慶應義塾大学外国語教育研究センター AWC2003 年度 所長賞受賞論文
Prodigious Saviour and Arcane Arts:
Merlin’s Magic in Middle English Prose Merlin
like a bird hurrying into a trap;
he did not know he was risking his life
until the arrow pierced his vitals
——Proverbs 7:23
Needless to say, Merlin the enchanter is a fascinating figure, and as Norma Lorre
Goodrich says, he is also rather enigmatic.1 Why he perceived in this way? He is very
prominent compared with other characters in Arthurian Romance, largely, thanks to his
‘unnatural’ birth between a human woman and the Devil. Although this ancestry gave
Merlin a grotesque appearance,2 he received more impressive gifts, such as the
extraordinarily rapid development of his body and mind, a cornucopia of wisdom3,
extreme longevity,4 the gift of prophecy, ability to interpret dreams and the knowledge
to use various enchantments. Of all these inherited talents, the last one plays the most
noticeable and indispensable role in Arthurian romance. It is often used to foretell
coming events, and thus enables King Arthur and his knights successfully to plan
projects for the future of the kingdom; moreover, it supports when they are drawing up
strategies in war, and aids in the destruction of their enemies on the battle field.
Therefore, it does not seem unreasonable to regard Merlin as a pillar of the kingdom.
In this essay we shall focus on Merlin’s magic in the Middle English Prose
Merlin in the fifteenth century, namely, a story in which Merlin himself is the central
character, and in which his background and achievements are portrayed in detail The
final object of this essay is to examine the medieval view of magic and its relation to
mysterious Merlin or his extraordinary talents, from the standpoint of writings on
religion and science.
Before discussing Merlin’s specific talents in the Prose Merlin, we must first
provide a basic definition of magic in the Middle Ages in advance.
The history of magic in the West goes back to primeval time in the
Mediterranean region and Northern Europe, and magic was handed down in an
unbroken line to the Christian Middle Ages.5
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慶應義塾大学外国語教育研究センター AWC2003 年度 所長賞受賞論文
Here we should be aware of one essential point which should aid in the
understanding of the meaning of magic, as pointed out by Jeffrey Burton Russell:
It is best understood…as an independent world view.
Ancient cultures knew no distinction between magic,
science, or religion,… all were aimed at understanding and
controlling the universe. Only in some sophisticated
societies did these functions slowly differentiated.6
In the mind of medieval people the distinction of so-called magic, science, and
religion was not so rigid as we present-day people suppose. Let us examine some
descriptions in The Liber de Diversis Medicinis 7as an example to illustrate this point:
Tak iij obles & write firste in ane of theym+.1.+eile+
sabaoth+and on þe toþer oble+adonay+alpha+&o+Messias
+& on þe thirde oble+pastor+angus+fons+and gif thir thre
obles to hym þat hase þe feuers thurgh iij dayes with
haly water fastenede.8
In this book, mystical charm is introduced as an art of healing, or to put it more
concretely, a way of lowering fever.
Magic was highly pervasive among medieval people of all the social classes,
both in secular and religious world; thus it was not placed as mere superstition. Apart
from approval or negation of it, magic undoubtedly existed in the medieval mind, and it
goes without saying that interest in magic was remarkable.
As was previously stated, it was a small number of sophisticated people who
attempted to draw a line between science, religion and magic; in this case, the
expression ‘sophisticated people’ means intellectual people such as philosophers and
theologians.9 Admittedly, on one hand, some intellectuals, e.g. Bartholomæus Anglicus,
Albertus Magnus, did not at least attacked magic outspokenly10; rather, it seems they
made an effort to preserve the contemporary arcane knowledge11, that is, the beliefs that
what we refer to as magic in the present day. But on the other hand, we find dominant
and influential tradition of drawing a distinction among those areas mentioned above. St.
Augustine took the initiative of this tradition and had a great effect upon the theologians
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慶應義塾大学外国語教育研究センター AWC2003 年度 所長賞受賞論文
in the later era. Roughly speaking, with the passage of time, the denouncement against
magic became more and more fierce and harsh. Hence, two problems rise: what was it
that separated magic from religion and science, and what exactly was regarded as magic
in the Middle Ages? St Augustine defines magic thus: ‘…magic art, that is, demonic arts
performed through human agency, along with miracles wrought by the demons
themselves.12 According to his explanation, it seems safe to conclude that magic is the
supernatural, evil arts created by demons; however, one more crucial problem
accompanies magic: was all the magic really considered to be demonical and thus
detested by learned Christian people?
A closer examination reveals that magic is divided into two types: one is
benevolent, harmless magic used for righteous purposes, and the other is more harmful,
diabolic, malefic magic performed for malignant purposes. The former is often called
white magic, and the latter black magic.13 The former type of magic was accepted and
its existence admitted, at least in the early Middle.14 In this connection, Middle English
Dictionary gives the two definitions to the Middle English term ‘magik’
(a) The knowledge of hidden natural forces…, and
the art of using these in calculating future events,
curing disease, etc…
(b)sorcery, enchantment.15
On the basis of the medieval distinction between various kinds of magic and the
attitude toward white magic, we may say that not all the magic was necessarily
excluded. Nonetheless, we must not ignore the following inescapable fact, too: Aside
from each intellectual’s opinion of magic, fundamental Christian theory argued that
even beneficial white magic was not perfectly free from power and support of demons.16
Consequently, in this essay we shall define the term ‘magic’ as any wondrous art,
including both white and black magic which are more or less thought to be affected by
the power of demons. Lastly the meaning of the term ‘demon’ in the Middle Ages must
be clarified as it is also a key term and in examining magic. Bartholomæus Anglicus
explains the term demons as an evil being having a cornucopia of wisdom that surpasses
men and even the ability to know future events.17 This essay will employ this definition
of the term ‘demon’.
3
慶應義塾大学外国語教育研究センター AWC2003 年度 所長賞受賞論文
.
Merlin’s Phenomena
We have seen in the previous section that the Middle Ages situated magic in a
delicate position. How about its position in romance and fictional literature? Kieckhefer
and Sweeney argue that the inclusion of numerous magical features in romance reflects
the interest in magic of the medieval people18, and Harding says this is true particularly
of Merlin.19 Taking their statements into consideration, one is tempted to regard
romance as reflecting reality in a sense. With this in mind, we shall survey various
examples of Merlin’s magic found in the Prose Merlin. But the space does not permit to
adduce all of them.
1. The Destructive Dragon Banner
Soon after coronation of young King Arthur, the hostile kings revolt. Then,
Merlin makes a standard for the King that is shaped as a dragon and he sets this on a
lance. This standard is astonishingly light and movable and, in addition, has
‘merveilouse’ power. (115-116) It vomits fire and poison from its mouth. It also radiates
light in darkness and wind arises from it.20
What then is the dragon-banner and what role does it play? Linda A. Malcor
takes the banner to be a ‘draconarius, a dragon-shaped iron standard of the Roman army
held by high ranking officer.21 According to Malcor and Norma Lorre Goodrich,
draconarius hints that Merlin is a brave warrior and standard-bearer in an army. Thanks
to draconarius he has the aspect of a warrior and standard-bearer, as well as that of
enchanter.
A device like a movable dragon-banner was not only a fantasy. By the thirteenth
century, technology of building mechanical men, beasts and birds, which had been
originally preserved in the Eastern world, had arrived in the Western world from the
East where they were originally developed and there were remarkable advances in
mechanics around the same period. Medieval people identified mechanics with magic,
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慶應義塾大学外国語教育研究センター AWC2003 年度 所長賞受賞論文
and engineer with magician.22 Even St Augustine may be displaying appreciation for
mechanics in the following quotation:
Many notable marvels which they call mēchanēmata
(mechanical devices) are accomplished by human skill making
use of something that God created, so that who are uniformed
suppose them to be divine.23
How about Merlin the enchanter and that multipurpose dragon-banner?
Interestingly enough, no one knows where he crafted it. (116) It is believed that in this
respect he wrought the banner by means of occult techniques. If we suppose that the
movable dragon-banner is really a mechanical device, then Merlin also possessed the
attribute of ‘a machinist’.
2. Masquerade
Merlin transforms himself into the likeness of all kinds of human being: a beggar,
a boy, a cripple, a knight, a churl, a squire, a courier, an old man, a bard.24 These are not
all the instances of his disguises, as there are also instances of his transfiguration into
non-human forms: a wild man (167, 424) and a stag (422). 25
Of course, his magic of transfiguration affects others. The one whose appearance
was altered by Merlin is Uther Pendragon, who loved Igrene, the Duchess of Cornwall.
Merlin gives Uther herbs to rub onto his face, hands and feet, which give Uther the
appearance of the Duke of Cornwall. This magic leads to the birth of King Arthur.
The Medieval attitude toward transformation was filled with concern and fear,
that is to say, negative view was more dominant than positive one, and moreover, it
appears that transformation was assumed to be closely connected with demons in
particular. There are differing opinions about how it could be accomplished26 . More
impressive is that demons were believed to use their power to change human into other
creatures, although they can not change the essential nature of a thing.27 Metamorphosis
was also a special talent which features the Devil and he takes the form of all kinds if
human. 28
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慶應義塾大学外国語教育研究センター AWC2003 年度 所長賞受賞論文
Based upon the above view we might conclude safely thus: Merlin’s
supernatural nature is made manifest through transfiguration, which reminds us of his
unnatural birth. Merlin, just like the Devil or the demons, has the ability to masquerade
as various types of human and other creatures, and alters the proper form of other
people.
3. Prophecy
Since his childhood, Merlin displayed great acumen and the ability to foretell
coming events, and examples of these are extremely common. As an instance of his
childhood intelligence and ability to foretell, two examples are sufficient. Firstly, when
his mother is accused of adultery and summoned to the court, he, only twelve
months-old, accompanies her and defends her by answering the judge’s question
logically and artfully as if he were an adult. In addition, he divines the fact that the
judge’s mother had illicit sexual intercourse with a man. (16-21) The second is the
famous prophecy given in front of King Vortigern: Merlin correctly deduces that the
collapse of Vortigern’s tower was caused by a white dragon and a red dragon
struggling underground. After the white dragon burns the red, Merlin explains the
significances of the two dragons; the burned red dragon represents Vortigern who
would soon be killed, and the white dragon the two brothers, Pendragon and Uther,
who will be the cause of his defeat. (36-37) After he grows old he also plays the role of
a marshal and counsellor both in war and peace, fully utilising his prophecy.
What did medieval people think of prophecy? They were of the opinion that it is
an art which human beings never master without conjuring demons and subsequently
being deceived by them. The only exception is the omnipotent God, who can prophesy
correctly without having to depending on any external forces.29 And St. Thomas
Aquinas affirms that the principle of divination in a broad sense (including and
prophecy) is a compact made specifically with demons, and therefore, divination is
unlawful.30 Throughout the Middle Ages, prophecy and the interpretation of dreams
thus tended to be judged negatively.
Contrary to the actual situation, Merlin’s talent for prophecy is always needed and
relied upon by everybody in the story.
Conclusion
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慶應義塾大学外国語教育研究センター AWC2003 年度 所長賞受賞論文
The above three types of marvels are representative examples of Merlin’s magic,
but there are other distinctive kinds of magic in the Prose Merlin. Especially, one finds
more instances of these in his conversations and dealing with Nimue, Merlin’s beautiful
lover and the favourite pupil.
When Merlin meets Nimue for the first time he tells her of his wondrous magic
and pleases her.31 At the request of Nimue, Merlin makes a circle on the ground and
summons knights and ladies. They give a merry feast till evening. A fragrant orchard
appears through his magic, filled with all kinds of flowers and fruits. After that Merlin
promises to teach magic to her in return for her love. (309-310)
So deeply fascinated by Nimue, he teaches her his most esoteric magic at last.
This is the magic that imprisons someone eternally in an invisible magical tower
without walls. And the only one who can go in and out of the tower freely is the agent
of this spell. Nimue makes her teacher sleep and she performs this magic. When he
wakes up, he knows that Nimue has deceived him, but it is too late. Merlin himself
disappears from the story hereafter. (680-681)
As we have mentioned repeatedly, Merlin always supports other people by his
magic throughout the story; however, these arts are powerless for him before his
alluring lover, to say differently, they do not save their wielder at all. Although the
magician certainly says that he foresees vaguely the arrival of his fate32, he cannot
change it nor escape from it. (680)
Benevolent white magic and malefic black magic: to which group does Merlin’s
magic belong, and who is Merlin after all? We have already mentioned that the crucial
element which divides these two types of magic is the underlying purpose of the wielder.
What is, then, Merlin’s purpose? In almost all cases, he utilises his magic for only
righteous purposes, in other words, for the kingdom.
The problem is why Merlin remains a good agent of magic in spite of his ‘cursed
birth’. Merlin was baptised in his childhood. (15) By undergoing baptism, he is purified
and the nature of his magic was thus rendered into harmless33, which is, in fact, exactly
what the Lord intended. Merlin’s magic therefore appears to be white34 and as a
magician he seems to assume the role of a kind of saviour. He certainly attempts to use
his talent to avoid harming anyone. (406) Ironically the only one who is damaged by his
magic is Merlin HIMSELF. Although his magic is white magic when used on other
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慶應義塾大学外国語教育研究センター AWC2003 年度 所長賞受賞論文
people, it seems to be fatally black when it is turned upon its wielder. Nimue misuses
magic which was originally Merlin’s to keep him hers, in other words, for a thoroughly
impure and malignant purpose. In the Prose Merlin whenever Merlin is with Nimue he
teaches her his magic. By doing so, he can be said to be using magic not to save or
support someone, but simply to fulfil his personal and impure aim of keeping Nimue as
his lover. There is this aspect of black magic in Merlin’s supernatural arts.
The above observations lead to the duality of Merlin himself and his magic, in
which attraction and fear are often inextricably intermingled. The duality exhibits the
aspects of a saviour and the Devil in the Prose Merlin. Then, how does the duality
function on the story and what kind of characters does it give to Merlin?
In the Prose Merlin the counsel or magic of Merlin as a saviour largely
contributes to the building of the foundation of the kingdom. In this case, he mainly
utilises his wisdom, the ability to give prophecy. For instance, he talks about the
Christian legend of the Round Table and designs the fulfilment of it, according to the
will of the God. (58-61) After that King Arthur is brought into the world, as the
legitimate monarch elected by the Lord. (90, 98) Thanks to Merlin’s counsels, King
Arthur can act properly and the number of the kings who assist King Arthur gradually
increases. (130, 203-206) Merlin thus plays the leading role especially in shaping the
early stage of the story. Supported and lead by Merlin, King Arthur becomes the
new ]hero who stabilises the kingdom and struggles against the invading heathens. It
should be noted that Merlin defines the fights against the pagans as the defence of the
Christian belief. (563, 578) Hence, Merlin seems to be not only the saviour of the
kingdom but also the defender of the Christianity in the Prose Merlin. In this respect,
one might say that Merlin also intensifies the Christian colour of the kingdom and the
story itself.
At the same time, we should not ignore that Merlin has the attribute that is not
accordant with Christianity and the attribute reminds us of his devilish aspect: lechery,
one of the seven deadly sins. Christianity preaches that lechery is caused by the Devil
and prevents a good religious life35.
In the case of Merlin, his lechery is another
remnant of the diabolical aspects and as is seen in the love affair with Nimue, he cannot
restrain himself36. It is the beginning of this love affair that exhibits the first example of
Merlin’s ‘unrighteous magic’ in the story. His magic is altered by his lechery into ‘black
magic’ which ruins its wielder. We must also remember here that however benevolent
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慶應義塾大学外国語教育研究センター AWC2003 年度 所長賞受賞論文
and harmless it may be, magic itself is not unrelated to the demons or the Devil, and is
not always accepted unconditionally. Owing to his lust and demonic arts, the magician
after all becomes the one who is not able to conform perfectly to Christianity37, and
loses the position of the saviour of the Christian kingdom.
We can see that while the interest in magic and magician made Merlin the
marvellous saviour, the fear and negative view of them finally expelled him from the
story in spite of his numerous achievements.
1
Norma Lorre Goodrich, Merlin (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1988), p.5.
2
Merlin is rougher than other children and when he was born, his mother and her chambermaids
were surprised so much at the sight of him and feared. Merlin or the Early History of King Arthur: A
Prose Romance, ed. by Henry B., Wheatley, 2 vols, Early English Text Society, Original Series, 10,
112 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1969),Ⅰ, 14-15.
3
On his wisdom, Anne Berthelot states thus: ‘…basically he acts as a revealing device, a prophet whose
defining characteristic is his youth. The ‘merveille’ of Merlin is, precisely, that he is a child with the
wisdom of an old man, and the various texts insists on the discrepancy between Merlin’s high level of
competence..’, ‘Merlin, and the Ladies of the Lake’, Arthuriana, 10. (1) (2000), 55. And see also Carol.E.
Harding, Merlin and Legendary Romance (New York: Garland Publishing, 1988), p.87.
4
This point is made clear by the fact that Merlin lived during the reign of kings of five generations
i.e. Constance, Moyne, Vortigern, Uther Pendragon, Arthur.
5
Richard Kieckhefer, Magic in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1998), p.2, pp.19-21.
Michelle Sweeney, Magic in Medieval Romance from Chrétien de Troyes to Geoffrey Chaucer
(Portland, OG: Four Court Press, 2000), pp.28-35. Jeffrey Burton Russell, Witchcraft in the Middle
Ages (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1972).
6
Russell, p.5.
7
This is a medical book written in Middle English in fifteenth century. The Liber de Diversis
Medicinis, ed. by Ogden, Margaret Sinclair, Early English Text Society, Original Series, 206
(London: Oxford UP, 1938).
8
The Liber de Diversis Medicinis, p.63. oble = wafer See the glossary of this book, pp.119-149.
9
Kieckhefer, p.9.
10
Russell, p.14.
11
Kieckhefer, pp.142-144. See also Albertus Magnus, Dai Aruberutus no Hihou, trans, by Takash
Tachiki (Tokyo: Kawade Shobo Shinsha, 1999). The Book of Secrets of Albertus Magnus: of Virtues
of Herbs, Stones, and Certain Beasts, ed. by Michael R. Best and Frank H. Brightman （Oxford:
Clarendon Press , 1973), p.3 and Bartholomæus Anglicus, On the Properties of Things, trans. by
John Trevisa, 3 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975).
12
Saint Augustine, The City of God against the Pagans trans .by William M. Green, ７vols
(London: Harvard UP, 1957-1972),Ⅶ,35.
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慶應義塾大学外国語教育研究センター AWC2003 年度 所長賞受賞論文
13
Harding, p.17, p.39. See also C.Grant Loomis, White Magic: An Introduction to the Folklore
Legend of Christian Legend (Cambridge, MA: The Medieval Academy of America, 1948), p.6.
14
Russell, p.13. And Albertus Magnus himself emphasises that magic should not be prohibited as far
as it performs the good. See Dai Aruberutus no Hihou, p.40.
15
Middle English Dictionary, ed. by Sherman M. Kuhn, 12 vols (Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press, 1952-1975), Ⅵ, 11.
16
Russell, p.13.
17
Bartholomæus Anglicus, I, 85.
18
Kieckhefer, p.105.
19
Harding, p.17.
20
Merlin, Ⅰ, Ⅱ.
21
Malcor, 6. Norma Lorre Goodrich, p.34. Doris Edel, ‘Geoffrey’s So-called Animal Symbolism and
Insular Celtic Tradition’, Studia Celtica, ⅩⅧ-ⅩⅨ (1983/4-1985), 96-109.
22
Kieckhefer, p101.
23
Saint Augustine,Ⅶ, 38-39.
24
Merlin,Ⅰ,Ⅱ.
25
Strictly speaking, wild man is in shape of human being, but he is too savage and lustful to be
regarded as so-called human being, and he rejects civilisation and willingly dwells in a cave or in a
forest; hence, we categorised this creature in non-human being. As an aside, in Book 18 of On the
Properties of Things by Bartholomæus Anglicus, namely, an encyclopaedia of animals, we find
description of wild man. Merlin is often related to this creature. For studies of wild man or
relationship between them, see David A. Sprunger, ‘Wild Folk and Lunatics in Medieval Romance’,
in The Medieval World of Nature: A Book of Essays, ed. by Joyce E. Salisbury (New York: Garland
Publishing, 1993), pp.145-163. Peter H. Goodrich, ‘The Erotic Merlin’, Arthuriana, vol.10. (1),
(2000), 94-115.Nikolai Tolstoy, The Quest for Merlin (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1985).
26
Russell, p.237. Caroline Walker Bynum, ‘Metamorphosis, or Gerald and the Werewolf’,
Speculum,73.(3), (1993), 987-1013. Kieckhefer, p.184.
27
Russell, p.237.
28
Jeffery Burton Russell, Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
Press, 1984), p.68. See also Bartholomæus Anglicus,Ⅰ, 85.
29
30
Kieckhefer, p.184.
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, trans. by English Dominican Province, 5 vols
(Westminster, MD: Christian Classics, 1981),Ⅲ, 1597.
31
According to his explanation, he can keep his feet dry when he crosses a river, and he can make a
castle appear and create a great multitude of people to assail or defend it. He also says here that he
can make a river where there is no water. Merlin, Ⅱ, 309.
32
See Berthelot, 72-73.
33
Harding, p.88.
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慶應義塾大学外国語教育研究センター AWC2003 年度 所長賞受賞論文
34
Harding, p.89.
35
Dan Michel’s Ayenbite of Inwyt or Remorse Conscience, rev. by Morris, Richard, Early English
Text Society, Original Series, 23（London: N. Trübner, 1866), pp.46-47, p.240.
36
Berthelot, 73. Peter H. Goodrich, 101.
37
Peter H. Goodrich, 105.
11