Geomorphology 102 (2008) 93–104
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Geomorphology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / g e o m o r p h
Morphometric and geomorphic approaches for assessment of tectonic activity, Dead
Sea Rift (Israel)
Nurit Shtober-Zisu a,d,⁎, Noam Greenbaum b,c, Moshe Inbar b, Akiva Flexer d
a
Department of Israel Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa, 31905, Israel
Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa, 31905, Israel
Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Management, University of Haifa, Haifa, 31905, Israel
d
Department of Geophysics and Planetary Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, 69978, Israel
b
c
A R T I C L E
I N F O
Article history:
Received 30 January 2006
Received in revised form 6 March 2007
Accepted 25 June 2007
Available online 26 March 2008
Keywords:
Mountain front
Slope channels
Morphometric analysis
Marginal faults
Dead Sea rift
Hula valley
A B S T R A C T
A series of 31 short, parallel, steep channels, mostly of first or second order, occur at intervals of 300–500 m
along 16 km of the western margin of the northern Dead Sea Rift (Israel). The analysis of tectonic and
geometric activity along the marginal faults between the various segments is based on morphometric
parameters, such as sinuosity of the mountain front, channel gradients, drainage basin elongation ratio,
planimetric ratio, facet areas, hypsometric curves, and integrals. Longitudinal profiles of the channels were
studied in relation to the underlying lithology and the presence of marginal faults. Despite the great
differences in climatic and geomorphologic settings, comparison with other studies worldwide showed
morphometric values similar to other tectonically active regions.
The southern segments of the study area, which face the Hula deep depression, indicate enhanced
geomorphic and tectonic activity. The northern segment proved dissimilar to the others, and is explained by
its different tectonic setting.
Six sedimentary, fan-like units composed of polymictic conglomerates were deposited along the mountain
piedmont at the channel mouths. The units were dated by OSL, K–Ar, and archaeology to b1.1 Ma (Q1 and Q1–1),
b 0.56 Ma (Unit Q2), ~ 120 ka (Unit Q3), and b 10 ka (Units Q4 and Q5). The morphology and structure of the
sedimentary units indicate pulses of depositional activity, followed by periods of quiescence and calcicsoil development. No major faulting occurred along the Naftali escarpment during the Upper Pleistocene,
despite the high tectonic morphometric values obtained for the study area. The marginal faults displaced
Unit Q2 during the Mid-Pleistocene, and since then tectonic activity has shifted from the western marginal
faults eastward to younger faults deeply buried in the center of the graben. The field data calibrate the
morphometric analysis: carbonate (limestone and dolomite) hillslopes developed in the Mediterranean
climate have maintained ‘active tectonic class’ morphology since the last major faulting events during the MidPleistocene.
© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
During the Oligocene and Miocene, northern Israel was part of a
wide peneplain dipping slightly westward toward the Mediterranean
Sea (Picard, 1963; Garfunkel, 1988; Zilberman, 1992; Begin and
Zilberman, 1997; Matmon et al., 1999). The rapid tectonic activity of
the Pliocene and Pleistocene acted upon a region that was previously
developed as an erosional surface, thus causing major changes in the
landscape. The Dead Sea rift valley (DSR) was formed as a deep,
elongated, inland depression that served as a new base level for the
fluvial systems and gravitational processes. Its western margins were
uplifted, either by arching, similar to the other parts of the Judea–
⁎ Corresponding author. Department of Israel Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa,
31905, Israel. Tel.: +972 4 8240362; fax: +972 4 8240959.
E-mail address: [email protected] (N. Shtober-Zisu).
0169-555X/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.06.017
Negev mountain belt, or by regional faulting along the Trans–Jordan
mountains (Garfunkel and Ben Avraham, 1996; Wdowinski and
Zilberman, 1997).
In northern Israel, the DSR is characterized by the deep depression
of the Hula valley (Fig. 1). Its western margin is represented by the
Naftali Mountain range, an 880 m high escarpment, formed by
regional faulting. The mountain front is exposed to channel weathering, fluvial erosion and intensive gravitational debris movements.
Therefore, the evolution of the present morphology is a result of
tectonics, climate and geomorphological processes.
The Naftali mountain front, which forms the western margin of the
Hula valley, is dissected by E–W trending, 1st–2nd order, straight,
ephemeral channels perpendicular to the piedmont that are defined in
this study as ‘slope channels’ because of their gradients and geometry.
The geomorphology of tectonically-related mountain fronts can be
used to assess long-term tectonic history and, therefore, serves as an
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N. Shtober-Zisu et al. / Geomorphology 102 (2008) 93–104
Fig. 1. Lithological map of the study area (Following the Geological map of Sneh and Weinberger (2003); The Unconfined Compressive Strength Term (R1–R5) — following www.
mininglife.com).
important indicator for estimating tectonic activity (Mayer, 1986;
Keller and Pinter, 2002). The landscape time of response is of the order
of 105 years, which means that the landscape retains information
about causative factors that occur with a frequency of less than several
hundred thousand years (Ellis et al., 1999).
The study aims at investigating the response of carbonate slopes
and channels (mainly limestone, dolomite and marl) to tectonic
activity, in order to acquire a relative time frame for the development
of the Naftali mountain front. Also the study will establish an initial
relation between the geometrical expression of the mountain front
N. Shtober-Zisu et al. / Geomorphology 102 (2008) 93–104
95
projects have been carried out in the region, and provide detailed
maps and sections (Dubertret, 1952; Picard, 1956; Vroman, 1958;
Rosenberg, 1960; Picard, 1963; Glikson, 1966a,b; Flexer, 1968; Gerson,
1970; Kafri, 1991, Sneh and Weinberger, 2003). The exposed lithology
includes soft and hard carbonate rocks, deposited from the lower
Cretaceous up to the Neogene: ① Neocomian–Barremian soft
Fig. 2. The Hula Valley area and major surrounding faults.
and its age, and a temporal framework for the tectonic activity along
the marginal faults will be proposed.
2. Study area
2.1. Geographical settings
The Naftali mountain front is approximately 16 km long, extending
between Nahal Qadesh and Nahal Misgav (A1) (Fig. 2). It rises from
80–100 m at the piedmont to 900 m at the Shinan mountain peak. It is
characterized by steep slopes (30%–60%), owing to the short horizontal distance of 1–2 km between the water divide and the Hula
base level. The escarpment is dissected by 31 short, steep, straight
and parallel slope channels, mostly of first and second order, that
developed at recurring distances of 300–500 m perpendicular to the
Hula valley. The incised channels dissipate and disappear adjacent to
the base level, where young sediments are deposited at the channel
mouths. The climate is continental Mediterranean, with two seasons:
cold-wet winters and hot-dry summers. The average annual precipitation varies between 550 mm and 850 mm, depending mainly on
the altitude.
2.2. Geological settings
The Naftali ridge is an N–S-trending half-anticline, bordering the
Hula valley. Its eastern flank was cut since the Pliocene by major faults
and is buried deep in the valley. A series of geological mapping
Fig. 3. The study area was subdivided into four segments, following geomorphologic
characteristics of the drainage basins.
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N. Shtober-Zisu et al. / Geomorphology 102 (2008) 93–104
Table 1
Unconfined (uniaxial) compressive strength field index test (www.mininglife.com)
Term
Uniaxial
compressive
strength (MPa)
R5
N 250
Extremely
strong
R4
100–250
Very
strong
R3
50–100
Strong
R2
Medium
strong
R1
Weak
25–50
5–25
R0
1–5
Very
weak
Extremely 0.25–1
weak
Field estimate of strength
Schmidt hardness
(Type L — hammer)
Rock material only
chipped under repeated
hammer blows
Requires many blows of a
geological hammer to break
intact rock specimens
Hand held specimens
broken by a single blow of a
geological hammer
Firm blow with geological
pick indents rock to 5 mm,
knife just scrapes surface
Knife cuts material but
too hard to shape into triaxial
specimens
Material crumbles under firm
blows of geological pick, can
be scraped with knife
Indented by thumbnail
50–60
40–50
30–40
15–30
b 15
sandstone and marls; ② Lower to Middle Cretaceous (Albian and
Aptian) marl and limestone; ③ Mid-Cretaceous limestone, chert and
dolomite; ④ Senonian to Paleocene chert, chalk and marls; ⑤ Eocene
limestone and chalk; ⑥ Neogene lacustrine conglomerate and
freshwater chalks, which are exposed in the Qiryat Shemona and
Kefar Gil'adi areas (Fig. 1).
Along the mountain piedmont, undifferentiated colluvial–alluvial
deposits have been mapped with various geological definitions, such
as “Slope fans” (Vroman, 1958), “Landslides” (Picard, 1956; Kafri,
1991), and “Tectonic breccia” (Rosenberg, 1960). Horowitz (1973)
suggested that this complex of sediments was of Pliocene age, and Bar
and Harash (1983) defined them as “alluvial fans” and patches of
“pediment”. Sneh and Weinberger (2003), who conducted detailed
geological mapping, identified a well-cemented, polymictic conglomerate – the “En–Awwazim Conglomerate” – of Plio-Pleistocene times,
as well as an overlying basalt bed, the En–Awwazim basalt flow, dated
to 0.88 ± 0.06 Ma (Harlavan et al., in press). They identified the
colluvial–alluvial units deposited along the mountain piedmont as
“Slope movement materials.” These units were later correlated with
the sedimentary units discussed in the present study.
The fault systems in the area are dominated by three main
directions: ① The southern area is characterized by a N–S step fault
system. The marginal faults of the western Hula , the En Te'o and Yesha
faults, are located 500 m and 1000 m respectively, west of the
‘Western Hula fault’. The vertical displacement of these faults is more
than 100 m and several tens of meters, respectively (Sneh and
Weinberger, 2003) (Fig. 2). ② An E–W fault pattern characterizes
mainly the area between ITM lat. 783 and the Margaliyyot fault (ITM
lat. 790), creating a gradual rise of the structure northward. ③ The
northern segment is characterized by NW, N and NE fault systems,
among which the major fault, the Qiryat Shemona fault, marks the
western border of the Hula valley, and splits northward into two major
faults: the Roum and the Yammunneh faults (Fig. 2).
3. Methods
The study area was divided into four segments, based on topographic
criteria of the drainage basins, such as drainage basin size and shape,
channel length, gradient, stream order, orientation and topographical
relief. The segments were labeled A to D from north to south, and the
drainage basins in each segment were also numbered from north to
south, according to their location in each segment (Fig. 3).
3.1. Geomorphological field methods and mapping
Detailed geomorphological mapping along the mountain front
was carried out at a scale of 1:5000. The sedimentological and
pedological characteristics of the fan-like sedimentary units found at
the channel mouths were documented, using conventional nomenclature (Machette, 1985; Dackombe and Gardiner, 1987; Birkeland
et al., 1991).
In order to evaluate the strength of the various lithologies in the
study area, the 'unconfined (or uniaxial) compressive strength' (UCS)
of rocks was used. The field test was defined by five terms of strength,
related to the rock characteristics (www.mininglife.com) (Table 1).
At each slope channel, field relationships were established, using
contacts and properties of the sedimentary units. Each unit was
characterized by its general morphology, geometry, sedimentology
and soil development, and was dated by either OSL, K–Ar or
archaeology. The type section was described and differentiated in
slope channel D8, in which most of the units were best preserved.
Table 2
Average values of the morphometric parameters for the various segments along the
Naftali mountain front
SEGMENT
A
B
C
D
Number of channels (1) ⁎
Segment area (m2) (2) ⁎
Segment length (km) (N–S direction) (2) ⁎
Avg. drainage basin area (km2) (2) ⁎
Avg. drainage basin perimeter (km) (2) ⁎
Avg. max. drainage basin length (km) (2) ⁎
Avg. max. watershed width (km) (2) ⁎
Avg. channel length (km) (2) ⁎
Avg. first order streams (2) — (n) ⁎
Avg. channel gradient (%) (2) ⁎⁎
Avg. planimetric index (Bs) (3) ⁎⁎
Avg. elongation ratio (Re) (4) ⁎⁎
Channelized area (%) (5) ⁎⁎
Facets area (%) (5) ⁎⁎
Sinuosity Index (Smf) of the piedmont (6) ⁎⁎
3
6.7
2.7
1.99
6.73
2.68
0.78
2.8
3.7
18
3.67
0.58
89
11
2.09
1.16
7
6.8
2.3
0.4
2.98
1.13
0.41
0.77
1.4
26
3.68
0.65
85
15
1.24
1.25
13
10.6
5.7
0.54
4.25
1.78
0.33
1.67
2.08
38
5.81
0.47
62
38
1.06
1.07
8
7.4
4.2
0.66
4.11
1.69
0.41
1.42
2.0
27
4.17
0.55
72
28
1.05
1.10
Sinuosity Index (Swd) of the regional water divide (7) ⁎⁎
Relative qualitative tectonic activity (8)
⁎Morphometric parameters developed to quantify description of landscape (Keller and
Pinter, 2002).
⁎⁎Morphometric parameters developed as a basic reconnaissance tools to identify areas
experiencing rapid tectonic deformation (Bull and McFadden, 1977; Ramirez-Herrera,
1998; Keller and Pinter, 2002).
(1) Excluding Nahal Margaliyyot — between segments B and C.
(2) Basic morphometric parameters, provide a basic perspective referring to the
channel's nature, elucidating the differences between the segments.
(3) Planimetric basin shape is described by an elongation ratio that can be expressed as
Bs= Bl/ Bw. (Bl is the length of the basin measured from its mouth to the most distant
drainage divide and Bw is the width of the basin.) Streams developed under an active
tectonic regime show elongated drainage basins, which are apparently dominated by
downcutting in response to local base-level subsidence (Ramirez-Herrera, 1998).
(4) Elongation ratio. The typical basin shape which develops in a tectonically active
mountain range is elongate. The shape of the basin becomes progressively more circular
with time after cessation of mountain uplift. The elongation ratio (Re) may be described as
the relation between the diameter of a circle with the same area as the basin, to the distance
between the two most distant points in basin (Cannon, 1976).
(5) Facets. A facet is a triangular to polyhedral shaped hillslope situated between two
adjacent basins within a given escarpment. Tectonically active mountain fronts tend to be
less dissected, ranging from laterally continuous undissected escarpments to a nearly
continuous front with only few large and distinct facets with minimal internal dissection
(Wells et al., 1988). Facet formation is clearly associated with periods of active fault
displacement (Hamblin, 1976; Wallace, 1978) In this study we used the relative area of
facets in each segment as an indicator of incision rate.
(6) Mountain front sinuosity (Smf) is the ratio of the length along the edge of the mountain–
piedmont junction (Lmf) to the overall length of the mountain front (Ls): [Smf = Lmf/Ls]
(Bull and McFadden, 1977). A straight mountain front might be indicative of an active fault,
while an embayed, pedimented front is considered to be representative of tectonic
quiescence.
(7) Water divide sinuosity (Swd) is the ratio of the length along the main water divide of
each segment (Lwd) to the overall length of the ridge crest (Lrc): [Swd = Lwd/Lrc]. A straight
crest might be indicative of an active ridge. (8) Relative qualitative weight of the various
tectonic parameters; ranks I–IV. [I= the most active].
N. Shtober-Zisu et al. / Geomorphology 102 (2008) 93–104
97
Fig. 4. Longitudinal profile of channel C8 and its northern and southern water divides. The upper reach is characterized by deep incision into the hard carbonate slopes. Further
downstream, the slopes are poorly dissected, as the soft marl and sandstone exposures trigger material movements which result in channel infill.
3.2. Geometrical analysis of landforms
The specific morphometric parameters used in this paper have
been developed in previous works as basic tools to identify areas
experiencing rapid tectonic deformation, or to quantify description of
landscape (Table 2). Parameters representing the mountain front
geometry (sinuosity index of the piedmont and of the water divide,
slope cross-profiles and facets percentage) were assessed, together
with morphometric indices indicative of tectonic activity (planimetric
index, elongation ratio, hypsometric curve, hypsometric integral, and
the longitudinal profiles of the channels) (Hamblin, 1976; Cannon,
1976; Bull and McFadden, 1977; Wallace, 1978; Ramirez-Herrera,
1998). (For detailed explanations of the various indices, see captions in
Table 2.) Geographical and morphological data were obtained from
compiling a digital orthophoto map at a resolution of 1.3 m/pixel and a
digital elevation contour map, scaling 1:5000–1:50 000, with
intervals of 5 ± 2 m.
3.3. Optical and radiometric dating
Both OSL and K–Ar dating were processed in the laboratories of the
Geological Survey of Israel (GSI). Five samples of fine sediment derived
from the matrix of the sedimentary units were dated by OSL and
operated on quartz grains. The age calculations followed Murray and
Wintle (2000).
Basalt gravels were found incorporated into the well-cemented
conglomerate Q1–1. Five samples (cobble size) were dated by the K–Ar
method. The gravels were fresh, hard and compacted. The age
calculation followed Steinitz et al. (1983) and Kotlarsky et al. (1992).
4. Geometrical analysis
4.1. Morphometry and characteristics of the various segments
All parameters used for the morphometric analysis are presented
in Table 2.
The channels of SEGMENT A (A1–A3 in Fig. 3) are cut into hard
carbonate rocks of the Upper Cretaceous and Eocene. Flow directions
toward the northeast, as well as various morphological aspects, are
exceptional compared to other segments: drainage basin sizes are 3–4
times larger, channel gradients are less steep, the number of firstorder streams is considerably higher, most of the area is drained by
channels (89%), and only 11% is drained by facets. The elongated shape
of the basins is characteristic of the study area, despite their relatively
large size and relatively moderate channel gradients. The segment is
characterized by high piedmont sinuosity (Smf = 2.09), and its relative
Fig. 5. Topographic profiles along the water divide, the mountain piedmont and the slopes, projected over N–S coordinates. The water divide rises northward, expressing a morphology of
saddles and peaks. The Margaliyyot valley interrupts the continuity of the water divide northward. Segment D channels are deeply incised when draining the Cenomanian hard dolomites.
Segment C channels are well developed upstream, but poorly dissected in their middle and lower reaches, where they drain the Lower Cretaceous soft units. (Elevation points were sampled
at intervals of 100 m). F1 — Yiftah fault; F2 — Mizpe Peer fault; F3 — En Gome–Mizpe Peer fault, F4–F5 no name E–W trending faults; F6 — Margaliyyot fault; F7 — Roum fault. ITM = Israel
Transversal Mercator.
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N. Shtober-Zisu et al. / Geomorphology 102 (2008) 93–104
qualitative tectonic activity ranks IV (out of 4 segments), indicating
the lowest tectonic activity in the study area.
Most of the area of SEGMENT B (85%) is drained by seven small
basins to the southeast. The channels are slightly incised into the
underlying Neogene indurated conglomerates. The Nahal Margaliyyot
basin borders the southern edge of Segment B (Fig. 3) and is not
included in any of the segments, since it is essentially different from all
the other streams because of a different tectonic and geomorphic
setting. The segment is characterized by less elongated basins, but a
straight mountain front (Smf = 1.24). The total activity of Segment B is
ranked III.
In SEGMENT C, the regional water divide rises up to 880 m,
exposing the soft Lower Cretaceous units and the hard Cenomanian
dolostones. This area is structurally uplifted northward by a series of
E–W trending faults that determine the altitude of the highest part of
the water divide. Thirteen drainage basins dissect the slopes, some of
which have wide, well-incised channels upstream and funnel-shape
outlets slightly cut into the colluvium that covers the mountain
piedmont (Fig. 4). Therefore, the water divides downstream are
adjacent to the active channel (less than 50 m), indicating young and
continuous incision into the unstable slope (Shtober-Zisu et al., 2003).
The segment is characterized by very low mountain-front sinuosity
(Smf = 1.06), a very steep stream-channel gradient (38% on average,
with a maximum of 45%), and an average planimetric index (Bs = 5.81)
that is the highest in the study area. Only 62% of the area is drained by
streams, whilst 38% is composed of facets, supporting the straight
mountain-front morphology and the poorly dissected slopes. Its
general tectonic activity was ranked I.
In SEGMENT D, the regional water divide rises rapidly from 400 m
in the south to 740 m, following a NNE normal fault system. A second
normal marginal fault system creates a long N–S tectonic valley and
steps, which are exceptional in the study area (e.g., “Yesha faults”
across channel D4). The segment is incised by eight short channels cut
into the exposed Cenomanian dolostones. Most of the area (72%) is
channelized, flowing eastward with gradients of 21%–30%, and
expressing high similarities with Segment C's upper reaches. The
segment is characterized by a very straight mountain front (Smf = 1.05).
Its general tectonic activity was ranked II.
4.2. Topographical analysis of the piedmont and the water divide
Topographical analysis of the piedmont and the main water
divide (Fig. 5) elucidates the differences in morphology among the
four segments. Along Segments C and D, the piedmont is relatively
straight and low (80–120 m). The alluvial fans along Segment D are
prominent, whereas the Segment C piedmont is covered by
colluvium down to the level of the Hula valley. The Qiryat Shemona
area (Figs. 2 and 3) is characterized by an elevated piedmont because
of the existence of a N–S-extending spur of tectonic origin that
delimits the distribution of colluvial debris eastward to the Hula
valley (Fig. 5).
The water divide rises northward, expressing a morphology of
saddles and peaks. The sinuosity index (Swd) of the regional water
divide yielded values of 1.07–1.25, indicating a straight, slightly
dissected mountain crest (Table 2) that, together with other
morphometric parameters, might be characteristic of a young
escarpment. Within the northern area of Segment D, a prominent
NNE fault steeply raises the Mizpe Pe'er peak by approximately
200 m. The Margaliyyot valley, located between Segments C and B, is
controlled by faulting, and interrupts the northward continuity of
the water divide.
The N–S-trending slope profiles (Fig. 5) are indicative of the
variability within the segments. The channels of Segment D are well
incised at elevations of 200–300 m, creating alluvial fans near the base
level. In Segment C, the slope-channels are well developed upstream
at an elevation of 500–700 m, but poorly dissected in the middle, and
they almost disappear at the lower reaches where they cut through
the Lower Cretaceous soft units and the colluvium. Debris deposits
and landslides cover the piedmont, thus restraining further incision
and development of the valleys downstream (Fig. 4).
Fig. 6. Longitudinal profiles of four channels, chosen as representative of each segment. Note the scale differences between the axes. The Unconfined Compressive Strength Term – (R1–R5) –
follows www.mininglife.com. The exposed formations: Klhn =soft sandstone, mudstone, oolitic limestone, marl (R2/R3); Klei= limestone (R4); Kli= marl, limestone (R2/R3); Klr= marl,
limestone (R2/R3); Kukam=dolomite, limestone (R4/R5); Kudk=dolomite, limestone, chalk, marl, chert (R2/R4); Kudr= limestone, chalk, marl (R2/R3); Ngk = conglomerate (R4).
N. Shtober-Zisu et al. / Geomorphology 102 (2008) 93–104
99
Fig. 7. The hypsometric integral values and curves indicate an important proportion of the drainage basin surfaces located at high altitudes. Four channels are absent, as their profiles are
exceptional, and associated with local morphologies. a) Convex-up curves — indicative of young landscapes and high tectonic activity. b) S-shape curves — indicative of young but further
developed landscapes. As most of the basin areas are still found above the solid line, the tectonic tendency is apparent.
Segments C and D are dissected by a series of E–W-trending faults.
These secondary faults show no evidence of steps or other associated
neotectonic features, and thus are assumed to be inactive at present.
4.3. Longitudinal profiles of the channels
The longitudinal profiles of the channels are clearly associated
with the lithology. In Fig. 6, four representative slope-channel profiles
(of 31 studied) demonstrate the relationship among channel morphology, young faults and rock resistance. Each of these profiles
represents a segment.
Segment A is characterized by long, convoluted profiles. Channel
A3 demonstrates the longest, most complex profile, crossing three
major faults that determine the location of knickpoints along the
channel profiles (Fig. 6a). Accordingly, the gradients are controlled by
the resistance of the various lithologies; e.g., the hard dolomitic
“Kukam” formation creates steep gradients, clearly visible in all the
segments.
The shortest, most homogenous channels occur in Segment B.
Channel B3 (Fig. 6b) is cut into well-cemented Neogene conglomerate
(Ngk), thus developing a relatively uniform profile. No major faults
were observed in this area.
Along Segment C, the profiles adjust to the alternating soft
and hard rocks (Klhn, Klr and Kli formations) of the Lower
Cretaceous in the mid-reaches, and to the homogenous, resistant
carbonate rocks of Upper Cretaceous (Kukam and Kudk formations) in the upper reaches (Fig. 1). The piedmont is covered by
abundant colluvium, originating in the soft units exposed above,
which fills the lower reaches of the channels by sliding and
creeping downslope. These materials confine further incision and
development of the channels (see also Fig. 4) and create concaveup profiles downstream (Fig. 6c). The older E–W faulting system
at this segment has very little impact on the tectonic setting
(Fig. 5). For example, along its upper reaches, channel C4 is developed
along a normal fault, but there is no evidence of deeper incision or
other associated morphology.
Segment D is characterized by hard lithology in general, over
which the channels are cut relatively homogenously. The dominant
factors controlling the channel profiles are the presence of two
parallel N–S faults (Yesha and En Te'o), perpendicularly cut by the
Table 3
Ages and time of deposition of four generations of sedimentary units, along the Naftali mountain front
Generation
Unit
Description
Extension at
elev.
Age determination and field relationship
Age (BP) Shtober-Zisu
(2006)
I. (Low–Mid.
Pleistocene)
Q1–1
Indurated polymictic conglomerate cemented
by CaCO3 (80–90%), reddish calcarenite).
Unit Q1–1 contains also basalt clasts. (R5)
85–168
(m ASL)
Age of basalt cobbles:
1.1 ± 0.4–1.6 ± 0.0 Ma
I. (Low–Mid.
Pleistocene)
Q1
II. (MidPleistocene)
Q2
III. (Upper
Pleistocene)
IV.
(Holocene)
Q3
K–Ar dating of basalt cobbles. The
conglomerate was deposited post 1.1 Ma:
age of the youngest cobble.
Q1 interfingers with Q1–1. They are similar
in matrix color, hardness, rebound and gravel
assemblage. Q1 underlies Q2.
The OSL age is estimated as a minimal age.
The actual age is estimated to be older. Q2 usually
overlaps or inset into Q1. (R3/R4)
OSL ages. The unit overlaps units Q1 and Q2.
IV.
(Holocene)
Q5
Q4
80–380
(m ASL)
Polymictic conglomerate, contains large clasts up to
boulder size of Q1 origin (Fig. 10). Includes calcic
paleosols, of stages IV–V. (R3/R4)
Abundance of fine sediments indicates matrix rich
flows. Includes calcic paleosols, of stages I–II. (R2)
Relatively low-angle fluvial deposition. Low degree
carbonate soils (bstage I). Unit Q4 is also deposited
eastward into the Hula valley, where it interfingers with
unit Q5. Unit Q5 is composed of reddish clays derived
from the slopes. (R1)
80–380
(m ASL)
100–340
(m ASL)
95–110
(m ASL)
70–80
(m ASL)
OSL and archaeological (Natufian) ages.
The unit overlaps Units Q1 and Q2 adjacent to
present base level.
Archaeological age, of Early Bronze age.
The unit interfingers with unit Q4.
At present, the base level is at 75 m ASL.
The Unconfined Compressive Strength Term (R1–R5) — following www.mininglife.com).
a
Based on field relations and stratigraphy.
b
Absolute ages: OSL samples taken from 1.5–2 m below the surface, K–Ar dating of basalt cobbles incorporated.
c
Archaeological ages.
Age of Q1a and Q1–1b
b 1.1 ± 0.4 Ma
565 ± 106 Kab
117 ± 11 Kab
122 ± 16 Kab
5.8 3.0 ±
0.5 Kab
7.5–9.5 Kac
~ 5 Kac
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N. Shtober-Zisu et al. / Geomorphology 102 (2008) 93–104
Fig. 8. Generalized stratigraphy of the sedimentary units and their ages.
channels. Characteristic morphologies of steps and shallow tectonic
valleys occur along the channel D4 profile in Fig. 6d.
4.4. Hypsometric curves and integrals
Hypsometric curves of the drainage basins have been used as a tool
to assess geomorphological development stages resulting from
concurrent tectonic and denudation processes. The integral of these
curves (Hypsometric integrals — HI) allows the resulting morphology
of a drainage basin to be summarized in a single value (Strahler, 1952;
Summerfield, 1991; Ohmori, 1993; Keller and Pinter, 2002; Riquelme
et al., 2003). In this study, despite differences among the segment's
morphologies, the common denominator of the landscape is clearly
visible from the convex-up-shape tendency of the hypsometric curves
and the high values of the hypsometric integrals (Fig. 7). About 40% of
the drainage basins are characterized by convex-up hypsometric
curves with high HI values (0.54–0.78), reflecting the high altitudes of
a significant proportion of their surface; i.e., incised drainage basins
(Fig. 7a). Almost 50% are characterized by a nearly S-shape tendency,
indicating that a high proportion of their surface is similarly located at
high altitudes, whereas the high (0.4–0.71) HI values are characteristic
of young landforms (Fig. 7b). No major differences were noted among
the various segments.
5. Stratigraphy of the sedimentary units
In this study, the alluvial–colluvial complex along the Naftali
mountain front was separated for the first time into four major
sedimentary generations and six sedimentary units depending on
their detailed morphology, sedimentary characteristics and relative
(archaeological) or absolute (OSL, K–Ar) ages (Table 3, Figs. 8 and 9).
These units were identified along the channels and mouths of the
slope channels of Segments C and D. In Segments A and B, these relics
are probably covered by young debris and slope deposits or by Hula
valley soils (Shtober-Zisu, 2006).
The outcrops extend along the channels from their mouths up to
an elevation of 300 m above base level. All sedimentary units are
composed of polymictic conglomerate of angular, poorly sorted
Fig. 9. Distribution of sedimentary unit outcrops along the 'type section' channel mouth. Note the disappearance of the dissected channel about 40 m above the base level. Q2 infills
the En Te'o fault morphology, Q3 covers it undisturbed, and Q4 covers the western Hula fault.
N. Shtober-Zisu et al. / Geomorphology 102 (2008) 93–104
101
Fig. 10. Q1 boulders comprising and cemented into Unit Q2 (Channel D2, elevation 200 m ASL).
limestone, dolomite and chert gravel in a reddish clay matrix and
cemented by carbonates. Carbonate soils and calcrete horizons up to
Stage V (Machette, 1985) have developed into them.
Units Q1 and Q1–1 were dated by K–Ar to the lower Pleistocene
(±1 Ma). Unit Q1–1 also contains basalt clasts dated to 1.1–1.6 Ma;
which determine the earliest age of deposition of the units to b1.1 Ma.
The geometry and spatial distribution is unknown, as only a few relics
have been preserved. The relics lie unconformably over the bedrock.
The conglomerate, well cemented by carbonates (80%–90%), is similar
in hardness to other rocks, such as the underlying dolomite. Unit Q1 is
identified with the En–Awwazim conglomerate (Sneh and Weinberger, 2003), and is covered in places by the En Awwazim basalt flow
dated to 0.88 ± 0.06 Ma (Harlavan et al., in press).
The middle Pleistocene unit, Q2, overlaps or insets into Units Q1 and
Q1–1. The morphology and structure indicate stages of deposition in
lobes toward the Hula valley with gradients of 10%–20%. This polymictic
conglomerate also contains boulders derived from Unit Q1 (Fig. 10). The
soil profile includes three carbonate paleosols of Stages IV–V. The unit
was OSL-dated to a minimum age of 565 ± 106 ka (Table 3). Unit Q2 is
faulted by the En Te'o fault with a vertical displacement of about 1–2 m
(Fig. 11), and probably also by the Western Hula fault. The thickness of
Unit Q2 on the downfaulted block is larger than on the uplifted block,
indicating several phases of movement.
Unit Q3 overlaps Units Q2 and Q1 (Fig. 12), and was deposited
during the upper Pleistocene. The sediments were OSL-dated at two
sites to 122 ± 16 ka and 117 ± 11 ka (Table 3). The unit does not reach the
base level, hanging some tens of meters above the Hula valley floor. It
was deposited in a series of sedimentary pulses with gradients of
about 30%, while calcic soils of Stages I–II (Machette, 1985) developed
between them. The abundance of fine sediments indicates matrix-rich
debris-flows, with a debris-cone morphology. These depositional
bodies cover the En Te'o fault (Fig. 13).
Unit Q4 overlaps Units Q1, Q2, and is inset into Unit Q3. It covers
the mountain piedmont in a fan-like geometry resembling alluvial
fans. Unit Q4 was deposited during the Holocene, and was OSL-dated
to 5.8 ± 0.6 ka and 3.0 ± 0.5 ka, and by Neolithic artifacts to 7.5–9 ka
(Table 3). Its structure, sorting, and bedding indicate fluvial deposition.
Unit Q4 is deposited within the Hula valley, where it interfingers
with Unit Q5. Unit Q5 is composed of reddish clay sediments that
originate in the Terra Rosa soils over the carbonate rocky slopes. These
Fig. 11. The thickness of Unit Q2 on the downfaulted block is larger than on the uplifted block, indicating several phases of movement. The top of sedimentary Unit Q2 is displaced by
the En Te'o normal fault at 190 m ASL in channel C13. (a) photo, (b) schematic.
102
N. Shtober-Zisu et al. / Geomorphology 102 (2008) 93–104
Fig. 12. Unit Q3 overlaps Unit Q1 (Channel C13, elevation 320 m ASL).
sedimentary units cover the Hula Western fault, but show no evidence
of deformation during the Holocene.
6. Discussion
6.1. Morphometric analysis
Despite the climatic variability and the different geological
settings, tectonically active regions all around the world are
characterized by typical morphometric characteristics, such as
straight mountain fronts and high values of hypsometric integrals,
planimetric index, and facet percentage.
A comparison with other studies worldwide shows that the
morphometric values obtained in this study are high and typical of
the “active tectonic class” proposed by Bull and McFadden (1977) and
demonstrated in other studies (Table 4).
Nevertheless, a comparison of the various segments reveals
relatively wide differences among the four segments (Table 2). The
morphometric values of Segment C are extremely high, and are
characteristic of areas with relatively high tectonic activity. The soft
sandy and marly units exposed trigger-slope movements of debris,
which block the channels limit further incision, and cover the
marginal faults. This process may explain the funnel-shape geometry
of the basins: a shallow, bankless and narrow channel in the lower
parts, in contrast to the deeply incised and wide upper reaches.
Segment D is also characterized by relatively high tectonic characteristics similar to Segment C. For example, the sinuosity index (Smf),
which is considered one of the most significant parameters (Table 4),
shows that the values obtained for Segments C and D (1.05–1.06) are
very low, indicating relatively high activity. These segments face the
Hula depression. In contrast, Segment B (1.24) is considered an
intermediate, and Segment A (2.09) the highest, which together with
other parameters, indicate slower geomorphic activity — although this
may also be related to the different tectonic setting of Segment A.
Most of the hypsometric index values for all segments were higher
than 0.5, indicating an active tectonic regime (Keller and Pinter, 2002).
Fig. 13. Field relationship between the sedimentary units and the faults at channel D8: Unit Q3 overlaps Unit Q2, and the En Te'o fault. Unit Q2 overlaps Q1 and infills the fault
morphology. Note the OSL ages of Units Q2 and Q3 and their locations.
N. Shtober-Zisu et al. / Geomorphology 102 (2008) 93–104
Table 4
Ranges of morphometric parameters, indicative of high tectonic activity (active
mountain fronts) with various climate, lithology and tectonic regimes
Parameter
Value
Smf sinuosity of the 1.0–1.6
mountain front
b 1.4
1.0–1.5
1.06–1.32
1.17–1.41
~ 1–2
1.17–1.53
1.06
1.4–1.5
1.09–1.34
1.05–1.24
HI hypsometric
Integral
0.4–0.78
Study area
Reference
Garlock fault,
California
Ventura anticline,
California
Costa Rica
Acambay Graben,
Mexico
Edom Mt. front. DSR,
Jordan
Oak Ridge anticline,
Ventura basin, Ca.
Southeast Spain
Eastern Carmel
Mt. front, Israel
The Sierra Nevada
Mts., California
Eliki fault, Corinth gulf,
Greece
Present study
Oak Ridge anticline
Edom Mt. front. DSR
Present study
Bull and McFadden
(1977)
Rockwell et al. (1984)
Wells et al. (1988)
Ramirez-Herrera
(1998)
Sagy (2001)
Azor et al. (2002)
Silva et al. (2003)
Mashiah (2004)
Figueroa and Knott
(2004)
Verrios et al. (2004)
Azor et al. (2002)
Sagy (2001)
As the hypsometric values are scale-dependent (Willgoose and
Hancock, 1998), the analysis also includes hypsometric curves. The
convex-up tendency of about 40% of the drainage basins indicates that
the present mountain front has not been significantly lowered since it
was formed; and the S-shape tendency found in about 50% of the
drainage basins indicates a transitional stage between ‘youth’ and
‘steady state’.
6.2. Stratigraphy of the sedimentary units and tectonics of the marginal
faults
The sedimentary units were best preserved in Segment D, as the
hard lithologies exposed on the slopes delimit landslides or other
associated slope movements under the Mediterranean climate regime.
The oldest Quaternary units exposed along the Naftali Mountain
front are units Units Q1 and Q1–1, which were deposited during the
Early Pleistocene and were dated to b1.1 Ma. Their similar characteristics and field relationships indicate that they were deposited in close
temporal proximity and under similar conditions. They are both
confined to the channels, where they were best preserved. In addition,
the outcrops of both units were found adjacent to, and only 10 m
above, the Hula valley floor. This indicates that the Hula valley has
remained almost at the same base-level elevation along its western
border since the end of the Early Pleistocene. Based on the present
study, the calculated rate between subsidence and sediment accumulation in the Hula valley is of the order of 0.01 mm/yr. This low rate is
in agreement with the results of Kafri et al. (1983) and Heimann
(1990), showing that during the last 2 Ma, the average rate of
subsidence equals the average rate of sedimentation.
The Mid-Pleistocene Unit Q2, dated to a minimum age of 0.56 Ma,
includes several well-developed calcic paleosols at Stages IV–V,
indicating a long accumulation time. Buried paleosols serve as
indicators of past periods of surface stability, and hence tectonic
quiescence. Their duration can be estimated by the degree of
development of the buried soil profile, or by a discriminative horizon
(Douglas, 1980; Gerson et al., 1993). As a result, this structure suggests
cycles of alternations between pulses of sediment deposition and
periods of quiescence, during which these paleosols were formed.
Similarly, the Late Pleistocene Unit Q3, dated to about 120 ka, also
includes Stage I–II calcic paleosols developed during periods of
103
sedimentary quiescence (Shtober-Zisu, 2006). The climatic changes
that occurred during the Mid-Pleistocene undoubtedly influenced the
deposition activity. For example, in the desert areas of Israel, Gerson
(1982a,b) found that talus aprons were formed under mildly arid to
semiarid conditions, while under extremely arid conditions, erosion,
and gullying predominated. However, it seems that the climatic
expression is represented in the Mediterranean climate zone by
periods of pedogenesis, rather than by radical morphologic changes.
The large amounts of fine reddish sediments suggest intensive erosion
of soils from the nearby slopes. The last significant faulting phase
along the En Te'o fault occurred probably during Mid-Pleistocene,
later than ~ 0.56 Ma, as indicated by the age of Unit Q2. Unit Q2
may also be faulted by the Western Hula fault (Shtober-Zisu, 2006),
as is also shown in the map in Sneh and Weinberger (2003). The En
Te'o fault was covered by Unit Q3, indicating no major faulting since
about 120 ka B.P. This age of faulting calibrates the tectonic activity
represented by the morphometric analysis in Segments C and D.
The Holocene Units Q4 and Q5, dated as being less than 10 ka B.P.,
form a south–north sequence of steep-gradient fans, deposited
by fluvial activity. The bedded structure of these units, the reddish
clay matrix, and the interbedded calcic soils, indicate phases of
stripping of the Terra Rosa soils from the carbonate rocky slopes.
These sedimentary units cover the Western Hula fault, and show no
evidence of deformation. In addition, the Holocene units converge
downstream, pointing at climatic (and not base-level) controlled
progression, (Gerson, 1982b).
Periods of quiescence between the various episodes of deposition
were characterized by karst solution, abundant slope movements, and
pedogenic processes that created mainly carbonate soils and calcrete
horizons.
In light of all the aforementioned, it appears that since the MidPleistocene, tectonic activity has migrated from the marginal faults
located west of the DSR towards younger faults buried deep in the
graben. This conclusion is also sustained by Heimann's findings (1990)
that the Hula's marginal faults were active mainly until 2.2 Ma, and
the main subsidence activity has moved eastward to younger faults
since then. In addition, Shamir and Feldman (1997) found a cluster of
microseismic activity in the central area of the Hula graben between
1980 and 1996, showing that the main location of present seismic
activity is concentrated in the middle of the Hula depression.
7. Conclusions
1. All morphometric values are concordant with young tectonism
along the entire mountain front (Segments A to D). However, the
southern segments (C and D) express the highest values, indicating
the highest activity in the study area.
2. Segments C and D are dissected by a series of E–W-trending faults.
These secondary faults are apparently inactive at present, based on
the absence of steps or other associated neotectonic features.
3. Four generations of deposition were recognized along the mountain piedmont, including six sedimentary units. These units,
composed of polymictic conglomerates, include several paleosols
with various stages of soil development. The units were dated by
OSL, K–Ar or archaeology, and indicate ages from the end of the
Early-Pleistocene to the present.
4. The morphology and structure of the sedimentary units show
pulses of activity, represented by a chronosequence of periods of
deposition and periods of quiescence, during which calcic soils
were developed up to Stage V.
5. The field relationship between the sedimentary units and the
marginal faults show that no major faulting phases occurred along
the Naftali escarpment during the Upper Pleistocene, despite the
active tectonic morphometric values obtained in the study area.
The marginal faults were probably active until the end of the MidPleistocene.
104
N. Shtober-Zisu et al. / Geomorphology 102 (2008) 93–104
6. Since the Mid-Pleistocene, tectonic activity migrated from the
marginal faults located west of the DSR toward younger faults
buried eastward, deep in the Hula graben.
7. The field data calibrate the morphometric analysis: carbonate
hillslopes developed under Mediterranean climate have maintained the "active class" morphology at least since the end of the
Mid-Pleistocene and the last major faulting events along the
Naftali mountain front.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by Tel-Aviv University and the Jewish
National Fund. Amazia Peled and the late Aviel Ron of the IMC provided
the digital data. Ofir Shabtai and Liron Shapira of the University of Haifa
helped in the field. Naomi Porat and Yehudith Harlavan of the Israel
Geological Survey analyzed the geochronological samples.
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