CHAPTER-I
INTRODUCTION
l.llntroduction
'Personality Development' is indeed the most popular phrase of the 21^'
Century.
It is also a major indicator of national development. The personality
pattern of the individual is a product of learning through life experiences.
Personality is scientifically studied at different levels ranging from concrete to
abstract behavior. Of all the stages of human life, adolescence is considered as the
most crucial, next only to foetal stage by the behavioral scientists.
In reality,
adolescence is a period of human life between childhood and adulthood. It is
characterized by rapid growth and development at psychological, physiological and
social levels. The adolescence denotes the phase of human development making a
transition from dependence upon adult direction and protection to selfdetermination and self-reliance.
The personality development of adolescents is a two-way process.
Domestic and environmental conditions set the stage for the kinds of experiences
which facilitate or hinder the development and adjustment of the adolescents. The
parents and other members of the family play a decisive role in developing the
personality of the child into a personally and socially well adjusted and useful
individual. The teachers also play an important role in molding the personality of
the child especially at this crucial stage of human development.
The social,
educational, economic and cultural status of the parents has a great influence on
adjustment
patterns
of
adolescents.
Educational
institutions,
religious
organizations, cultural organizations, media institutions, law enforcement agencies,
research and development institutions play an important role in safeguarding the
personalities of children at this crucial, testing and trying period of human life.
In India and other countries, adolescents constitute about 25% of the
national population. In modem society, adolescents are living in a highly complex
social, economic, political and cultural environment in which many focuses,
influences and impacts have a constant interplay on the attitudes and behavioral
patterns of adolescents. Adolescents require proper opportunities and resources to
1
develop personally satisfying, socially acceptable and wholesome personalities in
this age of globalization.
Adolescent development and adjustment are matters of
serious concern to parents, teachers, policy makers, administrators, law
enforcement authorities and others concerned in the welfare of the young people
who are the future nation builders.
The present study evaluates the influence of
socio-economic factors on the behavior and adjustment patterns of adolescents in
Mysore city of Kamataka State. The concept of adolescence, significance of
adolescence, scientific study of adolescence, state of adolescents in India, behavior
and adjustment patterns of adolescents, significance of the study, statement of the
problem, objectives of the study and scope of the study are furnished in this
chapter.
1.2
Significance of Adolescence
1.2.1 Concept of Adolescence
Adolescence is derived from the Latin verb adolescere meaning 'to grow
into maturity'. This denotation suggests a stage of human growth instead of a
definite time period indicating its transitional nature between childhood and
adulthood. As a stage in the life span, adolescence refers to the period from
puberty until maturity and includes all the psychological, physical and social trait
characteristics of persons during this time. Puberscence or pre-adolescence refers
to the time span of physiological development during which the reproductive
system of an individual matures.
This process includes in particular the
development of the secondary sex characteristics as well as the physiological
maturation of the genital organs. The puberscene marks the preliminary stages of
adolescence and ends with the appearance of all secondary sex characteristics and
the achievement of reproductive ability. Adolescence is a stage of human life in
between the childhood and adulthood.
According to Hurlock (1969), "adolescence ends when an individual attains
emotional and social maturity, and has acquired the requisite experience, ability
and willingness to play consistently the role of an adult".
Adolescence normally
ends in the twenties for most people. It may be broadly defined as a period
spanning the second decade and part of the third decade of human life.
Dorothy Rogers (1972) observes: "adolescents - influential, frustrated,
confused, ever changing and paradoxical
demand new attention and
understanding. These transitional beings are the shapers of the future who are
molded and varying belittled or praised by adults and who in turn both defend and
downgrade themselves".
Learner and Spanier (1980) define: " Adolescence is a phase with the life
span when most of a persons' biological, cognitive, psychological and social
characteristics are changing from what is typically considered childlike to what is
considered adultlike". The adults also face a number of crises and challenges on
account of these changes and characteristics.
Mark E Johnson (1985) states: "Adolescence is not necessarily as was
believed at one time a period of stress and strain. Young people may be helped to
experience a gradual relatively peaceful and successful continuance of development
from childhood to adulthood by giving attention to two areas of influence namely,
nutrition
influencing
physical
and
environment
influencing
emotional
developments".
According to Peterson (1988), "Adolescence is a phase of life beginning in
biology and ending in society". The adolescence represents a testing period of
individual's life and that there is likely to be a struggle within the individuals
according to behavioural scientists. The age of onset of these changes ranges from
1 0 - 1 5 years with an average of 12 years for males and 1 - 2 years earlier for
females.
Elizabeth Hurlock (1998) define: "Adolescence is a psycho-sociobiological stage of development occurring between childhood and adulthood.
During this period, rapid and important developments occur which give rise to the
need for adjustments and the necessity for establishing new attitudes, values and
interests."
1.2.2 Stage of Adolescence
Adolescence is a stage where an individual undergoes a period of transition.
There are changes physically and psychologically in an individual, who is growing
into adulthood from the stage of childhood. An adolescent has to make necessary
adjustments to his changing physiology and physique, which occurs due to changes
in hormonal secretions. In addition, the adolescent has to adjust to changes in
social expectations and environmental needs. The society expects ftilfillment of
certain obligations and accomplishment of certain goals at every stage of life from
the citizens. These are known as social obligations and developmental tasks.
Successful fulfillment of these obligations and accomplishment of these tasks gives
happiness to the individuals and enable them to live successfully in the society.
The adolescents are required to make several adjustments in areas like emotional,
health, home, educational, social, and overall. The level of adjustment varies
according to different influencing factors and forces like socio-economic factors,
parent-child relationships, life styles, environmental influences and so on. The
adolescents are also required to maintain absolute harmony, understanding and
rapport with various environmental conditions surrounding them.
Adolescence is a period of transition, a time of search for identity, a
problem of age, a period of change and a period of storm and stress. Of all the
stages of human development, adolescence is an important period where both the
immediate and long term effects have been considered more important and
necessity for establishing new values, attitudes, interests and behavioral patterns.
According to Papalia E. Diana and Olds Sally Wendkos (1994), "adolescence is a
period in which there is a preoccupation with the search for identity, which may
result in 'turmoil'. Identity is the sense of self
It is the answer for our quest for
who am I, our values, beliefs etc,. Seeking an identity means locating one's place in
the social set up. Identity also refers to one's skills and attributes as a person. Most
of the adolescents come out of the identity crisis by the time of their adulthood;
some are disturbed and confused to have a lot of problems in their early adult life.
In any case, adolescence is a period of great upheaval and challenge for the young
mind".
Krishna. K. P (1982)
states : "Adolescence is a period of change in
attitudes and behavior, the rate of change in attitudes and behavior parallels the rate
of physical change. These changes heighten the emotionality and may result in
creating new problems in their adjustment. As it is used today, the term
adolescence has a broader meaning. It includes mental, emotional and social
maturity of the individuals who have entered the stage of adolescence in their
lives".
Conger and Peterson (1984) opine: "Adolescence is generally considered as
beginning at puberty, the process that leads to sexual maturity when a person is
able to reproduce. The biological changes that signal the end of childhood produce
rapid growth in height and weight (a rate of growth second only to that of infancy),
changes in body proportions and form, and the attainment of sexual maturity. But
adolescence is also a social and emotional process. Adolescence begins in biology
and ends in culture".
Dusek. J. B (1987) reports: "Adolescence is also a time when the individual
is developing psychological competence, including strategies for coping with life
stresses. Further more, other factors such as gender, ethnicity, age, family
circumstances and the extent or intensity of the concern may contribute to how the
strategies are employed.
Even from the social and psychological point of view,
adolescence is an important phase of life because of its effect on their attitude and
emerging behavior patterns.
The changes which are experienced by an adolescent can be grouped into
four categories - physical, cognitive, social and emotional.
1.2.3 Physical Development
Papalia and Wendkos (1994) enumerate the physical development thus:
"Adolescence is a developmental transition. Adolescence is generally considered as
beginning at puberty, the process that leads to sexual maturity, when a person is
able to reproduce. Although the physical changes of this time of life are dramatic,
they do not burst full blown at the end of childhood. Instead, puberty is part of a
long and complex process that begins even before birth. The biological changes
that signal the end of childhood produce rapid growth in height and weight,
changes in body proportions and form, and the attainment of sexual maturity.
Adolescent's maturation involves not only physical changes but also the
psychological effects of these changes. The biological changes that signal the end
of childhood include the ado]escent growth spurt, the beginning of menstruation for
girls, the presence of sperm in the urine of males, the maturation of organs involved
in reproduction and the development of secondary sex characteristics".
Elkind. D. (1984) substantiates the physical development of adolescents
thus: "An early sign of maturation is the adolescent growth spurt, a dramatic
increase in height and weight. It generally begins to appear in girls between ages
91/2 and 141/2 years and in boys between ages 101/2 and 16 years. It typically lasts
for about 2 years. Soon after the spurt ends, the young person reaches sexual
maturity. Most girls reach their adult height by age 14 or 15 years and most boys by
age 18 years".
According to a guide on prevention of teen age pregnancy (1999), " in
response to these physical changes, young adolescents begin to be treated in a new
way by those around them. They may no longer be seen as just children, but as
sexual beings to be protected or targeted. They face society's expectations for how
young men and women should behave".
1.2.4 Cognitive Development
Adolescents begin to think on a higher level than the thought processes of
childhood. Adolescents think in terms of what might be true rather than just in
terms of what they see in a concrete situation since they are capable of
understanding the infinite variety of possibilities. They are also able to think in
broader terms about moral and social issues. The attainment of formal operations
gives adolescents a new way to manage or manipulate on the basis of information,
education and guidance they acquire from formal and informal sources of learning.
According to Piaget (1952), "Inner and outer changes in adolescents' lives
combine to bring about cognitive maturation. The brain has matured and the social
environment is widening offering more opportunities for experimentation." The
Piagetian approach is well known in the field of behavioral science. It minimizes
the importance of other aspects of intelligence such as the ability to handle real life
problems and the wisdom that helps adolescents to cope with an often ambiguous
world.
Atkinson Robert (1998) emphasizes that the cognitive development in
adolescence signals the beginning of a new level of thought in which a greater
6
reasoning and problem solving capacity prepares the maturing teenager to become
a philosopher of sorts, able to speculate hypothesize, fantasize, and build elaborate
systems. A dramatic shift in thinking from concrete to abstract gives adolescents a
whole new set of mental tools. They are now able to analyze situations logically in
terms of cause and effect. This gives them the ability to think about the future,
evaluate alternatives, and set personal goals. They can engage in introspection and
mature decision making.
The Annual Review of Psychology (1998) reveals the cognitive abilities of
the
adolescents
thus:
they
become
more
independent,
take
increased
responsibilities, begin to consider future careers and occupation, look to peers and
media for information and advice, begin to develop a social conscience and become
concerned about social issues and develop a sense of values and ethical behavior.
Papalia and Wendkos (1994) comment: "the attainment of formal
operations gives adolescents a new way to manipulate or operate information. They
are no longer limited to thinking about the here and now, they can deal with
abstractions and see infinite possibilities". Inner and outer changes in adolescents'
lives combine to bring about cognitive maturation, according to Piaget. The brain
has matured and the social environment is widening, offering more opportunities
for experimentation. Very noticeable changes in intellectual development takes
place, the quality of thinking in terms of great ideals also emerges, they become
able to think in more logical terms. The main three characteristics of adolescent
thought include - capacity to combine several factors and find solution to a
problem, ability to see that what effect one factor will have on another factor and
ability to combine and separate factors in a probabilistic manner.
Ginsburg and Opper (1979) observe: "the ability to think abstractly has
emotional ramifications too. The adolescent has developed a new mode of life, the
possible and the ideals captivate both mind and feeling. However, these cognitive
characteristics of adolescents may not apply to each and every individual.
Important variations have often been in individuals of the same culture according to
several studies.
1.2.5 Social Development:
Social values also matter most at all times. The adolescents are required to
understand these social values and expectations and make suitable adjustment with
them. Otherwise, there may be a conflict of interest between the behaviors of
adolescents and societal expectations. Adolescents may also be treated as over
grown children who are granted no meaningful place in society. Adolescents are
required to cultivate social intelligence in order to develop thoughts, behavior and
adjustment patterns which would fit into a given social context.
E L Throndike (1920) was the first scientist to coin the term social
intelligence which is referred to as the person's ability to understand and manage
other people and to engage in adoptive social interactions which are classified into
three types namely, concrete intelligence, abstract intelligence and social
intelligence. Cantor and Kilristrom (2000) redefined social intelligence as the
individual's fund of knowledge about social world. Basically, social intelligence is
a pre-requisite to social development of human beings including the adolescents.
Social development is one of the most difficult developmental tasks of
adolescents. The adolescents are required to understand the social values,
expectations, demands and behavioral patterns which are approved collectively.
The adolescents learn about these things from their parents, siblings, peers, teachers
and others in the society. The adolescents are also required to grow further in
accordance with these accepted social values and expectations. They must also
learn to be one among the social members.
Greenberger, Josselson, Knerr and Knerr (1975) observe: "to achieve the
goal of adult patterns of socialization, the adolescents are required to make many
new adjustments. The most important and, in many respects the most difficult of
which are those to the increased influence of the peer group changes in social
behavior, new social groupings, new values in friendship selection, new values in
social acceptance and rejection and new values in the selection of leaders". Larson
and Verma (1999) have also stated that the social development of adolescents takes
place in the context of all their relationships, particularly those with their peers and
families.
Papalia and Wendkos (1994) have observed that one of the greatest social
changes for adolescents is the new importance of their peers. This change allows
them to gain independence from their families. According to Horrocks and
Benimoff (1966), the peer group offers the adolescent a world in which he may
socialize in a climate where the values that count are those that are set not by
adults, but by others of his own age.
Chen Lee and Stevenson (1996) have noted that the adolescents are very
concerned with being accepted by a peer group. This great desire to belong can
influence some to engage in activities that they normally would not consider. The
relationship between adolescents and their parents are changed by the adolescents'
social development. The shift in the adolescents' social world from family to peers
does not lessen the importance of the family in the adolescents' life. But the new
desire for independence leads to increasing conflicts between adolescents and their
parents.
Adaptation is very essential in human life. Adolescents are required to learn
the art and craft of adaptation which is essential in communication competence and
social functioning. The adolescents are also required to grow intelligently and
actively by enlisting the co-operation and support of the society. They must also
cultivate necessary abilities to understand and manage other people and to engage
in adoptive social interactions. This would enable the adolescents grow well in a
social environment which has lot of complexities, challenges and opportunities.
The behaviour scientists have identified some features of the adolescents'
social development depending upon the social groups which are directly associated
with the adolescents. They include: a) Early Adolescence (9-13 years) the center
of social world shifts from family to friends, peer group tends to be same - sex,
strong desire to conform to and be accepted by peer group, increasing conflict
between adolescents and their parents and family closeness most important
protective factor against high - risk behavior, b) Middle Adolescence (14 - 16
years) - the peer group gradually give way to one - to - one friendship and
romance, peer group tends to be gender mixed, dating begins and less conformity
and more tolerance of individual differences, c) Late Adolescence (17-19 years)
- the serious intimate relationships begin to develop and family influence in balance
with peer influence.
9
Adolescence is a crucial stage and its influence extends into whole life of an
individual. The adolescents gain a growing sense of competence in relation to their
physical abilities, along with the development of good motor skills and
opportunities to successfully engage in a variety of intellectual and physical
pursuits. The adolescents begin to decide about their own attitudes and behaviours
and understand the consequences for actions. Adolescence is also a period of life
when adolescents begin to assume a larger share of responsibility for their own
decisions and actions in relation to their parents, peers and others. As adolescents
grow and mature, the nature of their gender identity, social relationships and
interactions increase profoundly. Adolescents are required to achieve physical,
emotional, cognitive and social developments in a proper and positive manner. At
this stage, the adolescents develop their own perceptions about individual identity,
responsibility and obligations.
The sign of growing independence profoundly
affects the adolescent's personal and social adjustments.
1.2.6 Emotional Development
Every human being passes through the stage of adolescence which is an
extremely testing and trying time emotionally and practically. The process of
maturation and learning play effective roles in the development of emotions of the
adolescents. Adolescents are bound to acquire various positive and negative
emotions through domestic affinities and environmental influences. Emotion is
generally defined as the integration of a particular set of neuro-chemical, motor and
mental process. An individual begins his journey toward the development of his
emotional behavior with the help of two distinct emotions, namely, emotion of
distress and emotion of delight. The emotional state of adolescence originates from
physiological changes that take place during adolescence. Emotions play quite a
significant role in guiding and directing the behavioral and adjustment patterns of
the adolescence. Emotional intelligence is the product of one's hereditary and its
interaction with his/her environmental forces.
An individual also learns to cultivate emotional experiences through
environmental factors and forces. Especially adolescents gain the benefit of
emotional development through parents, siblings and peers. The ultimate goal of
10
emotional development is to gain emotional competence especially in adolescence.
Carolyn Sarani (1999) emphasises: "Adolescence is an extremely trying and
emotional time. If adolescents do not develop emotionally, they would probably not
be able to handle many of the stressful situations that would befall them in the
future." Emotional competence in adolescence is awareness of one's own
emotional cycles which facilitates inside fiill coping, awareness of this helps with
the increasing integration of moral character and personal philosophy in dealing
with stress and subsequent decisions." According to Mangal
(2002): "An
emotionally matured person can easily recognize almost all the emotions, manifest
those emotions very much refined in a socially desirable way, able to exercise
control over his emotions and perceive things in real perspective."
Woodworth (1945) defines emotion: "Emotion is a moved or stirred up state
of an organism. It is stirred up state of feeling that is the way it appears to the
individual himself It is a disturbed muscular and glandular activity that is the way
it appears to an external observer". Crow and Crow (1973) state: "Emotion is an
affective experience that accompanies generalized linear adjustment and mental
and physical stirred up states in the individuals which shows its self in their overt
behavior". Charles Morris (1997) perceives: "Emotion is a complex affective
experience that involves diffuse physiological changes and can be expressed
overtly in characteristic behavior patterns". English and English (1958) observe:
"Emotion suggests a complex feeling - state accompanied by characteristic motor
and glandular activities." Buck (1985) has defined emotion as the process by which
motivational potential is realized or read out when activated by challenging stimuli.
Singh and Bhargava (1990) observe: "Emotional development is a process
in which the personality of the adolescents grows toward greater sense of emotional
health and security both intra-personally and intra-psychically. An emotionally
matured person has the capacity to make effective adjustment with himself,
members of his family, his peers in school and culture along with the ability to
enjoy fully."
According to Kagan et. al. (1984), emotion is defined as the integration
of a particular set of neuro chemical motor, and mental processes. The emotional
development of the adolescents primarily depends upon proper domestic,
educational and social environments that surround an individual. The ultimate goal
11
of emotional development is to gain emotional competence especially in
adolescence. If an adolescent knows how to deal with stress and knows how to
handle himself emotionally, it would be very beneficial for him in future. As the
adolescent moves closer to maturity, certain dimensions of adequacy become more
important".
Atkinson Robert (1998) further states that there is a sense of individual
maturity, which includes self control, self esteem and self initiative. There is interpersonal maturity, covering the ability to communicate, trust and understand and
manage relationship with others.
The Annual Review of Psychology (1998)
further reveals that the adolescents are faced with the large task of establishing a
sense of identity. The new cognitive skills of maturing adolescents give them the
ability to reflect on who they are and what makes them unique. The process of
developing a sense of identity involves experimenting with different ways of
appearing, sounding and behaving. Each adolescent will approach this exploration
in his or her own unique way. They also develop relationship skills that allow them
to get along well with others and make friends. Some of the skills they develop as
part of their emotional development include - recognizing and managing emotions,
developing empathy, learning to resolve conflict constructively and developing a
co-operative spirit. The physical changes among adolescents are often accompanied
by emotional tensions. The adolescent is exposed to new social situations, patterns
of behaviors and societal expectations which bring a sense of insecurity, that there
is increased incidence of depression.
Blackman. (1995) opines that adolescence is a time of emotional turmoil,
mood swings, gloomy thoughts and heightened sensitivity. It is a time of rebellion
and experimentation. Dorothy Rogers (1972) adds that adolescent emotions and
behaviors are oflen labeled as undesirable or abnormal simply because they may
disturb others. Some age changes in emotions relate to societal expectations of the
adolescents. Adolescents need help both to achieve sound emotional health and to
resolve problems satisfactorily. Gerell, lig and Ames (1986) believe that there is
scope for improvement of emotional behavior with each passing year even though
the emotions are often intense, uncontrolled, and seemingly irrational.
12
Hurlock (1981) states that the emotional patterns of adolescence, while
similar to those of childhood, differ in the stimuli that give rise to the emotions and
even more important, in the degree of control the individuals exercise over the
expressions of their emotions. Adolescent emotions and behaviors are often labeled
as undesirable or abnormal simply because they may disturb others. Sometimes
there may be a conflict of interest between the adolescent behaviors and societal
expectations. In addition, there is also a tendency to think of emotions as single
entities, instead of perceiving them as being inter-related.
1.3
Scientific Study of Adolescence
Adolescence is a cultural and social phenomenon and that its end points are
not easily tied to physical milestones.
As a transitional stage of human
development, adolescence represents the period of time during which a juvenile
matures into adulthood (gender specific manhood or womanhood). Puberty is the
stage of the human life span in which a child develops secondary sex characteristics
as his or her hormonal balance shifts strongly towards an adult state. Usually, there
is a certain age of maturity when the adolescents formally become adults. Most
cultures regard people as becoming adults at various ages of the teenage years.
Some scholars have theorized a new stage of development namely, pre-adolescence
and post-adolescence. Searching for a unique identity is one of the problems that
adolescents face all over the globe. Behavioral scientists denoted this period as one
of storm and stress.
Steinberg and Lemer (1991) provided an overview of the history of the
research on adolescence. The history of the scientific study of adolescence had two
overlapping phases and is now on the cusp of a third phase. The first phase began
early in the 20"^ Century and lasted for about 70 years. It was characterized by
grand theoretical models and embraced all aspects of adolescence. The Second
phase which began in the mid 1970's continued till the end of the 20* Century. It
was characterized by more focused hypotheses testing and application of scientific
inputs to real life problems and situations. In the beginning of the 2P' Century, the
third phase began with a fond hope of promoting positive personality of the
adolescents.
13
1.3.1 First Phase
Hall (1904) began an innings of scientific study of adolescence by
publishing two volumes on Adolescence.
He provided a nativist view of the
development of adolescence. He sought to translate the ideas of Eamst Haeckel,
an early contributor to embryology into a theory of life-span human development.
Haeckel advanced the idea of recapitulation - that the adult stages of the ancestors
comprising a species' evolutionary histories were repeated in compressed form as
the embryonic stages of organism's ontogeny. Hall extended Haeckel's idea of
recapitulation beyond the prenatal period to fashion a new theory of human
behavioral development. Hall stated that adolescence represented a phylogenetic
period which human ancestors went from being beast like to being civilized. He
also found that adolescence was a period of storms and stresses.
Piaget (1952) propounded a developmental theory of cognition which
involved a more integrative view of nature and stimulated considerable amount of
empirical research on adolescence. The primary focus of Piaget's theory was on
the emergence of formal logical structures rather than the adolescent period per se.
He did not analyse the broader biological, emotional, personality, social and
societal aspects of adolescence. Other prominent scientists who examined
adolescence include Jones and Bayley (1950), Freud (1958) and Erickson (1959),
Douvan and Adelson (1966), Offer (1969), Elder (1974), Nesselroade and Baltes
(1974) and so on. The first phase in the scientific study of adolescence lasted for
about 70 years. Grand concepts and models were provided by the first generation
of researchers on adolescence.
They were not primarily theory -driven and
hypothesis testing investigations. They were simply descriptive studies which
creased a huge gap between basic theory and empirical evidence. The so called
classical studies of adolescence conducted between 1950 and 1980 were not based
on the theories of prominent scientists.
However, the first generation of
researchers made significant contributions to shaping the specific profile and
approaches of the scientific study of adolescence.
The early researchers also
advanced the study of adolescence by providing intellectually sound concepts and
approaches.
Basic theoretical and empirical advances in several areas have
facilitated the advance of research on adolescence all over the world.
14
1.3.2 Second Phase
The second phase of the scientific study of adolescence began in the mid
1970s. A new generation of developmental scientists launched the second innings
of the scientific study on adolescence which is characterized by an interest in
developmental plasticity in general and application of scientific solutions to reallife problems in particular. This phase of research has also facilitated the use of
more nuanced and powerful developmental research methods all over the world.
The decade of 1990s witnessed the flood of interest in adolescence.
Numerous professional journals also came into existence and devoted considerable
space for the publication of theoretical and empirical writings on the problems and
prospects of adolescents. A new discipline called Developmental Psychology also
came into existence. The Society for Research on Adolescence was established as
a prominent international forum of social and behavioral scientists interested in the
development of adolescence. Plenty of empirical studies were encouraged by this
forum and that many publications were brought out on various aspects of the
development of the adolescents all over the world. A remarkable rise of interest
was witnessed in the 1990s especially in the field of developmental psychology in
general and scientific study of adolescence in particular.
Bronfenbrenner (1979) comments: "Four broad trends were mainly
responsible for the growth of this interest area. First, the increased influence of the
ecological perspective on human development during the late 1980s and the early
1990s within the field of developmental psychology drew researchers' attention
toward periods of the life span characterized by dramatic changes in the context,
and not simply the content of development making adolescence a natural magnet
for researchers interested in contextual variations and their impact. Second,
methodological improvements in the study of puberty enabled researchers
interested in so-called bio-social models of development to test these models within
a developmental period characterized by wide but easily documented variation in
both biology and context. Third, the shift in research fianding priorities toward
more applied areas of study and toward the study of social problems in particular
encouraged many scholars to turn their attention to such issues as anti-social
behavior- drug use, non-marital pregnancy and depression problems that typically
15
emerge for the first time during adolescence. Finally, many of the important
longitudinal studies of development launched during the 1980s shifted their focus
toward adolescence as the study samples matured into pre-adolescence and
beyond." These factors brought about considerable progress in the scientific study
of adolescence. Hershel and Ellen Thomburg played a pivotal role in the
advancement of research on adolescence during the second phase.
Several conferences were organized by Ellen Thomburg in 1980s with a
view to develop a new cadre of researchers drawn from multiple disciplines. These
conferences were mainly responsible for the establishment of a new scholarly
international forum called the Society for Research on Adolescence (SRA).
Prominent internal conferences such as biennial conventions in Alexandra, Virginia
(1988), Atlanta (1990), Washington (1992), San Diego (1994), Boston (1996), San
Diego (1998), Chicago (2000), New Orleans (2002) and Baltimore (2004) were
organized by the SRA. Prominent champions of research on adolescence includeEllen Thomburg, John P Hill, Anne C Peterson, E Mavis Hethemington, Sanford
M Dombusch, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, Stuart T Hauser, Laurence Steinberg, W
Andrew Collins, Jacquelynne Eccles, Elizabeth Susman and others. These scholars
heralded a new era of scientific study on adolescence on a sound footing of theory
and practice in developmental psychology. The SRA launched a scholarly
professional joumal called. Journal of Research on Adolescence in 1981. More
than one thousand members representing expertise in psychology, sociology,
education, communication, social work, medicine, criminology, psychiatry and so
on were enrolled all over the globe.
All these experts were identified as adolescent developmentalists who
were primarily interested in the instantiation of developmental processes with in
other periods of the life span. They conducted serious and scientific research in
transforming the field of adolescent development which was based on multidisciplinary approaches. Brofenbrenner (1979) observes: "One scientific concern
that arguably was most significant in transforming the field of adolescent
development beyond a focus on this single developmental period into an exemplar
for understanding the breadth of the human life span was the emerging focus with
in developmental science on the ecology of human development." The second
phase of scientific study on adolescence was remarkable since it provided the
16
structural and functional bases of plasticity and systematic foundation for advanced
study of adolescence all over the world. Overton aptly summarizes the progress of
scientific research on adolescence at this stage thus: "Four defining features of the
second phase of the science of adolescent development are worth noting. First,
during its second phase of life, the empirical study of adolescence emerged as a socalled relational field of enquiry. That is, it became an area of scholarship wherein
implicitly or explicitly, the key unit of analysis in understanding the development
of the person was his or her relation with both more molecular (biological) and
molar (social group, cultural and historical) levels of organization." The confluence
of the multiple levels of organization made the field of adolescence an exemplar
within the broader study of human development.
The study of adolescent
development was characterized by a synthetic interest in basic and applied concerns
about adolescent development. As a consequence of this trend, the field has come
to place a premium on change-oriented and integrated methods to study the process
of human development with special reference to adolescence.
1.3.3 Third Phase
The dawn of 21^' Century witnessed the emergence of a third phase in the
history of the scientific study of adolescence. Behavioral scientists have stated that
this phase involved the emergence of the field of adolescent development as an
exemplar of the sort of developmental sciences which has benefited the policy
makers, bureaucrats, practitioners and others interested in the advancement of civil
society. The field of adolescence has entered a crucial phase of its development in
the present times wherein scientist-policy maker-practitioner-activist collaboration
has become the order of the day. Contemporary scholarship on adolescence reflects
individual
context
relations, developmental
systems, plasticity, diversity,
longitudinal methodology and application that were crystallized and integrated
within the second phase of the development of the scientific study of adolescence.
The third phase has provided an excellent conceptual and empirical basis to the
scientific study of adolescence which constitutes a collaborative research
orientation.
17
Bronfenbrenner (1979) and Hamburg (1992) have provided a sound vision
for the scientific study of adolescence which involves reciprocal collaborations
among researchers, practitioners, policy makers and activists who are responsible
for the personality development of adolescents. The young generation of today are
indeed the future builders of nation. It is the bounden duty and responsibility of the
policy makers and implementers to create intelligent, healthy, active and dynamic
adolescents who are the future leaders.
Adolescents represent, at any point in history, the generational cohort that
must next be prepared to assume the quality of leadership of self, family,
community and society that will sustain the human life. The present generation of
behavioral scientists have a vital role to play in enhancing human development
through the generation of basic and applied knowledge concerning the overall
progress of adolescents in particular and mankind in general. Today, advanced
scientific studies are carried out allover the world on adolescence ranging from
historical to human development aspects of adolescence. Professional organizations
are also established to facilitate debates, discussions, seminars, conferences,
longitudinal studies, publications and allied activities to promote the integrated and
sustainable development of adolescents.
1.4
The State of Adolescents in India
Adolescents numbering over 190 million comprise nearly one fifth of the
total population of India according to Census Report - 2001. According to the UN
'Adolescents in India', adolescents in the age group of 10 - 19 years of age
constitute 21.4 % of India's billion person population. The Indian adolescents hail
from a wide array of background such as affluent, poor, migrants, school-going,
drop-outs, sexually exploited, working adolescents and married parents. The
specific issues related to the adolescents also vary on the basis of sex and age
representing different stages of growth and development.
In fact, biological
factors of age and sex cut across all the background characteristics of the
adolescents. Adolescence is a crucial period in the life cycle of human
development, marked by rapid physical and psychological developments resulting
in attitudinal and behavioral changes among the adolescents, which are
18
substantially influenced by their respective social, educational, economic and
cultural milieu.
In our country, school curriculum emphasizes more on subject
learning, thus neglecting other components of human development particularly life
skills, problem solving, developing competence and dealing with psycho - social
difficulties. The Constitution of India has guaranteed several safeguards and
provisions for the development of human resources in general and young
generation in particular.
The Government of India has created a separate ministry called Human
Resources Development in order to plan and execute several developmental
programmes that would benefit the mankind in India. An overview of the policy
initiatives and developmental programmes concerning the adolescents are as
follows.
National Nutrition Policy, 1983
The National Nutrition Policy had focused on the development of the
adolescent girls in relation to the importance of their role as mothers and
housewives. Adolescent boys did not find any mention in the policy. There was no
scope for the development of adolescent boys and that the need for the well being
of adolescents, as a group had not been recognized by the policy makers and
bureaucrats.
National Educational Policy 1986 (modified in 1992)
The main emphasis in the National Educational Policy of 1986 was on the
eradication of illiteracy especially for the 15 to 35 years age group of citizens and
universalization of primary education. The adolescents group partly formed part of
children who were to be provided primary education and also part of adults who
were participants of adult literacy activity. However, the policy did not recognize
the adolescents as a group per se, which led to overlooking their special needs. To
some extent, the vocational educational needs were addressed at the higher
secondary level.
19
National Health Policy, 1999
This policy expressed the concern for the health of special groups such as
adolescent girls, albeit only with regard to their nutritional needs. The adolescent
girls were clubbed with pregnant women and children, instead of treating them as a
distinct group with specific needs and problems. The pregnancy and maternity
related health needs of adolescent girls were primarily focused by the policy
makers and bureaucrats.
Draft National AIDS Policy, 2000
This policy was indeed a crucial component of the national health strategy.
Since unprotected sex was a major source of AIDS and adolescents formed a
significant portion of the sexually active population, the policy ensured special care
and protection to the adolescents.
Experimentation, lack of knowledge, peer
pressure and a false sense of bravado made adolescents particularly vulnerable to
STDs including AIDS in India.
National Population Policy, 2000
This policy had recognized the earlier invisibility of adolescents, and
viewed them as a section of population which needed to be addressed. The
adolescents were the subject of one of the 12 strategic themes. They were
specifically referred to in the sections on information, nutrition, contraceptive use,
STDs and other population related issues. There was also a special mention about
developing health package for adolescents and enforcing the legal age at marriage.
Draft National Youth Policy, 2001
There was no government policy specifically for the empowerment of
adolescents. However, this policy provided a comprehensive overview of youth
issues and concerns, which were directly associated with the welfare of Indian
adolescents. The thrust areas of the policy included empowerment, gender equity
and inter-sectoral approach to the youth welfare in the country. This policy actually
made a distinction between the age of adolescence (13 - 19) and the age of
20
attainment of maturity (20 - 30 years), marking a shift towards distinguishing
between these different phases of human development.
National Policy for the Empowerment of Women, 2001
The policy had recognized the girl child as a separate category and
adolescent girls were also the beneficiaries of this policy. The adolescent girls
were primarily focused by this policy which heralded a new era of empowerment of
women in India.
Specific Programmes for Adolescents
Even though there were no comprehensive programmes or schemes
addressing all the needs of adolescents, a number of government departments had
intervention programs that impacted the lives of adolescents in India. Some of
these policies and programmes were generic in nature and so affected the
adolescents considerably. An effort had also been made to provide a glimpse of
some of the major government programmes / schemes run by government for
adolescents in India.
The Adolescent Girls Scheme (Kishori Shakthi Yojana), 2003
This programme was subsequently renamed as Kishori Shakthi Yojana
which aimed at improving the nutritional and health status of adolescent girls ( I I 18 years), providing literacy and numeracy skills through the non - formal system,
training and equipping adolescent girls with home- based and vocational skills and
promoting awareness and encouraging them to marry after 18 years. This revamped
scheme was expected to provide flexibility to states to adopt a need based
approach, depending on the situation in each state in order to promote the well
being of adolescent girls in India.
Rajiv Gandhi Drinking Water Mission, 2003
This programme aimed at providing safe drinking water and sanitation
facilities in all schools in India. The adolescent boys and girls were the major
beneficiaries of this programme.
21
The Ministries of Youth Affairs and Sports, Social Justice and
Empowerment, Human Resource Development, Rural Development and so on also
launched several programmes for the betterment of the living standard of the youth
including adolescent in India.
The Nehru Yuva Kendras established health
awareness units to generate awareness educate and adopt health and family welfare
programmes among the masses including adolescents throughout the country.
Youth organizations were established in order to effectively implement the youth
welfare programmes through Nehru Yuva Kendras. Youth coordinators were also
appointed all over the country to implement youth welfare programmes including
scholarships and hostels for rural and tribal adolescents.
The Mahila Samakhya Programme also catered to the educational, health
and developmental needs of the adolescent girls and young women all over the
country. Under this programme Mahila Shikshan Kendras (women educational
centres) were established in Kamataka, Gujarat, Utter Pradesh, Andra Pradesh,
Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Assam and other states of Indian Republic. The Kishori
Melas and other educational programmes were also organized to create
opportunities for education and self development of adolescent girls in the country.
The adolescents also formed a part of National Literacy Mission and Sarva Shiksha
Abiyan which sought to adopt a mission mode toward the objective of providing
quality centered elementary education to children between 6 to 14 years of age. The
Department of Health also launched a series of educational and health programmes
for the youth including the adolescents.
The Department of Rural Development also launched several programmes
called Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM), Jawahar Rojgar
Yojana (JRY), Prime Minister's Rojgar Yojana (PMRY), Swama Jayanthi
Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY), etc., to provide vocational training and create
employment opportunities for the benefit of rural and tribal youth including the
adolescents.
The U.N. report on 'Adolescents in India (2005) states: "Although many
programmes improving the lives of women and children overlap to include
adolescents, few are geared exclusively to a group that India is even reluctant to
identify. But the specific needs of adolescent girls persist, particularly if they are
not recognized. These issues spawn a wide spectrum from nutrition necessities, to
22
maternal mortality, STDs, drug abuse, sanitation and employment opportunities".
The report identifies roadblocks that must be navigated from adolescents
development point of view.
The social immobility, economic backwardness, lack of vocational
*
education and inadequate employment guarantee programmes have made the rural
and tribal adolescents weak and vulnerable. Proper social, educational, economic
and cultural promotion activities with a special focus on adolescents in India are
not implemented especially in the post-independence era. It is because of this sorry
state of affairs that the adolescents in India have no major say in the economic,
political and ritual activities. Poverty plays an important role in Indian society at
every stage. The Constitutional safeguards for the empowerment of youth in India
are not properly implemented and monitored. The welfare and development of
adolescents in India should be viewed at not merely in terms of material needs but
equally or even more so in relation to non-material needs such as the right to live
with human dignity, self respect, equality and freedom. A large majority of the
adolescents in India belong to Below the Poverty Line even now.
There is no
scientific and systematic evaluation of developmental programmes implemented by
the government for the benefit of adolescents. In spite of the implementation of
various welfare and development programmes during the last six decades, a wide
gap exists in the conditions of backward and forward sections of adults in Indian
society. In the age of liberalization, privatization, and globalization, the youth in
general and adolescents in particular have become the worst victims of
circumstances socially and economically.
1.5 Behavior and Adjustment Patterns of Adolescents
Several factors are associated with the behaviour and adjustment patterns of
adolescents. The adolescents also come across several experiences that affect their
behavior and adjustment patterns. Cross-cultural studies have also revealed that
genetic, social, economic, political and environmental factors have considerable
influence in the behavior and adjustment patterns of the adolescents. Adjustment is
defined as a continuous process of maintaining harmony among the attributes of
individuals and the environmental conditions which surround them. It involves the
23
fulfillment of potential for personality and socially approved life styles and
behavioral patterns.
Adjustment implies the attainment of a more favourable
relationship with one's environment.
Adjustment is nothing but the ability of an
individual to select appropriate and effective measures to meet the demands of the
environment while maintaining a healthy attitude toward the changing
circumstances.
According to Lester and Crow (1965) "Adjustment can be defined as a
satisfactory relation of an organism with his environment which consists of all
surrounding forces which may influence the organism in its effectors toward
maintenance". Thus, adjustment is a process through which the organism moulds
itself in response to the conditions it faces. Eric Erikson (1968) states that the
ability to accommodate oneself to changing circumstances is a mark of maturity
and that the adolescents are required to meet the demands of the environment by
maintaining a healthy attitude towards the circumstances.
1.5.1 Genetic Factor
Genetic factors such as hormones and brain structure influence the human
behavior and adjustment patterns. The genes determine the inherited characteristics.
The DNA carries the program that tells each cell in the body what specific
functions it will perform and how it will perform them. This program is unique for
every human being. The genes do not have programs for specifying the personality
traits of adolescents and other human beings but they control the development of
the nervous and endocrine systems which in turn control human behavioral and
adjustment patterns.
Therefore, the genes have a definite role in influencing
human behavior. In human chromosomes, there are six billion base pairs of DNA.
Of the six billion, only six million of them are different between individuals. That
means 99.99 percent of the base pairs of DNA are shared and identical in each and
every person. Each individual has enough genetic differences which make him/her
different from others.
Each individual has the same genetic information which remains stable
throughout life. Mendel conducted a life long experiment on the role of genes and
his findings are well known throughout the world as the law of dominant
inheritance. Mendel also proved that hereditary traits are transmitted as separate
24
units. Scientists have analysed the sex-linked inheritance. The genetic picture in
humans is far more complex than Mendel observed. Scientists have also discovered
genetic imprinting, a process that contradicts one aspect of Mendel's theory-that
genes from each parent behave the same way. Research in behavioral genetics has
supported the idea that personality is partly inherited. Many studies have also
revealed that there is a strong genetic influence on differences between individuals
within a group. Thus, genetic factors play a major part in the formation of human
personality in general and influencing the behavior and adjustment patterns of
adolescents in particular.
1.5.2 Social Factor
Social status is a broad term which includes the class, caste, occupation,
education and living standard of the parents of adolescents. Leelavathi (1987)
states : "All these features play a very important role in shaping an adolescent's
personality". Kelly (1951) defines : "The term 'status' also means the recognition
value attributed to an individual by his group relations in any given society".
According to Mac Iver and Page (1937) social status, therefore, is an indication of
one's position of respect, prestige and influence in the social structure.
Ogbum and Nimcoff (1960) and Mac Iver and Page (1937) observe that
social status is the result of the ranking of a role by the group that determines for
his possessions of a degree of respect, prestige and influence.
Mussen, Conger
and Kagan (1963) opined that social status is the ancient power and privileges of
the family bestowing prestige, authority and power. Hurlock (1981) observes:
"Social person is one who conforms to the three criteria of society development. He
should behave in approved manner, play the role which society prescribes for him
and possess favorable attitudes towards people and society activities". In reality,
the social adjustment implies a relatively broad base of operations.
1.5.3 Economic Factor
Drever (1964) states: "The word 'Economic Status' is used generally for the
motives involving earning livelihood, the accumulation of wealth and the like".
According to Springer (1928), the economic endeavor entails cherishing of things
25
\-
because of their material value and the pursuer, by virtue of this activity, carves for
himself a place in society recognized as economic status. Thus economic status
stratifies modem population according to the amount and source of income which
is usually derived from a set of occupational activities, the ownership of property or
both.
Sharada Patil (1993) opines: "The adolescent development is consistent
with the economic status of the family and is primarily based on the circumstances
and the situations of the family living. Though many factors in the family living
contribute to adolescent's aspirations, the dominant factors are economic status of
the family. The economic status in the form of facilities provided at home to the
adolescents primarily influences the behavior and adjustment patterns of the
adolescents. In addition to the economic status, the family influences not only the
interest of adolescents but also the shape that these interests will take".
Bharadwaj (2001) states: "The socio-economic status is obviously a
blending of the two statuses, though none of the two can without each other yet
they are distinctively different. Socio-economic status appears to be the results of
the position of an individual in a society by virtue of a complex fusion of both of
them. Socio economic status would therefore be a ranking of an individual by the
society he lives in, in terms of his material belongings and cultural possessions
along with the degree of respect, power and influence he wields". Sharma (1995)
reports that the socio-economic status influences values that people hold as well as
their order of prominence which are important influences both in work as well as in
other fields of life.
Many researchers also have studied the social and economic influences on
the adjustment and behavior patterns of the adolescents in different parts of the
world. They have observed that the adolescents of lower socio-economic status
resisted adjustment and behavior changes while the adolescents of higher socioeconomic status were more eager to adapt themselves to the environmental changes
and demands. Thus, social and economic status of the adolescents have a definite
bearing on the behavior and adjustment patters of the adolescents.
26
1.5.4 Political Factor
The political system of a country also primarily decides the state of human
resources development.
Political will is a must to formulate policies, design
developmental projects and implement developmental programmes that would
benefit the mankind in general and adolescents in particular. The Constitutional
safeguards, governmental programmes, initiatives of non-governmental agencies
and intervention of educational and media organizations would go a long way in
improving the status of adolescents and other sections of the society. Adolescents'
personality development is primarily dependent on political system and influences
within the society. The elected representatives and bureaucrats are also required to
assume the role of angel guardians of public interest including the adolescents who
constitute a sizeable population of the society.
Healthy and constructive debates
and discussions are also required in the Parliament and society in order to safeguard
the interest of adolescents. The political climate and status of the adolescents have
a positive impact on the behavioral and adjustment patterns of the adolescents.
Empirical evidences suggest that in Communist countries the adolescents
developed positive, constructive and healthy behavior and adjustment patterns as
compared to the adolescents of free society and dictatorial regime.
1.5.5 Environmental Factor
The behavior and adjustment patterns of the adolescents depend on more
than one environmental factor. Genetic and environmental factors interact to
influence the development of human personality among the adolescents. There is a
correlation between the child's inherited characteristics and environmental factors.
Environmental influences outside the family such as educational institutions,
religious organizations, social agencies, political parties, media organizations,
cultural institutions and other agencies play an important role in the attitude
formation and behavior pattern development among the adolescents. Mass media
which are known as informal centers of learning also feed, guide and lead the
mankind intellectually. These media organizations are also part and parcel of
outside environment which contribute decisively toward personality development
of adolescents.
27
Adolescents' personality development is dependent on multi-dimensional
influences within and outside the home. Komala (1996) observes: "Environmental
conditions and situations set the state for the kinds of experiences which help or
hinder the development and adjustment of the adolescents. The attitudes, behaviors,
habits, degree of emotional control and self understanding and kinds of personalsocial relationships that are carried over from childhood to or through the
adolescent period determine greatly the extent to which teen age experiences result
in the development of well adjusted or mal adjusted life patterns".
An adolescent's social adjustment reflects the influence of his experience on
him in the more specific adjustment areas, but goes beyond them as the adolescent
attempts to respond to the entire human inter relationships by which he is
constantly and consistently situated.
Adjustment is equated with conformity to
these behavior patterns. The adjustive situation of the adolescents is indeed a
peculiar and distinctive nature since they pass through a period of rapid transition
that affect them socially, economically, politically and environmentally.
As a
matter of fact, the attitudes, behavior patterns, emotional control, selfunderstanding and personal-social relationship are carried over from childhood to
adolescent period.
The childhood and adolescence experiences result in the
cultivation of positive and negative behaviour and adjustment patterns of the
individuals all through their lives.
Adjustment has been considered as an index to social integration, a
harmonious behavior of the individuals by which other members of the society
consider that the particular person is well adjusted to a given social environment.
Adjustment broadly refers to the smooth relationship between the individual and
environment and interacting in a harmonious way with the world in which he/she
lives. The adolescents should be educated, organized, guided and led toward
cultivation of healthy behavior and adjustment patterns.
The parents, teachers, friends, philosophers, philanthropists, policy makers,
administrators, researchers and others are mainly responsible for the inculcation of
values, attitudes, behavior patterns and adjustment patterns of the adolescents in the
modem society.
The adolescents demand multi-faceted moral, emotional and
material support from all these sources in order to cope with the changing times
and environmental demands. The adolescents cannot be let down by these people
28
who are supposed to be the angel guardians of the adolescents in the modem
society.
The adjustment and behavior patterns of the adolescents should be
cautiously and constantly monitored in order to make the adolescents more
disciplined, responsible and progressive. Thus, the influence of genetic, social,
economic, political and environmental factors on the behavioral and adjustment
patterns of the adolescents demand proper understanding, appreciation and
evaluation all over the world.
1.6
Significance of the Study
The welfare and development of adolescents determine to a large extent the
course of country's national progress and future. Adolescents constitute nearly one
fifth of the total population of India according to Census Report - 2001. According
to the UN 'Adolescents in India', adolescents in the age group of 10 - 19 years of
age constitute 21.4 % of India's billion person population. The UN report has
focused primarily on the status, problems and prospects of adolescents in India.
The Constitution of India also deals with the welfare and development of youth
including adolescents in terms of several protective and welfare measures.
The Directive Principles of State Policy lays emphasis on child
development, welfare of adolescents and progress of youth. Articles 15,
21,23,24,39,42,45,46 and 47 ensure the welfare and progress of Indian adolescents
and youth in particular. There are several national policies and action plans which
aim at the development of adolescents in India. Prominent among them includeNational Nutrition Policy 1983, National Policy on Education 1986 (modified in
1992), National Health Policy 1999, Draft National AIDS Policy 2000, National
Population Policy 2000, National Policy for the Empowerment of Women 2001,
Draft National Youth Policy 2001, Specific Programmes for Adolescents, The
Adolescent Girls Scheme (Kishori Shakthi Yojana) 2003, The Rajiv Gandhi
Drinking Water Mission 2003 and so on. Besides these, there are host of laws,
legislations and programs which have beneficial provisions for the welfare and
progress of adolescents in India.
The condition of adolescents in India has improved considerably over the
years in the post-independence era mainly due to several policy commitments made
29
by the government at various levels. Basic educational and health amenities are
also enhanced in urban and rural areas. Resource allocations however remain quite
inadequate to take care of the welfare and developmental needs of the adolescents.
The age specific mortality rates have declined in the age group of 10 -19 years. It is
estimated that about 50 percent of adolescents in India are educationally and
economically under-privileged. There are adolescents who are particularly
disadvantaged because of their low socio-economic status in urban and rural areas.
Studies are conducted on various aspects of adolescence in India and abroad. New
disciplines called development psychology, development education, development
communication, development administration, development management, human
development and so on have come into existence over the years all over the globe.
Various professional organizations have also come into existence in order to
achieve the development of adolescents. Professional journals have also devoted
considerable space and time for the discussion and evaluation of the problems and
prospects of adolescents. Empirical studies are also conducted on socio-economic
influence, behavior and adjustment patterns, problems of adolescents, age at
maturation, gender differences, parent-adolescents relationship, peer-adolescent
relationship, family environment, educational environment, environment-centered
stress and other factors associated with the welfare and development of adolescents
in India and abroad. A brief introduction to these prominent factors is as follows.
Socio-Economic Influence
'Status' is nothing but the recognition given to an individual by the society.
Socio-economic status is a broad term which includes the infrastructural facilities,
availability of civic amenities, sources of income generation, occupational patterns,
economic status, educational status and living standards of the family concerned.
The economic endeavor entails cherishing of things because of their material value
and the pursuer. By virtue of the resources and opportunities, an individual carves
for himself a place in society which is duly recognized as economic status. Thus
economic status stratifies modem population according to the amount and source of
income which is usually derived from a set of occupational activities, the
30
ownership of property or both. All these factors play a very important role in
defining the status of the members of a particular family in the society.
Socio-economic status has a definite impact on the personality of the
adolescents. The members of the family are accorded a degree of respect, prestige
and influence in the society by taking into account these social and economic
factors. Socio-economic status, therefore, is an indication of one's position of
respect, prestige and influence in a given social structure. The socio-economic
status is obviously a deciding factor as far as the behavior and adjustment patterns
of the adolescents are concerned. The adolescents who are blessed with a better
socio-economic status are bound to grow well educationally and otherwise as
compared to their counterparts who are socially and economically under-privileged.
The adolescence can also develop better behavioral and adjustment patterns if they
are free from personal, social and economic constraints.
Behavior and Adjustment Patterns
Adolescence
is
a
period
marked
by
significant
psycho-social
transformations that occur amid rapid pubertal growth including identity formation,
individuation from parents and the establishment of intimate friendships. Tension is
normative as the individual traverses these changes. All of the developmental
changes that adolescents experience prepare them to experiment with new
behaviors and cope with new challenges and opportunities. The environment
consists of all surrounding forces which may influence the organism in its efforts
toward maintenance. Thus adjustment is a process through which the organism
moulds itself in response to the environmental conditions it faces. From
psychological point of view adjustment is defined as a process of need reduction.
Every living organism develops needs which must be satisfied by interaction with
the environment. A person normally faces obstacles in the process of need
satisfaction due to several factors and circumstances.
However, adolescents are at risk for behavior and adjustment difficulties if
developmental changes are accompanied by an accumulation of various stresses
and complexities spanning multiple spheres of the adolescent's life. Behavior is a
set of human conduct and actions in a specified manner by analysis of stimulus and
31
response. Adjustment has been considered as an index to interrogation. Adjustment
is directly connected with needs and problems of life and refers to the behavioral
pattern through which those needs are satisfied or problems are solved habitually in
a social environment.
Adjustment is a popular term used in variety of contexts. It connotes the
management of appropriate behavior patterns in relation to environmental changes,
needs and demands. Adjustment also implies establishing satisfactory relations
with the environment. It is achieved through trial and error efforts which is a
continuous and life long process in the lives of all individuals. Adolescent is a
period when the child moves from dependency to autonomy. It is a period
demanding significant adjustment to the physical and social changes which
distinguish childhood behavior from adult behavior. Adolescence is also a critical
stage which poses many challenges and threats. Sexual maturity, mental maturity,
emotional maturity and social maturity are achieved through appropriate education,
guidance and counseling. Attainment of behavior and adjustment patterns varies
fi-om individual to individual, family to family, culture to culture and environment
to environment as a matter of fact.
The process of adjustment is a continuous one which demands proper
understanding and decision making on the part of adolescents. Behavior and
adjustment are mutually dependent factors. Adjustment implies the attainment of a
more favorable relationship with one's environment. It does not necessarily mean
the attainment of a static condition, contentment or peace of mind. It is nothing but
a conscious, continuous and constant attempt made by an individual to maintain
cordial relationship with other members of the family and society. Adjustment is
the ability to select appropriate and effective measures to meet the demands of the
environment while maintaining a healthy attitude toward the circumstances. The
psychological adjustment of teenagers during the normative family transformations
of adolescence is well investigated and understood.
The future research on
transformations in family relationships during adolescence needs to be carried out
consistently.
32
Problems of Adolescents
Adolescence is a complex period with its developmental maturity. The
developmental changes that occurs in adolescence cause varying degree of
disturbances and certain new problems which center around the biological,
emotional and environmental aspects of the adolescent's personality. The
adolescents are bound to face a number of crises and challenges of behavior and
adjustment processes. A vast majority of the adolescents undergo physical and
emotional trauma which are associated with distress and victimization regardless of
their status and environment. There are various kinds of behavior and adjustment
problems encountered by the adolescents with parents, siblings, peers, friends,
teachers and other members of the society. There are numerous manifestations of
the severity and breadth of the problems besetting adolescents, families,
educational institutions, governments and communities.
Adolescents also face several problems while trying to build successful
personal, family and community lives since they live in a so called 'problem age'.
The teen years represent a period in an individual's life of finding several problems
in relation to developing suitable behavior and adjustment problems mainly due to
lack of care, maturity, guidance, counseling and supportive opportunities and
resources. The physical and psychological characteristics of adolescents and the
nature of developmental tasks which they are expected to perform also pose certain
challenges and problems of behavior and adjustment.
The ecology of human development is composed of multiple levels of
organization,
including the biological, psychological, social, educational,
economic, cultural and environmental. There are ubiquitous individual differences
in adolescent
development
which are related
to biological, cognitive,
psychological, and socio-cultural factors. When multiple biological, psychological,
cognitive, and social changes of adolescence occur simultaneously, there is a great
risk of behavior and adjustment problems occurring in the personality of
adolescents. The most optimal behavior and adjustment patterns occur among
adolescents who are properly encouraged by their parents, siblings, peers, friends,
teachers and other well wishers in the environment.
33
Age at Maturation
The period of adolescence is marked by puberty. Researchers of human
development have consistently observed that the adolescent life is a time of
dramatic change; a period of rapid physical growth, endocrine (hormonal) changes;
cognitive development and increasing analytic capability: emotional growth, a time
of self exploration and increasing independence and active participation in a more
complex modem environment. Adolescence continues to be seen as a period of
time encompassing difficult developmental challenges. Research has found that
early maturating boys tend to be more relaxed, good natured, popular with peers,
and likely to be leaders and less affected and impulsive than late maturers. Boys
who mature early also fare better than the late bloomers. They are taller and more
muscular than their age mates. They are found to be more confident, popular and
successful both in the class room and on the playing field. In contrast, late maturing
boys have a poorer self image, educational aspirations, expectations and school
performance Late maturers are found to feel more inadequate, dependent, rejected,
insecure and dominated. They are also found to be more aggressive and rebel
against their parents and other members of the society. An early maturer is likely to
be given more responsibility by adults than a late maturer.
Experience reveals that the early onset of puberty can have an adverse effect
on the girls' personality development. They tend to be shorter and heavier because
of attainment of early puberty. Early maturing adolescent girls appear to be at risk
for sexual victimization. Early maturing girls tend to be less socially active,
communicative, negative and more introverted and shy. They are also likely to have
a poor body image and lower self-esteem than later maturing girls. Parents and
teachers may assume that girls with physically mature bodies are sexually active.
Adults also may treat an early maturing girl more disapprovingly than they treat
less developed girls. Research has also revealed that early maturing girls make
better adjustments in adulthood than late maturers.
Gender Differences
The existence of pervasive gender role stereotyping and its effects on
human beings are investigated in different parts of the world. There are basic
gender differences which affect the individual identity. The concept may have some
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pan-cultural universality but gender based social relationships continue to exist in
adolescents in modem society. The adolescent experience is not the same for
females as it is for males in regard to biological development or emotional
developments. Investigations have dealt with gender issues in adolescence all over
the world. Research reveals many important gender based differences with respect
to behavior and adjustment patterns of adolescents.
Adolescent girls experience considerably differing social worlds within the
family and larger social context. Adolescent girls experience many inconveniences
such as depression, poor body image, eating disorders, lower self-esteem, lack of
self confidence and so on. The passage to womanhood for adolescent girls is often
a journey toward silence and disconnection. Adolescent girls also seem to be
influenced by conventional thought that women should be concerned about others
at all costs. There are differences between the sexes in the struggle to define
identity within the family and society. Adolescent girls have more problems than
boys. Boys and girls face different challenges and have different emotional needs
during adolescence. Adolescent girls are usually found to be nurturers while
adolescent boys are more assertive. Adolescent girls also face the additional
developmental tasks more so than adolescent boys. Adolescent girls need to learn
to express anger and to be more assertive while adolescent boys need to learn to be
more cooperative and express emotions in a proper way.
Parent-Adolescents Relationship
One of the most significant and intimate relationships among humans is that
between parent and child. The parent-child bond is unique both in its biological
foundations and in the psychological meanings. Healthy parent-adolescent bondage
actually ensures the survival and progress of the adolescents. It also provides a
frame work within which the child may find roots, continuity and a sense of
belongingness. 'Fathering' is an important feature of socialization and 'Mothering'
symbolizes emotional support, inter personnel sensitivity and patronage. The loving
and accepting parents provide a congenial atmosphere for the adolescents to
exercise their potentials, develop their capabilities and make their destinies in a
meaningful way. Considerable research has focused on the parent-adolescent
relationship all over the world. Research also revealed that the parent-child
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relationship may change during the adolescent years. There has been increased
interest in patterns of adolescent - parent relationships including adolescent parent conflict and conflict resolution.
The quality of an adolescent's relationship with their parents is a key
component to healthy adolescent development. Secure bonds between parents and
their adolescent children allow young people the freedom to grow and explore.
Parents' expectations and parent's experience of their children's transition to
adolescence and their feeling about this developmental transition are also
systematically investigated by the behavioral scientists. Considerable research has
focused on changes in the parent-child relationship across the period of
adolescence. The amount of time that children spend with parents decreases quite
dramatically during the adolescent years. The emotional closeness with parents also
tends to decrease. The conflict between parents and adolescents seem to increase
during early adolescence and then decrease by late adolescence.
Environmental Stress
The term 'stress' refers to a situation that causes people to react in a
particular way. A stress situation is one where extreme changes in temperature
occur and that noxious substances are injected into the body. Stress also reflects the
physical, social and cultural conditions likely to be discomforting for most people
living within a specified group. Stress situations might include inter-personal
conflicts, group clashes, social conflicts, battle conditions, rapid economic change,
a difficult but important life situation, intense competition, loss of a beloved one,
natural disasters, acute illness or injuries, failures and so on. Stress has also been
generally defined as an external force or situation that acts upon an individual
which may result in unhealthy behavior and reactions. Stress is also the state
manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the non-specifically
involved changes within the biological system. Adolescence is indeed, a period of
'storm and stress'. There is no exact measure that will compare the stresses of an
adolescent which are conspicuous signs of tension in adolescents.
The lengthiness of adolescence, the myriad changes, the uncertainty about
the future, the anxiety over choices and other real life situations also bring about
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stressful conditions and period to tiie adolescents. Family centered changes and
developments such as divorce, illness or death also bring about stressful thoughts
and reactions among the adolescents. They also tend to be impacted as a result of
the parent's stress. The parents are required to avoid such stressful impact on their
children who are keenly in tune with everything that occurs in their home
environment.
Adolescents experience environmental stress symptoms such as excessive
crying, withdrawal, aggression or regression. Some of the key physical symptoms
such as insomnia or excessive sleep, eating or weight disorders, restlessness or
fatigue, muscle twitching, nail biting, nightmares, stuttering or stammering and
difficulty in concentrating on academic and developmental tasks are found among
the adolescents. Behavior symptoms such as regression, failure in school, cruelty to
animals or people, stealing, running away, destroying things, lying or cheating,
excessive day dreaming, perfectionism, drug abuse, juvenile deVmquency, sexual
misconduct and so on are also found among the adolescents. Relational and self
esteem symptoms such as withdrawal or unwilling to try, feeling of hopelessness,
making unhealthy attempts, excessive fears, loss of friends, avoiding people, acting
in an irresponsible way, maintaining distance from the mainstream of life and so
on.
The behavior and adjustment patterns of adolescents are widely debated and
evaluated all over the world. Several commissions, groups and individuals have
examined the factors associated with the welfare and development of adolescents in
India and elsewhere. The state of affairs pertaining to adolescents varies from
culture to culture, environment to environment and country to country. In India and
other countries, the situation is different due to social, educational, economic,
political, cultural and environmental factors. The parents, teachers, policy makers,
implementers and others have attracted serious criticism for their irresponsibility
toward the welfare and development of adolescents. Studies have also revealed that
all is not well as far as adolescents in India and abroad are concerned. Adolescents
have also become victims of circumstances especially in a developing country like
India. They are subjected to series of disorders and diseases mainly due to lack of
care, guidance and counseling. Prominent among the behavioral and adjustment
problems of adolescents include- unhealthy food habits, unhealthy dietary patterns,
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eating disorders, reduction of reading iiabits, drug addiction, juvenile delinquency,
sexual misconduct, aggressiveness, neuroticism, desensitization, gullibility,
indiscipline, indecency, violence, rebelliousness, high risk behavior, attention
deficit, mental stress, unhealthy life styles, strained human relations, suicidal
tendencies, moral bankruptcy, low self-esteem, poor body image, lack of
interaction with parents and siblings, disruption of societal institutions, anti-social
activities, displacement of healthy activities and so on.
There is also strong evidence that constructive parental and teacher support,
guidance and counseling would help adolescents cultivate reading habits, acquire
cognitive skills, improve vocabulary, develop communication skills, emulate role
models, cultivate pro-social behaviors, increase good mannerisms, maintain cordial
human relations, enrich problem solving ability, enhance academic competence,
gain social identity, earn leadership qualities and grow as healthy citizens of the
society. A substantial amount of research has been done and a considerable body of
knowledge has accumulated concerning the behavioral and adjustment problems of
adolescents in particular and growth and development of adolescents in general.
The extent to which one ought to be concerned about the welfare and development
of adolescents is duly emphasized in the findings and. recommendations of the
studies conducted by various researchers all over the world. We need to know more
about what factors influence the personality of adolescents, what preventive
measures are effective in preventing the unhealthy behavioral patterns of
adolescents and what kind of healthy practices are required to improve the
behavioral and adjustment patterns of adolescents in future.
Sustainable adolescent development is the need of the hour and that the
intervention of parents, teachers, policy makers, practitioners, bureaucrats and
researchers should be properly planned and executed in order to promote healthy
behavioral and adjustment patterns of the adolescents and develop their personality.
Present generation of scholars have developed this line of thinking in series of
investigations that demonstrate the factors associated with the personality of
adolescents in particular. Few researchers in India have assessed the role of parents,
teachers, siblings, peers and others in the personality of adolescents. The major
deficiency observed in their works is the lack of emphasis on enrichment of
behavior and adjustment patterns of adolescents in Indian society as a whole.
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Couple of investigations is conducted in Kamataka State and other parts of Indian
Republic on quite a few aspects of behavioral and adjustment patterns of
adolescents.
Adequate investigations are not made on multi-dimensional aspects of
behavioral and adjustment patterns of adolescents in Kamataka State or any other
part of the country. Further, past studies did not indicate the factors and methods
contributing to the enrichment of behavior and adjustment patterns of adolescents
in modem society. Hence, it was decided to study the influence of socio-economic
factors on the behavior and adjustment pattern of adolescents in Mysore City which
is well known as the academic and cultural capital of Kamataka State. The primary
tasks of the present study were concemed with identifying a reasonably
representative sample of urban and rural adolescents, adolescent boys and girls; and
adolescents of government and private colleges of Mysore city so as to assess the
existing state of affairs regarding the behavior and adjustment patterns. Hence, the
problem "Influence of Socio-Economic Factors on the Behavior and Adjustment
Pattems of Adolescents" was chosen for the present study.
1.7 Statement of the Problem
Adolescents are very important section of mankind who continue to be
omnipresent in society across time and space. Adolescence has also emerged as an
important area of study in social sciences including human development. There is a
striking absence of investigation about the behavior and adjustment patterns which
are associated with the personality of adolescents especially in a developing
country like India. Social scientists and development psychologists are primarily
concemed with understanding the status, problems and prospects of adolescents.
Although our knowledge is limited, policy makers, educationists, practitioners,
implementers, parents and others can use the research findings to understand what
ails adolescent development and find out appropriate remedial measures for the
enrichment of the overall personality of the adolescents.
The behavior and adjustment pattems of the adolescents are not subjected to
comprehensive and scientific research in Kamataka State and other parts of the
country even though it is a very important area of human development research. A
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planned, deliberate, systematic and sustainable study on the behavior and
adjustment patterns of adolescents would put the search light on the existing state
of development of adolescents' personality and alerts the policy makers,
educationists, practitioners, implementers, parents and others interested in the
development of adolescents regarding the preventive, corrective and promotional
measures.
There is a growing recognition all over the world including India about the
crucial role of family, educational institutions, media organizations, health
institutions,
philanthropic
societies,
cultural
organizations,
research
and
development organizations in adolescents' personality development. A synthesis of
the available literature suggests that both societal and governmental intervention
for adolescent development with special reference to Kamataka State suffers from
series of limitations. Therefore, the problem "Influence of Socio-Economic Factors
on the Behavior and Adjustment Patterns of Adolescents" was chosen for the
present study. This subject was primarily considered for the present investigation
because:
a. Human Resources Development has become an important aspect of
national development in the present times especially in all developing
countries including India.
b. Empowerment of adolescents has become an important area of research
all over the world.
c. Personality of adolescents cannot remain as a neglected sector of
national development.
d. Large numbers of adolescents are primarily subjected to behavior and
adjustment related problems and threats.
e. A scientific and systematic evaluation of behavior and adjustment
patterns of adolescents would effectively address the protection, welfare
and developmental needs of adolescents.
Therefore, it is essential to have a vision backed up by scientific research
action which would improve the status of adolescents in a developing state like
Kamataka. To raise the efficiency of the welfare and developmental services of
adolescents, their present attitudes, behaviors, adjustment patterns and personalities
should be properly assessed. In the absence of suitable scientific research support,
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it would be difficult to achieve the goal of adolescent development. The present
study, was therefore designed to cover all these dimensions and make it a worthy
research endeavor.
1.8 Objectives of the Study
With the influence of socio-economic factors on the behaviour and adjustment
patterns of adolescents being the thrust area, the research proposes to:
1. Assess the relationship between the socio-economic factors and behavior
and adjustment patterns of adolescents,
2. Examine the effect of gender and age of maturation on the behavior and
adjustment patterns of adolescents,
3. Analyse the parent-adolescents' relationship and its influence on behavior
and adjustment patterns of adolescents,
4. Evaluate the relationship between environmental stress factors and
behavior and adjustment patterns of adolescents; and
5. Suggest appropriate measures for the enrichment of the behavior and
adjustment patterns of adolescents.
1.9 Scope and Presentation of the Study
The present study attempts to examine the influence of socio-economic
factors on the behavior and adjustment patterns of adolescents in Mysore city of
Kamataka State.
There is in adequate scientific, systematic and sustainable
research support especially to enrich the behavior and adjustment patterns of
adolescents in general and promote the healthy personality of adolescents in
particular. The present study was also conducted with a view to understand the
factors such as socio-economic status, gender, age of maturation, parentadolescents relationship and environmental stresses which are fiindamentally
associated with the behavior and adjustment patterns of adolescents on the one
hand and overall personality of the adolescents on the other hand. The outcomes of
the present study would help the policy makers, educationists, practitioners.
41
implementers, parents and others to identify appropriate measures for promoting
healthy personality of adolescents in Kamataka State and elsewhere.
The first chapter deals with the introduction wherein the salient features of
the study such as concept of adolescence, significance of adolescence, scientific
study of adolescence, state of adolescents in India, behavior and adjustment
patterns of adolescents, significance of the study, statement of the problem and
objectives of the study are furnished.
The second chapter namely-review of literature presents various studies
conducted in India and abroad on adolescents under different headings such as
socio-economic influence, behavior and adjustment patterns, problems of
adolescents, age at maturation, gender differences, parent-adolescents relationship,
peer-adolescent relationship, family environment, educational environment and
environmental stress.
The third chapter namely-research methodology deals with the research
questions, study variables, profile of Mysore City, selection of sample, research
design, development of tools, primary data collection, secondary data collection,
computation of data, statistical analysis, limitations of the study and definitions of
the terms used in the study.
The fourth chapter namely-results and discussion presents the results of the
study on the influence of socio-economic factors on the behavior and adjustment
patterns of adolescents under different headings such as demographic features of
the adolescents, socio-economic status of the adolescents, behavior and adjustment
patterns of the adolescents, age at maturation of the adolescents, parent-adolescent
relationship, academic achievement of the adolescents and environmental stress on
adolescents. The fifth chapter namely conclusion-summarizes the findings of the
study with a brief resume and implications of the findings. The last chapter
indicates the bibliography, questionnaires and appendices.
1.10 Summary
The development of adolescents assumes profound significance in a
developing country like India. Adolescence is considered as a very crucial stage of
human development. In fact, adolescence is threatened by several social.
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educational, economic, political, psychological, cultural and environmental factors
and forces. Societal and governmental intervention for adolescent development has
become a highly challenging task of our times. The founding fathers of Indian
Constitution had accorded a place of pride for the development of youth including
adolescents. Several Constitutional safeguards and protective measures were
guaranteed for the welfare and development of adolescents in India. After
independence, various welfare programs have been devised and implemented for
the uplift of the adolescents who are the future nation builders of India. These
measures have not disseminated significant benefits for the adolescents in India due
to lack of political will, social activism, community participation, media
intervention, research support and so on. Practically, all developing countries have
accepted human resources development as an integral part of national development
planning.
Several factors such as socio-economic influence, background of
adolescents, age at maturation, gender differences, parent-adolescents relationship,
peer-adolescent relationship, family environment, educational environment and
environmental stress impact the behavior and adjustment patterns of adolescents.
The role of family, society and government in the personality of adolescents in
general and cultivation of behavior and adjustment patterns among adolescents in
particular are subjected to scientific investigation all over the world. Evaluations
dealing exclusively with the socio-economic influences on the behavior and
adjustment patterns of adolescents in Mysore City and Kamataka State are scanty
as seen through the paucity of literature. The influence of socio-economic factors
on behavior and adjustment patterns of the adolescents in Mysore City is chiefly
examined in the present study.
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