1
New Realism on Film and Television:
politics of representation in audiovisual narratives1
Rosana Soares2
Abstract: Our research gathers two fields of study that are just as close as they are diverse: film studies discourses with
focus on documentary films, and journalism discourses with focus on television news shows. The corpus selection we
have made revolves around social stigma, including interfaces with psychoanalysis, anthropology, sociology,
philosophy, history, language sciences and media studies. As for research objectives, we aim to study media discourses
which convey a realistic approach to subjects – namely documentary and journalism – seeking to perform a contrastive
analysis between them both, pointing out proximities and distances. We hypothetically argue that the limits between
fact and reality or tale and fiction are being challenged by the tensioning of their assumed ground. New realism is
established in audiovisual narratives blurring the boundaries between “referentiality” and “fictionality”, thus
contributing to the debate on the contemporary statute of images. The research focuses on the ways by which social
stigma representations are built on contemporary audiovisual narratives and their relationship to processes of
identification. Through documentary film and television news analysis, we intend to report on the issue of new realism
identified on media discourses today recurring to a historical perspective on the modes of addressing reality. In that
sense, we also look at technical images injunctions as part of a mediatic culture ever shaped by production processes.
We understand that technical images aim at effects of reality as they bounce between the return of the real and the
praise of fiction.
Keywords: new realism; regimes of visibility; media discourses; audiovisual narratives; film and television; social
stigma.
This paper aims to approach two different fields of study: audiovisual discourses (on film
and on television) and historical discourse understood as ways to articulating social imaginaries. It
therefore intends to make a comparative analysis of indicial narratives searching for the repetition
or variation of elements. Such narratives were able to reconstruct memories while representing
historical facts about the Brazilian indigenous cause. We understand to be facing an extensive and
complex subject, thus we have preferred to focus on some of the most recent examples coming from
television news reports and films. We intend to compare their narratives while observing how
spaces of visibility and/or invisibility are established. Our concern is mainly with representation of
indigenous people, still today subject of stigma within the national social scenario.
The attempt to establish clear limits between fact and fiction has concerned the field of
audiovisual studies for quite some time now. In this presentation we address such matter
considering that today there is a process of genre displacement. We search audiovisual productions
in order to identify the boundaries between the so called “referentiality” and, on the other hand,
1
This article is part of the ongoing postdoctoral research at King’s College Brazil Institute (October 2013-February 2014), which is
related to the broader research project “Media and social stigma”, developed at the University of São Paulo. The author has also
published other articles related to this subject. The seminar was presented on 4 February 2014 as part of the Brazil Institute’s 201314 Seminar Series at King’s College London.
2
Lecturer at the School of Communication and Arts, University of São Paulo (Brazil), and postdoctoral researcher at the King’s
Brazil Institute (Fapesp fellowship). PhD on Communication Sciences (2002), her main fields of interest are media studies, social
communication, audiovisual discourse, language theories, and journalism. Author of the book Margins of communication: discourse
and media (2009), and Images of Aids in Brazilian press (2001). The author also has an MA on Communication Sciences (University
of São Paulo, 1997), a BA on Philosophy (University of São Paulo, 1994) and one on Social Communication (Methodist University
of São Paulo, 1989). She is also member of many scientific associations, such as the Brazilian Society for Cinema and Audiovisual
Studies (SOCINE), the European Communication Research and Education Association (ECREA), and the International Association
for Media and Communication Research (IAMCR), and is also chair of MIDIATO – Language and Media Studies Research Group.
(www.usp.br/midiato). Website: http://lattes.cnpq.br/5241011640369563
2
“fictionality” privileging contemporary narratives with similar subjects in fiction films,
documentary films and news reports. By doing that, we radically assume the non-distinction
between fact and imagination, and in a broader sense, between fiction and reality. Truth and reality
usually go together in discourses that operate on objective and faithful representation of the
historical world. We are then to analyse the dichotomies which are most commonly attributed to
media discourses and to search for spaces favourable to the circulation of hybrid genres, the ones
open to the audiences’ re-signification.
This debate is theoretically related to the range of audiovisual formats which currently
converge more and more in terms of technology, aesthetics and narrative. Factual and fictional
frameworks enable diverse ways for rebuilding the recent history of the different social groups
represented in the media. Amongst the many possible analytic approaches we search for the modes
of inscribing the “real” within the narratives of contemporary audiovisual discourses. We
understand that a reading contract is established with basis on referentiality, and on the
naturalization of their production artifacts. It is then by several exercises of approximation and
distancing between film and television narratives that we find locus for the argument that the
contemporary audiovisual discourses are mostly hybrid, merging factual and fictional elements.
Moreover, they either reinforce the possibility of faithful representation of reality or else they
challenge such perspective.
In recent years, the popularization of digital technologies for capturing, editing, producing
and distributing films brought new elements to the ongoing debate about the limits between
documentary films and fiction films. The analyses about audiovisual production have perpetrated
the division between two types of discourses. One of them states its authenticity through certain
narrative strategies that articulate meaning effects based on the supposed representation of the facts
– as if it was possible to have direct and immediate access to them. On the other hand, there are
discourses which reveal their provisional nature and assume that every representation relates to the
construction of a staged truth. Discourses based on what we call referentiality have been articulated
under the title of “real”, baring its risks, challenges, limits, returns, outbursts and implosions.
Historical elements are then taken objectively in order to narrate the facts opposed to fictional
discourses, in which fabulation comes into action for the composition of narratives.
Referential discourses can thus be defined as those in which historical facts work as raw
material for the construction of an objective truth, as if by installing the possibility of reproduction
of reality. Amongst such kind of discourses we can include some formats present in journalistic
practices and in documentary film. Today we identify the propagation of audiovisual genres based
on old and new realisms, produced especially for television and the internet. That is how security
cameras, home videos, amateur recordings and live broadcasting abound on screen. They embrace a
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naturalist – and sometimes even naïve – perspective on representation construction, and fade one of
the fundamental premises of documentary films that could also be applied to news reports: the
possibility of providing a “creative approach” to the narrative, instead of seeking to offer non
mediated evidences of reality.
Winston questions the presence of “reality TV” entertainment shows in the current
television production as he ponders about the possible relationships between journalism and
documentary. He points out today’s relevant presence of “factual programming” based on true
stories, including television news shows, documentary films, reality shows, docudramas, amongst
others. It affects not only the birth of hybrid audiovisual genres and tv shows (especially in
narrative and aesthetical aspects), but also their understanding and interpretation. “It amuses me the
fact that people in the UK do not consider classical documentaries from the 30’s as such because
they used reconstruction as a basic production method. But everybody is ready to call documentary
a tv show in which 15 people are taken to a desert island” (WINSTON, 2005, p. 23).
The author goes further into this argument to state that more important than establishing
boundaries between documentary and fiction is to reflect on the indistinctness between
documentary and journalism resulting from the prevalence of the direct cinema. Documentaries
should especially be set apart from other non-fiction formats or stories, “exactly because
documentary has an inclination to rebuild previously witnessed events (meaning events previously
witnessed, but not recorded) and allow the poetry, the political engagement, the individual
expression – all sorts of things that the journalistic documentary has ignored or actively dismissed”
(WINSTON, 2005, p. 24).
One can illustrate that with the story of the Xingu Indigenous Park (former Xingu National
Park) in Brazil, by the Villas Bôas brothers, in 1961. For the 50th anniversary of the Park (2011),
Globo Network, the biggest television broadcasting company in the country, dedicated a series of
news reports to the subject, aired during its late Sunday tv show, named Fantástico (Fantastic).
A fiction film entitled Xingu3 (Cao Hamburger, 2012) was also conducted at the time, as
much as a special news report within the weekly tv show Globo Repórter (Globo Reporter), and
many other television news on the confrontation amongst indigenous peoples, farmers and the local
community in different areas of the country, which are currently still going on. At last, there are two
different perspectives that differ from the prevailing in television: the film Serras da desordem
(Hills of disorder, 2006), by director Andrea Tonacci, and a documentary film entitled Pïrínop
(Instituto Catitu, 2007), a first-person narrative told by an indigenous man.
3
Official movie site: www.xinguofilme.com.br.
4
The television series4 named Expedição Xingu (Xingu Expedition) was aired on Sundays
between 21st August and 24th September 2011, and counted on the journalist’s Rodrigo Alvarez
leadership and participation. The show involved eight university students, same aged as the brothers
Orlando, Claudio and Leonardo at the time of their expedition. The participants were selected
amongst the more than five hundred registered people. They reconstructed the route for the
expedition from the northern city of Barra do Garças, in the State of Mato Grosso, to the Serra do
Roncador (Rumble Hill) ending at the Kamaiurás tribe within the Xingu Indigenous Park. They
tried to reproduce the clothes used back in 1943 during the brothers Villas Bôas’ expedition. And
they also experienced the indigenous’ daily routine: the women joining the expedition stuck
together with the indigenous women as they did craftwork. The men learned the typical huka huka
fight, according to the official advertisement for the tv series. In the last episode, the presenter
Alvarez says that the indigenous life style had not been changed in any way since the Villas Bôas
were there: women take care of the plantation while men hunt and build5.
For this tv series, what matters most is the imagination of how the Villas Bôas brothers’
exploration would have been. The indigenous people do not have a central role in the narrativeand
what comes first on screen is a regional map without any references to the limits or location of the
territory. Nothing but a word painted in red, “unexplored”, almost as if saying “uninhabited”. The
attention is then drawn to the editing, when the scenes of students bound to walk the path from
Barra do Garças city until the Xingu Indigenous Park are inserted with those of the Villas Bôas
opening a path into the jungle. The celebrated encounter between past and present is, in this case,
performed between today students and yesterday’s explorers. The possibility of repeating the
historical expedition is reinforced in association with the idea of little intervention on the space of
the Park.
In the last two years, many Brazilian television networks also exhibited different news
reports on the indigenous cause, such as the one included in the evening news Jornal Nacional
(National News) from 16th April 2012. It reported on the ongoing conflicts resulting from land
disputes in different regions of Brazil, especially in the South of the State of Bahia. The fazendeiros
[farmers who own a piece of land called fazenda] and indigenous peoples are described as
antagonists in the disputes, the farmers being the victims, the others being the invaders. Right in the
middle of the space that could be one for interaction, where conflicts could be negotiable, the
tension becomes exasperating. The matter seems to be not knowing what to do when the other
“trespasses” the boundaries of our safe spot – like when indigenous peoples require rights to
4
For the complete episodes: http://fantastico.globo.com/Jornalismo/FANT/0,,JOR447-15607,00.html/. Galeria de fotos [Photo
Gallery] on the site Globo.com: http://fantastico.globo.com/Jornalismo/Fantastico/1,,GF87497-7762,00.html.
5
See http://fantastico.globo.com/Jornalismo/FANT/0,,MUL1670473-15607-447,00.html. The news report is entitled “Expedição
Xingu: jovens universitários embarcam em aventura heroica” (Young university professors board on heroic adventure).
5
citizenship, to commercial exchange, to ownership of land, to be acknowledged as “Brazilians”.
Such issues bounce between identity and alterity. That is especially relevant in the Brazilian case, a
country supposedly open to ethnic and racial differences, but where the indigenous life style,
culture, values, religion, and social organization are extremely distant for us. This image is also
reinforced by the fact that they apparently do not desire the economic development as we mostly
do, thus remaining in a symbolic place established in time.
The process of taking indigenous peoples from invisibility and framing them in exoticism is
very common in broadcasting news, as in the example of a recent Globo Repórter (Globo Reporter)
programme aired in 6th June 2012. They are also framed in compliance, as seen in the mentioned tv
series Expedição Xingu (Xingu Expedition). In the tv show Globo Repórter (Globo Reporter), as
well as in the tv series of Fantástico (Fantastic), the journalist is responsible for showing us to a
distant world, which is supposedly isolated and never before recorded in video. Even if we are to
avoid a biased perspective there are several stereotypes emerging from the diversity of colours,
music, food and traditions showed to us.
The reporter gives of himself to the indigenous without exactly getting involved with them,
without being actually in the scene. On the contrary, he makes them support the scene, reinforcing
the gap between us, urban white people, and them, the isolated indigenous groups. The Fantástico
(Fantastic) tv series aggregates elements from the structure of reality shows adapting them to the
form of news report. Anyway, just as in Globo Repórter (Globo Reporter), the result is opposed to
that perceived in the film Xingu, in which the indigenous seem to claim an identity of their own:
“Our film is not only about those guys who changed the destiny of Brazil, but also about the
encounter of civilizations. Ours and theirs. The so-called primitive one, which instead shows
sophistication. It is an organised society with rigid ethics code, which praises education of the
individual as the highest social value. And still they live in harmony with their environment”
(HAMBURGER, 2008).
The film Xingu deals directly with the matter of the indigenous presence in Brazil, an
obscure and complex question surrounding the current media discourses. There is an apparent
paradox in assuming this perspective, as the supposedly distant and radical “other” turns out to be
precisely the nearest to us, the most native, the most traditional, the most appropriate – at least from
the stand point of a supposed national founding imaginary, which is precisely the indigenous
culture. In this sense, the “distant other” and the “near other” can meet together. It is a question of
subjective positioning or, moreover, it is the result of the tense moment when the distant other stops
being “domesticated” and becomes an “extreme” other, the first one settled in place and the second
escaping where he should be. Let us think of Hall’s proposition (2000, p. 75) concerning identities
displaced from a specific time, place, history or tradition. They are identities that seem “to fluctuate
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freely” in the context of a globalized social life. They embrace different lifestyles, the active
participation of interlinked communication systems and massive circulation of media images. So we
argue that the “other” operates according to a relationship with “oneself”.
In its final scene, Xingu puts us face to face with indigenous peoples announced in the film
as being isolated and unaccessible. In the close-up there is a man from a tribe that had not been
found yet at that time of the film shooting. He faces the audience in a challenging way, as if
portraying his radicalism as non-domesticated Otherness. However, the film is also able to
challenge such encounter allowing us to realize, in our present time, the domination processes that
unfolded from that moment. Different from other groups that are considered to be social minorities
(black people, women), indigenous people can never become quite like the so called “white man”.
They can never be one of us not even by repeated processes of acculturation or, on the opposite
direction, by attempts to preserve some “authenticity”. It is a matter of representation construction
and identity shapíng that we are trying to address while recurring to these media discourses. One
then observe the take on Brazilian indigenous today pondering on the duality between a “close
other” or a “distant other”, and their possible visibilities.
Another example, the documentary film Serras da desordem (Hills of disorder, 2006), by
director Andrea Tonacci, retraces the story of the indigenous man called Carapiru, from Guajá
ethnicity, settled in the state of Mato Grosso, cnetral area of Brazil. He escapes from farmers and
starts to wonder through Brazilian central hills in a journey that lasts for about 10 years, being
captured in 1988. We recognize the film’s attempt to present the Indian man in its natural
environment, choosing to leave aside the figure of the white man and of the filmmaking equipment
itself. The audience is then invited to follow the character’s actions as they happen in their actual
duration, as in the scene Carapiru performs tasks in the jungle. The film is edited in a way not to
interfere with the presentation of the facts, which we should anyway identify as a process of
narrative construction.
That is how the character of the man performing activities and exercising abilities is
positively valued. There is not a specific concern on reporting the scenes scientifically, as the video
proposition is much more poetically engaged than dedicated to data recollection for ethnographic
research. The movie confronts us with the experience of one single man, to whom we are made
close as we follow the story of how he leaves his community. In that sense, watching the movie is
like repeating the event of the encounter between the “white man” and the supposedly isolated
Indian man, always founded in the imaginary. We walk with him along the way and immerse
ourselves in the images of his reported daily life. A process of fusion is bound to integrate dualities
such as civilization-nature, white culture-indigenous nations.
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Despite being experimental, the described documentary is controversial for dealing with the
matter of filming others and recording their daily life. By the end of the film, we unveil the fact that
although the reported encounter did actually happen, all we have seen on screen was actually
produced for recording. The characters stage their own stories in order to narrate their lives. In this
sense, reality does not unfold naturally, but is rather incited by the camera. The film bounces
between fictional and documental frames, further along blurring those boundaries. The director
Andrea Tonacci is not only able to accomplish the exhibition of a character, but also to perform a
true reflection on the constitution of documentary films, addressing documentary’s attempt to
shorten the distances between different realities, reinventing cinema itself.
Pïrinop, meu primeiro contato (Pïrinop, my first contact, 2007) is a documentary film
directed by Mari Corrêa and Karané Ikpeng, both members of the non-governmental organization
Instituto Catitu – Aldeia em Cena (Catitu Institute – The village in the scene). The organization is
dedicated to technically instruct and offer conditions to the recordings of indigenous culture by
indigenous communities themselves. One of the first references of the movie is the soundtrack, an
ambient sound in which is possible to hear birds singing. At first there is no record of the human
voice, privileging the idea of nature isolation. The title of the film reinforces two main aspects: the
fact that it is one’s first encounter, and that it is told in one’s viewpoint, as the indigenous
representation is implied there.
When it comes to the film, one can say that the images also contribute to the imaginary of
indigenous isolation. They show activities that the indigenous peoples would supposedly be doing
before meeting” white people”, as using the river to bathe and to fish. The first sentence in the
video has subtitles in Portuguese (directed to non-indigenous Brazilian audiences) and it says: “And
then there was no white man”. There is no narration along with the first images of the video,
intended to present the space in an overhead take of the indigenous village. Without further
introduction, the Indian man telling the story is presented within the traditional framing for
interviews, offering a perspective on how the very first time that white man laid eyes on the
Indigenous territory would have been.
At some point there is an Indian in crutches, missing one of his legs. Such vision of a
disabled body is associated with the idea of an exile and unremitting sadness. From framing the
body we go to framing houses, the Oca [hollow indigenous housing], while the narration goes about
missing places. As the film follows, we watch an Indian woman doing craftwork, an activity which
is not described by the narration. Instead, the indigenous narrator ponders about who is entitled to
decide about the community’s name. The film privileges the debate on the encounter with the white
man and the attempt to build a possible indigenous visibility.
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Addressing the issue theoretically, one can say that politics – and the politics of
representation – is based mostly on the “relationship between different worlds” (RANCIÈRE, 1996,
p. 53) rather than on power relationships. The forms of visibility are cultural experiences able to
“gather the relationships between the cultural ways of being and saying that define the sensible
organization of a community” (RANCIÈRE, 1996, p. 51). Visibility and invisibility are shared
sociocultural processes that provide legitimacy to certain type of images (FIGUEIREDO, 2012, p.
4). In the gap between them we are able to establish a path to challenge the matter of identities,
reinforcing its ever provisional and transitory nature. Many social actors can become subjects of
their discourses, as they narrate their own stories in first person or have it recorded by some other.
Gathering what we have seen through the examples, we pinpoint some relevant aspects
involving the dynamics of visibility. One of them is the way in which proximity or distance are
built within film narratives. Each of our examples addresses the matter of the distance between “us”
and the “other”. They are all related to the settlement of discursive, political and cultural grounds
within representation. The visibility of the different is always created in contrast to those subjects
empowered in representation, and its possibilities are given in the very own logic of representation.
Still, there are a great variety of visibility regimes that can be activated, and also a great variety of
politics of representation associated to them. If we consider television news, the reporters often act
like a character inside a narrative, becoming at the same time the narrator and the subject of the
action. In many cases, the staged reality or tele-reality sets apart news reports and documentaries, as
the last ones can frequently rebuild reality according to a more subjective perspective established
between the filmmaker and the character, “one” and the “other”.
Beyond stylistic similarities between news reports and documentaries one can also recognize
differences regarding the politics of representation and their relation to the social imaginary. We
believe that it is a process of creation which addresses the re-signification of facts in order to be
represented in culture. Even if we are dealing with facts, a story is invented through narrative
fabulation. Spaces of visibility and invisibility are presented in television and cinema screens
showing different forms of exhibiting the other, some more radical, other more familiar. They also
bring the most diverse aesthetical, thematic, ethic, stylistic, and narrative conceptions.
Audiovisual narratives perform processes either of domination or protagonism found in the
bounces between the reinforcement or surpassing of social stigma. A question seems to insist
beyond hegemonic perspectives on confrontational representations: if realities are always staged,
how can we actively and proudly include the other in the process? Such question insists, and once
again returns as we observe the media discourses and their various forms of constructing
representation through images.
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Films
Reuters (2013). Reportagem em vídeo produzida pela agência de notícias Reuters, veiculada em 03/10/2013.
Disponível
em:
http://www.reuters.com/video/2014/01/19/indigenous-groups-protest-acrossbrazil?videoId=274014003&videoChannel=2602.
Jornal Hoje (2013). Reportagem de telejornal diário vespertino exibida, em agosto de 2013. Rede Globo de
Televisão. Disponível em: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YPSSOQLF5TE.
Domingo espetacular (2012). Programa semanal de grande reportagem exibido em 08/01/2012 sobre
conflitos
entre
índios
e
fazendeiros
no
Brasil.
Disponível
em:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FFYcU_JM2q0.
Expedição Xingu (2011). Quadro do programa dominical da Rede Globo de Televisão. Disponível em:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KUhFy0EXh3w.
Xingu
(2012),
de
Cao
Hamburger.
Trailer
do
filme.
Disponível
em:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OQwTWLwKLIM.
Expedição Claudio e Orlando Villas Bôas (1953). Segundo contato com os chamados Txukarramãe
(primeiro contato em 1951). Registrada por Jorge Ferreira. Trechos de cenas documentais originais.
Disponível em: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=626XZlhj324.
Globo Repórter. Programa semanal de grande reportagem exibido em 08/06/2012. Rede Globo de Televisão.
Disponível em: http://g1.globo.com/globo-reporter/noticia/2012/06/indios-enawene-nawe-fazem-ritual-parasalvar-filha-do-cacique.html.
Jornal Nacional (2012). Reportagem de telejornal diário noturno exibida, em 16/04/2012. Rede Globo de
Televisão. Disponível em: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=82dn0nu0omo.
10
Serras
da
Desordem
(2006),
de
Andrea
Tonacci.
135
min.
Disponível
em:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R4ju_qxCca4.
Pïrinop, meu primeiro contato (2007), de Mari Corrêa and Karané Ikpeng. 83 min. Projeto Instituto Catitu.
Disponível em http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dU6k_YQloOQ. Comentário sobre o filme:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Wcu6SSDDnE.
Vale dos Esquecidos (2012), de Maria Raduan. 72 min. Documentário de longa-metragem que investiga a
disputa
por
terra
em
uma
remota
região
do
Mato
Grosso.
Disponível
em:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ziBQS3SOEoc
Message
from
Mariara’s
Heart.
Private
channel
at
YouTube.
Disponível
em:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IgAH0XGcPUE.