Cd, Cu, V and Zn
were found in connection with Comp applications.
Application intervals of several years are a possibility for
argillaceous and loamy soils, sandy soils should be
fertilized annually.
Boden: Cd, V, Cu,
Zn slightly
increased
leaching loss
Bragato et al.,
1998[SP424]
Field trial, silty loam, 5 years
after application DTPAextractable metals, analysis of
Corg in soil and C of the
mikrobial biomass (MBC)
Since 1989 annually 7,5 resp. 15
Mg ha-1 concentrated resp.
concentrated and composted Slu
Soil: after 5 years no sign. change in total-heavymetal
content Zn, Cu, Ni, Pb (high plant extraction?) between
variations. DTPA-extractable Zn correlated with MWC.
Soil: no influence
from diff.
variations
124
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Remarks
Breslin, 1999[SP425]
Field trial, 52 months, sandy
loam, pH 5,6 – 6,4, SOM 2,8 %;
nutrient leaching of As, Cu, Fe,
Pb, Zn
BWC and BWC with Slu, 21 – 62
Mg ha-1, HM 3-20 times higher
concentration than in soil.
Cu, Pb and Zn remain in the top 5 cm within 52 months, Cd
leaches out. Accumulation of Zn, Cd and Pb relative to
surroundings is proportional to application rate.
soil: Zn, Cd, Pb ↑;
leaching of Cd
Buchgraber,
2000[SP426]
Field trial, 5 years, 6 sites (1
pasture), pH >6
BWK, MC, gr.BWK, HM-content
within range of quality ,Pb, Ni and
Cd in BWC clearly higher than in
MC.
Extraction through plants are assumed to be minor, no
detection through soil analysis.
soil: Pb, Ni, Cd no
influence
Businelli et al.,
1996[SP427]
Field trial, 6 years, M
monoculture; random. block; 4
replications; argillaceous loam,
pH 8,3; Corg 0,76%,
MWC, 25 – 30 cm incorporated,
1) 30 and 90 Mg f.m. ha-1 and year
2) 30 Mg ha-1 during 1st and 4th Jahr
each, min. NPK-supplementation
3)control: NPK without Comp
Soil: clear increase of total content of Cu, Pb and Zn after 6
years. EDTA extracted HM (extracts instable chem.
fractions) increase even more clearly. Cd, Cr, Ni stayed the
same in Comp fertilzed sites and control. No change
detectable below 40 cm (high pH, minimal mobility, etc.).
plants: (roots, grain, stem, leaves) at 90 Mg ha-1 generally
sign. higher for the metals: Cu, Pb, and Zn, but not for Cd,
Cr and Ni.
soil Cu, Pb, Zn ↑
(total and EDTA)
up to 40 cm
plants Cu, Pb, Zn
↑, Cd, Cr, Ni no
influence
Cortellini et al.,
1996[SP428]
Field trial, 6 years, silty loam,
CR: W-W, SB, M; Sil-M in plants
and soil, OM, Ntot and available
P in soil
SSC + St, liquid and concentrated
anaerobically treated SSC (7,5 and
15 Mg d.m. ha-1 and year); NPK
Sign. increase of Zn in grain and roots and of Cu in SBroots, but not of Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb. No influence of application
rates. Slu caused a higher accumulation than dehydrated
Slu and Comp. After 6 years increase in SOM, Ntot,
available P, extractable Zn and Ni, according to application
rate.
Cuevas et al.,
2000[SP429]
Field trial, thin vegetation cover,
degraded, semiarid soil,
randomised block, 4
replications, soil analysis 1 year
after compost application
BWC 0, 40, 80, 120 Mg ha-1,
Increase of all HM-concentrations, sign. only with Zn, Pb
and Cu at medium and high application rates.
Gigliotti et al.,
1996[SP430]
Field trial and greenhouse,
argillaceous loamy calcareous
soil, pH 8,3, M
BWC, 6 years 90 Mg ha-1 and Jahr,
540 Mg in total
Sign. increase in HM-content in soil only with Cu, Zn, Pb
and Cr (only during the last two trial years), M: higher
uptake rates: Pb 3x as high, other HM twice as high as
control.
soil: Cu, Zn, Pb,
The HM-enrichment beyond application and extraction is
detectable in top soil, at an error rate of max. 10%. The
enrichment causes an increase of Pb and Zn
soil: HM ↑
plant: Pb and Zn
Gäth, 1998[SP431]
Field trial 1976 – 1989, brown
soil from basaltweathering,
CR: SW W W O
MWC-applications in 13 years,
amounts: 0 , 40 Mg d.m. ha-1 (=
218 Kg Pb and 196 Kg Zn ha-1) 80
Cr ↑
plant: Pb and
other HM ↑
125
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
-1
Remarks
CR: SW – W-W - O
218 Kg Pb and 196 Kg Zn ha ), 80
Mg d.m. ha-1, 120 Mg d.m. ha-1.
enrichment causes an increase of Pb- and Znconcentrations in grains and with Zn a slow leaching.
↑
HDRA Consultants,
1999[SP432]
HDRA-Research Grounds:
sandy loam, organic, CR: Potonions -Ca-carrot - grass/clover
3 different GWC, 250 Kg N ha-1, x2
and x3, f.m., poultry manure, Slu
After 2 applications no sign. change if Zn, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb
and Ni-content in soil.
soil: Zn, Cd, Cr,
Cu, Pb, Ni no
influence
HDRA Consultants,
1999[SP433]
Shepton Farms Ltd.; 7 sites;
loam, clay and limestone;
organic cultivation, diverse CR
GWC 30 Mg ha-1 (=250 Kg N ha-1)
After 3 applications no sign. change of HM-content in soil.
soil: no influence
of HM
HDRA Consultants,
1999[SP434]
Staple Farm, heavy loam,
conventional; CR: W-W – W-Bar
- Ra
GWC, 4 variations: no Comp +
customary fertilisation; low amounts
of Comp (302 Kg N ha-1) + low
amounts of NPK; much Comp (605
Kg N ha-1); much Comp (605 Kg N
ha-1) + low NPK
No sign. change of HM-content in soil.
soil: no influence
of HM
Kluge et al.,
1997[SP435]
Field trial, since 1995, lS, uL, sL,
uL
12 BWC and GWC, 0, 50, 100, 200
% of GAP, 10 Mg ha-1 d.m. in
„optimalvariation“
HM-load clearly below limits, according to Comp
regulations of Baden-Württemberg, balance of application
and extraction clearly positive, mobile Pb, Cd, Ni and Zncontent decrease initially.
Total content
barely affected
Leita et al.,
1999[SP436]
Field trial, sandy loam, longterm
effect (12 years) of compost in
comparison to NPK and MC on
TOC, microbial biomass C, Bc
und metabolic quotient qCO2 as
well as heavy metal availability.
BWC: 500, 1000 and 1500 Kg ha1
year-1 = 2, 4 and 6-fold of Italian
limit value.
HM total load: Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn below EU-limits; DTPAextractable Cd, Cu, Ni, Zn similar on control and NPK-sites,
increase on organically fertilized plots (dependent on Corginput).
soil: Cd, Cu, Ni,
126
Zn ↑
Authors
Moreno et al.,
1996[SP437]
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Remarks
Field trial, silty loam, pH 8,77,
Bar
SSC 20 and 80 Mg ha-1, normal (2
mg/Kg Cd), once contaminated
with Cd (760 mg/Kg Cd), once
contaminated with Cd (830 mg/Kg),
Zn (1640 mg/Kg), Cu (995 mg/Kg),
Ni (525 mg/Kg)
The addition of highly contaminated Comp (mainly Cd)
cause yield-depression for grains, but not straw. Cd and Zn
were easily absorbed by Bar. Ni and especially Cu were
complexed by SOM and not plant-absorbed. Plants on
Comp plots higher N- and P-content than control. Cd and
Zn-loads in soil correlated with plant-content, no correlation
with Cu and Ni.
plant: Cd, Zn ↑,
Ni, Cu so
influence
soil: Cd, Zn ↑
Moreno et al.,
1998[SP438]
Greenhouse, lettuce (4 months)
and Bar (months), 4
replications., very low SOMcontent, container with 20kg
soil, HM-content, SOM-content
and enzymatic activity
SSC partially enriched with HM,
composted with barley-St, 20 and
80 Mg ha-1, control: soil without
Comp, customary NPK-fertilisation
Yield: lettuce: Comp plot below control, Bar: higher yield
only with high uncontaminated SSC-application. High
content of Cd, Cu, Ni and Zn inhibited protease-BAAactivity in comparison to other Comp. Influence on
phosphatase- and ß-Glucosidase-activity.
Cd, Cu, Ni, Zn
influence
enzymatic activity
Peverly & Gates,
1994[SP439]
Field trial, sludgy, argillaceous
loam, M, 2 years
BWC (318 mg/Kg Pb) with Slu and
woodchips, 46, 92 and 184 mg ha-1
before planting
No toxic effects of Comp on germination and growth of M.
Metal- and nutrient concentrations of plants barely affected,
K, Ni and Cu-content increased in comparison to control.
Raised Zn and Ni-load of soil limited to topsoil and had no
effect on yield or grain- and water-quality.
plant: HM-content
barely influenced;
Petruzelli, 1996[SP440]
Theory
Ni, Cu ↑
soil: Zn, Ni ↑ in
topsoil
Influence of feedstock! Source separation highly important!
In Comp with low HM-concentrations the bio-availability of
HM is ‚controlled’ by Comp chemistry.
127
Authors
Pinamonti,
1998[SP441]
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Field trial, 6 years, vineyard,
calcareous soil, 15 % slope,
semidandy, stony
control (500 Kg ha-1 NPK),
PE(Polyethylen-Mulch), 2 Comp:
SSC+bark (660 Kg ha-1 organ. N)
BWC ( 530 Kg ha-1 organ. N)
SSC causes a sign. increase of total and DTPA-extractable
Zn-content in soils. BWC increases total Zn, Ni, Pb, Cd and
Cr-content and the DTPA-extractable content of Zn, Ni, Pb,
Cd. No influence on Cu. No changes in Zn-concentration of
leaves and juice. SSC: no influence in plant uptake of Ni,
Pb, Cd, Cr. BWC: sign. increase of Ni and Cd in leaves, Cd
and Cr in juice. No phytotoxic symptoms.
Remarks
soil: Zn (DTPA) ↑;
Zn, Ni, Pb, Cd, Cr
(total) ↑; Zn, Ni,
Pb, Cd (DTPA) ↑;
Cu +/–
plant: Zn, Ni, Pb,
Cd, Cr no
influence (SSC),
Ni, Cd, Cr ↑
(BWC)
Scherer et al.,
1997[SP442]
Vessel experiment, diverse
crops (Pb, Cd, Zn). 2 different
soils: HM-contaminated soil
from Eifel: brown soil from the
vicinity of a lead ore deposit, lSlU, pH 6,4, Pb-content 544
mg/Kg; non contaminted topsoil
near Bonn (lessivé from loess),
ul, pH 5,9.
2 BWC, without Pb > 600 mg/Kg
Comp caused a decrease of the Pb-content in the aboveground plant parts compared to control, decrease on HMcontaminated soils with higher pH-values more apparent.
Lessivé: in comparison to control lower Cd-content of
plants, but decrease of Cd-content with brown soils after
Comp application less apparent. Influence on Zn-content of
plants not homogenous. The Comp application reduced the
Pb and Cd-content of the crops in comparison to control on
(geogenous-dependent) HM-contaminated brown soils –
independently of the HM-content of the applied Comp.
Selivanovskaya et al.,
2001[SP443]
Field trial, random. block, 4
replications., Bar, grey forest
soil
untreated Slu, anaerobically treated
Slu (10 Mg ha-1 d.m. each), SSC
(30 Mg ha-1 TM); control
Sign. HM-increase on all plots in comparison to control, but
below European and Russian limits.
Shuman, 1998[SP444]
Incubation experiment, 5
organic wastes, two soils
(coarse and fine texture),
distribution of Cd and Pb
amongst the soilfractions was
analysed.
Commercial Comp (Slu and
woodchips), poultrywaste PL, cotton
gin litter CL, secondary industrial
Slu ISlu, commercial humic acids
HA. Blend with soils 30 Mg/a, only
PL 5 Mg/a.
The added Cd and Pb were found mainly in the SOM
fraction, in spite of the increase of the extractable fraction
of the sandy Norfolk soils. SMC and humic acids lowered
Pb in the exchangeable fraction of both soils and increased
Cd in SOM of the sandy soil. SMC and humic acids
decreased Pb in the exchangeable and SOM fraction in the
MnO- amorph AfeO and crystallin CfeO-fraction. Addition
of PL increased Cd and Pb in the exchangeable fraction of
the sandy soil. Some org. additives like SMC lower the Cdand Pb-availability because of a redistribution of the metals
from the SOM fraction into less soluble fractions.
128
plant: Pb, Cd ↓;
Zn no influence
soil: Pb and Cdavailability ↓
Authors
Shuman, 1999[SP445]
Timmermann et al.,
2003[SP446]
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Incubation experiment,
distribution of Zn amongst the
soilfractions
Commercial Comp (Slu and
woodchips), spent mushroom
compost SMC, poultrywaste PL,
cotton gin litter CL, secondary
industrial Slu ISlu, commercial
humic acids, with and without 400
mg/Kg Zn.
No Zn-addition
majority of metals in the residual fraction.
Comp, PL and Slu increased the Zn-content in all fractions.
With Zn-addition the majority of the metals were stored in
the exchangeable SOM fraction. SMC and humic acids
lowered the Zn-content in the exchangeable fraction and
raised it in others. Effects more evident in soils with coarser
structure and dominant quarz-fraction, compared to more
finely structured soils with a dominant caolinith-fraction in
the clay. Org. materials with a high Zn-content may
increase concentrations in all fractions, while others like
SMC and humic acids may lower the availability
(redistribution into less soluble fractions)
Comp application: 0; 5; 10; 20 Mg
ha-1
N-supplementation
level N0: no additional N-application
level N1: 50 % of the optimal Napplication level N2: 100 % of the
optimal N- application on basis of
the Nmin-content of the soil as well
as further aspects, like preliminary
crop etc. (comp.
nitrateinformationsservice - NIS).
The Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni and Hg-content – stayed on the same
level (even with excessive Comp application rates) as the
level of the control. Only Cu and Zn-content were
increased slightly, some sign. (1 – 2 mg/Kg), in mean of all
trials with excessive Comp application (annually 20t ha-1
d.m.), but not with lower and standard agricultural Comp
applications (level K1 and K2).
Long-term Comp experiment (8
resp. 5 years): duofactorial splitplot facility with 12 variations at
4 replications. random.
48
plots per experiment
6 sites : lS, uL, uL, utL, uL, sL
CR: M – W-W – W-Bar
Remarks
soil: Zn in
exchangable
fraction ↓, in
others ↑
The available contents were not affected during the trial
period (Pb, Cr) resp. decreased considerably, stat. sign.
(Cd, Ni, Zn). Only the mobile Cu-contents increased slowly.
With initially regular Comp applications, which were
terminated eventually, a gradual remobilization of the
initially complexed HM cannot be ruled out.
Plant: HM-content of cash-crops, Corn-M resp. Sil-M,
remain within the mean of several years of Comp
application, mostly uninfluenced. This applies to Pb, Cr and
Hg. In comparison to control, slight decrease of Cd, Ni and
Zn-content, because of low availability through increased
Comp application. Slightly increasing tendency of Cucontent of crops, mainly with Sil-M, because of a minor rise
of Cu-mobility after Comp application.
129
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Remarks
Crop-by-product St no final interpretation.
Vogtmann et al.,
1996[SP447]
Warman et al.,
1995[SP448]
Weissteiner,
2001[SP449]
2 fieltrials, 7 years, plantquality
BWC (60 Mg ha ) and MCH (47,5
Mg ha-1) before planting
greenhouse, loamy sand; yield,
plant content, total-metal-uptake
Beta vulgaris cv Lucullus
MC with Slu (highly polluted, 15 %),
0, 25, 50 75 and 100 % vol
Field trial, 1993 – 1999, loamy
silt ;
BWC/MC some +/–
compoststarterbacteria [MCB], 12,5
– 24 Mg d.m. ha-1 (= 21 – 38,4 Mg
f.m.) and year, 7 variations; (with
and without min. NPKsupplementation, with and without
application of chemical-synthetic
fertilizers), standard=customary,
conventional, (NPK without Comp)
CR: Corn-M – Soy – W-W – WBar – FP – Corn-M – W-W,
130
-1
HM-content of both comp variations sign. lower in
comparison to NPK and commercial fertilizer variation.
Highest load in control because of low Cd-export through
crop-yield.
soil: Cd ↓; Zn, Cd
no influence after
7 years
During 7 years no increase in Zn- and Cd-concentrations.
Cd-transfer to plant minimal, positive influence through
Comp application. Application rates of 10t/d.m. ha-1 should
not cause any problems.
content ↓
For Cd, Cr, Hg: the total HM-uptake and the HM-content of
the plant tissue increased with increasing Comp
applications. This pattern did not apply to Zn, Cu, Ni, Pb,
Se-uptake. Higher HM-contents were detected in planttissue, despite low application rates. Total metal content
correlates with the DTPA-extractable metals in the growth
medium.
plant: Cd, Cr, Hg
The HM-input is traceable, but not alarming. The only
element which was detected in the soil in higher amounts
was Zn. Some of the the Comp had not achieved quality
grade I.
plants: HM-
↑
Zn, Cu, Ni, Pb, Se
no influence
Very high Comp
application rates!
soil: Zn ↑
caused by Comp
with high Zncontent.
3.8
Pesticides and organic pollutants
3.8.1 Behaviour of organic pollutants during composting and in compost
amended soils
With respect to organic pollutants in soils compost application can have various effects.
Compost organic matter may due its sorption capacity reduce the mobility of toxic compounds.
Further, the compost induced improvement of soil microbial activity contributes to an oxidative
decay of pollutants. On the other hand this degradation potential is limited and little is known
about the long term behaviour of organically bound organic pollutants (Brändli et al.,
2003[SP450]). Büyüksönmez et al. (2000[SP451]) surveyed contents and degradation
processes of pesticides in compost and in compost amended soils. The identified compounds,
mainly pesticides constituents (organo chlorine compounds) are found in very low
concentrations. Insecticides (e.g. organo phosphates, carbamates) and most of the herbicides
were hardly be detectable. The substances most resistant against the decomposition were
organo chlorine compounds.
The principle mechanisms responsible for the decay are ( Büyüksönmez et al., 2000[SP452]):
partial degradation to secondary compounds (metabolites)
adsorption
Humification
volatilisation
mineralisation
Pesticide decay during composting takes place similarly as may be observed in soil. Extent
and mechanisms are mainly influenced by type pesticide, rotting conditions (moisture,
microbial community and efficiency and duration of composting process.
The adsorption of non-ionic and non-polar pesticides and other organic contaminants occurs
mostly on the soil organic matter fraction. Since the highest content of soil organic matter
occurs in the surface horizons of soils, there is a tendency for most organic contaminants to be
concentrated in the topsoil. Migration of organic contaminants down soil profiles occurs to the
greatest extend in highly permeable sandy or gravely soils with low organic matter contents.
High concentrations of water soluble organic matter can cause enhanced mobility and
leaching of organic contaminants in soils due to the binding of the contaminant to the soluble
ligand. Similarly the erosion of surface soils by water and wind will lead to movement of
organic materials together with bound organic pollutants.
With respect of pesticide contamination, most are relatively insoluble and do not move down
the soil profile, but there are exceptions which can be readily leached. The main pollutant
pathway of pesticides involves transfers adsorbed to organic particles in solution or
suspension.
In some cases where organic wastes, such as sewage sludge and some composts, are added
to soils, they may act as both a source and a sink of organic contaminants (as well as of
metals).
Adsorption of organic contaminants depends on their surface charge and their aqueous
solubility, both of which are affected by pH. For many organic contaminants, adsorption on to
soil colloids and the presence of water are important factors promoting decomposition by
microorganisms. The range of factors affecting the degradation of organic contaminants by
microorganisms includes: soil pH, temperature, supply of oxygen and nutrients, the structure
of the contaminant molecules, the water solubility of the contaminant and its adsorption to the
soil matrix (and therefore to the organic content of the soil).
131
The persistence of organic contaminants in the soil is determined by the balance between
adsorption on to soil colloids, uptake by plants and transformation or degradation processes.
Here some examples demonstrating the impact of compost on decay and fixation of pesticides
and other organic pollutants.
6,00
100 % cont. soil
50 % standard soil
50 % compost
-1
mg kg soil
5,00
4,00
3,00
2,00
Best results were obtained with
50% compost additions.
1,00
0,00
Trifluralin
Metolachlor
Pendimethalin
FIGURE 3-35: DECAY OF PESTICIDES IN SOIL-COMPOST
BLENDS AFTER 40 DAYS, CROPPED WITH MAIZE (COLE ET AL.,
1995[SP453])
umol Formazan/g Mischung
900
Bodenmischungen
Kompostmischungen
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
1,5
6
12,5
25
% kontaminierter Boden
50
100
FIGURE 3-36: DE-HYDROGENASE ACTIVITY IN CONTAMINATED
SOIL WITH OR WITHOUT COMPOST ADDITIONS (COLE ET AL.,
1995[SP454])
132
In a compost amended soil
incubated for 40 days and cropped
with maize a nearly complete
degradation of three herbicides
was observed (Cole et al.,
1995[FA455]).. The authors argued
this with the increased microbial
activity.
De-hydrogenase
activity
at
increasing
additions
of
contaminated soils was severely
detracted only from 50% soil
additions (Figure 3-36). But still
then the compost causes a
satisfactory degradation of the
herbicide.
It is well known that composting
processes and compost additions
to mineral oil contaminated soils
result in effective carbo-hydrate
degradation which is widely used
in remediation projects for
contaminated soils. (Hupe et al.,
1996[FA456]).
120
100
% of applied
The improvement of sorption of
hydrophobe pesticides is well
correlated with maturity and
quantity of compost additions (e.g.
Diazinon and Linuron: IglesiasJimenez
et
al., 1997[FA457];
Atrazin,
Simazin,
Terbutryn,
Pendimethalin,
Dimefuron:
Barriuso et al., 1997[FA458]).
soil (retained)
water (leached)
80
60
40
20
0
Control
MSWC - 2 t
MSWC - 15 t
FIGURE 3-37: RETAINMENT AND LEACHING OF DIAZINON IN A
COMPOST AMENDED SOIL (SANCHES-CAMANZANO ET AL.,
1997)
This phenomenon is explained
with the colloidal structure of
humic substances which alters the
distribution and availability of
hydrophobe
and
hydrophiliy
surfaces of the soil matrix.
Percolatioj trials carried out by
Sanches-Camanzano et al. (1997) support the experience of increasing the retainment
capacity – in this case for Diazinone – in compost amended soils (Figure 3-37).
Discussing beneficial effects of compost in this respect microbial degradation is the key
process, for which optimised conditions would be desirable. This comprise O2 availability,
humidity, temperature, properties of organic matter. Following Büyüksönmez et al.
(1999[SP459]) abiotic (photolysis, hydrolysis)and biotic transformation processes take place
concurrently, the latter are considered as the most important ones. Metabolites from
degradation of primary substances may contain functional groups which might build covalent
bonds with functional groups of humic substances. It has been shown that with advanced
maturation also the organic binding of pollutants is improved. This is consistent with the
phenomenon of aging i.e. the progressive fixation of organic pollutants in soil in time.
133
Houot
et
al.
(2003[FA460])
investigated
the
decay
of
polycyclic aromatic hydro-carbons
(PAH) during composting.
14C-CO (% initial 14C)
2
80
Fluoranthene
60
Soil
40
With the exception of one mixed
waste compost (MSW1) all
composts (biowaste compost BIO1; green waste-sewage sludge
compost - GWS1) led to a good
mineralisation
performance
(60%) of Phenanthrene.
BIO1
MSW1
20
GWS1
0
0
25
50
75
100
Time (days)
FIGURE 3-38: KINETICS OF FLUORANTHENE MINERALISATION
DURING INCUBATION IN SOIL OR COMPOSTS. RESULTS ARE
EXPRESSED IN PERCENT OF THE INITIAL RADIOACTIVITY
(HOUOT ET AL., 2003)
100
"Fresh" Composts
14 C-CO (% initial 14 C)
2
14 C-CO (% initial 14 C)
2
100
75
50
25
0
0
10
20
30
40
Mature Composts
75
50
25
0
0
50
50
100
150
Time (days)
Time (days)
BIO2
GWS2
MSW3
FIGURE 3-39: IMPACT OF COMPOST MATURITY ON THE
PRESENCE OF MICROFLORA DEGRADING ORGANIC
14
MICROPOLLUTANTS : C-FLUORANTHENE MINERALISATION IN
3 «FRESH» AND «MATURE» COMPOSTS SAMPLED IN THE
SAME COMPOSTING PLANTS (HOUOT ET AL., 2003)
14C (% initial 14C)
125
100
Mineralized:
true degradation
75
Extractable
50
Non extractable:
apparent dissipation
25
0
unstable OM
stable OM
BIO1
MSW1
Composts
FIGURE 3-40: DISTRIBUTION OF 14C ADDED IN THE
MINERALIZED, EXTRACTABLE AND NON EXTRACTABLE
14
FRACTION, AFTER INCUBATION OF C-FLUORANTHENE IN
SOIL-COMPOST MIXTURES. INFLUENCE OF COMPOST
ORGANIC MATTER STABILITY (HOUOT ET AL., 2003)
134
The highest mineralisation rate –
also 60 % – of Fluoranthene was
achieved in BIO1. As for the other
compounds, again in mixed waste
compost nearly no degradation
was observed (Figure 3-38).
Figure 3-39 shows that the
degradation of 14C- marked PAH
was detected only in mature
compost. It can be concluded that
the microbial community present
in fresh compost is not able to
degrade
organic
compounds
substantially. This was already
described by Martens (1982).
Fluoranthene has been degraded
at rates between 50 and 70% on
all fully matured composts,
whereas
benzo(a)pyren
mineralised only for 30 % in one
case.
Also jn compost soil blends, only
mature compost additions were
effective (BIO1 in Figure 3-40).
If fresh only partly rotted material
was used the major part of the
transformed fluoranthene was
found in the extractable fraction.
This is an clear indication that
predominantly microbial species
and communities dominating the
maturation process are able to
mineralise PAH and other carbohydrates.
Here follows a short summary on oxidative degradation of exemplary organic pollutants during
composting (see Amlinger et al., 2004[FA461]).
The observed reduction of Polychlorinated biphenyls PCBs during composting was up to a
maximum of 45 % through either bio-degradation or volatilisation. However, there are
considerable uncertainties since, given the concurrent mineralisation/volatilisation of part of
the organic substrate, generally higher concentrations attended to be found in compost than in
feedstock. Degradation occurs mainly for congeners with lower chlorination.
In general Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/F) tended to concentrate
during the degradation process, mostly due to the mass loss during mineralisation of organic
matter. Biowaste and green waste feedstock shows generally lower concentrations than the
finished composts. The reported initial generation during the rotting process only contributes to
a negligible degree to dioxin content in composts and only occurs with temperatures > 70°C
and in the presence of primary substances such as trichlorophenol and pentachlorophenol.
Here it is important to say that properly managed processes keep temperatures in the range of
45 to 60°C. Higher temperatures are sought only for a short period to ensure sanitisation,
although many regulations just mandate 55 to 60 °C to be reached for hygienisation. Most
tests conducted during the composting process of biowaste showed an increase of hepta- and
octa- PCDD. On the other hand, the content of low chlorinated PCDD/PCDF decreased during
the composting process (thereby leading to a decrease in overall toxicity). Furans also
generally diminished.
Linear alkylbenzene sulphonates (LAS), Nonylphenols (NPE) and Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
(DEHP),: are all rapidly degraded under aerobic composting conditions.
3.8.2
Assessment of potential accumulation of persistent organic
pollutants (PCB, PCDD/F und PAK) by regular compost application
Amlinger et al., 2004 have computed accumulation scenarios for three of the most investigated
persistent organic pollutant groups: PCB, PCDD/F und PAK.
Based on investigated background concentrations in composts, in soils and realistic ranges for
half-life times [t1/2] these are the assumptions used for the scenarios
135
TABLE 3-35:
ASSUMPTION FOR PCB, PAH AND PCDD USED IN ACCUMULATION SCENARIOS
(AMLINGER ET AL., 2004)
PCB
PAH
PCDD/F
Half-life in soil
(1)
12
years
(2)
2
g ha y
16
years
8
g ha y
30
years
29
µg ha y
Atmospheric deposition
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
Export
Export (leaching and harvest)
Not assessed; no consistent data available
Background value soil as starting point for the accumulation in the soil
-1
0.05
-1
1
LOW
(3)
0.01
mg Kg d.m.
HIGH
(4)
0.04
mg Kg d.m.
LOW
0.05*
mg Kg d.m.
HIGH
0.1*
mg Kg d.m.
mg Kg
d.m.
-
-1
mg Kg
d.m.
-
mg Kg
d.m.
-
mg Kg
d.m.
-
mg Kg
d.m.
-
4
ng TE Kg d.m.
mg Kg
d.m.
-
12
ng TE Kg d.m.
mg Kg
d.m.
-
18
ng TE Kg d.m.
2.44
1
-1
13.30
1
ng TE Kg d.m.
ng TE Kg d.m.
Soil threshold values for multifunctional use
-1
3*
1
-1
10*
1
-1
5**
ng TE Kg d.m.
-1
40**
ng TE Kg d.m.
Concentration in compost
-1
0.6
-1
4.6
-1
13
Minimum of means
(5)
0.01
mg Kg d.m.
Maximum of means
(5)
0.10
mg Kg d.m.
Assumed high
(5)
0.25
mg Kg d.m.
1
1
1
-1
-1
-1
Quantity of compost per ha and year applied
-1
-1
-1
max. 60 Kg P2O5 ha y (P2O5 compost: 0.65 % d.m.)
Soil depths and density
-1
9.2 t d.m. compost ha y
30 cm / soil density: 1,5 g cm-3 ;
Time frame for the accumulation model
4,500 t ha-1
100 years
(1)
PCB: di Domenico & De Felip[SP462] (2000); PAH: Knudsen et al. (2001[SP463]) and PCDD/F: Shatalov et al.
(2002[SP464])
(2)
max. annual load per ha taken from Kupper & Becker van Slooten (2001 [SP465])
(3)
median of background values on arable land or rural soils (PAH) (Erhardt & Prüeß, 2001.
(4)
90%ile of background values on arable land or rural soils (PAH) (Erhardt & Prüeß, 2001[SP466]).
(5)
Background concentrations in compost taken from Amlinger (2004)
*
Precautionary soil threshold values of organic pollutants for soils (German Soil Protection Ordinance, BBodSchV,
1999[FA467]); low and high values for soils with an organic matter content < and > 8 % respectively.
**
Guide values for the use and remediation of soils for agricultural and horticultural use (working group on Dioxins Germany,
1992); 5 ng TE Kg-1dm = target value; any soil use is possible; 40 ng TE Kg-1dm = threshold for control measure and
recommendation for precautionary action.
136
The accumulation was computed by using the following iterative formula:
I F + I D − EL − EH 1 − x n
×
C n = C0 × x +
MS + MS
1- x
n
where is:
− ln( 2 )
x = e t1/ 2
Cn … compound concentration in year n [mg or ngI-Teq Kg-1 d.m.]
C0 … compound concentration in year 0 [mg or ngI-Teq Kg-1 d.m.]
n…
years for which accumulation is considered
IF …
input of compound by fertiliser application [g or µg ha-1y-1]
IF = CF. × Mf
= CF… compound concentration in fertilizer applied [mg or ngI-Teq Kg-1 d.m.]
ID …
input of compound by atmospheric deposition [g or µg ha-1y-1]
ED … export of compound by leaching [g or µg ha-1y-1]
EH … export of compound by harvest [g or µg ha-1y-1]
Ms … Mass of soil layer concerned [t ha-1]
Mf … Mass of compost addition that remains in the soil after mineralisation [t ha-1y-1]
t1/2…
half-life time of compound in the soil
Figure 3-41, Figure 3-42 and Figure 3-43 show the soil change for PCB, PCDD/F and PAH
respectively based on the assumptions given in Table 3-35.
PCB: Background concentration soil: LOW (0.01 mg Kg-1)
PCB: Background concentration soil: HIGH (0.04 mg Kg-1)
t ½ = 12
0,1
0,1
PCB Accumulation in Soil
Compost [9.2 t d.m. ha-1y-1]
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
[30 cm]
0,12
mg kg-1 soil
mg kg-1 soil
[30 cm]
t ½ = 12
0,12
0,08
PCB Accumulation in Soil
Compost [9.2 t d.m. ha-1y-1]
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
0
20
40
years
60
80
soil thresholds 0,05 - 0,1 mg /kg
PCB: 0. 01 mg/kg d.m.
soil thresholds 0,05 - 0,1 mg /kg
PCB: 0. 01 mg/kg d.m.
PCB: 0.1 mg/kg d.m.
PCB: 0.25 mg/kg d.m.
PCB: 0.1 mg/kg d.m.
PCB: 0.25 mg/kg d.m.
FIGURE 3-41:
100
years
CHANGE OF CONCENTRATIONS OF PCB DUE TO CONTINUOUS YEARLY
COMPOST APPLICATION. GREY AREA … RANGE OF THRESHOLD VALUES FOR
SOILS ; T1/2 = HALF LIFE TIME (AMLINGER ET AL., 2004)
137
PCDD/F: Background concentr. soil: LOW (2.44 ng TE Kg-1)
PCDD/F: Background concentr. soil: HIGH (13.30 ng TE Kg-1)
t ½ = 30
t ½ = 30
[30 cm]
100
10
1
PCDD/F Accumulation in Soil
Compost [9.2 t d.m. ha-1y-1]
ng TE kg-1 soil
ng TE kg-1 soil
[30 cm]
100
0,1
10
1
PCDD/F Accumulation in Soil
Compost [9.2 t d.m. ha-1y-1]
0,1
0
20
40
60
80
100
0
20
40
60
years
80
soil thresholds 5 - 40 ng TE/kg
PCDD/F: 4 ng TE/kg
soil thresholds 5 - 40 ng TE/kg
PCDD/F: 4 ng TE/kg
PCDD/F: 12 ng TE/kg
PCDD/F: 18 ng TE/kg
PCDD/F: 12 ng TE/kg
PCDD/F: 18 ng TE/kg
FIGURE 3-42:
100
years
CHANGE OF CONCENTRATIONS OF PCDD/F DUE TO CONTINUOUS YEARLY
COMPOST APPLICATION. UNDERLAID GREY AREA … RANGE OF THRESHOLD
VALUES FOR SOILS ; T1/2 = HALF LIFE TIME (AMLINGER ET AL., 2004)
PAH: Background concentration soil: LOW (0.05 mg Kg-1)
PAH: Background concentration soil: HIGH (1 mg Kg-1)
t ½ = 16
t ½ = 16
[30 cm]
1
[30 cm]
1
0,1
mg kg-1 soil
10
mg kg-1 soil
10
0,1
0,01
PAH Accumulation in Soil
Compost [9.2 t d.m. ha-1y-1]
0,001
0,01
PAH Accumulation in Soil
Compost [9.2 t d.m. ha-1y-1]
0,001
0
20
40
60
80
100
0
20
40
years
60
80
soil thresholds 3 - 10 mg /kg
PAH: 0.6 mg/kg d.m.
soil thresholds 3 - 10 mg /kg
PAH: 0.6 mg/kg d.m.
PAH: 4.6 mg/kg d.m.
PAH: 13 mg/kg d.m.
PAH: 4.6 mg/kg d.m.
PAH: 13 mg/kg d.m.
FIGURE 3-43:
100
years
CHANGE OF CONCENTRATIONS OF PAH DUE TO CONTINUOUS YEARLY
COMPOST APPLICATION. UNDERLAID GREY AREA … RANGE OF THRESHOLD
VALUES FOR SOILS ; T1/2 = HALF LIFE TIME (AMLINGER ET AL., 2004)
From the computation of accumulation in a certain soil layer it is evident that the graph is not
linear and it would approach an asymptotic curve in relation to the concentration level in
compost, taking into account the site and management specific long-term mineralisation rate
of the compost and the half-life of the contaminant in soil.
For each compound two scenarios with a standard half-life time are shown, one with a lower
and one with a higher starting point (background concentration) in soil.
The results show that under consideration of the assumed half life times, with the exception of
PAH at a very low background concentration, regular compost application plus atmospheric
deposition would not lead to a considerable accumulation in the soil. The natural degradation
would over-compensate the input. Important is here again that the potential soil change with
reference to the background of scientifically approved critical threshold values for the
138
multifunctional or agricultural use of soils. This should include also precautionary aspects of
general soil functions and water protection (see also Aldrich & Daniel, 2003[SP468])
Again the principle, as already demanded for the heavy metals, must be to use clean and well
defined source materials which in itself guarantee the highest possible quality or. In other
words the lowest possible contamination with organic pollutants. This again is the pre-requisite
to keep any potential input or accumulation of pollutants on soils as low as technical feasible.
From the data viewed it can be concluded that compost from source separated organic input
materials would, even in regular application scenarios not contribute to a measurable increase
of organic pollutants, rather they would implicate a better fixation and, on the other hand,
enhanced degradation of organic compounds.
3.8.3 Experimental results on the behaviour of pesticides und organic
pollutants in composting and compost amended soils – tabular
survey
139
TABLE 3-36: EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF PESTICIDES UND ORGANIC POLLUTANTS IN COMPOSTING AND COMPOST AMENDED
SOILS – TABULAR SURVEY
Authors
Barriuso et al.,
1997[SP469]
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Longterm-laboratory-incubationexperiment, investigates the
transformation of 8 herbicides after
Comp application. soil: soil, Comp and
soil-Comp-blend
MWC, age: 8,5 months, pH
8,5, 16,87 % org. C, 1,34 %
org.N in d.m..
The Comp addition prevents the mineralization of the
herbicide and supports the stabilization of herbicide
residue. Part of the stabilized residue remained
extractable and potentially available, but the main
fraction remained unextractable and the residuals were
bonded.
soil: (typic Eutrochrept) pH 7,3, 22%
clay, 73 % sludge (silt), 1,08 % org. C
and 0,13 % org. N in d.m.
(herbicide solutions), periodical water
content control and (14C)CO2measurements. At the end of the
incubation time: extraction with
methanol, extracted radioactivity
measured directly, non extractable
radioactivity corresponds with the
bound residue.
Brown et al.
1997[SP470]
Cole et al.,
1994[SP471]
140
Comp fraction: 10, 20 u.
30 % (m/m)
8 herbezides: pendimethalin,
simazin, dimefuron,
terbutryn, atrazine, 2,4 D,
metsulfuron-methyl and
carbetamide were added to
soil-Comp-blends (10, 20
and 30% Comp) resp. pure
Comp (1:1 blend with sand),
incubationtime: 8 months, 28
°C, darkness; 95 %
waterretention capacity
(incl.)
9 composters, metalbarrels, 200 l,
perforated, 4 volatile organic chemicals
added (VOCs): benzene,
Carbotetrachloride, dichlorbenzene and
xylene, which are also found in
housholdproducts. The volatilization
was measured (activated carbon filter
and GC) as well as the leachate (GC),
and the condensate under the Comp.
MWC
Pesticide contaminated (22 pesticides)
soil blended with uncontaminted soil
and Comp;
Garden-waste Comp,
blended with soil: 0; 1,5; 6;
12,5; 50 % w/w
The sorption might be the beginning of a kinetically
limited biodegradation, especially with strongly bonded
herbicides (atrazine, simazine, terbutryn,
pendimethaline, dimefurone). The Comp application
has little influence on the less bonded herbzides
(carbetamide, 2,4D and metsulfuron-methyl).
The majority of the VOCs was lost within 48 hours of
composting via volatilization. Leachate content and
VOCs were below detection limit within one week.
The initial concentrations of 275 mg/Kg captan and
lindane were reduced to 53,8 resp. 158,9 mg/Kg, within
5 weeks of Comp process. All concentrations in air,
condensate and leachate were below detection limits
for both pesticides, meaning neither one was
volatilized, but complexed or degraded within the Comp
material.
Fungal- and bacterial populations of 100.000 up to
several billionen units/g root; sign. increase of crop
yield and bacterial populations in Comp containing
Remarks
sorption,
mineralization,
herbizides
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Remarks
blends, in comparison to contaminated soils,
populations in soil-blends not affected. Fungal
populations in Comp variations with and without plants
sign. higher than in contaminated soils,
dehydrogenase-activity sign. higher in Comp blends
than in soil blends.
M, 15 cm pots, greenhouse; bacteriaand fungal cultures from soil and
rhizoshere after collection in
buffersolution on agar;
dehydrogenaseactivity
Cole et al.,
1995[SP472]
Pesticide contaminated soil;
pH 8,3
investigation of herbecide inactivation
analysis of substrate blends regarding
herbecides after 40 days of maize crop
Contaminated soil was
blended with
uncontaminated soil resp.
with GWC (0; 1,5; 6; 12,5;
25; 50; 100 %).
The combination of plants and Comp resulted in sign.
higher herbecide-inactivation in contaminated soils.
50:50 blends of contaminated soils: Comp most
favourable. Many of the Comp containing blends
effected an increased pesticide inactivation/degradation
(higher microbial activity).
Franco et al.,
1996[SP473]
Alpechìn (lquid phytotoxic wasteproduct
of olivoil extraction) absorbed into
Comp and incubated (12 days, 50
days), silty loam
Cottonwaste Comp, blends:
80:15 (v:v) Alpechìn-soil with
and without Comp 15:5 (v:v)
Toxicity neutralized through Comp addition; plantgrowth
enhanced, negative influence of alpechìn on the
microbial biomass of the soil without Comp.
Houot et al.,
2003[SP474]
Laboratory analysis PAH (Flouranthen)addition and incubation in soil, Comp
and soil- Comp blend
MWC, BWC, BW/Slu-Comp
stable OM
less total
Mature Comp application
mineralization, but high mineralization of PAH during
incubation of immature (fresh) Comp
immature (fresh) Comp
high total mineralization
less degradation of PAH and increased formation of
non extractable residues
Hupe et al.,
1996[SP475]
Dieseloil contaminated (1% w/w TM)
modelsoil, enclosed bioreactor, CO2and VOC-measurement
BWC, soil: Comp 2:1, 4:1
and 8:1 (d.m.)
Sign. support of degradation with blend of soil:Comp
2:1, no influence of Comp maturity
IglesiasJimenez
et al.,
1997[SP476]
Laboratory, incubation 2 and 8 months,
sandy loam, pH 7,5, two slightly
watersoluble pesticides (diazinon and
linuron)
BWC, peat, humic acids, a.o.
In all cases r² of 0,99 and higher were found for the
Freundlich isotherm. The values for the sorption
constant K in natural soils were at 8,81 for diazinon und
2,29 für linuron. These values increased sign. in
modified soils, meaning the sorption capacity regarding
hydrophobic pesticides increases with the degree of
maturation, of the materials added to soils (humic-type
compounds), possibly due to the colloidal
characteristics of the material and the changes induced
pesticide
decomposition ↑
Importance of
Comp
maturation
regarding the
degradation of
organic toxins!
sorption
capacity
increased
through Comp
application
141
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Remarks
regarding the hydrophobic-hydrophilic characteristics of
the soil surfaces.
Liu & Cole,
1996[SP477]
Greenhouse, M, 4 weeks, pesticide
contaminated soil,
dehydrogenaseactivity, yield
GWC 0, 1, 5, 10, 20, 40 %
Comp
Decomposition of pesticides through 20 resp. 40 %
Comp, after 4 weeks incubation and 16 weeks in the
laboratory: 85 % (trifluralin), 100 % (metolachlor) and
79 % (pendimethalin).
Michel et al.,
1996[SP478]
Laboratory experiment: investigation of
the behaviour of 3 lawncare-pesticides
(2,4-D; diazinon, pendimethalin) in
Comp., volatilization, mineralization,
washout, localization.
Laboratory Comp,
greenwaste with grass,
leaves, C14 marked
pesticides added
The pesticide reaction varies: the majority of 2,4 D was
mineralized, the majority of diazinon was transformed
to watersoluble products of low toxicity, the majority of
pedimethalin was complexed in non extractable
substances.
SanchezCamazano et
al.,
1997[SP479]
greenhouse, soil columns, cambic
arenosol, C14-marked diazinon
BWC, 2t and 15 Mg ha-1
Clear retention with BWC (higher application > lower
application), cumulative fraction of the applied diazinon
was at ca. 60 resp. 34 % in contrast to ca. 65% on
control. The main influence regarding the retation of the
hydrophobic pesticide diazinon in Comp may be the
compounding with the org. Subst. (but also the mineral
fraction), especially the humin and fulvic acids with
hydrophobic bridges, but also the interaction with OH
and COOH groups of the humic- and fulvic acids or with
the clay minerals of the soil.
Timmermann
et al.,
2003[SP480]
Long-term compost experiment (8 resp.
5 years): duofactorial split-plot facility
with 12 variations at 4 replications.
random.
48 plots per experiment
6 sites : lS, uL, uL, utL, uL, sL
CR: M – W-W – W-Bar
Comp application: 0; 5; 10;
20 Mg ha-1
N-suppliments:
N0: no N; N1: 50 % of the
optimal N-level; N2: 100 %
of the optimum N-level on
basis of the Nmin-content of
the soil as well as further
aspects, like prceeding crop
etc. (nitrate information
service - NIS).
Even excessive comp applications (level K3) did not
increase the soil content of PCB and PCDD/F, which
were mostly on a very low ubiquitious level below the
limits.
142
The total content in the Comp was generally at a very
low level and was in the case of PCDD/F slightly
retrograde, and therefore no problem regarding the
agricultural use of Comp.
The toxin-freights were very low, even with excessive
Comp applications (level K3), accordingly there was no
detectable increase to be expected.
Pesticide
reaction during
Comp process!
3.9
Soil biology
3.9.1 Introduction
An enormous number and variety of organisms are living in the soil. They have a central task in
maintaining “healthy” soils with all its ecological functions so to say soil fertility.
Soil organisms are all organisms permanently or temporarily living on or in soils. Soil organisms
can be allocated to three different trophic levels on account of their ranking in the nutrient circle
(Scheffer & Schachtschabel et al., 1998[SP481]): saprophagous, phytophagous und
mycophagous primary destruents feed on dead or living organic matter (e.g. protozoa,
actinomycetes, some nematodes, earthworms)
Koprophagous secondary decomposer utilise the digestion products of the primary
destruents (e.g. nematodes, enchytraeidae)
Zoophagous predator are living on other soil animals and contribute to the regulation of
prey population (e.g. spiders, moles)
The classification of soil organisms is mostly carried out on behalf of their body size:
Microorgansims: bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, algae and protozoans
Microfauna (< 0,2 mm): e.g. flagellates, paramecium, rhizopodae
Mesofauna (0,2 – 2 mm): e.g. rotifers, nematodes, mites, collembola
Macrofauna (2-20 mm): e.g. spiders, beetles (larva), woodlouse
Megafauna (>20 mm): e.g. earthworms, moles, spiders
TABLE 3-37:
NUMBERS OF ORGANISMS AND APPROXIMATE MASS PER M² OF A FERTILE AND
WELL DRAINED SOIL (SEVERAL SOURCES)
Organism
Microorganisms
Bacteria
Actinomycetes
Mass ha-1 (Kg)
106 x 106
50
500
4
6
50
500
3
6
10 x 10
10 x 10
100
1.000
Algae
1 x 10
6
1
10
1 x 10
6
<1
Earthworms
70
Enchytraeid
worms
1 x 10
Gastropods
65
4
40
400
2
20
1
10
Millipedes
75
2.5
25
Centipedes
65
0.5
5
5
1.0
10
4
0.6
6
ca. 250 g
ca. 2.500 Kg
Mites
Springtails
Summe
Mass /m-2 (g)
Fungi
Protozoa
Soil fauna
Numbers /m-2
1 x 10
5 x 10
143
FIGURE 3-44:
COMPOSITION OF SOIL BIOTA OF A TYPICAL FERTILE SOIL (FROM VAN-CAMP ET
AL., 2004)
It has been calculated that there might be of the order of 2.4 tonnes of soil organism per hectare
in a fertile, well aerated soil. This is equivalent to 5 lifestock units or at least the twofold weight
of lifestock that can be kept on 1 ha land.
3.9.2 The function of soil organisms
In natural systems most of the organisms depend upon the addition of the carbon compounds in
plant materials (roots, stems and leaves) and the faeces of surface and soil dwelling animals.
Indeed one of the key roles of the soil organisms is the incorporation of these materials in to the
144
soil system and their alteration, making major contributions to the cycling of carbon, nitrogen
and sulphur and facilitating the release of nutrients contained in the organic material in forms
where they can be taken up by plants. The manifold interdependencies of soil biota, site and
and management conditions are outlined in Figure 3-45.
FIGURE 3-45:
CONCEPUAL MODEL SHOWING THE VARIOUS FACTORS MEDIATED BY SOIL BIOTA
THAT AFFECT THE SUPPLY OF ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS TO PLANTS (FROM VANCAMP ET AL., 2004)
In addition the CO2 that is respired during these processes, when dissolved in water, forming a
weak carbonic acid will assist the weathering of minerals and the release of nutrients. Through
the carbon cycle the organisms will assist in maintaining the organic matter pool within the soil,
the presence of this organic matter being characteristic of a good and healthy soil.
From the foregoing it is clear therefore that soil organisms play a key role in the normal
functioning of the soil systems, but this functioning is dependent upon a supply of available
carbon. Where insufficient carbon is added to the soil naturally through plant residues and
organisms there must be supplementation through the addition of manures and composts.
Microbial populations are often very sensitive to changes in soil conditions, and where there is a
need to regenerate or reactivate the soil system a key action is to endeavour to encourage the
activity of the soil microorganisms. For example Table 3-38 illustrates the response of soil
bacteria and fungi to a range of conditions from some studies undertaken by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 1998). An important point to note in this table is
markedly increased activity observed in sites recently reclaimed following surface mining. If this
level of activity can be initiated and maintained following reclamation the possibility of soil
145
improvement is much increased. Increasing soil microbial activity must be a key feature of any
soil restoration or soil reclamation scheme. The values for the Green waste Compost show the
possible benefits of using material of this nature.
TABLE 3-38: POPULATIONS OF BACTERIA AND FUNGI IN SOILS AND COMPOST (EPA, 1998)
Bacteria
106 g-1 d.m.
Fungi
103 g-1 d.m.
6-46
9-46
Soil recently reclaimed after
surface mining
-1
19 70
8-97
Pesticide contaminated mix
of silt and clay
19
6
Mature Green waste
Compost
417
155
Material
Fertile Soil
3.9.3 Methods for quantifying biological and microbial activity of soils
The quantitative description of selective or integrative activity parameter for soil specific
metabolism processes are consulted today in many respects as indicator for soil quality, soil
function, soil productivity, soil health etc. Of these indices the most widely used is microbial
biomass. Recently new techniques have been developed which measure enzyme activity, using
surrogates such as hydrogenase or protease as representative of the activity of the system.
Microbial biomass is defined as the living component of soil organic matter (Jenkinson and
Ladd, 1981), but excludes soil meso and macro fauna and plant roots. There are a number of
methods of determination, for example fumigation – incubation, fumigation – extraction and
substrate induced respiration methods (Sparling and Ross, 1993).
The following parameters are most frequently found in literature:
146
TABLE 3-39:
SURVEY OF THE METHODS GIVEN IN LITERATURE FOR CHARACTERISATION OF
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF SOILS
Parameter
Physiological importance for material transformation in soils
Basal respiration; CO2respiration
Indicator for the carbon cycle; sum paramter for the entirety of biological
(metabolic-) activities of a soil via measuring the CO2 release under
standardised conditions;
Substrate induced respiration
(SIR);
Indirect determination of the microbial biomass or the microbial biomass C
(MBC);
Metabolic quotient qCO2
Is determined from the basal respiratory rate and potential microbial biomass
and indicates which amount of CO2 per hour and per mg of the microbial fixed C
is released. This parameter is an indicator on the metabololic capacity related to
the potential microbial biomass
Phosphatase-activity
Enzyme of the phosphorus cycle which mineralises organically bound
phopsphate (e.g. phosphoric ester, phytane acid and phytine) to orthophosephate that can be taken up by plants. One distinguishes between the acid
and alkaline phosphatases. In soil mostly microbially released phosphatase is
contained;
Microorganisms
Qualitative and quantitative determination of microbial communitie
heterotrophic N-fixation
Not-symbiotic nitrogen bonds by blue-green algae, Acotobacter, Chlostridium
N-Mineralisation
Determination of N-mineralisation in aerobic and anaerobic breeding tests. Also
used for the determination of short-termed N-mobilisation
Ammonium oxidation rate
The nitrification, i.e. the oxidation of ammonium to nitrite and further to nitrate is
a process of the N-cycle in the soil with agronomic importance. Populations of
nitrificants and nitrification rates are often determined as indicators for a general
microbial activity of the soil
Denitrification
Denitrification is the ability of microorganisms, to reduce nitrate selectively to
molecular nitrogen by enzymatic activities
Total-Phospholipidphosphate
Extraction method of phospholipide as an essential component of cellular
membrane
FDA-HR (hydrolysis of
fluorescein diacetate)
Dehydrogenase-Activity
Enzyme of the intracellular metabolism and for biological redox systems:
this parameter is looked upon as integrative indication for the intensity of
microbial substance transformations in the soil. Oxidation of organic compounds
by separation of 2 hydrogen atoms, several dehydrogenases are effective in the
enzyme system of the respiratory metabolism,
Urease
Indicator for nitrogen cycle, in the soil preferably of microbial origin; catalyzes the
hydrolysis of urea from animal excrements and nucleic acid to CO2 and NH3
Protease
Indicator for the nitrogen cycle. Proteases are excreted by fungi and bacteriae,
degradation of proteins to amino acids; posses high stability through binding to
carbo hydrates and proteolytical enzymes, sensible towards desiccation
Further methods
β-Glucosidase; AImax (respiration intensity); DMSO (Dimethylsulphoxi reduction)
147
3.9.4 General interaction:
organic matter – organic fertilisation – micro-biology
One of the most important soil functions, the transformation of organic matter, is controlled by
soil organisms. The degradation of organic carbon compounds (cellulose, hemicellulose,
polysaccharide, hydrocarbon, lingnine and others) makes energy available for heterotrophic
organisms which on the other hand are responsible for other metabolic transformations (e.g.
asymbiotic N-fixation, protein and aminoa cid degradation, mineralisation and immobilisation of
nitrogen, transformation of mineral substances (Roper und Ophel-Keller, 1997[FA482]).
SOM is a direct product of the common biological activity of plants, microorganisms and animals
and innumerable abiotic factors (see flowchart in Figure 3-46).
FIGURE 3-46:
INTERELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOIL ORGANIC MATTER AND BIOTA (ELLIOT,
1997[FA483])
As already mentioned the activity of microorganisms respectively the microbial biomass besides
other factors (soil temperature, water content etc.) depends above all on the availability of easily
degradable nutrient sources. Therefore the application of organic material in form of organic
fertilisers or crop residues leads to an increase of microbial activity and biomass.
The organic fertilisation in general and incorporation of compost especially plays a great role for
the development of microbial activity (the act of metabolism) of a soil in a threefold sense:
Optimisation of the habitat (water and air household, enlargement of the specific surfaces
for the formation of retained water films as habitat for bacteria colonies and others)
148
Incorporation of food substrate, that supports bacterial growth and the following
enzymatic activity
Direct incorporation of microbial populations in the soil.
In evaluating different test procedures to collect functional groups of microorganisms Postma &
Kok (2003) proved that different populations of microorganisms with different additives to the
soil (e.g. 1% m/m spent mushroom compost, green compost, cellulose) show clearly
characteristic patterns in their ability to use carbon sources (BIOLOG method). The genetic
profile of the bacteria population was also distinctly differentiated considering the concerning
composts and additives. The interesting point is the fact that differences within the functional
groups of microorganism populations can be recognised already at low application rates of
compost.
3.9.5 Brief excursus – micro-biology of composting
The composting process is an exothermic metabolism process of a successive population of
microorganisms, which are transforming the offered substrate at a sufficient oxygen partial
pressure to metabolic products. The potential of microbial (rest)-activity of the final product is
essentially dependent on the initial materials (substrate, available C- and N-sources), the
process conditions (duration, temperature profile, humidity, homogeneity of degradation and
transformation, oxygen solubility) and the final degree of stabilisation (synonymous for
mineralisation, humification) (de Bertoldi, 1995[SP484]; Grabbe & Schuchardt, 1993[SP485]). For an
agricultural or horticultural use microbiological parameters are usually not described as quality
criteria (Szmidt, 2000[SP486]). Bess (1999[SP487]) describes a population density of 108 g-1 d.m.
for bacteria and 104 g-1 d.m. for fungi respectively yeasts as minimum stock for qualitative highqualified compost. A minimum value of 103 g-1 d.m. of Pseudomonadae is recommended, as for
some representatives of this microbial strain exists a positive interaction with plant growth (e.g.
Rhizobium and Azotobacter as symbiotic or free living N-absorber).
A specific utilisation effect connected with the microbial composition of compost is the ability to
suppress plant diseases. This socalled antiphytopathogenic potential of composts is treated in
chapter 3.10.
3.9.6 Impact of compost use on (micro) biological activity of soils –
examples from literature
Researches about the effect of compost on the soil biota and the microbial activity of soils
respectively were gathered in many cases in research programmes on compost application
since the middle of the 90ies.
Bode (1998[SP488]) proved that the microbial biomass and the enzyme activity (β-Glucosidase)
are positively influenced by organic fertilisation. The mineral fertilisation did also encourage the
microbial parameters, as mineral fertilisation resulted in higher yields and higher crop residues.
A positive relation between Cmic (microbial carbon) and the amount of crop residues could be
shown. An increase of microbial mass, activity and enzymatic reactions could be proved also
by Schwaiger & Wieshofer (1996[SP489]) (substrate induced respiration, Protease-, urease- and
β-Glucosidase activity) and Poletschny (1995[SP490]) (microbial biomass, Dehydrogenase- and
catalase activity ) after compost fertilisation for several years respectively after a unique high
compost application.
The microbial biomass is subject to considerable fluctuations. It can rise immediately after
compost application by the factor 4-6, but decreases rapidly – after the easily degradable
149
organic matter is consumed – and within one year the initial level is reached again (KögelKnabner et al., 1996[SP491]).
Two forms of organic matter are decisive for the amount of the microbial biomass and their
activity. It can be increased intensely in a short notice by application of organic matter with a
high portion of easily degradable fractions. This effect lasts only temporarily. A longer-termed
increase of microbial biomass and their activity is only possible if by (long-termed) organic
fertilisation the content of organic matter in the soil is increased, as this contributes as a steady
nutrient source for microorganisms.
The relation between organic matter and earthworm population is researched to a great extent.
It seems that earthworms react in their abundance (population density) preferably on the supply
of organic matter than on the organic substance available in the soil. Bode (1998[SP492]) found
only a weak positive relation between Corg-content of the soil and earthworm population. The
assessment of soil areas researched over a longer period of several federal states Hund-Rinke
& Scheid (2001[SP493]) found no relation between Corg-content and earthworm population.
Kämmerer & Süss (1996[SP494]) proved at their researches slightly higher population densities in
grassland contrary to arable areas, attributed this, however, to the different cultivation and the
influence of soil conditions.
The abundance of earthworms
reacts distinctly positive on the
application of organic fertilisers.
Bode (1998[SP495]) proved that a
small application of ca. 250 Kg. C
ha-1 liquid manure caused already
a distinct increase of abundance,
as the easily soluble C-components
of liquid manure can be utilised
well. Even after application of other
organic fertilisers like manure
(Whalen et al., 1998[SP496]) and
compost (Hartl & Erhart, 1998[SP497]
– see figure 3-29; Peres et al.,
1998[SP498]) the abundance of
earthworms increased, whereas
mineral fertilisation showed no
positive effects compared with a
FIGURE 3-47: ABUNDANCES OF YOUNG AND ADULT
not fertilised variant, even though
EARTHWORMS AS A RESULT OF THE FERTILISATION SYSTEM
over mineral fertilisation and the
(HARTL & ERHART (1998)
application of organic matter in
form of farm waste was increased,
too, (Bode, 1998[SP499]; Hartl & Ehrhart, 1998). The field trial of Hartl & Erhart (1998[SP500])
showed an increase of earthworm population at the biowaste compost treatments contrary to 0
to NPK variants of ca. 10 earthworms per 1/4 m² to > 20 (see figure 3-29).
The compost fertilisation of the test of Peres et al. (1998[SP501]) lead to an additional increase of
the number of species.
Christiaens et al. (2003[FA502]) showed in a statistical field trial with maize on a sandy loam soil
that both annually applied compost plots (22,5 Mg ha-1) and the bi-annual applications (45 Mg
ha-1) contrary to mineral and slurry variants effected a highly significant increase of count and
mass of earthworms.
150
TABLE 3-40:
BIOMASS AND NUMBER OF EARTHWORMS IN JULY 2001, FOLLOWING FOUR
YEARS OF ORGANIC TREATMENT (CHRISTIAENS ET AL., 2003)
Mass (Kg ha-1)
Number (1000 ha-1)
SC55.7 b*
315.6 c
C+
C++
138.2 a 116.9 a
1008.9 a 608.9 b
S+
C84.0 b
422.2 c
C+
C++
130.7 a 105.2 a
1031.1 a 608.9 b
Stat. significance
S- / S+
C-/C+/C++
NS
***
NS
***
* Within a row, values with the same letter belong to one homogenous group (Newman-Keuls test)
S+ and S- = yearly slurry application or not; C+: yearly application of VFG compost at 22.5 Mg ha-1; C++: 45 Mg VFG
compost ha-1, every two years; C-: no compost
The Mesofauna is also positively influenced by the application of organic fertiliser. Idinger &
Kromp (1997[SP503]) proved an increase of Collemboles, Saprophages and Nematodes which
were partly attributed to compost, partly have been encouraged in their reproduction by the
applied organic substance. The number of arthropodes and some parasites increased, too, as
these as predators profited by a higher amount of prey in the organic fertilised soil. The
mesofauna can be encouraged indirectly by the increase of earthworm abundance. Hamilton &
Sillmann (1989[SP504]) und Loranger et al. (1998[SP505]) found an increased number of species
and individuals of micro-arthropodes in areas with a high amount of earthworms compared with
areas with a low stock density. A possible reason could be a mobilisation of food reserves for
meso fauna by earthworms and their positive influence on the pore volume, as the earthworm
pores are serving as habitat for micro-arthropodes and guarantee an improved air and water
household.
700
600
StM = stable manure, 100 ... 1500 kg
Bc ug/g
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
NPK
100
NPK
200
StM
500
MSW-C
500
MSW-C
500 +
NPK 200
MSW-C
1000
FIGURE 3-48: IMPACT OF MINERAL AND ORGANIC
AMENDMENTS ON MICROBIAL BIOMASS (LEITA ET AL.,
1999[SP506])
MSW-C
1500
Leita et al. (1999) used as index soil
microbial biomass (BC in µg g-1 soil
following the fumigation method) to
observe the influence of a range of
mineral and organic additions on
the soil microorganisms.
The
results shown in Figure 3-48
compare the microbial response to
different levels of inorganic fertiliser
additions, stable manure and
compost derived from Municipal
Solid Waste. These results clearly
illustrate, for this soil, the marked
positive impact on soil microbial
activity of adding organic based
nutrient sources to the soil.
151
(mg CO2-C/mg Bc/h) *10
-4
12
10
StM = stable manure, 100 ... 1500 kg N/ha
8
6
4
2
0
0
NPK
100
NPK
200
StM
500
MSW-C
500
MSW-C
500 +
NPK 200
MSW-C
1000
MSW-C
1500
FIGURE 3-49: IMPACT OF MINERAL AND ORGANIC AMENDMENTS ON METABOLIC QUOTIENT QCO2 (LEITA ET AL., 1999)
pH
N-tot
C-org
RESP
Glucosidase
SIR
80 t BWC
40 t BWC
20 t BWC
Urease
Protease
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
relative of control
FIGURE 3-50: EFFECT OF COMPOST APPLICATION ON SOIL
QUALITY PARAMETER (SCHWAIGER & WIESHOFER, 1996)
450
NOFERT
400
BIODYN
350
BIOORG
300
CONFYM
250
CONMIN
200
150
100
50
0
Beetroots
Winter wheat
Grass clover
NOFERT = unfertilised control, BIODYN = bio-dynamic (manure
compost), BIOORG = bio-organic (rotted manure), CONFYM =
conventional with mineral fertilisers plus manure, CONMIN =
conventional without manure (exclusively mineral fertilised). Error bars
= standard error of means. n = 4.
FIGURE 3-51: SOIL MICROBIAL BIOMASS (MG CMIC KG SOIL-1)
UNDER THREE CROPS AFTER PRACTISING FOUR FARMING
SYSTEMS FOR THREE CROP ROTATIONS. (MÄDER, 2003)
152
In the same study Leita et al. (1999)
used the Metabolic Quotient (qCO2
= mg CO2-C * mg Bc-1 * h-1) which
showed a similar marked influence
of increasing the levels of organic
materials (in terms of their Nitrogen
equivalent values), with almost no
response evident when inorganic
NPK fertilisers are added at the
equivalent rates of 100 and 200 Kg
N ha-1 (Figure 3-49).
Schwaiger
and
Wieshofer
(1996[SP507] ) used a wide range of
indicators of soil quality and
microbial activity to illustrate the
impact of three rates of application
(20, 40 and 80 Mg ha-1) of waste
derived compost when compared to
a soil with no additions.
The
additions resulted in changes in all
properties (the impact on soil pH
was minimal for the 20 Mg ha-1
treatment), with particularly marked
changes for the enzyme activity and
Total Nitrogen and Organic Carbon
in the system (Figure 3-50). Given
the amounts of waste derived
compost added the increases in
Nitrogen and carbon are not
surprising, however the increased
enzyme activity suggests some
considerable benefit to the overall
microbial
activity
and
the
improvement of the overall soil
health.
A statistical field experiment which
compared
biological
with
conventional cultivation systems
since 21 years proved the
predominance of compost in the
essential indicators for soil health
and fertility even effective against
partly
rotted
manure.
Fully
composted manure achieved the
highest
microbial
biomass,
earthworm
biomass
and
an
increased settlement of Mycorrhizae
at the roots (Mäder et al.,
2000[FA508]).
Soil fertility was enhanced in the
organic plots compared to the
conventional plots as indicated by a
higher
microbial
biomass,
earthworm biomass and an enhanced mycorrhizal root colonisation (Mäder et al., 2000). Microbial biomass and activity increased in the order:
CONMIN < CONFYM < BIOORG < BIODYN (Figure 3-51). Moreover, the functional diversity of
soil microorganisms and their efficiency to metabolise organic carbon sources was increased in
the organically fertilised systems with highest values in the compost manured BIODYN plots
(Fließbach et al., 2000). The authors found a positive correlation between aggregate stability
and microbial biomass (r = 0.68, p < 0.05), showing the importance of soil microorganisms in
soil structure formation. The results are encouraging regarding soil aggregate stability and
microbial phosphorus delivery for crops, which were found to be highest in the compost
manured plots.
The test results for the consequences of adequate compost management on soil organisms and
the biological activity can be summarised as follows:
Microbiological parameter
In general higher bilogical activity
Mostly increase of the microbial biomass
Increase of the Dehydrogenase activity
Mostly increase of the Protease activity
Mostly increase of Urease
SIR and β-Glucosidase activity: step-by-step increase with increasing compost
application compared to not fertilised plots
o Respiration: significant activity increase
Soil fauna
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Higher number of species by compost fertilisation
Higher population of earthworms by compost fertilisation
The positive effect of compost fertilisation on the occurrence, the activity, density and the
diversity of species of earthworms and benefitial epigeic athropodes can be concluded in all of
the research papers connected with this topic. However, it must be considered that in
experimental trials comparing biological cropping system with conventional ones the use of
pesticides with toxicological impacts may as such lead to a reduction of the population of soil
biota.
3.9.6.1
Effect of compost application on soil biology– tabular survey
153
TABLE 3-41: EFFECT OF COMPOST APPLICATION ON SOIL (MICRO) BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY– TABULAR SURVEY
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Influence on Soil Microbiology
Bachinger et al.,
1992[SP509]
Loamy sand, field trial, since
1980; Corg, N-reaction,
dehydrogenase (DHA),
proteaseactivity, SIR,
rootgrowth, yield, CR: W-R, SW,
Pot
NPK, MC + LMU, MC + LMU + biodynamic Comp and
(liquid)preparations; 3 fertilisation
levels: cereal/rootcrops: 60/50 Kg
N ha-1, 100 Kg N ha-1, 140/150 Kg
N ha-1
Protease activity, DHA and microbial biomasse:
clearly increased with organic fertilisation compared
to NPK, no influence of the fertilisation intensity.
Only with DHA sign. difference between MC + LMU
and MC + LMU + biodynamic Comp and
preparations.
von Boguslawsky &
Lieres, 1997[SP510]
Organic long-term fertilisation
trial 1954 – 1990, effects of 6
types of org. fert. in comb. With
min. fertilisation
(1) no organic fertilisation .
(2) 60 dt ha-1 St (21-78-8)
(3) 250 dt ha-1 Comp (106-93-40)
(4) 300 dt ha-1 RotM (119-208-33)
(5) 300 dt ha-1 StoM (144-262-51)
(6) 250 dt ha-1 packed M (162286-46)
(7) 17 temp sheepfold (359-34149)
in combination with min.
fertilisation
Dehydrogenase activity for StoM and St increased.
soil: deep lessivé on loess
Bragato et al.,
1998[SP511]
Silty loam, 5 years after
application determination of
DTPA-axtractable metals, Corg
in soil and C of the microbial
biomass (MBC)
since 1989 7,5 resp. 15 Mg ha-1
concentrated resp. concentrated
and composted Slu
No difference in MBC at 7,5 Mg ha-1, but increase
of 27 % at 15 Mg ha-1. DTPA-extractable Zn was
correlated with MBC.
Cole et al.,
1994[SP512]
Pesticide contaminated soil (22
pesticides) blended with
uncontaminated soil and Comp;
M, 15 cm pots, greenhouse;
bacteria- and fungal cultures
from soil and rhizoshere after
collection in buffersolution on
agar; dehydrogenase activity
GWC, control uncontaminated,
blends: 0, 1,5, 6, 12,5 and 50 %
w/w
Fungal- and bacterial populations of 100.000 up to
several billionen units/g root; sign. increase of crop
yield and bacterial populations in Comp containing
blends, in comparison to contaminated soils,
populations in soil-blend not affected. Fungal
populations in Comp variations with and without
plants sign. higher than in contaminated soils,
dehydrogenase-activity sign. higher in Comp
154
Remarks
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Remarks
Influence on Soil Microbiology
blends than in soil blends.
Cole et al.,
1995[SP513]
silty soil contaminated with
pesticides
Contaminated soil was blended
with uncontaminated soil resp.
with GWC (0; 1,5; 6; 12,5; 25; 50;
100 %).
Microbial activity (dehydrogenase-activity)
sign.higher in Comp variations than in
uncontaminated soils.
Gattinger et al.,
1997[SP514]
Incubation, MBC, PL-P
(GesamtPhospholipidphosphate), CO2respiration, FDA-HR (fluorescindiacetat-hydrolysis)
11 diff. Comp (BW, GW, CM), 1 –
3 year stockpile of Comp,
comparison to fresh Comp
Microbial biomass and activity decreases with
increasing Comp age. Highest biomass content in
MCC. Higher specific activity (= activity rate to
biomass unit) in BWC and GWC.
Herrero et al.
(1998[SP515])
Greenhouse, 4 months, sandyloamy soil; yield of ryegrass,
analysis of residual min. Ncontent, alkalyne-phosphatase
level and dehydrogenaseactivity in soils.
14 different organic products
(Comp, Slu, f.m.) 25 and 50 Mg
ha-1 d.m.
General increase in yield, high negative correlation
between NH4-N and dehydrogenase activity;
alcalyne phosphatase and dehydrogenase activity
increased independently of application rate.
Joergensen et al.,
1996[SP516]
Incubation 50 days, C
mineralization, growth of
microbial biomass, aminoacids
and aminosugars.
BWC, blends 10, 20, 30... 100%
w/w Comp
C-mineralization: 1,6 % of Corg in soil, 3,5% in
Comp. MBC: 127µg/g d.m. in soil, 764µg/g d.m. in
Comp, disproportionate increase between 20 and
40%-blend. K2SO4-extractable C increased from
0,56% Corg of soil to 1,24 % of Corg im Kompost
proportional to Comp application. Aminoacid- and
dehydrogenase
activity ↑
Aminoacid and aminosugar content showed nonlinear increase with increasing Comp content.. Ratio
aminoacid-C/Aminosugar-C: 1,9% in soil, 4,7% in
Comp.
Kögel-Knabner et al.,
1996[SP517]
Microcosm-trial, 18 months, 3
soils: Kippboden mine-spoil??
f
i i S b
BWC fresh resp. mature, 100 Mg
ha-1
Comp application increases microbial activity in all
soil-substrates, especially with immature (fresh)
C
( 3 00
6000
DMS/ TS*h)
mikrobielle
Aktivität (DMSO-
155
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Remarks
Comp (ca 3500 to over 6000 ng DMS/g TS*h)
Reduction) ↑
Influence on Soil Microbiology
from opencast mining Ss, brown
soil Sl2, lessivé Ut4; biomass-C
(fumigation-extraction),
microbial activity (DMSOreduction)
Lalande et al.
1998[SP518]
Field trial, clay and sany loam,
SW, MBC ( Wu et al. 1990) and
APA (alkaline-phosphataseactivity (Tabatabai a. Bremner
1969))
4: MC immature and mature,
commercial Comp (f.m. and peat),
commercial Comp (peat and
shrimpwaste), AN
(ammoniumnitrate 90 Kg N ha-1)
and control. 180 Kg N ha-1, 90 kgN
ha-1 and AN.
Clay 1994: MBC in comp variations 34 % higher
than AN and 64 % höher than control. Sandy loam:
sign. difference only in April 1995, no sign.
differences between Comp and Comp + AN. APA
sign. increased (30 %) on Comp variations compare
to AN and control.
Leifeld et al.,
1999[SP519]
Microcosm-trial, 18 months
loamy luvisol, sandy cambisol
BWC mature (65 Mg ha-1 d.m.)
and immature (70 Mg ha-1 TM)
C-mineralization and specific respiration increase
due to Comp application up to 100-fold, but also
decreased quickly exponentially. Microbial biomass
clearly increased (14-fold with immature (fresh)
Comp), devreased again during trial period and at
trial end variations with and without Comp were the
same.
Leita et al.,
1999[SP520]
Field trial, sandy loam long-term
effects (12 years) of Comp in
comparison to NPK and MC on
TOC, MBC, Bc and metabolic
quotient qCO2 as well as heavy
metals – availability; random.
block, 4 replications.
MWC: ca 50, 100 and 150 Mg ha1
year-1(= 500, 1000 and 1500 Kg
N ha-1 and year, 0,94 % Ntot in
Comp) = 2, 4 and 6-fold beyond
Italian limit.
TOC: after 12 years no difference on control and
NPK. f.m. (10 Mg ha-1 org. C) doubled TOC from
1,63 to 3,08. Comp (500 Kg MWC ha-1year-1= 6,8
Mg ha-1 organic C) increased TOC by 50 %.
MBC(Bc): 163 – 226 µg g-1 soil on control and NPK,
sign. increase with f.m. (bis 399) and Comp (to 578
µg g-1 -soil). Linear relation between Bc and TOC.
qCO2: increased from 2,0 mg CO2-C mg Bc-1 h-1 10-4
to 4,2 (f.m.) resp. 5,4 – 10,2 (Comp 500, 1000,
1500).
Liu & Cole,
1996[SP521]
Greenhouse, M, 4 weeks,
pesticide contaminated soil,
dehydrogenaseactivity
GWC 0, 1, 5, 10, 20, 40 % Comp.
Sign. increase of dehydrogenase at 20 and 40 %
Comp ( 18,8 times higher than in solely
contaminated soil) no stimulation < 20 %.
Mäder et al.,
Longterm field trial since 1978;
( )
Supply of org. matter during 7
( nd C
) ( )
(D1): highest value for microbial biomass and (SIR)
(O)
156
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Remarks
Influence on Soil Microbiology
1995[SP522]
comparison bio-dynamc (D),
organic (O) and conventional
(K) cultivation (DOK-trial)
CR: Pot, W-W, BR, W-W, Bar,
2x ley
Luvisol on loess
SIR, dehydrogenaseactivity
years (2nd CR-period): (D1): 1010
Kg ha-1; (D2): 2.020 Kg ha-1 in
form of MCC
Results at the end of the 2nd CRperiod; (O1) & (O2): RotM; (K1) &
(K2): StabM ca 1.000 resp. 2.000
Kg ha-1 each.
dehydrogenase activity compared to (O) and
(Comp) and especially the unfertilized control.
Marinari et al.,
1996[SP523]
Field trial, M, green harvest
after 150 days
calcareous, humic soil
NPK. (100 Kg N ha-1), StabM (30
Mg ha-1) as well as MCC (60 Mg
ha-1) (both incorporated 10-15 cm).
Comp amounts equivalent to
min.N-variations. Combination:
MCC + NPK (30 Mg MCC + 145 Kg
NH4NO3 ha-1 (50 Kg N).
1 control. All fertilisation variations
with and without herbezide
application.
3 months after seeding (during bloom) sign.
decrease of MBC, towards end of vegetation period
increase again.
Mats & Lennart,
1999[SP524]
Fieltrial, 16 years, long-term
effects on microorgansims,
basal respiration and SIR,
heterotrophic N-fixation, Nmineralization,
ammoniumoxidationrate,
denitrification,
phosphataseactivity
Continuous Slu application 0, 1
and 3 Mg d.m. ha-1/year all 4
years, + min. fertilisation
Generally higher biolog. activity, slight increase of
pH-value, no clear influence on basal respiration,
increasing trend on SIR, N-mineralization increased
with Slu ammounts, negative influence on
nitrification in soil. No clearly negatice influence on
microorganisms.
Moreno et al.,
1998[SP525]
Greenhouse lettuce, lettuce (4
months) and Bar (7Monate), 4
replications., very low SOM,
container with 20 Kg soil, HMcontent, OM-content and
enzymatic activity
SSC partially enriched with heavy
metals, composted with Bar-straw,
20 and 80 Mg ha-1, control: soil
without Comp, standard NPKfertilisation
Urease: sign. increase after cultivation (up to ca.
2 µmol NH2g-1h-1) in comparison to control (ca
0,25 µmol NH2g-1h-1);
Protease-BAA activity: Sign. increase only with high
applications.
Phosphatase-activity: increase before and after
cultivation, especially with high application rates in
dependency of plant types;
β-glucosidase-activity: sign. increase with high
157
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Influence on Soil Microbiology
application rates with uncomtaminated Comp.
Niklasch &
Joergensen,
2001[SP526]
Incubation experiment, silty
loam, respiration and biomass
of microorganisms
BAK, GGK (green waste/grass),
peat, standard application rates:
0,5%, 1,0%, 1,5%, 2,0%
Increase of CO2, released during incubation, with all
3 substrates; increase with higher substrate
concentration; decrease of substrate mineralized to
CO2, with increasing addition. BWC increased
biomass-C-content within 25 days, GWC: biomassC-content after 92 days almost the same as with
BWC, sign. increase with increasing Comp
application rate, peat: no influence on biomass-C
day 25: qCO2-values: BWC>GWC>peat, day 92:
GWC>peat>BWC.
Pascual et al.,
1997[SP527]
Incubation trial, clayloam with
low OM-content (0,4 %); MBC,
basalrespiration, ratio
biomasse-C/total org. C and
qCO2 (metabolic quotient)
MWC (frisch), Slu, Comp;
enrichment in SOM 0,5 % (low
application rate) resp. 1,5 % (high
application rate)
Sign. TOC-increase independent of application rate,
sign. increase of biomass-C and the basal
respiration in dependency of the application; biggest
difference of biomass-C/TOC ratio at the beginning
and end of the incubation period with fresh MWC
application; qCO2 increased from 4,4, especially
with the addition of fresh org. materials, to 8,7, all
biological parameters show a decreasing tendency
over time.
Pfotzer & Schüler,
1997[SP528]
Long-term field trial, Pot,
fluorescin-diacetate (FDA)
hydrolysis and feeding activity
with bait-lamina-test after Törne
(1990[SP529]), populationdesity
of collembola and acarina
MC with and without hornmeal,
BWC (60 Mg ha-1 f.m.), hornmeal
(0,6 Mg ha-1), NPK
After cultivation, fertilisation and Pot planting FDAactivity and feeding activity on comp variations sign.
higher than control.
Popp et al,
1996[SP530]
3 trials, Mitscherlichvessel, silty
loam, green O. Various
chemical parameters, biolog.
parameters: Tmax (self-heating
after BGK 1994), RI max
(respiration intensity), pH5h,
Eh5h (redoxpotential after 5 h
90 diff. Comp, biowaste 0 – 100%,
greenwaste 0 – 100%, various
additives
Good control of rotting progess with AI max, close
correlation to yield only with pH5h, improvement of
accuracy of yield prognosis by multiple regresssion
anylsis of several chemical and biological
parameters.
158
Remarks
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
0,4% papercellulose,
1% SMC, 1% GC, GWC
No influence on total cell count
No difference with aerobic bacteria and
actinomycetea; pseudomonas flourescens
increased with cellulose; fungi increased with
cellulose and SMC,
cellulose and SMC differ from GC in utilization of Csource (BIOLOG)
BWC 3 (45 Mg ha-1)
1994: high SIR, afterwards waste, at trial finish
higher soil-microbiological activity with BWC3,
N1BWC3 and N1BWC2 in comparison to N3 and
control;
Remarks
Influence on Soil Microbiology
anaerobic incubation), DMSO
(dimethylsulfoxireduction)
Postma & Kok,
2003[SP531]
Sandy soil + additives 14 days
incubation at 18°C; platecount
of
1. semiselective media,
2. ecoplates (BIOLOG) and 3.
genetic community profiling
(PCR-DGGE)
Schwaiger,
1996[SP532]
Siehe Schwaiger &
Wieshofer,
1996[SP533]
Field trial, 4 years
-1
Fertilzation in fall, soil sampling
in spring;
N1 BWC 3 (45 Mg ha +25 Kg N
ha-1)
Urease, protease, βglucosidase and alkalinephosphatase
N1 BWC 2 (15 Mg ha-1 + N)
Respiration after
glucoseaddition (SIR)
N3 (75 resp. 120 Kg N ha-1)
β-Glucosidase and alcaline-phosphatase seem to
be more strongly influenced through FF;
control
Urease and protease: decline (climate, FF and with
protease difficulties during reduction of the
highmolecular components of Comp), but 1996
sign. highest activity on the Comp fertilized plots.
Schwaiger &
Wieshofer,
1996[SP534]
1990 – 1996, largeparcel-field
trial (4 var., 3 replications.), 3
examinationdates each
BWC20, BWC40, BWC80 (Mg ha1
) during the years 1989, 1991 and
1993 in fall each
During the initial trial years no major differences;
Siehe Wieshofer 1993
CR: W-W, W-R, W-R
control
Urease: increase of 60% (1990-1996);
yield, soil physical and chemical
data, enzymeactivity (urease, βglucosidase and protease),
respiration and respiration after
glucoseaddition (SIR)
calcareous grey alluvial soil,
sandy to loamy silt,
1996 clear graduation of soil microbiological
parameters already;
SIR und β-Glucosidase: graduated increase
compared to control (1996);
Protease: increase over the trial years, 1996 sign.
verification of BWC variations;
Increase of
microbiological
actiivity on
control, which can
be explained by a
change to bioorganic cultivation
(1989)
Respiration: sign. increase in activity (BWC80)
Close connection with high Corg and Ntot content.
CR: W-W – W-R – W-R – So -
159
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Remarks
Influence on Soil Microbiology
SF-O-W-R
Selivanovskaya et al.,
2001[SP535]
Field trial, random. block, 4
replications., Bar, grey forest
soil
Untreated Slu, anaerobically
treated Slu (10 Mg ha-1 d.m.
each), SSC (30 Mg ha-1 d.m.);
control
SSC increased microbial biomass (1,9 – 4,4-fold),
basal respiration (2,3 – 6,3 fold), and N2-fixation (2,1
– 35 fold) in comparison to control. Anaerobically
treated SSC has no influence on microbial biomass
and -activity. Untreated SSC leads to a sign.
Reduction of N2-fixation.
Serra-Wittling et al.,
1996[SP536]
Incubation trial, loamy soil,
water retention graphs, CO2measurement, 9 enzymes,
enzymeactivity in activity units
(A.U.) per g d.m..
MSW Comp from source
separated collection, soil/Comp to
0, 10, 30 and 100 % Comp
Microbial activity sign. increased. After Comp
application only a few enzyme activities increased,
after 189 days most enzyme activities increased.
Shindo, 1992[SP537]
Incubation experiment, 7 weeks,
highlandsoil
StoM-RiceSt-Compost
Adenosine de-aminase, protease, ßacetylglucosaminidase through permanent Comp
applications clearly increased. High correlation
between mineralised N and protease resp.
acetylglucosaminidase.
Steinlechner et al.,
1996[SP538]
Sandy loam, inhomogenous,
biol.
MC(172 Kg N ha-1) and RotM (93
Kg N ha-1) 1995
No sign. difference through fertilisation.
Timmermann et al.,
2003[SP539]
Long-term compost experiment
(8 resp. 5 years): duofactorial
split-plot facility with 12
variations at 4 replications.
random.
48 plots per
experiment
6 sites : lS, uL, uL, utL, uL, sL
CR: M – W-W – W-Bar
Comp application: 0; 5; 10; 20 Mg
ha-1
N-supplementation
level N0: no additional Napplication
level N1: 50 % of the optimal Napplication level N2: 100 % of the
optimal N- application on basis of
the Nmin-content of the soil as
well as further aspects, like
li i
t (
The differences in activity compared to control are
clearly higher on plots without N application than the
optimally fertilzed ones.
160
Site with light soil: effect of Comp application on
microbial biomass evident.
Dependency of microbial biomass on Comp
application rate differs on the various sites.
Cmic/Corg-ratio: increase of microbial biomass
through Comp application on all sites; mostly
urease, protease,
dehydrogenase,
basal respiration,
SIR,
phosphomonoest
erase
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
preliminary crop etc. (comp.
nitrateinformationsservice - NIS).
positive linear correlation; increase of microbial
biomass on the variations without additional Nfertilisation. N-application has no beneficial effect on
biomass activity.
Remarks
Influence on Soil Microbiology
DHA/Corg- ratio in mean of sites, tendency towards
an increase with Comp application are more evident
than the Cmic/Corg-ratio.
Valdrighi et al.,
1996[SP540]
Pot-trial, sandy soil, chicory,
microbial examination after 7,
30, 60, 90 and 120 days: total
count aerobic bacteria,
actinomyces and fungi
a) Comp-humic-acids at
application rates of 0, 250, 500,
1000, 2000, 4000, 8000 mg/Kg
soil.
b) block with KCl-solution at the
same application rates as Comphumicacids.
c)Tween 80 with 0, 100, 200,
1000, 2000 mg/Kg soil.
Heterotrophic and chemolytotrophic bacteria react
positively on the addition of humic acids: generally
on Comp humic acids, ammonium-oxidizing
autrotrophic, nitrit-oxidizing autotrophic bacteria: the
higher the application rate, the higher the bacterial
count, but not after 120 days any more, similar
situation with (e, c, d). Higher count of
actinomycetes and cellulolytes MO after 60 and 90
days (a, e). No change on filamentous fungi count.
d) Tween 80 combined with
Hoagland’s mineralsolution at a
ration of 10:100.
e) Comp-humic-acids 0, 1000,
2000 mg/Kg soil with 10 %
Hoagland’s mineralsolution.
Weissteiner,
2001[SP541]
1993 – 1999, loamy silt
CR: Corn-M – So – W-W –WBar – Bar – FP – WRa – CornM –W-W,
BWC/MC some +/–
compoststarterbacteria [MCB],
12,5 – 24 Mg d.m. ha-1 (= 21 –
38,4 Mg f.m.) and year, 7
variations; (with and without min.
NPK-supplementation, with and
without application of chemicalsynthetic fertilizers),
standard=customary,
conventional, (NPK without
No sign. differences.
Very high
application rates!
alc. phosphatase,
xylanase,
biomass-N
161
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Remarks
BWC20, BWC40, BWC80 (Mg ha1
) in 2 year intervals
SIR increase of biochemichal conversion through
Comp application evident in comparison to control;
MCH (1989: 20t ha-1, 1991: 40t ha1
)
McP since 1991 on same level as BWC;
1989 change to
organic
cultivation;
Influence on Soil Microbiology
compost)
Wieshofer,
1994[SP542]
Siehe Schwaiger &
Wieshofer,
1996[SP543]
1990 – 1992, large parcel trailfield trial (5 var., 3 replications.),
3 examination dates each
yield, soil-physical and chemical
dat, enzymeactivity (urease, βglucosidase and protease),
respiration and respiration after
glucosaddition (SIR)
calcareous, grey alluvial soil,
sandy to loamy silt,
CR: W-W – W-R - W-R
162
control
Ureaseprocess inconsistent until 1991, then
increase in activity on all trial sites, MCP is the
highest (urea);
Protease-activity increased after each fertilizer
application, increase on all variations over the
years;
β-glucosidase-activity clearly raised in 1992,
especially MCP in comparison to control (Str).
The increase,
induced by the
Comp application
detectable during
3rd trial year
TABLE 3-42: EFFECT OF COMPOST APPLICATION ON SOIL FAUNA– TABULAR SURVEY
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Blockfacility with 3 replications. 3
years Sil-M
Combination: with/without SluC;
with/without BWC; 0N 100N 200N
No sign influence of min. fertilisation and Sluapplication on count and biomass of earth worms;
Remarks
Effects on Soil Fauna
Christiaens et al.,
2003[SP544]
earthworms
Comp application
earthworms sign. higher in
count and biomass
Hartl & Erhart,
1998[SP545]
STIKO-trial since 1992; CR: W-R,
Pot, W W, O, Sp , calcareous grey
alluvial soil; sandy/loamy silt
BWC 12,5, 22,5 and 32,5 Mg f.m.
ha-1 and Jahr, NPK according to
crop demand/fertilisation
recommendation combined
fertilisation Comp+min.Nsupplementation
Increased earthworm density on BWC variations in
comparison to control resp NPK-sites (increase
from ca. 10 worms per 1/4 m2 to > 20).
earthworms
Pfiffner et al.,
1995a[SP546]
DOK-trial since 1978, lessivé on
loess, blocktrial, 4 replications., 3
sevenyear CR: (2xley, Pot, W-W,
Ca resp. BR, W-W, W-Bar);
D=bio-dynamic; O=organic,
K=conventional, control: 0fertilisation , NPK; StabM and Slu
1,2 DLU ha-1, since 1992 1,4 DLU
ha-1; in variation D composted
1990 and 1992: sign. higher earthworm-biomass on
D, O 7%, K 31 % lower. Earthworm density and
greater presence of anecic earthworm species on
organically cultivated sites. Chemical plant
protection causes a significant reduction of
earthworm population.
earthworms
Pfiffner et al.,
1995b[SP547]
same as above
same as above
1988, 1990, 1991:. 93 % (D) resp 88% (O) greater
presence of anecic beneficial arthropods than in
conventional variations. Density of activity of
ground beetles, rove beetles and spiders on
organically cultivated sites sign. higher (K: 50 %
reduced). Bio-diversity: D: 18 – 24 species; O: 19 –
22, K: 13 – 16.
Ground beetles,
rove beetles,
spiders
Pfotzer & Schüler,
1997[SP548]
Long-term field trial, Pot,
fluorescin-diacetate (FDA)
hydrolysis and feedingactivity with
bait-lamina-test after Törne
(1990), Populationdensity of
collembolen and acarina
MC with/without hornmeal, BWC
(60 Mg ha-1 f.m.), hornmeal (0,6
Mg ha-1), NPK
After cultivation, fertilisation and Pot-planting, FDAactivity and feeding activity (mainly
microarthropods) sign. higher on Comp plots
compared to control.
microarthropods
163
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Remarks
Steinlechner et al.,
1996[SP549]
Sandy loam, inhomogenous, biol.
MC(172 Kg N ha-1) and RotM (93
Kg N ha-1) 1995
Twice the Acari- resp. collembola count sign. in
comparison to control, on one site sign. higher
collembola count than on Comp variation.
acari,
collembola
Steinlechner et al.,
1996[SP550]
Loamy fine sand, inhomogenous,
biolog.
Basis 2 LU
Sign. higher collembolan count on RotM plot.
acari,
collembola
Effects on Soil Fauna
164
3.10 Phytosanitary effects of compost 2
3.10.1 Introduction
The phenomenon of compost being able to suppress soil-borne plant diseases is known since
the beginning of the nineteen sixties of the last century(Bruns, 1996[SP551]; Seidel, 1961[SP552];
Reinmuth, 1963[SP553]; Bochow, 1968 a[SP554], 1968 b[SP555]; Bochow & Seidel, 1964[SP556]).. A
systematic research work about the suppressive effects of composts against soil-borne
pathogens has been realised since the seventies. Looking for alternative material for peat US
scientists found the suppressive effects of different composted bark products. (Hoitink,
1980[SP557])
The mechanism of biological control is based on
competition,
antibiosis and
hyper-parasitism (Hoitink et al., 1996[SP558])
Hoitink, Stone et al. (1997[SP559]) differentiate between „general“ and “specific “suppression
effects. Suppression against pythium and phytophthora is ranking among the “general” type,
those against rhizoctonia among the “specific” types. Following these authors the mechanism
of suppression is based on microbiological interactions like competition, antibiosis (Hoitink, Van
Doren et al. 1977[SP560]; Theodore & Toribio 1995[SP561]) hyper-paritism and induced resistance.
Fuchs (1996[SP562]) himself differentiates between „quantitative suppression“ which can be
found through the great number of microorganisms in fresh compost and “qualitative
suppression”. The latter is characterised by the fact that only a small but efficient number of
antagonists are developing during the maturation phase.
In order to achieve consistent suppression effects a controlled inoculation has to be carried out
in practice. Especially important hereby is the stability of the compost. Pathogens are spawning
in immature composts and are suppressed in mature composts. However, extremely stabilised
( mineralised) organic material does not support the activity of bio-controlled materials. The
period when compost is applied in relation to the time of planting has to be considered together
with the salt content and the release of nutrients. (Hoitink et al., 1996[SP563])
The effects of composting on plant health cannot be reduced only to the destruction of
pathogens. Quite a number of examples exist where composts are able to protect different
crops from several pathogens. These effects are not only restricted to laboratory research but
can also be proved in practice.
2
This chapter is generally dealing with the literature survey of Fuchs (2003) „ Influence of compost application on
plant health“.
165
3.10.2 Mechanisms of disease suppressing effects
Regarding the target organisms the protective mechanisms of compost can differentiate (Fuchs,
2003[SP564]). Thus, Rhizoctonia suppression of a mixed waste compost was destroyed through
heat treatment, whereas Fusarium suppression of the same compost was not damaged (Cohen,
Chefetz et al., 1998[SP565]). It seems that microbes are responsible for Rhizoctonia suppression,
whereas heat-resistant fungistatic substances in compost are possibly effective against
Fusarium sp. (Cohen, Chefetz et al., 1998[SP566]).
3.10.2.1 Micro-biological parameter
The main protection mechanism against plant diseases seems, according to Fuchs 2003[SP567],
to be based on the microbial activity of composts (Nelson & Hoitink, 1983[SP568]; Hoitink, Boehm
et al., 1993[SP569]; Tilston, Pitt et al. 2002[SP570]).
Numerous publications show that a heat treatment which destroys the microflora of
composts also inactivates the suppressive effects (Nelson & Hoitink, 1983[SP571]; Hadar &
Mandelbaum, 1986[SP572]; Trillas-Gay, Hoitink et al. 1986[SP573]; Hardy &
Sivasithamparam 1991[SP574]; Brunner & Seemuller 1993[SP575]; Theodore & Toribio
1995[SP576]; Serra, Houot et al. 1996[SP577]; Ringer, Millner et al. 1997[SP578]; Fuchs
2002[SP579]; Tilston, Pitt et al. 2002[SP580]). Only little exceptions are known (Filippi &
Bagnoli 1992[SP581]). In this case it was found that compost from poplar barks protects
carnations from tracheofusariosis in substrates with poor nitrogen contents if it is
sterilised.
Numerous reports show that the suppressive effect of composts and their microbiological
acitivities are correlating with the hydrolysis velocity of acetate fluorescin (Chen, Hoitink
et al. 1988[SP582]; Inbar, Boehm et al. 1991[SP583]; Bruns, Ahlers et al. 1996[SP584]; Craft &
Nelson 1996[SP585]; Dissanayake & Hoy 1999[SP586]).
Various microorganisms are responsible for his biological activity.
The efficacy of the microorganism complex of compost must be seen as a whole and not
necessarily its individual components. Trillas-Gay, Hoitink et al. (1986[SP587]) isolated
trichoderma harzianum and flavobacterium balustinum from suppressive compost. Adding
both fungi to steamed not suppressive composts part of the antagonistic activity of the
composts will be rebuilt. None of both fungi shows an effect if they are added alone.
Micro-biological activity of compost and the ability to suppress diseases depend on its
physiological condition. Different authors proved that compost setmming from the heat
zone of a windrow shows a distinctly lower ability to protect plants from diseases than
those from cooler areas of the windrows (Hadar & Mandelbaum, 1986[SP588]; Chen,
Hoitink et al. 1987[SP589]; Chen, Hoitink et al. 1988[SP590]; Chung & Hoitink 1990[SP591]).
Compost from the high temperature zone that is stored at cooler temperatures for some
weeks, will become suppressive, i.e. as soon as the natural antagonists have developed
sufficiently (Chen, Hoitink et al., 1988[SP592]). At the final stage of primary decomposition
the fungi spectrum in the compost is relatively poor. The fungal flora of fresh composts
comprises saprophytic and phytosanitary ineffective types of fungi. After maturation,
however, changes in quality and quantity of the fungal flora can be recognised. Most of
the dominant fungi of the matured compost showed in vitro an antagonistic effect against
various pathogens (Breitenbach et al., 1998[SP593])
In certain cases composts can act directly against pathogens, i.e. reduce the survival rate of the
pathogens even at absence of the host (Hoitink, Van Doren et al. 1977[SP594]; Theodore &
Toribio 1995[SP595]). In other cases the compost influences the pathogenic population only when
the host is present. The compost may prevent the growth of the pathogenic population at the
presence of the host plant (Chen, Hoitink et al., 1987[SP596]).
166
3.10.2.2 Chemical and physical parameter
Besides biological activity certain chemical and physical properties of composts can play a
certain role, at least on short terms, yet not exclusively, for the suppression potential.
Thus the reduction of carbon concentrations in compost correlates with the
increase of suppression (Chen, Hoitink et al. 1988[SP597]). The substrates with an
increased suppression are characterised by low nutrient availability and a large
population of mesophilic microorganisms with a high level of activity (Chen,
Hoitink et al. 1988[SP598]).
It seems that the nitrate content in the soil, besides the microbial activity of
composts, plays a certain role. Ringer, Millner et al. (1997[SP599]) found more pythium
symptoms in soils with a higher nitrate concentration. Similar results have been found
by Filippi & Bagnoli (1992[SP600]) with carnation: poplar bark compost protects the
plants from fusarium oxysporum f.sp. dianthi, even if they are growing in a naturally
infected soil. But only if it is sterilised. It is assumed that this effect is caused on a lack
of nitrogen, what probably does not allow a proper disease development. The addition
of easily available nitrogen fertiliser counteracts this effect (Filippi & Bagnoli
1992[SP601]).
In addition, the general nutrient supply and the improvement of soil physical
properties have a favourable effect on plant health.
Besides the nutrients the phenol content found apparently a certain importance. In a
cress-pythium ultimum biotest with bark compost a correlation between phenol content
and suppression was found (Erhart et al. 1999[SP602]b).
3.10.2.3 Stimulation of soil microbial activity
The mechanism of effects of composts is assumed to be based on both the own microbiological
activity and the stimulation of the microbiological activity of soils (Nelson & Boehm 2002[SP603]).
According to Brito, Hadley et al. (1992[SP604]) the composts also change the number of
microorganisms of the rhizosphere, but not their composition. The antagonists are particularly
stimulated hereby.
3.10.3 Difference between compost and other organic fertilisers
According to Fuchs 2003[SP605] the main difference between composts and other organic
fertilisers is based on the inherent microbiological composition of the populations and their
activity. Sugahara & Katoh (1992[SP606]) proved that inputs of rice straw in soils are delivering
energy and nutrients for pathogens and saprophytes. With applications of mature straw
compost the respiratory values of the microorganisms were distinctly lower than after straw
application. The risk to encourage pathogens is distinctly lower after compost application than
after straw application (Sugahara & Katoh, 1992[SP607]). Nakasaki et al. (1996[SP608]) achieved
similar results. In potatoes the symptoms caused by Verticillium dahliae and Pratylenchus
penetrans could essentially be reduced by applying spent mushroom compost compared to
straw mulch. They ascertained that spent mushroom compost increases the gas exchange of
potato leaves what was not observed with straw mulch. This indicates a reduction of root
infestation by Verticillium dahliae and/or Pratylenchus penetrans. (Gent, LaMondia et al.
1999[SP609]),
167
Similar phenomena have been found with fresh and composted bark (Chung, Hoitink et al.
1988[SP610]). Fresh bark increases the incidence of Rhizoctonia sp. in growing media while bark
composts make the substrate suppressive. The reason is probably an increased supply of
cellulose through the fresh bark which Rhizoctonia can use for growth. The availability of
cellulose is strongly reduced in composts. Low charges of cellulose reduced the disease while
higher amounts had an increasing effect (Chung, Hoitink et al. 1988[SP611]).
3.10.4 Parameters influencing the suppressive properties of composts
The efficacy of composts can change significantly from compost to compost and from batch to
batch. E.g. grass and garden composts, and composts being still in the thermophilic phase are
not so efficient as mature composts from other origin in order to protect Agrositis against
Pythium sp. (Nelson & Boehm, 2002[SP612]). Fuchs (2003[SP613]) informs about the parameters
which are influencing the suppressive properties of composts.
3.10.4.1 Composition of source materials for compost production
The importance of the composition of used source materials for suppression ability of composts
had been researched by several authors. According to Fuchs (2003[SP614]) no consistent results
could be found to date. Ringer, Millner et al. (1997[SP615]) compared composts from different
types of manure. All these composts proved to be suppressive against Pythium ultimum and
Rhizoctonia solani. Nearly no differences could be observed concerning the effect with
cucumber against Rhizoctonia solani attack. But compost produced of cow manure seemed to
be more efficient against Pythium ultimum infestation than horse manure. The lowest
suppressive effect showed compost produced from poultry manure. The efficacy of composts
against Pythium ultimum was inversely proportional to their NO3 contents (Ringer, Millner et al.,
1997[SP616]).
According to Brunner & Seemuller (1993[SP617]) the different microflorae in green composts and
from cherry tree bark are responsible for the reduction of diseases in raspberries caused by
Phytophthora fragariae var. rubi. contrary to composts from coniferous bark which could not
protect the plants.
As already mentioned the authors who researched the influence of the source materials found
partly contradictory results. Walter, Frampton et al. (1995[SP618]) found a more efficient
protection of peas against Aphanomyces euteiches with composts containing manure. This was
traced back to the larger diversity of nutrients and microorganisms. Erhart et al. (1999[SP619]b)
found that green compost showed a distinctly lower efficacy in order to protect cress against
Pythium ultimum. On the other hand Bruns, Ahlers et al. (1996[SP620]) showed that green
compost could protect peas against Pythium ultimum and tomatoes against Phytophthora
parasitica more efficient than sheep manure compost. They concluded that this effect is related
to a distinctly higher microbiological activity of green compost.
The available papers lead to the impression that the composition of the original mixture is only
important in an indirect way. Physiological maturity of composts, the different microbiological
composition and the nitrogen availability seem to the major parameters. Some scientists could
explain the different diseases suppressing effects with these factors. Fuchs, (2003[SP621], data
not published) came to the same results carried out with some hundred different composts.
Hereby it was found that the addition of material containing lignine during the maturity phase
alone could increase the suppression potential of composts, like e.g. hemp fibre as a peat
substitute. This improvement seems to be based on a stimulation of a trichoderma spp.
population through these composts.
Different compost fractions after screening showed a different microbial composition. According
to Tilston, Pitt et al. (2002[SP622]) compost, after being screened through a 4 mm mash screen,
168
lost its protective potential. The authors assume a possible reason in the fact that fine screened
composts show a lower amount of extractable carbon. On the other hand fine screened
composts contains less lignin material which is relatively rich in Trichoderma spp. This
antagonist decomposes lignin. It seems that fine screened compost contains less Trichoderma
spp. and therefore might be less suppressive.
3.10.4.2 Application rate
The suppressive effect on composts is mostly proportional to the rate of compost application.
This could be proved without doubts by Serra, Houot et al. (1996[SP623]) at the protection of
linum against Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lini in natural soils with a compost application of 10, 20
and 30% mixed waste compost. Similar results found Fuchs (2002[SP624]) with different
proportions of compost in growing media. Less distinct effects as related to compost rates found
Walter, Frampton et al. (1995[SP625]). Suppression tests were carried out at peas and
Aphanomyces euteiches with sterile sand and large quantities of compost. The compost portion
in the sand was 25, 50, 75 and 100%. In pure sand the compost microorganisms don’t meet the
competition of a natural soil-borne microflora. In a microbiological sense a sand substrate with
25% compost is already well buffered. On the other hand growth inhibiting factors caused by
composts on account of high salt and nutrient contents may counteract pathogen-suppressing
effects.
Generally it can be concluded: the poorer the microbial status of a substrate, the lower the
disease suppression effect. The amount or proportion of the applied compost is also important
(Fuchs 1995[SP626]; Fuchs, 1996[SP627]; Fuchs, 2002[SP628]) as the compost microflora easily
establishes itself in such substrates.
3.10.4.3 Compost maturity
Suppressive effects of composts are depending on compost maturity. Numerous authors could
point out that the degradation degree of organic material can be a decisive factor (Chef, Hoitink
et al. 1983[SP629]; Kuter, Hoitink et al. 1988[SP630]; Grebus et al., 1994[SP631]; Hoitink & Grebus
1994[SP632]; Fuchs, 1996[SP633]; Hoitink, Stone et al. 1997[SP634]; Cohen, Chefetz et al.,
1998[SP635]; Ceuster, Hoitink et al. 1999a[SP636]; Ceuster, Hoitink et al. 1999b[SP637]; Erhart et al.,
1999[SP638]b; Tilston, Pitt et al. 2002[SP639]). According to some authors only mature compost
(ideal stage according to Waldow et al. (2000[SP640]): 3 – 6 months) renders the desired
antiphytopathogenic effect. (Ferrara et al., 1996[SP641]; Tuitert & Bollen, 1996[SP642]; Waldow et
al., 2000[SP643].)
Very young composts mostly show a low suppression (Chef, Hoitink et al. 1983[SP644]; Kuter,
Hoitink et al., 1988[SP645]; Grebus et al., 1994[SP646]; Craft & Nelson 1996[SP647]; Ceuster, Hoitink
et al. 1999a[SP648]; Ceuster, Hoitink et al. 1999b[SP649]; Erhart et al. 1999[SP650]b). Excessive
nutrient and energy contents (glucose, amino acid etc.) of fresh organic material can suppress
the production of essential enzymes of antagonists and thus distinctly impact their effectiveness
(Ceuster, Hoitink et al. 1999a[SP651]; Ceuster, Hoitink et al. 1999b[SP652]). Nutrients and organic
matter rich in energy can also be a nutrient source for pathogens and thus assist diseases
(Hoitink & Grebus 1994[SP653]; Tuitert & Bollen, 1996[SP654]). During maturation the suppression
potential increases in general (Chef, Hoitink et al. 1983[SP655]; Kuter, Hoitink et al., 1988[SP656];
Hoitink & Grebus 1994[SP657]; Craft & Nelson 1996[SP658]; Fuchs, 1996[SP659]; Ryckeboer &
Coosemans 1996b[SP660]; Erhart et al. 1999[SP661]b). If maturity passes a certain stage, the
organic matter is highly stabilised, whereas the microbiological activity decreases and,
consequently compost is losing its suppressive effect (Boehm, Madden et al. 1993[SP662];
Hoitink & Grebus 1994[SP663]; Hoitink, Stone et al. 1997[SP664]; Tilston, Pitt et al. 2002[SP665]).
As already mentioned the suppressive effects against the different pathogens are not all based
on the same microbiological mechanisms. One can distinguish between “general” and “specific”
suppression (Hoitink, Stone et al. 1997[SP666]). Fuchs (1996[SP667]) differentiate between
169
“quantitative” and “qualitative” suppression.
The main causes of the different types of
suppression are the microbiological populations settling in the composts, changing, however,
continuously during the decomposition process. The degradation degree of organic matter
affects the composition of microorganisms in the rhizosphere (Boehm, Madden et al.,
1993[SP668]). There from follows that not all pathogens react in a same way on the maturity
degree of composts.
Fresh compost can efficiently protect agricultural crops against Pythium ultimum or
Phytophthora cinnanomi (Kuter, Hoitink et al., 1988[SP669]; Tuitert & Bollen, 1996[SP670]). A high
plant protection against Rhizoctonia solani is usually achieved with more mature composts
(Kuter, Hoitink et al., 1988[SP671]; Tuitert & Bollen, 1996[SP672]; Cohen, Chefetz et al.,
1998[SP673]). An attack of Pythium graminicola at agrostis palustris could be avoided only with
mature green composts (Craft & Nelson 1996[SP674]). However, not all of the composts show a
successful suppression in an advanced maturation stage. Grebus et al. (1994[SP675]) worked
with green composts showing a good general suppression. The same compost did not
successfully suppress Rhizoctonia solani. The authors concluded that the specific Rhizoctonia
antagonists were missing and thus the present microflora against rhizoctonia sp. was
ineffective. The research of Ringer, Millner et al. (1997[SP676]) can be judged as an exception.
Both of the researchers did not find a significant relation between the rotting duration of manure
compost and their potential to protect cucumber and radishes against Rhizoctonia solani.
Only in some cases fresh composts perform more efficient than mature composts
For some pathogens it is still not known whether the stage of maturity of compost plays a
specific role. According to Chef, Hoitink et al. (1983[SP677]) chrysanthemum and hemp will
become more efficiently protected against a Fusarium oxysporum attack if treated with mature
bark compost instead of fresh bark compost. Cohen, Chefetz et al. (1998[SP678]) could not find a
correlation between the age of mixed waste compost and the protection of cotton against
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum.
A pre-condition for large scale practical utilisation of antiphytopathogenic effects is the distinct
definition of the production process and the production of composts with constant properties.
(Bruns, 2003[SP679]).
3.10.5 Measures to increase the disease suppressing effect of composts
Fuchs (2003[SP680]) reports about different measures in order to increase or to assure the
suppression potential of composts. According to Chung, Hoitink et al. (1988[SP681]), Hoitink &
Grebus (1994[SP682]) the antagonists, besides bacillus spp., are killed during the thermophilic
phase and must re-establish in the succeeding process. In order to assure the quality Chung &
Hoitink, (1990[SP683]) recommend inoculation of the compost with pre-selected antagonists. An
inoculation with Trichoderma harzianum taken from the high temperature zone increases
effectively the suppression of the composts (Chung & Hoitink, 1990[SP684]). The application of
this antagonist taken from the mesophilic temperature zone, however shows hardly an effect.
Probably, in this zone a more efficient the competition of the microorganisms (Chung & Hoitink,
1990[SP685]) can be found, whereby Trichomedia cannot establish itself easily. These results
contradict the findings of Nelson, Kuter et al. (1983[SP686]). According to them Trichoderma sp.
can develop in mature compost very well, but not in fresh compost or in peat. Not every
substrate is suitable for the development of an antagonist.
Other authors have been successful with the inoculation of further antagonists. Special attention
must be paid on the type of material added, in order to guarantee the freedom of pathogens and
weed seeds.
In developing such these technologies and procedures the positive properties of composts
might be negatively influenced. Certain nutrients (especially ammonium) and high salt contents
170
can have a negative effect on the suppression properties of composts (Chung, Hoitink et al.
1988[SP687])
3.10.6 Long term effects / practical applications
According to Fuchs (2003[SP688]) today exist sufficient well documented experience which
confirms that the positive effects of composts on the plant health are not only based on
laboratory trials but are more and more acknowledged in horticultural and agricultural practice.
The effect in agricultural cropping systems, however, is not always specific, but relates generally
to growth and health of plants.
It must be kept in mind that the results of pot experiments in sterile sand do not necessarily
correlate with findings in the field, in both a positive and in a negative sense. Likely, growth
conditions play a decisive role (temperature, air humidity, water content in the soil etc.). It can
be assumed that positive effects from composts on field scale are based on a range of factors:
e.g. fertilisation system (above all nitrogen), the stimulation of microbial activity of soil and
compost microorganisms respectively (Craft & Nelson, 1996[SP689] cit. from Fuchs 2003[SP690]).
In Switzerland compost is successfully applied after steaming in order to revitalise the soil and
to increase and assure the efficiency of the treatment for longer periods. (Fuchs, 2002[SP691])
3.10.7 Compost and induced resilience
Composts do not only influence the plant health regarding soil-borne pathogens. They are also
able to increase the general state of plant health. Induced resilience seems to affect the
strength of the defensive reaction of plants against infestation to a greater extent than on
activating antagonists (Zhang, Dick et al. 1997[SP692]).
TABLE 3-43: EXAMPLES OF PLANT DISEASES, THE APPEARANCE OF WHICH WAS REDUCED THROUGH
THE APPLICATION OF COMPOST
Pathogen
Host
Compost
Benefit
Source
BAK, GSK,
MKR
Reduced infestation approx. 54 %,
Bruns,
1996[SP693]
21 BAK
Reduced infestation up to 87 %
Erhart & Burian,
1997[SP694]
Phytium ultimum Cucumber
GSK
Reduced infestation up to 80 %
Waldow et al.,
2000[SP695]
Pythium ultimum Cucumber
Compost
Increase of the suppressive effect
Ferrara et al.,
1996[SP696]
Phytium ultimum Several
hosts
Phytium ssp.
Cress
up to 80 % with green compost
at extreme infestation
Pythium ultimum Cucumbers
Induced resistance at tests with split roots,
where only one part came into contact with
compost. These effects are lost when
composts are sterilised
P.
Cucumbers
aphanidermatum
Rhizoctonia
Cotton
solani
Reduction of infestation
Hoitink, Zhang
et al.
1997[SP697],
Zhang, Han et
al. 1998[SP698]
Hadar et al.
2000[SP699], zit.
in Timmermann
et al. 2003
171
P. ultimum,
R. solani
Pea, been,
beetroot
BAK
Reduction of infestation approx. 39 % at
initial compost application
Schüler et al.,
1989a[SP700]
32 % a 7 days retarded compost
application
BAK, bark
compost, MKR
Reduction of infestation 25 – 40 %
Schüler et al.,
1989b[SP701]
Pythium ultimum Vegetable
und Rhizoctonia cultivation and
husbandry
solani
Long-lasting
application of
composts
from green
cuttings
Reduction of soil receptivity for Pythium
ultimum und Rhizoctonia solani. The effect
of compost is so much higher, the more
intensive the field is cultivated
Fuchs, 1995;
Fuchs,
2002[SP702]
Rhizoctonia
solani
Incubation test
K 1 inoculated
on arable
plates
Solution of 7
commercial
composts on
arable plates
Suppressive effect by set-up of an inhibit
zone by bactillus subtilis N4
Nakasaki et al.,
1996[SP703]
RhizoctoniaKrankheit
Lawn
Through inoculation with the antagonist
Bacillus subtilis N4 a compost was
produced, which controlled Rhizoctoniadisease
Nakasaki,
Hiraoka et al.
1998[SP704]
Rhizoctonia
solani
Radish plants
Protection against Rhizoctonia solani by
addition of antagonistic bacteria in a
growing media mixture. Bacteria will
establish themselves better in sterilised
bark compost than in suppressive bark
compost
Kwok, Fahy et
al. 1987[SP705]
Phytophthora
fragariae var.
rubi
Raspberries
GSK (20 l per
running meter
in spring and
fall)
efficient control
Neuweiler &
Heller
1998[SP706]
Mixed waste
compost
Acromonium sp. parasitiert Phytophthora
nicotianae
Widmer,
Graham et al.
1998[SP707]
P. ultimum,
Rhizochtonia.
solani
Beetroot
bean
Phytophthora
nicotianae
Phytophthora
nicotiana
Citrus
Mixed waste
compost
Improve growth on infected. (The effect
nutrient efficiency and possibly also on
improvement of the physical and chemical
soil properties)
Widmer,
Graham et al.
1998[SP708]
Bodenmüdigkeit
Planted young
trees in old
apple plants
Compost or
worm humus
Significant increase of growth
Gur, Luzzati et
al. 1996[SP709]
Stemphylium
botryosum
Asparagus
plant
Reduction of infestation
Stützel & Bloom
2000 [SP710]
Verticillium
dahliae und
Pratylenchus
penetrans
Potatoes
Compost from
mushroom
waste
Reduction of the symptoms contrary to
straw mulch, significant increase of the
amount of marketable potatoe
LaMondia, Gent
et al.,
1999[SP711]
?
?
Compost
Alternative to methylbromid treatment
Ceuster, Hoitink
et al.,
1999a[SP712];
Ceuster, Hoitink
et al.,
1999b[SP713]
Pseudomonas
syringae
Arabidopsis
plants
Plants growing in compost, will be distinctly
less attacked by Pseudomonas syringae
than plants grown in peat
Zhang, Dick et
al., 1997[SP714]
Erysiphe
graminis
Barley plants
Induced resistency
Fuchs,
2002[SP715]
172
Erysiphe
graminis f.sp.
hordei
Barley plant
additive effect at combined application of
compost extracts and compost application
in the soil.
Budde &
Weltzien
1988[SP716]
Anthraknose
Cucumbers
Induced resistency
Hoitink, Zhang
et al.
1997[SP717];
Zhang, Han et
al. 1998[SP718]
Plasmodiophora
brassicae
Cabbage
plants
Protection of the plant decreases with
increasing compost maturity
Ryckeboer &
Coosemans
1996b[SP719]
Trichoderma
asperellum,
Tomatoes
Trichoderma asperellum, affects tomatoe
fusariose
Cotxarrera,
Trillas et al.
2002[SP720]
Fusarium
oxysporum f.sp.
lini
Hemp
Compost increase in the soil the existing
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lini
effect proportionally to the compost
quantity. Same effect with autoclavely
treated compost in untreated soil. However
not in heat treated soils.
direct activation of the natural
saprophytic flora of soil is responsible for
the protection effect of crop.
Serra, Houot et
al. 1996[SP721]
Fresh
composts
3.10.8 Prospects and conclusions
The conclusion which Bruns (2003) presented at the symposium „ Applying Compost – Benefits
and Needs“ may be placed here:
Suppressive effects of bio- and yard waste composts produced in model or in commercial
systems on P. ultimum could be demonstrated in standard bioassays and in practical
horticulture.
For large-scale utilisation of disease suppressive composts the production process has to
be defined and a quality assessment scheme has to be developed in order to produce
composts with consistent properties.
Procedures to assess the curing state of composts and predict the interactions of plants,
pathogens and beneficial micro organisms need to be developed.
Studies on suppressive effects of compost in soils are promising. Research to increase
the utilisation of suppressive composts in soils should be intensified. If this is successful
composts originating from source separation could have an improved market potential.
3.10.9 Experimental results ob disease suppressing effects of compost –
tabular survey
173
TABLE 3-44: DISEASE SUPPRESSING EFFECTS OF COMPOST – TABULAR SURVEY
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Bollen & Volkers,
1996[SP722]
Plantpathogens in Comp, mode of
transmittion and inactivation
during the composting process
Breitenbach et al.,
1998[SP723]
Two composting methods
(windrow composting, rottingbox),
fungal spectrum recorded
successively during the
rottingprocess, antagonistic
potential of the dominant fungal
flora examined through
platecount.
BWC
Frequently found antagonists, like Trichoderma or
pythium oligandrum, represent antagonists of the
phytopathogenic type. The fungal flora is considered
harmless and phytopathogenically safe, with the
exception of pythium irregulare. 9 of 15 chosen
dominant fungi had an antagonistic effect against
pathogens at 10 °C (6 at 20 °C). The bio-diversity in
windrow system less than in rotting boxes. Narrower
fungal spectrum after the prerotting process in
immature (fresh) Comp. On open windrow composting
the biodiversity decreased during the maturation
process, with rotting boxes 2 – 3 fold increase of
biodiversity.
Bruns, 1996[SP724]
Inoculation of blended substrates
with 5 resp. 15 % Comp, P.
ultimum
BWC, GWC, MCc,
standardized rotting process
BWC and GWC: sign. suppressive effect against P.
ultimum, evident in several host plants. (suppression of
ca. 54 %): with extremely infectious conditions (90 %
yield loss) GWC achieved a suppression of the infection
by max. 80%.
Bruns, 2003[SP725]
k.A.
k.A.
Provisional results: slight trend on the suppressive
effect of Comp in dependence of processing time.
3-6 months old Comp more effective than older Comp
Erhart & Burian,
1997[SP726]
Incubationtest, germination- and
growth test with cress
21 BWC with other organic
wastes, 0, 15, 30, 50, 100 %
Comp.
Pythium-infection was suppressed on 30 % -site, on all
Comp-plots a reduction up to 87 % .
Erhart et al.,
1999b[SP727]
Greenhouse, random. block,
Phytium ultimum, substrate in
greenhouse inoculated, after 7
days planting of Pisum sativum
17 BWC, 1 barkComp, 1
grapepomaceComp
9 of 17 Comp slightly suppressive efffect, bark mulch
strong suppession
174
Remarks
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Ferrara et al.,
1996[SP728]
pottrial, Rhizoctonia solani on
beans and basil, Fusarium
oxisporum on basil, antagonistic
potential isolated microorganisms
in vitro and in vivo (pot)
4 Comp: SSC + poplarbark,
industrial sludge +
poplarbark, poplarbark,
MWC; 25, 50 and 100 % in
soilblend
In dependency of maturity good suppressive effect from
all Comp.
Franco et al.,
1996[SP729]
Alpechìn (liquid phytotoxic
wasteproduct of oliveoilextraction)
in Comp absorbed and incubated
(12 days, 50 days), silty loam
cottonwasteComp, blends:
80:15 (v:v) Alpechìn-Boden
with/without 15:5 (v:v) Comp
Toxicity neutralized through Comp application; plant
development furthered; without Comp negative
influence of alpechìn on soil microbial biomass.
Gorodecki & Hadar,
1990[SP730]
pottrial
Composted grapewaste
MCR, peat
On both composts suppression of rhizoctonia solani
and Sclerotium rolfsii on different crops, in comparison
to peat.
composted odiferous
yardwaste trimmings
With increasing Comp maturity, stronger suppression of
Pythium, susceptibility for rhizoctonia still given.
Grebus et al.,
1994[SP731]
Hoitink et al.,
1996[SP732])
bibliography
Many quotations
Hoitink et al.,
1997[SP733]
bibliography
Many quotations
Lievens et al.,
2001[SP734]
Root-crevice-experiment,
cucumber, Phytium ultimum singlesided inoculation, fresh- and
dryweight of shoot and root after 35
days, pathogen detection.
BWC, composted farmwaste
for improvement of ISR
(induced systemic
resistance)
Root-rot sign.reduced in gap-containers with Comp
blend. Growth of Comp/substrate-combination sign.
higher than the substrate/substrate-combination. Rootrot sign. lower on plants which germinated in Comp
blend and were transplanted into a contaminated
medium, compared to plants which germinated in an
infected medium.
Marcos et al.,
1995[SP735]
Vesseltrial, silty clay, Tom
4 Comp types, good
chemical properties
3 of the 4 Comp (Comp 1 suspicion of phytotoxins)
increased yield in comparison to control. Regarding the
microbial population only minor changes. Comp seems
to support the growth of antagonists in the rhizosphere,
which confirms the statement, that Comp is effective
against root-pathogens.
Maynard, 2000[SP736]
Field trial at 2 locations, 2 years,
Tom, sandy loam, sandy
leafComp, 50 T/a d.m., NPK:
0, 650 and 1300 lb/a, control
Pure Comp variations had less blossom-end rot.
Remarks
175
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
terracesoil, random. block, 4
replications.
1300 lb/a, cottonseedmeal
2166 lb/a
Maynard & Hill.,
2000[SP737]
Field trial, 3 years, onions, 3
replications. (1994 only 1)
Leaf- Comp 50 T/a, NPK in
both variations
Nakasaki et al.,
1996[SP738]
Identification and isolation of
Bacillus subtilis B 4 for the
suppression of Rhizoctonia solani
K1 through Comp products; in
vitro
Ryckeboer &
Coosemans,
1996a[SP739]
Influence of
Vegetable/Garden/Fruit Comp
extracts on the motility of early
stages of H. schachtii, petridishes,
incubation
Schüler et al.
(1989a[SP740])
pottrial, Phytium ultimum,
Rhizoctonia solani, various crops
BWC from source separated
collection, 8 %, 10 %, 30 %
P. Ultimum: sign. increase of f.m.-weight; through
Comp addition (8 %) to a contaminated medium at rise
of healthy plants 29 % to 68 %, with 7 days delay of
Comp application 12.5 – 44,5 %.
Schüler et al.,
1989b[SP741]
Vesselexperiment, sterilized sand
Sand, BR, bean, inoculation with
Pythium ultimum and Rhizoctonia
solani
BWC, bark- and MCc,
application rates 0, 8, 10, 30
% (v/v), NPK
Germination rate of BR after artificial contamination (P.
ultimum) sign. higher with Comp application, most
obvious with BWC, somewhat lower on bark Comp and
MCc. Control no contamination: germination rate 75 –
85 %; with contamination: 30 %; with contamination
and Comp: 55 – 70 %. Suppression potential of Comp
sign. and clearly evident also on higher contamination
rates! On comp plots the f.m.-weight, inspite of
contamination, was 60 – 80 % of the fertilized non non
contaminated control, without Comp only 20 %.
infection
Disease outbreak and yield sign. lower resp. higher
than inoculated control, but not sign. lower resp. higher
than non-inoculated control.
Infection
Tsror, 1999[SP742]
176
Field trial, 2 years, Comp extract
as plant protection, Alternaria
solani, Tom, yield, disease
expression
Results
Remarks
Depression of bacterial wet-rot through Comp
application.
Sign. reduction of motility during the early stages of H.
schachtii from day 1 to day 4 after application of Comp
extract, in comparison to control and reference.
Comp extract (CEX),
commercial MCC : water,
1:5, incubated for 7 or 14
days. Weekly application on
Tom leaves
pythium ultimum,
rhizoctonia solani
↓
yield ↑
alternaria solani ↓
yield ↑
Authors
Experimental Design
Fertilisation
Results
Tuitert & Bollen,
1996[SP743]
Phytophtora cinnamoni,
Rhizoctonia solani
GWC,. 0, 10, 20 % in claypearlite-substrate
20 %-substrate with mature Comp suppressed R.
solani, but not the immature (fresh) Comp.
Van Iersel,
2003[SP744]
Lysianthus
4 variantions:
soil steamed/non steamed,
composttea/without composttea
No information
weekly application of
biologically active
composttea on microfarming
plots
Clearly positive influence of Comp-tea-application on
yield loss caused by soil borne pathogens (botrytis,
myrothecium, pythium)
After initial steam sterilization sustainable suppression
of rootnematodes through Comp-tea-application.
Waldow et al.,
2000[SP745]
horticulture
cucumber: Pythium ultimum
2 different GWC, peat with
25 and 50 % v/v Comp,
Comp reduced the outbreak of diseases (judged by
f.m.-yield) up to 80 % on variations with disease
pressure of 50 – 90 %. Material at an age of 3 – 6
months most effective.
Weltzien, 1989[SP746]
Laboratory and field trial,
vineyard: Plasmopara viticola,
Uncinula necator, Pseudopeziza
tracheiphila; Pot and Tom:
Phytophtora infestans; Bar:
Erysiphe graminis; SB: Erysiphe
betae; cucumber: Sphaerotheca
fuliginea; strawberry and beane:
Botrytis cinerea
MC various animals, extracts
1:5 – 8, 15-20 °C incubated,
extraction 1 – 3 days,
induction time: timespan
between Comp-extract
application and inoculation
Effective plant protection against fungal diseases of
leaves and fruit, with prophylactic application. Sign. and
reproducable results under diverse conditions in
laboratory, greenhouse and on fields
Comparison microbial count and
composition in the rhizosphere of
Tom from 3 organic and 3
conventional farms in relation to
the suppression of corky root
(Pyrenochaeta lycopersici)
total count of actinomycetes,
bacteria, fungi
Sign. higher population and greater diversity of
actinomycetes in organic cultivation, significante
correlation betw. count of cellulolytic actinomycetes and
suppression of pyrenochaeta lycopersici; no sign.
difference between sites regarding bacteria and fungi;
sign. increased count of fluorescing pseudomonaspecies with organic cultivation;
Workneh & van
Bruggen, 1994[SP747]
Remarks
infection
diverse fungi ↓
177
4
4.1
OUTLINE OF THE REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR THE USE
OF COMPOST
Federal legislation
Compost Ordinance FLG. II Nr. 292/2001[SP748]: The regular compost application in agriculture
is limited to an amount of 8 Mg d.m. per ha in an average of 5 years. In labelling the licensing
rules for nitrogen fertilisation must be indicated as required by the Austrian Water Act.
Application rates ranging beyond these regulations are only possible as waste recycling
measure according to the Federal Waste Management Plan (BMLFUW, 2006[FA749]). One-time
reclamation measures or specific uses in combating erosion in agriculture are limited to 160 Mg
d.m. ha-1 and need in any case an authorisation pursuant to the water Act.
TABLE 4-1:
POSSIBLE APPLICATION RATES OF COMPOST AS A PRODUCT IN SPECIFIED
APPLICATION AREAS DEPENDENT ON THE QUALITY (HEAVY METAL) CLASS
Q u
Application area:
class A+
regular fertilisation
Agriculture
reclamation;
protection against
erosion
Hobby garden
Plantation (plant holes)
Landscaping (one-time
application) /
Reclamation on landfills
Landscaping (maintenance)
a l i t y
C l a s s
class A
class B
max. 8 Mg d.m. / ha and year on an average
of 5 years
excluded**
max. 160 Mg d.m. / ha within 20 years °
Not more than 10 litre per m² and year
excluded
Not more than 40 volume-%
excluded**
> 400 Mg d.m. / ha
within 10 years
>40 Mg d.m. / ha within
3 years
≤ 400 Mg d.m. / ha
within 10 years*
≤ 200 Mg d.m. / ha
within 10 years*
≤ 40 Mg d.m. / ha
within 3 years*
≤ 20 Mg d.m. / ha
within 3 years*
°
If in the frame of an agricultural reclamation with compost according to Compost Ordinance these maximum
amounts are spread no further compost application is allowed for a period of 20 years.
*
If in a period of 10 years these maximum amounts for land reclamation have been applied no more
maintenance applications shall be done within this period.
**
Special rules laid down in provincial regulations on soil protection may allow the application of higher amounts
respectively of class B compost in agriculture. Utilisation is subject to the Treatment Principles of the Federal
Waste Management Plan [see below]
Only composts of the quality classes A+ and A are allowed to be applied in agriculture [§5].
Minimum requirements for biological agriculture is the use of quality compost class A+. This
corresponds to the requirements of Annex II A of the EU Regulation (EC) n° 2092/91 of June
24th, 1991.
All composts – with the exception of mixed waste composts – are allowed to be used for the
production of manufactured soil and substrates (blends) [§7]. The requirements for the quality of
composts depend on the intended utilisation of the substrate. The following table describes the
quality requirements for composts if used as constituent of manufactured soils and substrates in
the different application areas.
TABLE 4-2
178
COMPOST AS CONSTITUENT IN MANUFACTURED SOILS AND COMPOST BLENDS
Intended application
area of the compost
blend
Minimum
Quality class
Additional quality
requirement in
depending on
application
[Ann. 2 part 1 Tab. 2]
Requirements for
epidemic hygiene
[Ann. 2 part1 Tab. 2a]
„household“
[e.g. garden area,
container plants, roof
gardens]
„A“
„Hobby gardening“
„bag material“
„agriculture“
„A“
„Hobby gardening“
„agriculture“
Areas not provided for
production of food and
animal feeding
„B“
Landscaping and
cultivation
Landscaping and
cultivation
Treatment principles of the Federal waste management plan (BMLFUW, 2006):
The treatment principles of the Federal waste management plan define the boundary between
recycling and disposal of wastes. A pre-condition for recycling must consider the Soil Protection
Acts of the provinces and the federal Water Act and thus the implementation programme for the
EU Nitrates Directive. Site and soil specific conditions must be respected. The application rate
is a maximum of 16 Mg d.m. depending on the heavy metal content (for quality class A+)
respectively 12 Mg d.m. (for quality class A) per ha and year for an average of five years,
whereby the total amount during these 5 years must be split at least in two applications (years).
For instance, this would mean that each application in the 1st and 3rd year would be 40 Mg d.m.
at maximum.
Nitrogen loads free from authorisation according to the Water Act (amendment FLG. no.
252/1990 §32 (2) f)). A rhythm of a 2 to 3-years application of composts on agricultural land has
proven to be practicable. However, this can induce exceedance of the maximum ‘free’ N-load of
175 respectively 210 Kg N ha-1 a-1. The actual interpretation does not distinguish between
different bonds of nitrogen in the organic matter pools and thus its availability when applied on
soil.
The Austrian Action Programme for the Implementation of the EC Nitrates Directive
(91/676/EWG) (BMLFUW (2006b[SP750]) is directly related to the Water Act and its principle
rules for nitrogen and manure fertilisation. Regarding compost fertilisation the following
principles are valid:
The prohibition to apply manure, compost and sewage sludge compost on arable land in
the time between November 30th and February 15th (an application from February 1st is
allowed for: early cultures to be planted like Durum wheat and spring barley, green
manure with early nitrogen consumption like rape seed and winter barley and field
vegetables grown under foils )
During the period from October 1st to November 30th the total nitrogen application is
restricted to 60 Kg per hectare.
Compost is excepted from the obligatory division of N applications of more than 100 Kg
on slopes of > 10% near a water body in at least two portions.
Maximum limit of 175 Kg nitrogen (from manure, compost, other wastes applied as
fertilisers and commercial fertilisers) per hectare and year on arable land without
permanent crop coverage
Maximum limit of 210 Kg nitrogen per hectare and year on agricultural land with
permanent crop coverage inclusive permanent grassland and with crop rotations with
high nitrogen demands.
Maximum limit of 170 Kg nitrogen to be applied per hectare and year from manure.
179
Based on a approved higher nutrient demand of the crops and a preliminary authorisation
pursuant § 32 Water Act 1959 these maximum limits can be passed. A surpassing of the
maximum amount of nitrogen from manure is not possible.
A restriction to 170 Kg nitrogen per hectare and year applied with manure is also valid for
organic farming pursuant to Regulation (EG) Nr. 1804/1999[SP751]. Annex VII of the regulation
stipulates the admissible number of animals which correspond to a nitrogen amount of 170 Kg
per hectar and year. As an example 2 milk cows, 6.5 breeding pigs or 230 laying hen
correspond to an equivalent of 170 Kg nitrogen. On this background of the maximum limit of
170 Kg N ha-1 a-1 and considering the mobilisation potential of compost nitrogen again the
question arises how to assess a the nitrogen limitation in organic farming in a correct and
environmentally sound manner.
Austria’s 2007-2013 rural development national strategy plan3:
Under priority 2 – Improvement of the Environment and Landscape the Agricultural
Environmental measures are listed in detail. The basics of fertilising follow the essential main
features of “Guidelines for a proper fertilising” of the BMLFUW (1999a and 2006c). As a basic
principle quality compost of the quality class A is not excluded in the various programmes, thus
becoming an allowed means of soil improvement. The following measures, however, regulate
the abandonment of sewage sludge and composted sewage sludge:
Abandonment of yield increasing production measures on all arable land and forage
crops
Abandonment of yield increasing production measures on all arable land (without
forage crops)
Integrated production for potatoes, sugar beets, vegetables, strawberries, medical and
spice plants
Integrated production of fruit and hop
Integrated production of vine
Abandonment of silage
Cultivation of alpine pasture and grass lands
Alpage and alpine cattle keeping
Eco-indicator system
Cultivation of agricultural land especially endangered by leaching
Conservation and development of valuable areas in the sense of nature and water
protection
The § 4 Fertiliser Law (BGBl. Nr. 513/1994) excludes waste water and wastes like sewage
sludge, compost from sewage sludge, faeces and mixed waste composts from the scope. §
5(3), however, contains an authorisation to enact an ordinance on the admission of sewage
sludge and compost of organic origin performing allow contamination to be applied as fertilisers.
Such an Ordinance has never been published.
The Fertiliser Ordinance (BGBl. II Nr.100/2004) defines „green compost“ as composted
vegetable material stemming from agriculture as well as garden and park areas respectively.
This is the only compost which purely or as a constituent of “organic fertiliser” or “growing
media” is allowed to be used. The problem is that the minimum contents of organic matter
3
http://land.lebensministerium.at/article/articleview/47976/1/8487
180
(>50% d.m.), and respectively P2O5-total (>1% d.m.) as required for organic fertilisers cannot
be met by green composts in many cases.
4.2
Austrian Standards and Guidelines
ÖNORM S2202: Guidelines for application of composts – Part 1: Horticulture and
landscape engineering and technical applications (2006-08-01): This standard states
guidelines for a use-related and environmentally friendly application of compost for the
production and maintenance of top soil layers for non-agricultural cultivation or technical
applications in the following areas:
Horticulture and landscaping,
Facilities for sports grounds and recreation,
Lawns and meadows,
Land reclamation,
Skiing slopes,
Hobby gardens,
Ornamental plant cultivation and tree nurseries,
Surface layers on landfill sites,
Methane oxidation layers,
Biofilters,
Compost as constituent in blends and substrates.
The recommendations for application are building the basis for placing tenders for landscaping
and maintenance measures conforming to the standards.
The applications for horticulture, hobby gardening and skiing slopes fall within the field of
agriculture regarding the basic requirements for compost quality (heavy metals, impurities)
according to Compost Ordinance (BGBl. II Nr. 292/2001). The preparation of the application
guidelines for agriculture together with the advisory board for soil fertility and soil protection is in
the pipeline.
The recommended application rate in reclamation of skiing slopes is exemplarily described.
Regarding the nutrient level three compost categories are distinguished.
TABLE 4-3:
APPLICATION RATES RECLAMATION OF SKIING SLOPES
Compost - nutrients (NPK)
Incorporation depth
low
medium
high
Light cohesive soils (sand); or
a high portion of gravel
up to 15 l/m²
up to 10 l/m²
up to 5 l/m²
according to soil depth
0 cm – 10 cm
Medium to cohesive soils (silt,
clay, loam to clay)
up to 20 l/m²
up to 15 l/m²
up to 10 l/m²
according to soil depth
0 cm – 5 cm
Required is here the utilisation of medium particle size (0 mm to 25 mm) mature compost (growth test with cress:
plant fresh matter (PFM) ≥ 80 % at 25 % vol. compost ratio)
181
Application guidelines for compost from organic waste in agriculture (BMLFUW,
1999[FA752]):
This guideline of the advisory board for soil protection and soil fertility from the year 1999 was
established even before the publication of the Federal Compost Ordinance. It is, however, in
accordance with the Compost Ordinance regarding the maximum recommended application
rates (8 Mg TM ha-1a-1). Reduced was the possible combining of yearly rates from 5 to 2 years
giving a maximum amount of 16 Mg TM ha-1a1- every two years. Regarding the approval limits
for nitrogen loads of 175 respectively 210 Kg at an average N-content of 1.5 % d.m. a maximum
application rate would be 11.7 or 14 Mg d.m. ha-1 respectively. A further judgement of nutrient
supplies can be drawn from the Guidelines of the good practice of fertilisation (BMLFUW
2006c).
Further hints are given for compost maturity (fresh or mature compost), application rates and
time of application in arable land, grass land, growing of field vegetables, viniculture, fruit
cultivation and in organic agriculture.
Exemplary survey of the application recommendations in field vegetables, viniculture and fruit
cultivation:
TABLE 4-4:
APPLICATION RECOMMENDATIONS (AMOUNTS) OF THE APPLICATION GUIDELINES
FOR COMPOST FROM ORGANIC WASTES IN AGRICULTURE
Quantities
Field vegetable cultivation
low nutrient demand
high nutrient demand
Means of crop rotation
Viniculture
Humus substitute
Mulch to protect against erosion
substrate for planting
Fruit production
new cultivation
substrate for planting
fruit trees and bushes
5 Mg f.m. ha-1
13 – 19 Mg f.m. ha-1
11 – 14 Mg f.m. ha-1
Time, Tips
Mature compost
15 Mg f.m. ha-1
10 – 30 mm
1/3 in soil mixture
Coarse grained
Mature compost
15 – 20 Mg f.m. ha-1
20% in soil mixture
10 Mg f.m. ha-1
Subsequent fertilising after 2–4 years
Mature compost
Every 3 years
Guideline for the good practice of fertilisation (BMLFUW, 2006c): The latest edition of the
guideline refers at some places to composts from organic waste.
In order to calculate the chargeable nitrogen compared with the allowance limits for
nitrogen according to the Water Act a N loss of 9% during application is acknowledged.
The portion of NH4-N in composts made from manure is assumed with < 1 %. The yearly
effect of compost nitrogen is quoted with 10% of the nitrogen amount (= analysed value
minus 9%) to be applied for arable and grassland. Further on a yearly follow-up effect of
3 to 5% of the applied compost-N has to be accounted.
After regular long term application of manure and assuming favourable mineralisation
conditions it is estimated that with the sum of the annual application and of all
accumulated follow-up effects a 100 % N- efficiency of the nitrogen can be expected.
A concrete recommendation for compost application is only available for grassland:
o
182
The application rate of compost (at assumed 50 - 60 % d.m.) should not be more than
15 Mg f.m. ha-1 per cutting or grazing period
Grasslands rich in clover or other species cultivated extensively should obtain the low
nitrogen demand over slowly flowing N-sources, i.e. should be preferably fertilised with
stable manure or compost.
Extensive meadows and clover dominated field fodder should be fertilised, if possible,
with rotted manure or compost
4.3
Provincial regulations on soil protection
(Soil Protection Act, Sewage Sludge and Compost Ordinances of
the provinces)
Only such aspects are quoted here which relate to the application of compost in agriculture.
4.3.1 Upper Austria
Upper Austria Soil Protection Act 1991 i.d.F. LGBl. Nr. 100/2005
Upper Austria follows the requirements for compost production laid down in the Compost
Ordinance BGBl. II Nr. 292/2001 in all details.
Basically, the application of compost quality classes A+ and A in agriculture is admissible
without restrictions. Beyond the product regulations of the compost ordinance
(irrespective of the restrictions for nitrogen fertilisation) the maximum rates to be applied
within the waste regime follow the Treatment Principles of the Federal Waste
Management Plan.
During fertilising must be considered:
Properties of location, state of nutrient supply, nutrient demand, productivity, existing
plant residues, nutrient enrichment from preceding crop (legumes), natural
mineralisation processes, efficacy of fertilisers and development of vegetation
(regarding the periodical spreading of fertiliser).
By systematic supply of organic matter (stable manure, compost, crop residues, green
fertiliser and similar) a proper humus management shall be achieved.
Measures that are promoted (aim
maintenance, improvement or restoration of soil
fertility and health) are:
o
o
o
Composting of organic waste
Measures for the improvement of the “quality” of sewage sludge or compost
Consumers of compost are obliged to inform the competent authorities on
o Purchase and application of compost,
o Cultivation of the application sites
o Mandatory records
and have the obligation
o to allow entrance to premises, application sites, storage areas for fertilisers
o to allow sampling and analyses of soils
183
Upper Austria Soil Limit Value Ordinance 2006, LGBl. Nr. 50/2006
According to § 24 of the Upper Austria Soil Protection Act precautionary threshold values for
soils are stipulated if exceeded, only composts of quality class A+ (according to the Austrian
Compost Ordinance) are allowed to be applied without load limits for heavy metals. In the case
of compost quality class A the heavy metal loads of the Soil Limit Value Ordinance must be
observed.
4.3.2 Lower Austria
Lower Austria Soil Protection Act (NÖ BSG) Sheet 6160-0 58/88; LGBl. no. 25/05 from 2nd
March 2005
Compost is allowed to be applied on soils only if the compost has been produced
according to the Austrian Compost Ordinance and the compost was used according to
the application recommendations therein.
Composts are only allowed to be applied under implementation of a quality assurance
system stipulated by the plant operator as described in Annex 3 part 3 of the Austrian
Compost Ordinance (this includes: documentation of source materials, processing and
treatment, final product, applications)
Obligation of information of compost producers
Allowance of sample taking of soils by the competent authority where compost has been
applied.
Prohibition of compost application on sites where agricultural fertilising is restricted
pursuant Nature Protecting Law (national parks, natural monuments with relation to an
area, karst areas, moors, dry habitats and meadows)
Lower Austria Sewage Sludge Ordinance Sheet 6160-2 80/94; LGBl. no. 31/05; 31. March 2005
No reference is made here regarding compost utilisation
4.3.3 Carinthia
Carinthian Sewage Sludge and Compost Ordinance – K-KKV; StF: LGB no. 74/2000; amended:
LGBl no. 5/2004
In the case of enduring production of food and feeding stuff an expert report about the
application site must be provided prior to the first application of biowaste and green
compost of quality class AB and B and further in an interval of 10 years.
The soil expertise prior to application of compost of quality AB or B must not be older
than 5 years
184
TABLE 4-5:
HEAVY METAL CLASSES AND MAXIMUM APPLICATION RATES FOR SEWAGE
SLUDGE AND COMPOSTS OF THE KÄRNTNER SEWAGE SLUDGE AND COMPOST
ORDINANCE
Heavy metal classes [mg Kg-1d.m.]
B
AB
A
2,5
2
1
100
70
70
2,5
2
0,7
80
60
60
150
150
150
300
300
150
1800
1200
500
Maximum application rates [Mg d.m. ha-12a-1]
6
10
16
Cd
Cr
Hg
Ni
Pb
Cu
Zn
I*
0,7
70
0,4
25
45
70
200
>16
* minimum quality for organic agriculture
TABLE 4-6:
LOAD LIMITS FOR HEAVY METALS, WHICH ARE ALLOWED TO BE APPLIED ON THE
SOIL PER HA AND YEAR OVER A PERIOD OF 10 YEARS:
Cd
Cr
Hg
Ni
Pb
Cu
g ha a (on a 10-years average)
350
6
300
600
1800
Zn
-1 -1
6
4500
4.3.4 Burgenland
Bgld. Soil Protection Act, LGBl. no. 87/1990; amended: LGBl. no. 32/2001
No definite regulations for the application of organic waste compost exist
4.3.5 Salzburg
Salzburger Sewage Sludge and Soil Protection Ordinance, StF no. 85/2002
General prohibition of the use of sewage sludge which has not been composted
Definition of sewage sludge compost and quality sewage sludge compost according to
the Austrian Compost Ordinance
Comprehensive rules for the restricted use of sewage sludge compost and quality
sewage sludge compost including the required documentation:
o
o
Soils must not serve:
a) Directly for the production of foodstuff (e.g. arable land for cereals, potatoes, vegetables,
berry fruit and medical herbs);
b) Indirect for the production of foodstuff (e.g. arable land for animal feeding, permanent
grassland, alternate grassland, pasture land).
Such utilisation of soils is also prohibited in the 4 years following the application of quality
sewage sludge compost.
185
4.3.6 Tyrol
Tyrolean Land Protection Act 2000; amended; LGBl. mo. 56/2002
The Tyrolean Land Protection Act contains a general prohibition for the application of
sewage sludge and compost from sewage sludge on agricultural areas
No definite regulations for the application of organic waste compost
4.3.7 Styria
Styrian Agricultural Soil Protection Act; LGBl. no. 66/1987
amended: (1) LGBl. no. 58/2000; (2) LGBl. no. 8/2004
Sewage Sludge Ordinance; LGBl. no. 89/1987;
amended: (1) LGBl. nor. 11/1988; (2) LGBl. no. 51/2000; (3) LGBl. no. 73/2003
Exclusively out-dated regulations for „mixed waste compost“ which do not correspond
any more to the requirements of the Federal Compost Ordinance
4.3.8 Vorarlberg
Sewage Sludge Act; LGBl. no. 41/1985, 57/1997, 58/2001
Sewage Sludge Ordinance; LGBl. no. 75/1997, 27/2002
The law exclusively regulates the application of sewage sludge and products therefrom
(„...sewage sludge, indifferent of consistency whatsoever”)
Composted sewage sludge is summarised together with thermally dried sewage sludge
as sewage sludge fertiliser. These are the only forms for which sewage sludge is allowed
to be delivered for application on land.
The quality requirements and conditions for application are not in line with the
requirements for production and marketing of compost of quality class B of the Austrian
Compost Ordinance and the Federal Waste Management Plan.
Application restriction is rerlated to a maximum phosphorous load per hectare (usually
max. 160 Kg P2O5 ha-1a-1)
4.3.9 Vienna
Act on the prohibition of applying sewage sludge; LGBl. no. 08/2000
General prohibition for the application of sewage sludge, except of hygienically approved
products containing treated sewage sludge and if marketing, especially as fertiliser,
compost and manufactured soils is allowed according to federal legislation
186
4.4
European provisions
4.4.1 Animal By-Products Regulation (EC) n° 1774/2002
Organic fertilisers and soil improvers other than manure pursuant to Regulation (EC) Nr.
181/2006[FA753] from 1. April 2006
Art 22 (c) of the Regulation (EC) Nr. 1774/2002 prohibits
„the application to pasture land of organic fertilisers and soil improvers other than
manure. “
Whereby pasture land is defined as follows:
“pasture land” means land covered with grass or other herbage grazed by or used as
feedingstuffs for farmed animals, excluding land to which organic fertilisers and soil
improvers have been applied in accordance with Commission Regulation (EC) No
181/2006”
There is basically no restriction for the application of compost which was produced of category 3
catering waste or manure respectively
From April 1st, 2006 the following regulations are valid for composts and digestion residues
produced from all other category 2 and 3materials:
Records shall be kept for at last two years on
o
o
o
quantities of organic fertilisers and soil improvers applied;
the date on which and the places where organic fertilisers and soil improvers were
applied to land;
the dates on which livestock is allowed to graze the land or on which the land is
cropped for feedingstuffs.
Special grazing restrictions – 21 days waiting period between application and harvest of
forage grass or grazing
” Where over 21 days have elapsed since the date of last application of organic fertilisers
and soil improvers, grazing may be allowed or the grass or other herbage may be cut for
use in feedingstuffs, provided the competent authority does not consider that the practice
presents a risk to animal or public health.”
The commercial document accompanying organic fertilisers and soil improvers shall bear
the words ‘organic fertilisers and soil improvers/farmed animals must not be allowed
access to the land for at least 21 days following application to land’.
187
4.4.2 Elements of the EC draft amendment of the Waste Framework
Directive4
4.4.2.1
Definition of recycling and recovery methods
The definition of „recycling“ is stipulated in article 3:
“‘recycling’ means the recovery of waste into products, materials or substances whether
for the original or other purposes. It does not include energy recovery”
In order to provide a clear differentiation between recovery and disposal it would be of
significant meaning to put distinct emphasis on material recycling.
As described in the previous chapter it is of key importance to draw a distinct qualitative
borderline between recycling and disposal for the various waste types and treatment processes.
This makes it necessary to record more specific quality criteria in the existing European Waste
Catalogue in order to define their suitability for certain recycling methods.
4.4.2.2
End of waste regulation
The Commission provides a strategic proposal for elaborating End of Waste Regulations in the
Strategy on the Prevention and Recycling of Wastes. A pilot scheme in envisaged for compost.
The general requirements for this task are laid down in article 11 “secondary products, materials
and substances”. As pre-conditions (which will be checked by the commission) whether it is
appropriate to deem certain waste to have ceased being waste it is listed:
no overall negative environmental impacts;
the existence of a market
Are both criteria fulfilled the commission enacts measures to be carried out following a
comitology process defining environmental and quality criteria to be met in order for that
waste to be deemed to have become a secondary product material or substance
Hereby is assured,
o the equivalency with primary products or primary materials
o the fulfilment of the necessary conditions to be placed on the markez
All risks of an environmentally harmful utilisation or application must be considered
A high level of protection of human health and environment must be guaranteed
4.4.2.3
Exemptions of the scope
It is interesting that it is suggested that – in contrast to all other animal by products which are
ruled under the ABP Regulation (EC) Nr. 1774/2002 – composting and digestion of organic
wastes from households and central kitchens (catering waste) which could contain animal byproducts are kept under the scope of the draft directive (Article 2):
“It shall not cover animal carcases or animal by-products intended for uses in
accordance with Regulation (EC) No 1774/2002 without prejudice to the application of
the present Directive to the treatment of biowaste that contains animal by-products.”
4
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/strategy.htm
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2005/com2005_0667en01.pdf
188
That means that in future biowaste, especially from kitchen and food wastes and probably also
certain fractions of former foodstuff, are subject to the regulation of the Waste Framework
Directive. This principle has been stipulated already in the Animal By-Product Regulation (EC)
Nr. 1774/2002
4.4.3 The Thematic Strategy on Waste Prevention and Recycling (COM(2005)
666 )
5
At present approximately 33% of municipal wastes are recycled or composted. The biowaste
potential from separate collection in the EU is about 80 – 100 million Mg (wit the inclusion of
industrial waste approx. 150 million Mg). About 25% of this amount is processed in compost or
biogas plants.
The strategy is above all to increase recycling. By the diversion of biodegradable household
waste from landfills to composting, recycling and energy recovery an additional mitigation of
greenhouse gas emissions of 40 to > 100 Mt CO2 equivalent per year can be expected.
As waste moves away from landfill it will be channelled into a variety of options higher up the
waste hierarchy, all of which will be better for the environment. The report about the individual
strategies of the Member States to achieve the diversion targets for biodegradable waste from
landfills says:
However, the Commission’s report on the national strategies concluded that “having
analysed the strategies it is unclear whether the landfill reduction targets will be achieved
for those Member States where this is not already the case. It looks like additional efforts
will be necessary to achieve the targets. The Commission will pay particular attention to
the attainment of the target of 2006 and take all appropriate measures to ensure good
implementation of the directive”
This is not very promising. The Commission’s believe is that the development of quality
benchmarks for composting facilities and for compost will increase the prospects for
composting.
It is emphasised that these processes of composting and energetic recovery are currently used
to a poor extent in some member states.
It is stated that there would be no single environmentally best option for the management of
biowaste that is diverted from landfills. The environmental balance of the various options
available for management of this waste would depend on a number of local factors, inter alia
collection systems,
waste composition and quality,
climatic conditions,
impact on climate change,
the potential of compost to contribute to fighting soil degradation and
other categories of environmental impact.
Therefore strategies for management of this waste should be determined by the Member States
using life-cycle thinking.
The commission intends to prepare corresponding guidelines for the application of life cycle
analysis in biowaste management and to ask the member states to check their national
strategies on behalf of this.
5
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2005/com2005_0666en01.pdf
189
Further, compost quality criteria will be adopted under the end-of-waste provision proposed for
the Waste Framework Directive
In preparation of a end of waste provision the commission has launched a project with the Joint
Research Centre in Seville in order to evaluate the conditions under which defined waste
materials that have undergone a composting process may cease to be a waste and
consequently could be certified as a compost product (e.g. process requirements as well as
compost quality and labelling criteria). This study is due for publication in autumn 2008 and
would constitute the technical basis for a legal provision to be adopted under the comitology
procedure.
A binding provision which would encourage the establishment of separate collection
systems for organic wastes cannot be found in the draft of the Waste Framework Directive
nor in the strategy paper!
The Commission proposes that biological treatment of waste to be brought under the scope of
the IPPC Directive. This would need the definition of BAT (best available technique)
documents.
As the so-called BAT documents of the IPPC Dir. are designed for large-scale plants with
probably considerable impacts on the environment it is questionable to list Europe-wide
requirements for compost plants which exclusively process biowastes. Possible effects on
the environment are to be seen in odour emissions for which the location and the treated
amount of waste should be stipulated within the permits procedure covering requirements
for exhaust air treatment, process management, etc.. This can preferably be realised by
flexible national standards which take into account individual, local conditions.
Furthermore it must be distinguished between large-scale plants and small facilities (e.g.
below 5000 Mg treated material per year) – the standard case in biowaste and garden waste
composting.
It is to be feared that a European Regulation will establish unreasonably high requirements
on technical standards (housing, enclosed processes with exhaust air treatment) even for
small and medium-sized plants. This would endanger ecologically and economically
effective and approved systems of biowaste composting in many member states and would
avoid flexible small-sized structures which respect the prominently demanded principle of
proximity.
Regarding an end of waste- regulation it reads:
“This means that it is possible to select those waste streams for which criteria need to be set
on the basis of potential environmental and economic benefit. The first wave of waste flows
to be addressed by this system will include compost, …”
A two-step approach is chosen:
1. establish in the Waste Framework Directive the procedure for adoption of the
criteria
2. propose specific waste streams for this system, selected on the basis of
environmental and economic benefit.
Council Directive 86/278/EEC on the protection of the environment, and in particular of the soil,
when sewage sludge is used in agriculture will be revised with a view to tightening the quality
standards under which such use is allowed following the adoption of the Thematic Strategy on
soil and the associated measures.
The Commission will review the progress made towards achieving the strategy’s objective in
2010. This review will, in particular, assess progress on waste prevention policies, on applying
life-cycle thinking to waste management – including management of biowaste – and towards a
European recycling society and will feed into the final evaluation of the Sixth EAP. The review of
the strategy will, in particular, address the progress made on management of biowaste and
assess the need for additional measures.
190
4.4.4 The thematic strategy on soil protection
During the first phase of the EU Soil Protection Strategy the consultation paper of the
Commission6 included the following keywords (shortened):
From 2002 onwards, the Commission will propose a series of environmental measures
designed to prevent soil contamination, including legislation related to …. sewage sludge
and compost ….. A progress report will be prepared in mid 2004.
The build-up of organic matter in soils is a slow process (much slower than the decline in
organic matter). This process is enhanced by positive farm management techniques such
as …. mulching, manuring with …. compost, …. Most of these techniques have also
proven effective in preventing erosion, increasing fertility and enhancing soil biodiversity.
By the end of 2004 a directive on compost and other biowaste will be prepared with the
aim to control potential contamination and to encourage the use of certified compost.
The Common Agricultural Policy already provides opportunities for soil protection. A
number of agri-environmental measures offer opportunities for the build-up of soil organic
matter, the enhancement of soil biodiversity, the reduction of erosion, diffuse
contamination and soil compaction. These measures include support to organic farming,
…, and the use of certified compost.
The reactions of the EU Institutions have been positive and motivating. Here some relevant
elements from different documents:
Council meeting - Luxembourg, 25 June 2002 – Soil Protection Council conclusions
-
(…) STRESSES that ongoing environmental legislation initiatives on compost, (…) and sewage
sludge, (…) will make an important contribution to soil protection and REQUESTS the Commission
to present the appropriate proposals as soon as possible;
Decision of the European Parliament and the Council of 22 July 2002 laying down the Sixth
Community Environment Action Programme
-
–Article 8 - Objectives and priority areas for action on the sustainable use and management of
natural resources and wastes (…) shall be pursued (…) by means of the following priority actions:
(iv) Developing or revising the legislation on wastes, including, inter alia (…) sewage sludge (2),
biodegradable wastes,(…)
European Parliament Report on the Commission communication ‘Towards a Thematic Strategy
for Soil Protection’
-
–pt 17. Urges the Commission to draw up a directive on compost; stresses the need to intensify
research in this field so as to boost its potential for the recovery of soil lacking in organic matter and
bring together waste management and soil protection and enrichment;
European Parliament resolution on the communication from the Commission: Towards a
thematic strategy on the prevention and recycling of waste
-
–27. Welcomes (…) the Commission's plan to submit proposals during 2004 on biodegradable
waste;
Consultation regarding the EU Soil Protection Strategy
In February 2003 a wide range of experts and representatives from member states have been
invited to a stakeholder meeting for the technical planning of concrete proposals for politicy and
research for the realisation of the strategy with regulative measures, 5 working groups and an
Advisory Forum have been founded.
6
KOM(2002) 179 finally, information of the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, Economic and
Social Council and the Council of the regions. “Towards a specific soil protection strategy” Brüssel, den 16.4.2002
191
In their final reports the 5 working groups (Organic
Matter, Erosion, Contamination, Monitoring, Research)
delivered recommendations for the areas of Policy,
Research and Monitoring. The results including all
technical
annexes
are
available
on:
http://forum.europa.eu.int/Public/irc/env/soil/library. The
final
reports
can
be
downloaded
under
http://eusoils.jrc.it/ESDB_Archive/Policies/STSWeb/start.
htm or ordered as a brochure at [email protected]
Figure 4-2: The „soil
package“ includes: the
Soil Framework Directive, a
Kommunikation
Communication and an
Impact Assessment
Boden
Rahmenrichtlinie
Folgeabschätzung
FIGURE 4-1: THE REPORTS OF THE
EXPERT GROUP FOR THE EU SOIL
STRATEGY
The recommendations of the working groups for compost utilisation can be summarised as
follows:
The application of EOM on soil is in principle recommended if it is of an appropriate
quality and if it is applied according to good practices.
If these two requisites are fulfilled, the application of EOM is recommended because it
can contribute to maintaining adequate soil organic matter levels and to managing soil
organic matter and assist with
reducing soil erosion
enhance soil bio-diversity and biological activity in soil
better aggregation
better porosity of soils.
improve tilth and workability,
increasing buffer capacity,
reducing nutrient leaching,
improving water retention,
saving of resources and energy (e.g. mineral fertilisers, pesticides, traction power for
soil cultivation)
o diverting carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and converting it to organic carbon in
soils, contributing to combating greenhouse gas effect.
For a precautionary and sustainable protection of the soil the following has been claimed:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
192
A positive list of high quality source materials for composting and anaerobic digestion
intended for the processing of organic soil amendments would be essential to
guarantee high quality compost. This should include source separated household
waste and green waste as well as organic industrial waste (e.g. from food industries).
o
o
o
o
In order to bridge the gap between targets for the reduction of biodegradable
municipal waste to landfill and a sustainable use of the biodegradable waste fraction
incentives for the recycling of source separated biowaste are essential. Member
States are encouraged to explore the best solution for implementation considering
local conditions.
Stabilised MBT material shall remain under the waste regime and shall be restricted
to limited applications (e.g. as cover for landfills)
Europe-wide minimum quality standards for marketable composts
Medium-termed harmonisation of precautionary requirements for all types of soil
improvers and fertilisers, inclusive animal manure (e.g. potential contribution to soil
contamination)
The draft Soil Framework Directive has been published in September 2006 and is currently
under consultation within the EU institutions and stakeholders. The Directive does not deal with
diffuse inputs like from the utilisation of organic waste or sewage sludge. In the case of the
potential threats erosion, organic matter decline, compaction, salinisation and landslides
Member States shall identify risk areas according to stipulated criteria and work out
corresponding sanitising strategies and measures. Besides the Directive the soil package
includes a communication the general outline of soil strategy and a document with a
comprehensive assessment with regard of socio-economic and environmental impacts of the
Directive.
In conclusion it has been recognised that the recycling of composted organic waste, in
particular alongside the implementation of a quality assurance system, is an important
contribution to maintain soil fertility.
But still there is no consistent strategy to be found in one of the currently discussed
Directives on waste or on soil respectively which would handle the organic waste stream in
an adequate way to the benefit of the soil and the environment.
193
5
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ökotoxikologische Risikoabschätzung), Final report of Module 5a of the Project Organic pollutants
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Einsatz von Bioabfallkompost auf landwirtschaftlichen Kulturflächen., Alternativen in der
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List of abbreviations
Composts / fertilisers
Crops
BWC
Biowaste compost
Bar
Barley
CM
Cattle manure
Ca
Cabbage
Comp
Compost
Corn-M
Corn maize
DBM
Deep bedding manure
FE
Forage peas
FM
Fresh manure
For-M
Forage maize
gr.BWC
Granulated biowaste compost
FB
Fodder beet
GWC
Green waste compost
IC
Intercrops
LMU
Liquid manure (Urine)
Ley
Ley
LU
Life stock unit
M
Maize
MC
Manure compost
O
Oats
MCC
Cattle manure compost
OR
Oil radish
MCH
Horse manure compost
Pot
Potatoes
MCP
Pig manure compost
Pu
Pumpkin
min.
Mineral fertiliser (e.g. NPK)
Tom
Tomatoes
MWC
Mixed waste compost
R
Rye
MWSC
Mixed waste/sludge compost
W
Wheat
NPK
NPK fertiliser
Ra
Rape
P-K
PK fertiliser
BR
Beetroot
RotM
Half rotted manure
SB
Sugar beet
Slu
Slurry
S-Bar
Spring barley
SMC
Spent mushroom compost
S-R
Spring rye
SSC
Sewage sludge compost
SF
Sunflowers
St
Straw
Sil-M
Silage maize
StabM
Stable manure
Soy
Soy bean
StMu
Straw mulch
Sp
Spelt
StoM
Stocked manure
SC
Sweet corn
W-Bar
Winter barley
W-R
Winter rye
W-W
Winter wheat
Others
CR
Crop rotation
OPs
Organic pollutants
DOC
Disolvable organic carbon
PKa
acid dissociation constant
d.m.
Dry matter
POPs
Persistant organic pollutants
f.m.
Fresh matter
PTE
Potential toxic element
GAP
Good agricultural practice
SOM
Soil organic matter
HM
Heavy metals
WOS
Water soluble organic matter
219
List of Tables
Table 2-1:
Role of Organic Matter in Soil .............................................................................................. 15
Table 2-2:
Turnover time of organic fractions in soils ........................................................................... 17
Table 2-3: Organic carbon content of soils in Europe (Van-Camp et al., 2004) ......................................... 27
Table 2-4:
Percentage of agricultural land coverage with very low (< 2%) and low (2 - 4 %)
SOM content in selcted European countries (Utermann et al., 2004 ) ................................ 27
Table 2-5:
Changes in SOM on three rotations with two contrasting managements (MORROWPLOTS at the University of Illinois) ...................................................................................... 29
Table 2-6:
pH, Corg and relative Microbial biomass in 1998 in the DOC trials after 21 years / 3
crop rotations 1998 (Fließbach et al., 2000a; Fließbach et al., 2000b) ............................... 31
Table 3-1:
Organische Substanz und C/N-Verhältnis in Komposten [Eigene Erhebungen an
österreichischen Biokomposten] .......................................................................................... 32
Table 3-2:
Humus reproduction of different organic soil amendments (Gutser, 1996) ......................... 32
Table 3-3:
Humified organic carbon on organic fertilisers (BGK e.V., 2005) ........................................ 33
Table 3-4: Compost fertilisation and soil organic matter – tabular survey.................................................. 39
Table 3-5:
assessment of carbon sequesttration by composting and compost application on
soils (ECCP, 2002) .............................................................................................................. 44
Table 3-6:
CO2 equ –balance of composting organic wastes (VFG = Vegetable, Fruit and
Garden Waste) and compost application (Grontmij, 2005) ................................................. 45
Table 3-7:
Net return (deficit) in £ at different treatments (HDRA Consultants, 1999) ......................... 50
Table 3-8:
value of nutrients (ranges due to nutrient content and dry matter)...................................... 50
Table 3-9:
Increase of specific income in cash crop farms with enhanced humus management
(from BGK e.V., 2005; dimension: € ha-1; LUFA Augustenberg, 2003; Schreiber,
2005) .................................................................................................................................... 50
Table 3-10: Yield effect in field trials – tabular survey ................................................................................ 52
Table 3-11: Yield effect in pot trials – tabular survey.................................................................................. 62
Table 3-12:
Phosphorus and potassium – Median and frequency priorities in Biowaste - and
compost of green cuttings, sewage sludge and manure ..................................................... 69
Table 3-13:
typical ranges of plant available main nutrients in biowaste and green compost (mg/l
f.m.) (Stöppler-Zimmer et al., 1993; ZAS, 2002).................................................................. 70
Table 3-14:
Limits of variation of total amounts and plant available amounts for P, K and Mg in
composts.............................................................................................................................. 70
Table 3-15:
trace elements – Median and range in Biowaste and green compost, sewage sludge
and manure compost ........................................................................................................... 70
Table 3-16:
fertilising efficiency of P and K supply by compost at an application rate of 6-10t d.m.
ha–1 y–1 (Kluge, 2003)........................................................................................................ 72
Table 3-17:
contribution of compost supplying nutrient to soils and plants ............................................ 72
Table 3-18:
Nutrient balance of a 3-years crop rotation with pure compost fertilisation (from BGK
e.V., 2005)............................................................................................................................ 73
Table 3-19:
substitution potentia for plant nutrients by compost utilisation in germany (BGK e.V.,
2005) .................................................................................................................................... 73
Table 3-20:
substitution potential for nutrients from synthetically produced mineral fertilisers by
compost utilisation at exploitation of the utilisation potential in EU25. ................................ 74
Table 3-21: Plant nutrition by compost application: macro and trace elements – tabular survey ............. 76
220
Table 3-22: Compost effect on pH and CEC – tabular survey.................................................................... 81
Table 3-23:
Mean plot values for bulk density, saturated hydraulic conductivity and organic
carbon (Strauss, 2003) ........................................................................................................ 92
Table 3-24: The effect of compost on soil structure resp. aggregate stability – tabular survey ................. 96
Table 3-25: The effect of compost on hydraulic conductivity – tabular survey ......................................... 100
Table 3-26: The effect of compost on infiltration and erosion – tabular survey ........................................ 101
Table 3-27: The effect of compost on field capacity – tabular survey ...................................................... 103
Table 3-28: The effect of compost on soil air and porosity – tabular survey ............................................ 106
Table 3-29: The effect of compost on soil temperature – tabular survey ................................................. 107
Table 3-30.
Proposed limit values for composts following Bannick et al. (2002) in comparison to
existing qualities in Europe. .............................................................................................. 111
Table 3-31:
Assumption for accumulation scenarios for heavy metals................................................. 115
Table 3-32:
Konzept for heavy metal limit concentrations for a European biowaste and compost
provision (mg Kg-1 d.m.).................................................................................................... 119
Table 3-33:
results from literature regarding the effects of compost on the heavymetal content in
soils and plants. ................................................................................................................. 123
Table 3-34: Effect on heavy metal concentration in soils, mobility and take up by plants – tabular
survey................................................................................................................................. 124
Table 3-35:
Assumption for PCB, PAH and PCDD used in accumulation scenarios (Amlinger et
al., 2004) ............................................................................................................................ 136
Table 3-36: Experimental results on the behaviour of pesticides und organic pollutants in
composting and compost amended soils – tabular survey................................................ 140
Table 3-37:
Numbers of organisms and approximate mass per m² of a fertile and well drained
soil (several sources) ......................................................................................................... 143
Table 3-38: Populations of bacteria and fungi in soils and compost (EPA, 1998).................................... 146
Table 3-39:
Survey of the methods given in literature for characterisation of biological activity of
soils .................................................................................................................................... 147
Table 3-40:
Biomass and number of earthworms in July 2001, following four years of organic
treatment (Christiaens et al., 2003).................................................................................... 151
Table 3-41: Effect of compost application on soil (micro) biological activity– tabular survey ................... 154
Table 3-42: Effect of compost application on soil fauna– tabular survey ................................................. 163
Table 3-43: Examples of plant diseases, the appearance of which was reduced through the
application of compost ....................................................................................................... 171
Table 3-44: disease suppressing effects of compost – tabular survey..................................................... 174
Table 4-1:
Possible application rates of compost as a product in specified application areas
dependent on the quality (heavy metal) class ................................................................... 178
Table 4-2
Compost as constituent in manufactured soils and compost blends................................. 178
Table 4-3:
Application rates reclamation of skiing slopes ................................................................... 181
Table 4-4:
application recommendations (amounts) of the application guidelines for compost
from organic wastes in agriculture ..................................................................................... 182
Table 4-5:
heavy metal classes and maximum application rates for sewage sludge and
composts of the kärntner sewage sludge and compost ordinance.................................... 185
Table 4-6:
Load limits for heavy metals, which are allowed to be applied on the soil per ha and
year over a period of 10 years: .......................................................................................... 185
221
List of Figures
Figure 1-1:
The manifold beneficial eccects of compost fertilisation to to the soil – plant
ecosystem (BGK, 2005)....................................................................................................... 10
Figure 2-1:
Soil organic matter composition and turnover (from Chenu und Robert, 2003 zit. In
Van-Camp et al., 2004)........................................................................................................ 19
Figure 2-2:
The Jenkinson “soil organic matter model” (Jenkinson, 1990; slightly modified) ................ 19
Figure 2-3:
THe Century Model describing the SOM pools (modifiied from Parton et al. (1993) .......... 20
Figure 2-4:
General influence of temperature and moisture on soil organic matter content in
Europe (aus Van-Camp et al., 2004) ................................................................................... 26
Figure 2-5: Distribution of organic carbon concentration in European top soils (Van-Camp et al.,
2004) .................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 2-6:
Permanent trials Rothamstead: Impact of the fertilisation system on the development
of the SOM status ................................................................................................................ 30
Figure 3-1:
Proportion of orcanic carbon contributing to humus reproduction on different organic
fertilisers (BGK e.V., 2005) ................................................................................................. 33
Figure 3-2: Comparison of Compost-C supply between requirement of the soil at a medium and
high humus demand dependent on the crop rotation and humus supply (Kluge,
2006) .................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure
3-3:
Anhebungen der Humusgehalte nach 9 bzw. 12 Versuchsjahren mit
Kompostaufbringung im Mittel aller Standorte bei Kompostgaben von jährlich 5, 10
bzw. 20 Mg ha-1 TM (Kluge (2006) ..................................................................................... 35
Figure 3-4: Model (DAISY) for C and N performance during 50 years without and with compost
application (30 Mg f.m. ha-13y-1) (Stöppler-Zimmer et al., 1999)....................................... 35
Figure 3-5: Effect of different rates of compost application on soil organic matter levels (following a
model by Hogg et al., 2002)................................................................................................. 36
Figure 3-6: Relative increase of SOM in compost amended soils in several field trials ............................. 37
Figure 3-7:
Yield development with compost and mineral fertilisation systems (Hartl & Erhart,
1998) .................................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 3-8: Influence of compost with and without supplementary mineral N fertilisation on yield of
Triticale (Klasnik & Steffens, 1995)...................................................................................... 48
Figure 3-9: Effect of compost on yield in comparison to an unfertilised control and a recommended
NPK control (Pot: potato, Barley: spring barley, SB: sugar beet (Diez & Krauss,
1997) .................................................................................................................................... 48
Figure 3-10: Mean relative yield of compost plots compared to control and mineral fertiliser plots
(80 Kg ha-1); SuB ... Sugar beet; WW...winter wheat; SB...spring barley;
SW…Spring wheat; WB…winter barley; BWC...biowaste compost; GC...green
compost; MC...manure compost; SSC...sewage sludge compost (Aichberger et al.,
2000) .................................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 3-11: Mean relative yield of compost plots (also with supplimentary mineral N additions)
compared to control and mineral fertiliser plots (N-P-K); C-M...corm maize; SM...silage maize; SB...spring barley; WW...winter wheat; Pu-S...pumpkin seeds;
PA...pasture (Buchgraber, 2002) ......................................................................................... 49
Figure 3-12: Expenses, gross income and net return of a tomato plantation with and without
compost fertilisation (Steffen et al.,1994) ............................................................................ 49
Figure 3-13: Mean variation of the pH value in different soils after 8 – 11 years of compost
application (Kluge, 2006) ..................................................................................................... 80
222
Figure 3-14: Specific szrface of soils and humified organic matter (BGK e.V., 2005; Schffer &
Schachtschabel, 1998) ........................................................................................................ 84
Figure 3-15: The roleof organic matter for soil physical properties ............................................................ 86
Figure 3-16: Relative stability of aggregates by different amounts of compost application (Martins &
Kowald, 1988) ...................................................................................................................... 90
Figure 3-17: Relative hydraulic conductivity at different amounts of compost application in two soils
(Aggelides & Londra, 2000) ................................................................................................. 90
Figure 3-18: Pore volume at different amounts and types of compost in two soils (Petersen &
Stöppler-Zimmer, 1996) ....................................................................................................... 91
Figure 3-19: Relative stability of aggregates at different amounts and types of compost application
(Lamp, 1996)........................................................................................................................ 91
Figure 3-20: Total soil loss (Kg ha-1) of the investigated treatments. Additional bars indicate
standard deviation (Strauss, 2003) ...................................................................................... 92
Figure 3-21: Organic carbon contents compared to mean soil loss at constant runoff rates and bulk
density of the plots (Strauss, 2003) ..................................................................................... 92
Figure 3-22: Effect of compost on aggregate stability - Relative increase in relation to control
without compost (= 100 %) results of year 2000 (Kluge & Bolduan, 2003) ......................... 93
Figure 3-23: Effect of compost on bulk density – Results abs. in g soil (d.m.)/100 ml soil –
Locations El, He and Fo, years (3) and (6), n.s. – not significant, (-) – tendency to
decrease (Kluge & Bolduan, 2003) ...................................................................................... 93
Figure 3-24: Effect of compost on water capacity – Results abs. in g water/g soil (d.m.), Legend
see Figure 3-23 (Kluge & Bolduan, 2003) ........................................................................... 94
Figure 3-25: Critical concentration decides whether the soil serves as sink or source of potential
pollutants (Gupta, 1999) .................................................................................................... 109
Figure 3-26: Accumulation scenarios for heavy metals with median and 90th percentile PTE
concentrations in European composts............................................................................... 117
Figure 3-27: Period of time for measurable increase of heavy metal concentration in the soil ................ 118
Figure 3-28: Signifikant reduktion des NH4NO3-löslichen Cadmiums an zwei mit Kompost
gedüngten Standorten ....................................................................................................... 120
Figure 3-29:. Cd Konzentration in in Salat und Senfpflanzen nach Kompostapplikation im
Topfversuch (Parabraunerde; 2 Komposte; 10 und 30 Mg Kompost ha-1)....................... 120
Figure 3-30: Cadmium in the grain of oats, dinkel and potatos ................................................................ 120
Figure 3-31: Mobile heavy metal contents (Soil extraction with 1M NH4NO3) of soils in relation to
compost dosage (after 6 years) [in % of unfertilised control); Kluge (2003)...................... 121
Figure 3-32: Sorption isotherms of zinc in original (o.s.) and sludge treated (s.s.) soil (Petruzzelli &
Pezzarossa, 2003) ............................................................................................................. 121
Figure 3-33: Sorption isotherms of cadmium in original (o.s.) and sludge treated (s.s.) soil
(Petruzzelli & Pezzarossa, 2003)....................................................................................... 121
Figure 3-34: Soluble fraction of Cd (a) and Zn (b) during composting (Leita et al., 2003) .................... 122
Figure 3-35: Decay of pesticides in soil-compost blends after 40 days, cropped with maize (Cole et
al., 1995) ............................................................................................................................ 132
Figure 3-36: De-hydrogenase activity in contaminated soil with or without compost additions (Cole
et al., 1995) ........................................................................................................................ 132
Figure 3-37: Retainment and Leaching of Diazinon in a Compost amended Soil (SanchesCamanzano et al., 1997).................................................................................................... 133
Figure 3-38: Kinetics of fluoranthene mineralisation during incubation in soil or composts. Results
are expressed in percent of the initial radioactivity (Houot et al., 2003) ............................ 134
223
Figure 3-39: Impact of Compost maturity on the presence of microflora degrading organic
micropollutants : 14C-fluoranthene mineralisation in 3 «fresh» and «mature»
composts sampled in the same composting plants (Houot et al., 2003) ........................... 134
Figure 3-40: Distribution of 14C added in the mineralized, extractable and non extractable fraction,
after incubation of 14C-fluoranthene in soil-compost mixtures. Influence of compost
organic matter stability (Houot et al., 2003) ....................................................................... 134
Figure 3-41: Change of concentrations of PCB due to continuous yearly compost application.
grey area … range of threshold values for soils ; t1/2 = half life time (Amlinger et al.,
2004) .................................................................................................................................. 137
Figure 3-42: Change of concentrations of
PCDD/F due to continuous yearly compost
application. Underlaid grey area … range of threshold values for soils ; t1/2 = half
life time (Amlinger et al., 2004) .......................................................................................... 138
Figure 3-43: Change of concentrations of PAH due to continuous yearly compost application.
Underlaid grey area … range of threshold values for soils ; t1/2 = half life time
(Amlinger et al., 2004)........................................................................................................ 138
Figure 3-44: Composition of soil biota of a typical fertile soil (from Van-Camp et al., 2004) ................ 144
Figure 3-45: Concepual model showing the various factors mediated by soil biota that affect the
supply of essential nutrients to plants (From Van-Camp et al., 2004).............................. 145
Figure 3-46: Interelationship between soil organic matter and biota (Elliot, 1997) ................................ 148
Figure 3-47: Abundances of young and adult earthworms as a result of the fertilisation system
(hartl & erhart (1998).......................................................................................................... 150
Figure 3-48: Impact of mineral and organic amendments on Microbial Biomass (Leita et al., 1999)....... 151
Figure 3-49: Impact of mineral and organic amendments on Metabolic Quotient qCO2 (Leita et al.,
1999) .................................................................................................................................. 152
Figure 3-50: Effect of compost application on soil quality parameters (Schwaiger & Wieshofer,
1996) .................................................................................................................................. 152
Figure 3-51: Soil microbial biomass (mg Cmic Kg soil-1) under three crops after practising four
farming systems for three crop rotations. (Mäder, 2003)................................................... 152
Figure 4-1: The reports of the expert group for the EU Soil strategy....................................................... 192
Figure 4-2: The „soil package“ includes: the............................................................................................. 192
224
225