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Chapter 13: Fresh Water Resources
In this Chapter
9
9
9
9
9
9
The importance of water
Our relationship with water
How we use water
Ambient water and freshwater ecosystems
Water quality
Humans and water quality
Suggested Activities
Mini-Lab Activity: How does Light Affect the
pH of an Aquatic Ecosystem?
BLMs
13 – 1 The Bog and Fen Compared
13 – 2 Seasonal Turnover in Freshwater Lakes
Core Laboratory Activity: Water Quality
Testing
13 – 3 Water Quality Testing (Instructions and data
sheet)
13 – 4 Bentic Invertebrates Identification Wheel
13 – 5 Biotic Index for Water Quality
13 – 6 Stream Order Worksheet
Notes
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Chapter Overview
Water is essential for life on Earth as we know it. The term ‘blue’ planet lulls us into believing that there
is plenty of water for us all, but in reality there is not. Of all the water we have, only 0.01 percent is
available for drinking and is unevenly distributed about the planet. Water is a resource, like trees and fish,
and we have reached a point where water has to be managed in a sustainable manner. This is the theme of
this chapter. Students will learn about water in terms of its availability and distribution, its quantity and
quality and how our activities impact on the resource.
Key Terminology
Surface water
Groundwater
Watershed
Eutrophication
Bog
Fen
Wildlife corridor
Water quality index
Water table
Teaching Strategies and Approaches
concept
to
a
consideration
of
the
interconnectedness of fresh and marine water in
their local area.
Students have studied water and its role in the
environment, its importance for all who live on
Earth, and the impacts by humans on water
resources. Begin the chapter by briefly
reviewing the properties of water and the water
cycle with emphasis on how water renews itself.
Explain to students that of the 2.5 percent of the
earth’s fresh water, 68.0 percent of this are tied
up in glaciers, ice caps and permanent snow with
only 0.01 percent available for human use!
Students should recognize that all the water that
currently exists on Earth is all the water that has
ever been here and is all the water that will ever
be here (unless we bring it in from another
planet).
Break
students into groups and have them
make a list of all the ways they use fresh water
in their daily lives. Then ask them to put a line
through the uses that could be considered
unnecessary. Then have them talk about how
they might deal with a situation where the water,
they use and consider important, was limited or
taken away altogether.
H
ave students make a list of the present and
future pressures that might impact on their
community’s water supply and how these
pressures might be similar or different than the
pressures faced globally.
As part of this introduction, have students go to
nationmaster.com and view the most recent data
on water availability around the globe.
Industry uses a great deal of water. Review the
statistics provided in the student text on pages
446 and 447. In preparation teachers might want
to find out what the water consumption is by
local industry, i.e. a fish plant, a mine, or a pulp
and paper mill and the local community.
Describe the interconnectedness of fresh water
and salt water. This can be addressed using
review of the water cycle. Teachers should
ensure that students understand that water
continually moves from one body of water (or
one organism) to another. Teachers could have
students brainstorm where fresh water
originates, how it moves on land, and ultimately
where it ends up. Students could apply this
Newfoundland and Labrador is blessed with
numerous lakes and ponds, thousands of
kilometers of rivers and streams, and hundreds
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of square kilometers of wetlands. Begin an
overview of these by defining watershed and
having students study the watershed that their
school or community lies in.
Recommended that you do the Mini-Lab
Activity: How does light affect the pH of an
aquatic ecosystem? (Page 458)
Define
Define watershed. Students can determine the
riparian zone and use a variety of
graphics to illustrate a riparian zone and then
relate this to a local situation. Buffer zones are
legislated in Newfoundland and Labrador to
protect bodies of water from development. For
example, normal bodies of water require a 20 m
buffer zone. Situations in which there is
pesticide storage may require 100 m or more.
Teachers could have students research the
various requirements in Newfoundland and
Labrador for buffer zones around bodies of
water. Further to this, students could conduct
research of the Walkerton E. coli tragedy and
how the implementation of riparian zones could
reduce these incidents in the future.
extent of a watershed in their community by
using a 1:50,000 topographic map(s). To do this,
identify the nearest large river and then trace
every branch to its end. At the end of each
branch make an X with a pencil and when
complete join all X’s. Students will have
outlined the watershed. They can do this in front
of the class using a Smart Board. If the
community is covered by a high resolution
satellite photo on Google Earth, have them
explore their watershed from the air.
Follow this with a list of the functions of a
watershed. Include water collection, purification,
and storage. Teachers could use the analogy of a
sponge to illustrate the collection and storage
properties of the watershed. In nature, the
vegetation and soil acts as the sponge storing the
water and slowly releasing it into rivers, streams,
lakes, and ponds. Municipalities regulate
development within watersheds to maintain
sufficient vegetation which maintains the
“sponge effect.” Purification of the water occurs
when the water percolates through the soil,
eventually collecting in aquifers underground.
The water from springs and drilled wells
originate from an aquifer.
Build
the topic of water quality around the
Core Laboratory Activity: Water Quality
Testing (page 467). Schools located within
walking distance of a stream or brook will have
an advantage as this activity is best done over
two class periods.
Teachers should include a reference to the use of
Water Quality Index (WQI) as a determination
of water quality. Various biological factors such
as coliform and fecal coliform [reference
Walkerton ON], water-borne parasites such as
Giardia and Chemical factors (e.g. acidity,
dissolved oxygen) are used to determine WQI
and hence, water quality.
Identify the types of fresh water ecosystems.
Use the table found on BLM 13 – 1 to compare
bogs and fens. Bogs and fens cover
approximately 18 percent (6,792, 000 hectares)
of Newfoundland and Labrador. They are found
and accessible in nearly every part of the
province. If possible, bring your students on a
visit to a peat bog.
Teachers can refer to the Government of
Newfoundland and Labrador, Department of
Environment and Conservation website for more
specific information on water quality index as
well as access to a WQI calculator. Teachers
could have students use this calculator to
determine the WQI of various bodies of water in
the local area. The results of these calculations
can be shared with the class and used to write
letters to the editor or for publication in
newsletters or posted to websites.
Use the table on BLM 13- 2 to compare ponds
and flowing water.
Teachers could have students complete the case
study “Real Water Quality (RTWQ) monitoring
at Voisey’s Bay.”
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Assign a group of students to download the PDF
Teachers could arrange for a field trip to a
municipal water treatment facility or for a guest
speaker to present on the local situation.
guide for Canada-Newfoundland/Labrador Aqua
Link (CANAL) and prepare a presentation to the
class using the Smart Board to show other
students in the class how to use it. Students
should be shown the following:
•
•
•
•
•
Students
should be aware that naturally
occurring metals such as arsenic, mercury,
antimony, lead, and cadmium can have a
significant effect on human health. Each of these
metals will have negative health impact and in
high concentrations can lead to death. In
hydroelectric
development
projects,
for
example, the reservoir tends to release naturally
occurring mercury and arsenic into the food
chain. Subsequently, this will impact the amount
of fish a person should consume on an annual
basis from this reservoir. Teachers may want to
refresh
student’s
understanding
of
bioaccumulation and refer to the previous study
of Minamata disease.
How to access the site
Download the viewer
Display graphs
Download raw data
Install and use the Google Earth
interface for CANAL
Choose a water body that has real-time
monitoring and is near to the school. Have
students download data sets every second day
during the teaching of this chapter. If there is a
major rain event, have them compare the
resulting changes.
Students should survey their own community
and identify ways that wetlands, streams and
ponds can be protected or improved.
M
Review the impact of humans on water quality.
odern urban planning now includes
preserving the integrity of streams, wetlands and
lakes in the planning process. In older
communities, river restoration and wetland
preservation projects are common. The Rennie’s
River restoration project in St. John’s and the
Corner Brook Stream Trail project are two
examples. Have students look at the impact of
urbanization on rivers, ponds, and wetlands and
the measures that can be put in place to reduce
these.
Students will have already been introduced to
some of the impacts associated with forestry
activity and road construction. When covering the
impact of hydro development, keep in mind there
are trade offs. In the long run, hydroelectricity is
sustainable and, with exception to the initial
development (access roads, damming and
flooding), it is very clean. If possible, invite a
representative from either Newfoundland Light
and Power or Newfoundland Hydro to speak to
the students on how their company addresses the
environmental
impact
associated
with
hydroelectric development (dams, access roads,
and reservoirs).
Teachers can find examples of guidelines used
to protect water bodies during the community
planning process and handbooks for urban
stream, pond, and wetland restoration projects.
Students
should understand that municipal
water supplies undergo regular testing for
coliforms. If coliforms are found then mitigation
strategies are taken such as increasing
chlorination to kill these bacteria. The amount of
chlorine that can be used to do this is limited to
aesthetic quality of the water (e.g. taste and
smell). If coliform counts can not be killed off
with acceptable levels of chlorine, boil water
advisories are put in place.
The remainder of the chapter looks at human
impact on fresh water quality. Student will have
already looked at the forest sector and will be
somewhat familiar with the impact of forestry
activity on water.
Teachers should ensure students understand that
most forestry operations in NL involve clear
cutting which creates the possibility of greater
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supply, the development of these projects does
have significant environmental impacts. These
include the loss of habitat due to flooding large
areas of land, the release of mercury from the
underlying soil into the water column, blocking
the natural migration of fish, destroying
spawning habitats and increasing the
downstream water temperature. Teachers could
make reference to several existing hydroelectric
development projects in Newfoundland and
Labrador such as Bay D’Espoir, Gull Island,
Churchill Falls, and Star Lake when discussing
the environmental impacts. Teachers could also
discuss potential developments in NL such as
the Lower Churchill to bring in the human issues
and concerns (e.g. loss of traditional lands for
hunting, etc).
runoff. As a result, the maintenance of a buffer
zone is very important to reduce the impacts to
aquatic ecosystems. The buffer zone maintains a
natural riparian zone which is important to
maintaining a healthy aquatic ecosystem.
Provincial legislation governs all forestry
operations and stream crossings. Specific
guidelines are in place to minimize the impacts
of these operations. Teachers could have
students research the various guidelines that are
in place and then report their findings to the
class.
Teachers should discuss the increased siltation
due to tree harvesting and the crossing of
streams. Removal of trees that surround a river
or pond will result in a temperature increase of
the water. Removal of trees will reduce the
“sponge effect” and will result in greater
flooding and erosion around aquatic ecosystems.
Eutrophication occurs as a result of fertilizer
and animal waste runoff from agricultural
operations. Chemical pollution will occur from
pesticide runoff. If there is farming activity in
the local area, students could investigate how the
farming practices are used to prevent damage to
aquatic ecosystems.
The impact of mining on aquatic ecosystems
include acid mine waste, siltation, and chemical
pollution. Teachers could teach this section
using the Hope Brook gold mine as an example
of how a mining operation can impact an aquatic
ecosystem. Teachers could reference the
previous text for environmental science which
provides background information on this mining
operation.
Teachers should ensure that the impacts of
increased public access, road salt runoff and
hydrocarbon runoff from vehicles are discussed.
Students could investigate the level of these
threats in their local area. They could share this
information with their community by means of
letters written to the editor, articles for
newsletters, informational posters, presentations,
etc, and include it in their portfolio.
Teachers should discuss the changes in pH that
result from the leaching of tailings.
Students should be aware that while
hydroelectricity is perceived as a “clean” energy
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Answers to Questions
Check Your Understanding (Page 459)
1. A watershed or drainage basin is an area of land in which surface water and ground water all drain to a
common waterway such as a stream, wetland, lake, or even the ocean. Students may know the name of
the watershed that their community or school lays in; for example, the Humber River or Waterford
River watersheds on the west and east coasts of the province respectively.
2. The river in Newfoundland and Labrador that has the largest drainage basin is the Churchill River with
a drainage basin of 92,500 km2.
3. Wetlands are important for the health of the environment because they collect and store runoff, filter
and purify water, maintain water flow during dry periods, and provide habitats for plants and animals.
4. Bogs, fens, swamps, and marshes are the four types of wetlands found in Newfoundland and Labrador.
5. The differences between bogs and fens are outlined in BLM- 1.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (page 459)
6. Oligotrophic lakes have very low nutrient levels, mesotrophic are moderately enriched, and eutorpic
lakes have very high nutrient levels.
7. The diagram on BLM-13-2 outlines graphically the process of “turnover”.
Check Your Understanding (Page 464)
1. Water is considered the universal solvent because, in time, it will dissolve just about anything. This
characteristic is important for organisms on earth because all the chemical reactions that take place in
living things, at the cellular level, occur in a water solution.
2. The variable that influences how quickly a water body can cleanse itself include the size (volume of
water) and the rate at which new water enters and leaves. For example, Western Brook pond has a
turnover rate of 15.4 years.
3. Four ways that water can naturally clean itself are through physical processes (filtration, settling
adhesion, and freezing), bio-chemical processes (photosynthesis, bacteria), wetlands (filtering and
capture of heavy metals in plant tissue) and ultraviolet radiation from the sun. In addition, when water
enters the water cycle as a gas, wastes and dissolved materials are left behind.
4. There are three factors in the CCME Water Quality Index, each of which has been scaled to range
between 0 and 100. The values of the three measures of variance from selected objectives for water
quality are combined to create a vector in an imaginary ‘objective exceedence’ space. The length of
the vector is then scaled to range between zero and 100, and subtracted from 100 to produce an index
which is 0 or close to 0 for very poor water quality, and close to 100 for excellent water quality.
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5. The benefits of real-time water quality stations over traditional methods of obtaining quantitative and
qualitative water data are that the real-time monitoring of the health of aquatic ecosystems enables the
identification of water-quality trends and can determine when specific events happen.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (page 464)
6. Of all the major oceans, the North Atlantic is the saltiest. Water vapor carried by the trade winds
across the Isthmus of Central America may explain the salty North Atlantic. The freshwater
evaporating from the North Atlantic subtropics feeds excess rainfall in the Pacific Ocean's western
tropical regions.
7 & 8. To answer both these questions, students will have to be familiar with the Canada and
Newfoundland/Labrador Aqua Link (CANAL). It is best that they go to the Government of
Newfoundland and Labrador Environment and Conservation web page (Water Resources) and down load
the PDF users guide for the CANAL system. The instructions are clear and easy to follow. A group of
students may want to use the Smart Board to show the class how the system works.
Check Your Understanding (page 478)
1. As turbidity increases, the depth that light can penetrate decreases. This will have a negative effect on
the depth at which photosynthesis can take place.
2. Land use impacts on water quality, runoff patterns, stream flow rates, and groundwater. Students
should be familiar with the impact of land use on water quality and quantity before surveying their
community for examples of these impacts. Students may want to use a digital camera to record the
impact.
It is important in this activity that students also provide possible suggestions to reduce the impact they
identify. As a follow up to this, teachers might invite a city or town planner in to do a presentation on
how the community plans to reduce damages related to runoff and potential impacts on streams and
ponds in the watershed.
3. Both domestic and industrial water is, in most cases, taken from the same source and end up in the
same place after use. What varies is how it is used and how it is treated in the end. Domestic water
waste, consisting mostly of organic material and grey water, is processed in a sewage treatment plant
designed specifically for processing human and household waste. Many industries have their own
waste treatment system to deal with their specific water born wastes. For example, Corner Brook Pulp
and Paper has a treatment plant on site that treats ‘white’ water, water containing paper fiber, before it
is released into the Humber Arm.
4. An increase in nutrients, such as nitrates and phosphates, results in an increase in the growth of algae
and other aquatic flora and fauna. This growth increases oxygen demand resulting in the lowering
dissolved oxygen levels. A continued drop in dissolved oxygen will cause the ‘aerobic’ organisms to
die off (organisms that use oxygen) and the ‘anaerobic’ organism to thrive.
5. The activities that influence water quality during forest harvesting include harvesting, road and stream
crossing construction, replanting, maintenance, and long term management.
6. Tree harvesting on a steep hill removes trees, disturbs undergrowth and soil. All these affect runoff
patterns and the ability of the forest soils to retain water thus increasing the potential for soil erosion.
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7. Removal of ‘shade’ trees and ‘warm’ runoff will increase steam temperatures. The increase of
suspended material increases turbidity and the decomposing of the increased organic materials
influences pH.
8. Acid mine drainage in freshwater bodies can:
• Reduce decomposition processes.
• Harm fish and aquatic biota; few fish can tolerate conditions below pH 4.5.
• Harm local biodiversity.
• Make metals more soluble in water and sediments.
• Lower the quality of drinking water
9. Hydro development has the greatest impact on watersheds. A complete list of these is found on page
475 of the student text.
10. Hydro developments results in the release of carbon dioxide and methane. This release is a result of
the decomposition of organic matter (trees, soils etc) that has been covered with flood water.
11. Urbanization has many impacts and poses many challenges for urban planners. Some of these impacts
include changes in ground water and runoff patterns including changes in the water table, decrease in
water quality, reduced transpiration due to the loss of vegetation and changes in stream, rivers and
lakes with the urban area.
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Case study and Activity Notes
Case Study: Water-An Export Product? (Page 448)
A barrel of oil has an approximate volume of 159 liters. Have students check on the internet for the recent
market value for a barrel of crude (Searching the string “the price of crude oil” will yield a number of web
pages. Then have them find out the price of a one liter bottle of water and compare the two. Have them
read the material in the case study and then answer question 1 through discussion.
Questions (Page 449)
1. Have students engage in a discussion over the pros and cons of bulk water export. Students might
what to consult the 2001 report of the Ministerial Committee Examining the Export of Bulk Water.
This report is available in PDF format from the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador web
page.
2. Students will identify the bottle water processers in the province and determine their sources of water.
If your school is near one of these facilities, invite the manager to talk about the business and some of
the environmental issues the bottled water industry faces and how they are managed.
Mini-Lab Activity: How does light affect the pH of an aquatic ecosystem (page 458)
These activities are best set up in the science lab. Then assign students to go to the lab and measure pH at
20 minute intervals. The activity can be written up as a formal lab report.
- A data logger will give the best results in this activity. Schools that have access to this equipment along
with a pH probe might use this technology as it record pH changes continually and provides raw data and
can display data in graphical format.
- Elodea is the preferred plant for this activity. It is available at most pet supply stores or can be ordered
from a biological supply house.
Analysis and Conclude (page 459)
1. Graphs will vary.
2. Over 5 hours the pH should drop in the bag covered with tin foil. This is a result of the increasing
dissolved carbon dioxide levels that result in higher levels of carbonic acid and a lower pH (more
acidic).
3. The answer to this question will vary depending on the students’ initial prediction (hypothesis).
4. The answer to this question will vary depending on the students’ hypothesis.
5. Photosynthesis removes dissolved carbon dioxide, reducing levels of carbonic acid and raising pH
(making the water less acid). In a dark environment or at night, photosynthesis stops. But the snails
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continue to release carbon dioxide as a byproduct of cellular respiration. Higher levels of carbon
dioxide mean higher levels of carbonic acid making the water more acid, thus a lower pH.
6. The results would have been similar with different species of plants as all green plants undergo
photosynthesis and require carbon dioxide.
7. The evidence to support the statement that plants consume carbon dioxide is that in the plastic bag that
was uncovered there was no decrease in pH. Plants were carrying out photosynthesis (light was
available) and therefore using carbon dioxide.
8. The evidence to support the statement that animals produce carbon dioxide is that in the plastic bag
that was covered the plants were not undergoing photosynthesis and therefore not using carbon
dioxide. Because pH levels dropped, carbon dioxide was still being produced. It should be noted that
plants, in the dark, undergo respiration and produce carbon dioxide.
9. To answer this question, students will have to place a plant in a dark plastic bag and another in
covered in a clear plastic bag. Carbon dioxide levels will drop when photosynthesis takes place and
rise, in the covered bag, where photosynthesis is not occurring but cellular respiration is.
10. The pH of the water would give a relative measure of the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide in water.
A decrease in pH means an increase in carbon dioxide level.
Further Investigations (page 459)
11. More snails and more plants would influence pH change. The change would be influenced by the
numbers of each relative to each other.
12. Tracking pH for a twenty four hour period would reveal a 24 hour oxygen/carbon dioxide cycle in
aquatic ecosystems. The graph below shows the 24 hour oxygen cycle.
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Core Laboratory Activity: Water Quality Testing (page 467)
This activity should be set up as a series of six stations as outlined below. Before beginning the
activity, review with the students how each piece of equipment is used. Equipment is left at each
station and students will move from station to station in no particular order. The macro
invertebrate identification wheel can be assembled in class before the field trip. BLM 13 – 3 has
instructions and BLM 13- 4 has the wheel set.
Teachers may want to make up a class set of these. To make them waterproof, mount them on
bristol board, cut out the four wheels FIRST, and then run them through the laminator. When
cutting off the excess laminate, leave approximately a .5 cm edge. This prevents water seepage
and they will last for years.
Below is a list of materials required for this activity:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Student instruction and data sheets
Camera (have students bring their own)
Plastic meter stick
Clear acetate with 1cm grid
Biodegradable flagging tape
Thermometer or temperature probe
pH meter or pH paper
Conductivity meter
Invertebrate sampling net (4 mm mesh is best)
Bentic Macro Invertebrate identification wheel
Tennis ball and stop watch
Sample containers (white plastic tub)
Part A: General Information
Teachers should have students refer to figure 3.6 on page 59 of the student text to determine the
appropriate eco-region in which their water body is located. Use the example below to show them how to
determine stream order.
Stream order is a measure of the relative size of streams. Stream sizes range from the smallest, first-order,
to the largest, the twelfth-order (the Amazon River). You can determine stream order from a map of a
stream network. Start by identifying the smallest streams, those that have no permanently flowing
tributaries. When two first-order streams come together, they become a second-order stream. When two
second-order streams come together, they form a third-order stream. However, if a first-order stream joins
a second-order stream, it remains a second-order stream. It is not until a second-order stream combines
with another second-order stream that it becomes a third-order stream. To demonstrate this to your
students, project BLM 13 – 6 Stream Order Worksheet on the white board and work through an example.
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Teachers could have students take photographs of the study site or they could simply sketch the study site
using an appropriate scale. All sample sites should be geo-referenced using a handheld GPS. References
should be in Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM).
Part B: Reach Characteristics
Teachers should have students approximate the flow state of the water body using percentages. It is
important to note that for some water bodies not all categories of flow state (e.g. Pools) will be present.
Teachers should have students approximate the percentage of the stream covered by the plant canopy. This is best done
from the middle of the stream. Several people should do this so that an average of their estimates can be obtained. A
simple device can be made to determine canopy cover. Take an empty frozen juice can and cut out both ends. Make
an overhead of graph paper with a 1 cm2 grid. Cut out a circle of the acetate with the grid on it and tape it over the end
of the can. To determine canopy, students look up into the can and count the number of squares that have tree canopy
in them. Dividing by the total number of squares and multiplying by 100 will give a good estimated of canopy cover.
Teachers should simply have students circle the vegetation types that exist in the riparian zone adjacent to
the water body. Students will most likely have to circle more than one type of vegetation.
Part C: Water Chemistry
Water Temperature
Place the thermometer away from the bank in the main current of the water body and at least 10 cm below the water’s
surface or halfway to the bottom in shallower streams. Allow the thermometer or sensor to stabilize for a minute
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(students can slowly count to 60) before recording the result. Take temperature readings in two other places, a few
meters apart. Record the average water temperature, air temperature, and the time of day.
pH
Collect a water sample from the main flow. If you are sampling with a pH meter, allow the reading to stabilize. If
using pH paper, place a drop of water on the paper with an eye dropper (do not dip the paper in the water sample)
and use the accompanying colour chart to determine the pH. Dispose of the paper in the container provided.
Conductivity
A water sample from the main flow should be collected in a clean container and the conductivity determined from
the sample. Allow the reading to stabilize before recording the value in the data sheet.
Part D: Benthic Invertebrate Sampling
Hold the sample net in the main flow of the stream. Have a student walk towards the net, moving their feet through the
substrate, rolling over rocks and stones. Large rocks or those stuck in the streambed should be rubbed using your
hand and then replaced where they were found.
Bring the sample ashore in the sample net and check for large rocks and sticks. These can be removed after they
have been washed. Fill a white plastic tub with stream water, turn the net inside out and wash the contents into the water
in the tub. Let the sample sit undisturbed for a few minutes and the animals will begin to move about. Use the benthic
invertebrate wheel to identify the organisms and determine water quality using a water quality index. A biotic index, for
this purpose, is found on BLM 13 – 5 . Carefully release all the animals back into the stream.
Part E: Substrate Characteristics
Examine the substrate at the bottom of the water body in the study area. Decide on the two dominant substrate types
and the material surrounding those types. Students can use clear acetate with the 1cm grid to estimate particles size.
These sheets can be made by photocopying grid paper.
Students should wade into the middle of the study area and pick up at least five pieces of the two dominant
substrate types. This will only work if the dominant substrate types are pebbles, cobbles, and/or boulders. Students
must avoid rocks that were disturbed by sampling. Estimate the percentage of the rock buried in the fine material.
Students could look for a stain line on the rock. This may indicate the level of burial and aid in the estimation.
Record the average degree of embeddedness in the data sheet. Students should carefully replace the sample substrate.
To estimate substrate dimensions, students should walk outward from the shore of the water body
stopping appropriately 8 times and collecting random samples of substrate. The length, width, and height
of each sample must be measured and recorded in the data sheet. Note the substrate could be of any type.
A measure of water depth should also be taken at each of the 8 stops and recorded in the data sheet.
Two people are needed to measure stream width. It should be measured at the top, middle, and bottom of the study
area. At each of the three locations, a transect must be established at a right angle to the flow. A tape measure is
stretched across the water body and a measurement is taken. The three measurements (i.e. top, middle, and
bottom) must be recorded in the data sheet.
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Teachers could have the students determine the flow rate using a flow rate meter. This measurement,
combined with the area measurement, could be used to determine the amount of discharge by the water
body. Teachers should make note of the following formula: Discharge = Flow Rate X Area.
Students must measure out a distance in the deepest section of the water body (i.e. the channel). One person
stands at the upstream location and drops a tennis ball into the water body. Another person stands at the downstream
location and catches the tennis ball when it arrives. A third person records the amount of time in seconds that it takes
for the tennis ball to travel the total distance. Teachers should make note of the following formula:
Speed = Distance ÷ Time
s = d/t
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BLM 13-1 The Bog and Fen Compared
Source: Where Continents Collide: An Outdoor Education Curriculum
252
BLM 13 – 2 Seasonal Turnover in Freshwater Lakes
253
Source: Where Continents Collide: An Outdoor Education Curriculum
254
BLM 13 – 3 Water Quality Testing
(Instructions and data sheet)
Part A: General Information
River: _________________________
Samplers: _________________________
Sampling Date (D/M/Y): _______________________
Geographical (or Watershed) Description:
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Ecoregion: _________
Part B: Reach Characteristics
Flow State (Percent Cover):
Rapids ____________ Straight Run ______________ Pool (Or Back Eddy) ____________
Canopy Coverage (Percent Cover): ____________
Riparian Vegetation (Circle If Present):None
Grasses
Deciduous Trees
Part C: Water Chemistry
Time of day that chemistry of water was analyzed: ____________
Air Temperature: ________ (oC)
Water temperature: _______ (oC)
pH: _______
Conductivity: ________
255
Shrubs
Conifer Trees
Part D: Benthic Invertebrate Sampling
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Part E: Substrate Characteristics
Table 1: Values for Particle Sizes and Embeddedness Used to Calculate Substrate Score.
Particle Type/Size
Size (mm)
Embebbedness
Category
Score
organic cover
Category
Score
0
<1
Silt
1
Completely embedded
1
1-2
Fine Sand
2
75 % Embedded
2
2-5
Coarse Sand
3
50 % Embedded
3
5-25
Small pebbles
4
25 % Embedded
4
25-50
Large pebbles
5
Unembedded
5
50-100
Small cobble
6
100-250
Large cobble
7
Boulders
8
>250
Recording Table
Particle Type
Score
1st Dominant Substrate
2nd Dominant Substrate
Surrounding Material
Embeddedness
256
Substrate Dimensions (8 Randomly Selected Samples)
Sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Avg.
Max. Min.
Length (cm)
Width (cm)
Height (cm)
Depth (cm)
X
Location
Width of Water Body (cm)
Top
Middle
Bottom
Average = ____________
Stream Velocity
Trial
1
2
3
Distance Traveled (m)
Time (s)
Velocity (m/s)
Average Velocity (m/s) = ____________________
257
4
X
BLM 13 – 4 Bentic Invertebrates Identification Wheel
258
Source: Where Continents Collide: An Outdoor Education Curriculum
259
260
BLM 13 – 5 Biotic Index for Water Quality
Source: Where Continents Collide: An Outdoor Education Curriculum
261
BLM 13 – 6 Stream Order Worksheet
262
Chapter 14: Drinking Water
In this Chapter
9
9
9
9
9
Drinking water sources in Newfoundland and Labrador
Pathogens and drinking water
Drinking water issues in Newfoundland and Labrador
Maintaining water quality
Waste water and waste water treatment
Suggested Activities
BLMs
14 – 1 A Typical Chlorinator (Servicing the Needs
of a Small Community)
14 – 2 Giardia Lifecycle
14 – 3 Sample List of Boil-order Advisories
14 – 4 Typical Treatment Plant
14 – 5 Typical Septic Tank
14 – 6 Typical Septic System
Notes
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________ 263
Chapter Overview
In chapter 13 students looked at the water from the perspective of its availability globally and locally and
studied the human impacts on water resources in general. In this chapter students will look at drinking
sources and treatment before and after use. As communities, we look at ways that we can ensure an
adequate supply of water to meet today’s needs and those of the future. Students will learn that, despite
Newfoundland and Labrador having extensive freshwater resources, many communities have water
supply and water quality issues.
Key Terminology
Potable water
Groundwater
Pathogen
THM
Chlorination
Secondary treatment
Tertiary treatment
Primary treatment
Constructed wetlands
Septic tank
Teaching Strategies and Approaches
this is the case, find out what homes have wells
and septic systems and ask the students if their
families had their well water tested lately.
If possible build this chapter around a visit to a
water treatment facility and/or a waste water
treatment facility. Smaller communities, with
water and sewer, there will be a small
chlorinator that is worth having your students
visit. BLM 14 – 1 a small community
chlorinator is available in the teacher resource.
Communities with water and sewer may not
have sewage treatment facilities and sewage is
released raw through an outfall that is away
from the harbour.
If the community has water and sewer, identify
the drinking water source as well or surface
source. If the communities drinking water source
is from a lake or pond, obtain a topographic map
and have students determine the source’s
watershed. Follow this by having them identify
the types of activities that occur in the watershed
and the potential impacts on water quality.
Teachers
should ask students to identify as
many potential sources of drinking water as
possible. For example, they could include the
possibility of icebergs for providing available
drinking water or the desalination of ocean
water. Students should recognize that while
desalination is possible, it is not economically
viable for Newfoundland and Labrador.
However, students could briefly research some
countries in the Middle East that utilize this
means of obtaining drinkable water and the costs
associated with it.
Many families have cabins. Ask students to
find out the drinking water source and how they
dispose of human waste. If the source is a
stream, suggest that they use the biotic index to
determine water quality.
Review the material on groundwater and how
to protect groundwater. Students will have
already done a percolation test in chapter 7 as
part of the study of recreational impacts on the
environment. The percolation test is also used to
determine if soil is suitable of a septic and tile
field system.
I
n some communities many families still get
their drinking water from a well and use a septic
system for waste treatment or in some cases
water might feed directly into the harbour. If
Ask students what they know about pathogens
in water supplies. Bring up about the Walkerton
264
tragedy. Build this discussion around the
Enviro-Focus:
When
Human
Error
Threatens Water Quality on page 485 of the
student text.
Review the phases of treating municipal water.
Teachers should point out that pre-treatment and
post treatment are very expensive, so many
municipalities omit these steps. Both of these
steps may have little effect on water safety for
drinking.
Teachers should relate this to the dangers of
drinking water from streams and ponds in
wilderness areas. Students could investigate the
various ways used to treat water that is taken
from a natural system for drinking. Students
could share what they learn with the class and
create information posters/presentations to share
with others in the school. Previously, it was
thought that as long as water was flowing, it was
safe to drink. We now know that any body of
water can contain water-borne pathogens.
Students could use the Internet to investigate the
mortality rates of people who are exposed to
untreated drinking water.
Students could investigate the phases of water
treatment that are used in their community. The
results could be shared via letters to the editor,
newsletter articles, posting to website, etc.
Pre-treatment will remove excess organic
material and will thus reduce the potential for
producing THM’s (trihalomethanes).
As an activity to demonstrate the effectiveness
of using flocculants, students could use
substances such as gelatin or Kitosol 40 to
clarify a sample of water with high turbidity.
They could use two equal samples, leaving one
to settle on its own to compare the rates of
clarification.
Review
the common pathogens and use the
BLM 14 – 2 Giardia: Life Cycle in the Teacher
Resource, to take a closer look at a specific
example of a pathogen. Giardia is one of the
most common in this province. Giardia is called
‘beaver fever’ not because beavers are an
intermediate host but because in early years it
was associated with bodies of water that were
dammed by beavers. Giardia outbreaks are
common occurrences.
Students should recognize that pre-treatment of
drinking water includes clarification using
screens and alum sedimentation.
Students could use water purification tablets as a
scale example of the chlorination of water.
Teachers could use either chlorine based or
iodine based tablets.
Review
chlorination and ozone methods for
treating water. In Newfoundland and Labrador
chlorination is most common and the formation
of trihalomethanes (THMS) is an ongoing
concern. In animal studies, trihalomethanes
have been found to be central nervous system
depressants and liver and kidney toxicants.
Chloroform and bromoform are also known to
cause central nervous system depression in
humans. Some epidemiological studies have
reported associations between the ingestion of
chlorinated drinking water (which typically
contains THM’s) and increased cancer mortality
rates. The International Agency for Research on
Cancer has concluded that chloroform and
bromodichloromethane
are
possibly
carcinogenic to humans (inadequate evidence in
humans but sufficient evidence in animals); and
that bromoform and dibromochloromethane are
Students will be well aware of boil order
advisories. In some communities it is a common
and ongoing issue. Review the reasons for boil
orders and then either used the sample boil order
listing or have students go online and get the
most recent. Have them identify the community
and the reason for the boil order. BLM 14 – 3,
an example of a boil order list, is available in the
Teacher Resource.
I
nvite a representative from the community to
outline how the community has implemented the
Multi-barrier Strategic Action Plan. Students
could read the Enviro-focus “When Human
Error Threatens Water Quality.”
265
not classifiable as to their carcinogenicity to
humans (inadequate evidence in humans and
limited evidence in animals).
Finish this topic with a discussion
on other
methods of purification. Include:
Ozone
o
is a relatively unstable molecule of
oxygen that readily gives up one atom of oxygen
providing a powerful oxidizing agent which is
toxic to most water borne organisms. It is a very
strong, broad spectrum disinfectant that is
widely used in Europe. It is an effective method
to inactivate harmful protozoans. It also works
well against almost all other pathogens. Ozone is
made by passing oxygen through ultraviolet
light or an electrical discharge. To use ozone as
a disinfectant, it must be created on site and
added to the water by bubble contact.
Advantages of ozone are that it does not form
any dangerous by-products and does not add any
taste or odour to the water. One of the main
disadvantages of ozone is that it leaves no
disinfectant residual in the water. Ozone (O3)
has been used in drinking water plants since
1906 where the first industrial ozonation plant
was built in Nice, France. The U.S. Food and
Drug Administration has accepted ozone as
being safe; and it is applied as an antimicrobiological agent for the treatment, storage,
and processing of foods.
Boiling: Water is heated to 100 C for at least 5
minutes to inactivate/ kill microorganisms that
normally live in water at room temperature.
Carbon filtering: Charcoal, a form of carbon
with a high surface area, absorbs many
compounds including some toxic compounds.
Water passing through activated charcoal is
common in household water filters and fish
tanks.
Distillation: Boil water to produce water vapour,
which contacts a cool surface where it condenses
as a liquid. Because the solutes are not normally
vaporized, they remain in the boiling solution.
Distillation does not completely purify water,
because of contaminants with similar boiling
points and droplets of unvaporized liquid carried
with the steam. However, 99.9 % pure water can
be obtained by distillation.
Reverse osmosis: Mechanical pressure is applied
to an impure solution to force pure water
through a semi-permeable membrane. Reverse
osmosis is theoretically the most thorough
method of large scale water purification
available, although perfect semi-permeable
membranes are difficult to create. Unless
membranes are well-maintained, algae and other
life forms can colonize the membranes.
UV radiation is very effective at inactivating
pathogens, as long as the water has a low level
of colour so the UV can pass through without
being absorbed. The main drawback to the use
of UV radiation is that, like ozone treatment, it
leaves no residual disinfectant in the water.
A
djusting the fluoride to an optimal level in
the water supplies of these communities can help
prevent tooth decay. Thousands of communities
worldwide have reduced rates of tooth decay and
improved oral health among their residents
through water fluoridation.
Because neither ozone nor UV radiation leaves a
residual disinfectant in the water, it is sometimes
necessary to add a residual disinfectant after
they are used. This is often done through the
addition of chloramines a disinfectant. When
used in this manner, chloramines provide an
effective residual disinfectant with very little of
the negative aspects of chlorination.
266
Source: http://www.mjmenvironmental.com.
Teachers could begin by having students list
Ask them to suggest alternate uses for grey
sources of municipal and industrial wastewater.
Ask students to give their definition of
“wastewater”. Students could then be
encouraged to list as many sources of
wastewater as possible. Examples of municipal
sources of wastewater include sewage, storm
runoff, and grey water (dish and wash water).
Note that storm runoff carries road salt, oil
residue, tire particles, and pet wastes.
water and associated benefits. Student
suggestions might include watering the garden,
washing cars, filling the flush box on the toilet,
washing laundry etc. Examples of potential
benefits of reusing grey water are listed below
- Lower fresh water extraction from rivers and
aquifers
- Less impact from septic tank and treatment
plant infrastructure
Examples of industrial sources of wastewater
include fish plants, pulp and paper production,
and refining processes.
- Topsoil nutrification
- Reduced energy use and chemical pollution
from treatment
Students should recognize that treating effluent
- Groundwater recharge
helps to remediate large quantities of water by
removing chemicals/suspended solids/bacteria
and re-oxygenating. Students could research the
type of effluent treatment (if any) their
community uses. The results could be shared via
letters to the editor, newsletter articles, posting
to website, etc., and included in their portfolio.
- Increased plant growth
- Reclamation of nutrients
- Greater quality of surface and ground water
when preserved by the natural purification in the
top layers of soil than generated water treatment
processes
Begin the topic of household wastewater by
Teachers should refer back to an earlier
discussion on the eutrophication that may result
from improper waste disposal from cabins as a
way of introducing the impact of untreated
wastewater on freshwater and marine
asking students where their household wastes
end up and then distinguish between grey and
black water.
267
ecosystems. While those effects are generally
limited in scope (to a lake or river), the effects
on coastal ecosystems are much wider in scope.
Students could use the Internet, newspapers, or
news magazines to find examples of how
untreated effluent has affected coastal
ecosystems.
Use BLM 14 – 3 Typical Sewage Treatment
Plant in the Teacher Resource to review the
treatment process. Link the discussion back to
what treatment is used in the local communities.
Both lagoons and constructed wetlands are
modeled on the natural way of waste treatment.
Both these systems are limited in terms of the
volume of raw sewage they can handle. If the
local community uses one of these, a field trip is
highly recommended.
Although marine aquatic ecosystems have the
ability to deal with small amounts of effluent,
many
intertidal zones around coastal
communities do not have adequate tidal flow to
dissipate the excess organic matter. Since the
effluent is left untreated, inorganic materials
remain as non-biodegradable pollutants. Such
items wash up on the beaches. Depending upon
the location, teachers could take students on a
field trip to a marine ecosystem and record the
amount and types of non-biodegradable
pollutants. Photographs could be taken and
published in local papers along with student
commentary.
Septic tanks are common. Guidelines for septic
tank installation can be found on the
Government of Newfoundland and Labrador’s
web page. BLM 14 – 5 and 14 – 6 can be used to
support the material on page 502 of the text.
Ask students to inquire if the outhouse at their
cabin meets the provincial standards on page
503 of the student text.
Coastal cleanup events could be organized in
conjunction with groups such as Ocean Net.
Ocean Net has chapters throughout NL and their
website contains a wide array of resources
applicable to this topic. Students could read the
Enviro-focus “The Sewage Situation in
St.John’s.”
If time permits, have students do some research
on alternate outhouse technology. The compost
toilet is one option that has been around for
years and there are many others.
268
Answers to Questions
Check Your Understanding (Page 490)
1. Natural groundwater sources differ from surface sources in that it is accessible, renewable, and
generally has fewer pathogens than surface water. Groundwater is cooler all year round and has higher
levels of dissolved minerals (harder).
2. Four common pathogens found in water are bacteria (e.g. Escherichia coli), protozoa (e.g. Giardia),
viruses (e.g. hepatitis) and parasitic worms (e.g. tapeworm).
3. Giardia is a parasitic protozoon that is found in surface waters of ponds, rivers, and springs. It enters
the water as cysts contained in feces.
4. It is important to boil drinking water in even seemly pristine areas of Newfoundland and Labrador
because freshwater ecosystems are open systems. In open systems, water infected with pathogens or
pollutants in the upper section of the watershed can find its way to the lower sections.
5. According to Justice O’Connor, the cause of the Walkerton water tragedy was due to a failure to
observe and enforce existing regulations and the lack of training for operators of the municipal water
treatment plant.
6. Communities are sometimes subject to a boil-water advisory if their water does not meet the water
quality guidelines, the disinfection system is not up to standard, or there has been a recent break and
the system may need time to flush.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (page 490)
7. To answer this question, students should check with their local municipality to obtain records and
reasons why boil-orders have been issued.
8 & 9. Students will have to go to the Department of Environment and Conservation webpage to access
the information to answer these questions. Select a student and have him/her use the Smart Board to
show the class how to access the data.
Check Your Understanding (page 497)
1. The purpose of the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador’s multi-barrier approach to water
quality is to enable water resource managers to insert adequate barriers at each state of the water
supply system.
2. The three main components of the multi-barrier approach to water quality are:
•
•
•
Level One: source protection, water treatment, water distribution.
Level Two: water-quality monitoring and reporting, regulatory inspection and mitigation
planning, operator education and training, management.
Level Three: legislation, guidelines, research, and public education
269
3. The three main steps in the water treatment sequence are pre-treatment (may include screening,
coagulation and flocculation, sedimentation and filtration), treatment (by various methods) and posttreatment (adding fluoride and softening the water).
4. Some advantages and disadvantages of chlorination are outlined below:
Advantages and disadvantages of chlorination
Advantages
Disadvantages
Will kill bacteria
Cannot completely disinfect water
Low levels continue to protect the water
in the distribution system
Has an effect on viruses, cysts and parasite ova
Its effectiveness is reduced by turbidity
Requires a contact time
Produces by-products that may have health risks including
THM’s
5. The advantages and disadvantages of using ozone to disinfect public water supplies are listed below:
Advantages and disadvantages of Ozone
Advantages
Disadvantages
More effective killing bacteria and viruses
Longer process than chlorination
Does not produce THM’s
Two to three times more costly
Protects for a shorter time
For Further Discussion and/or Research (page497)
6. In some jurisdictions, people are permitted to use community water sources (lakes and rivers) for
recreation such as fishing or boating. In Newfoundland and Labrador this practice is not permitted as
there is a possibility of contamination. Human waste deposited along banks or in the woods may be
washed into the water supply.
7. The answer to this question will be the same.
Check Your Understanding (page 503)
1. Grey water is waste water from bathtubs, sinks, laundry tubes etc. whereas black water is water
flushed from toilets.
270
2. The four steps in treating sewage are:
•
Pre-treatment: This includes screening that removes debris and pre-sedimentation that removes
silt and other similar materials.
•
Coagulation and Flocculation: This involves adding chemicals to the water and rapidly mixing
them. As a result, small particles come together, or coagulate, to form larger particles called floc,
which can then settle out of the water.
•
Sedimentation: Also known as clarification, this process allows floc, sand, and other solids to
settle out by gravity.
•
Filtration: This removes suspended solids that are not removed by the sedimentation process.
3. The advantages and disadvantages of constructed wetlands and lagoon sewage treatment methods are
outlined in the table below.
Advantages
Relatively maintenance-free
Cost effective
Require less energy
Disadvantages
Required a large land area
Not efficient with wastewater
with lots of chemical or industrial
effluents
Does not eliminate bacteria
For Further Discussion and/or Research (page503)
4. Students can find the report online by searching the string “sierra club of Canada sewage report card”.
Students should be made aware that there have been concerns raised regarding how the data for this
report was collected.
5. Provincial regulations on installation of domestic septic systems can be obtained online from the
Government of Newfoundland and Labrador’s web page.
6. Invite a student whose home has a septic system to do a short presentation on the maintenance
requirements. These should include pump out intervals, whether they use biodegradable paper, restrict
the disposal of grease and oils, have a separate gray water outlet etc.
271
BLM 14 – 1 A typical chlorinator servicing the needs of a small community
Source: Where Continents Collide: An Outdoor Education Curriculum, WNLD
272
BLM 14 – 2 Giardia Lifecycle
Source: Arthur’s Medical Clipart http://www.arthursclipart.org (freeware)
273
BLM 14 – 3 Sample list of boil-order advisories
274
BLM 14 – 4 Typical Sewage Treatment Plant
Drawing by: Ed Hollett
275
BLM 14 – 5 Typical Septic Tank
Source: Where Continents Collide: An Outdoor Education Curriculum, WNLSD
276
BLM 14 – 6 Typical Septic System
Source: Where Continents Collide: An Outdoor Education Curriculum, WNLSD
277
Ch a pter 1 5: Fisheri es and A quacult ure
In this Chapter
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
The marine ecosystem
Global fisheries
Fisheries resources in Newfoundland and Labrador
Cod and other fisheries
Fisheries management
Sustainability of marine resources
New fisheries perspectives
Aquaculture
Suggested Activities
BLMs
15 – 1 Estuary
15 – 2 Intertidal Zone
15 – 3 Global Capture Fisheries Production and
Exploitation Levels
15 – 4 Northern Cod Stocks 1960 – 2000
15 – 5 Determining Fish Populations: Mark and
Recapture
15 – 6 Bottom Trawl
15 – 7 Harp Seal Mean Population Estimates and
TAC 1971 – 2000
15 – 8 Harp Seal Stomach Contents
Notes
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
278
Chapter Overview
The fishery is the primary reason why Europeans visited Newfoundland and Labrador, first seasonally,
and then later establishing permanent settlements along the coast. The settlement patterns were based on
the fishery and so is our economy and culture. The fishery provides one of the best examples of how the
environment, economy, and society are intertwined. In this chapter students will begin by looking at the
ocean ecosystem and the present state of the global fishery. The collapse of the Northern Cod fishery will
be studied in terms of the historical fishery and the events that lead up to the subsequent cod moratorium
in 1992. Since the early 90’s the fishery has changed.
Key Terminology
Pelagic
Aquaculture
Fish stock
Total Allowable Catch
Ground fish
Catch per Unit Effort
Sentinel Fishery
By-catch
Ghost fishing
Teaching Strategies and Approaches
collectors as sediments capture these poisonous
substances. This spells trouble for the life forms in
the estuary. However, if estuaries are flushed often
by tidal currents, pollutants move into deeper
waters affecting life there by spreading the toxic
effects of pollutants over a much broader area.
Begin
this chapter with an overview of the
Marine Ecosystem and if possible purchase a
copy of the video People of the Sea Narrated
by Provincial wildlife biologist Shane Mahoney,
this beautiful, award-winning film talks about
the importance of the ocean's resources,
especially capelin, to the people of this province.
It captures the essence and dynamics of ocean
ecosystem surrounding Newfoundland and
Labrador.
The intertidal zone of Newfoundland and
Labrador is quite extensive and varied since it
covers approximately 17,542 km . Because of its
proximity to human settlements and activities it
is, like estuaries, very sensitive to land and
marine pollutants. The intertidal zone is also a
very productive marine zone despite many daily
and seasonal fluctuations in abiotic factors like
salinity, temperature and nutrient availability. In
Newfoundland and Labrador, these zones play
an important role in the burgeoning aquaculture
industry. Students could read the Enviro-focus
‘Eelgrass.”
2
Large estuarine systems and salt marshes are
recognized for their important ecological function
and societal value. These areas provide habitat and
nursery grounds for commercial and recreational
fin fish and shellfish activities. Marshes absorb
energy from storms and protect the land from
hurricanes. Many of these important ecosystems
are threatened by multiple human stresses as well
as natural disturbances like hurricanes and storm
surges.
The sub tidal or sub littoral zone extends from
the intertidal to the continental slope. This area
is also referred to as the shelf zone and in
Newfoundland and Labrador, the Grand Banks
represent this area. The Grand Banks are one of
the world’s largest and richest resource areas,
renowned for both its valuable fish stocks and
petroleum reserves. Situated off the southeast
Estuaries are considered good indicators of marine
health because of their close proximity to land
where many ocean bound pollutants originate.
Monitoring plant and animal life in these zones
give scientists signals to environmental
degradation. Some estuaries can act as toxin
279
social and cultural identity is strongly linked to
it as well.
coast of the Island, the Grand Banks are actually
a series of raised submarine plateaus with a
water depth ranging between 36.5 and 185
metres. The relative shallowness of the water
allows extensive marine animal and plant life to
flourish on the bottom. As well, the warm waters
of the Gulf Stream pass over the southern
portion of the Banks in winter but cover almost
all of the Grand Banks in summer.
G
lobally fish is generally distributed as live,
fresh, chilled, frozen, heat-treated, fermented,
dried, smoked, salted, pickled, boiled, fried,
freeze-dried, minced, powdered, or canned.
Distribution can also be as a combination of
two or more of these forms. Many students
will be familiar with the different ways fish
is eaten or prepared. Salting is perhaps the
I
f possible, take your students to visit either an
intertidal zone or estuary ecosystem. The
materials to support both of these field trips can
be found as a series of black line masters: BLM
15 – 1 Estuary and BLM 15 – 2 Intertidal zone
most familiar preservation method familiar to
students and is useful for fish and meat. Salt is a
dehydrating agent and when placed on fish or
meat it causes water to move out of the fish and
meat. The lack of moisture in the tissue reduces
bacteria growth by slowing chemical activities
and preventing the micro-organisms from
multiplying. Because the dehydrated fish cannot
support micro-organisms, it does not spoil.
Have students use Google Earth to view the
extent of the continental shelf and the abyssal
plain. The ocean bottom is shown in high
resolution and has many of its features
identified. Have them pay particular attention to
the Grand Banks and the areas where their
parents fish.
There is no doubt that the oceans’ fisheries are
facing a crisis. Provide students with an
overview of the present status of the global
fishery. Although economic and social
connections are inherent in every decision we
make that affects the environment, teachers
should limit this direction of the discussion to
ensure sufficient time to address the other
outcomes.
Explain that fish is one of the most versatile
food commodities and can be utilized in a great
variety of ways and product forms. Ask them for
examples of how they use fish as a food with
examples of what they eat.
T
eachers could have students consult the
United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) for the most recent data on
the Global fishery. This data will provide many
useful graphs that communicate the levels of
exploitation and dependence.
Students could also consider the importance the
ocean played on Newfoundland and Labrador
settlement by humans as far back as the ancient
indigenous peoples like the Maritime Archaic,
the Paleo- Eskimo, the Beothucks, to the more
recent Inuit, Innu, Métis and Mi’kmaq and
finally European settlers has been directed by
the food resources available from the ocean.
Today, economically the ocean is a very
important contributor to the economy of our
province and as such, still directs much of the
settlement even though the 1992 moratorium on
cod fishing has led to a dramatic decline. Since
much of our history of settlement has been
directed by proximity to ocean resources, our
Students will find it interesting that of all the
food stuffs consumed by human beings, fish is
one of the few that is still harvested from the
wild. Teachers should have students refer to the
Land and sea episode entitled, “Hanging On”.
This video reveals the current state of the fishing
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the challenges
that face it.
280
by listing significant events in the history of the
cod fishery in Newfoundland and Labrador.
Students may find it hard to imagine that in
oceans that cover seventy percent of the Earth’s
surface; most fish stocks are presently under
stress. Ask them how many times a week their
families eat fish and then ask students to
compare their consumption with other cultures.
BLM 15 – 3 Global capture fisheries
production and exploitation levels should be
used to help students conceptualize trends in the
global fishery.
The traditional fishery in Newfoundland and
Labrador was the cod fishery. Our history,
settlement patterns, and culture have much of its
roots in the fishery. Teachers could use a time
line to show student the significant events.
Include:
• for 5000 year native peoples depended on
the resources of the sea
• the discovery of Newfoundland by John
Cabot in 1497
• in 1578 there were over 400 ships taking
part in the fishery
• in the 1950’s factory freezer trawlers
were introduced
• cod stocks begin to decline in the 60’s
and 70’s
• in 1992 the cod moratorium is declared
• diversification into other species
Outline how, besides over harvesting, climate
change, pollution and habitat loss are impacting
on the world’s fisheries.
I
f your school is in a rural community, then
most likely your students have a fishing history
in their family. This would be a good point to
have students discuss the social and economic
links between their community and the sea. An
alternate approach would be to have students
interview their parents or grandparents. Students
in more urban areas of the province may not
have this direct connection to the fishery. In this
case, you might have a student or a guest
speaker to present on this topic.
Teachers should show the Land and Sea episode
entitled, “When the Stages were Full”. This
episode reveals what the fishery was like at its
peak in relation to the community of Change
Islands. Today, the people of the community are
striving to harness and/or sustain as many
features as possible of this industry and/or way
of life.
Review the history and causes that led up to the
collapse of the northern cod fishery. Use BLM
15 – 4 The Northern Cod. One of the real
stories here is the relationship between the
Northern Cod fishery and the economic and
social consequences and how it impacted on
decision making. The reduction in the Total
Allowable Catch (TAC), was influenced by this
and contributed to the severity of the collapse.
Resource
management and its role in
sustainable development is a theme that runs
through this course. Management of the forests,
mineral and other renewable and non-Resource
management is a theme that runs through this
course. Management of the forests, mineral and
other renewable and non-renewable resourses
are governed by laws and sound management
practices. Teachers should review the impact
and roles of the following:
Finish this portion of the chapter by providing
students with an overview of other commercial
species fished off the shores of Newfoundland
and Labrador. The health of these commercial
stocks, (crab, shrimp, turbot, lump fish etc), are
changing annually so teachers may want to track
these fisheries annually in preparation for
teaching this chapter.
•
•
Begin the topic of fisheries management by
•
defining fish stock and fish population. Follow
281
The Constitution Act of 1867
The International Commission for
the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries
(ICNSF)
The Northwest Atlantic Fisheries
Organization (NAFO)
Introduce sustainable fishing by asking students
Fisheries
management is by far more
challenging than wildlife management because
unlike moose, caribou and Arctic hare, fish are
rarely seen. To drive this idea home, pass two
clear plastic bottles, with a handful of beans in
each, around the classroom. One bottle is
wrapped in tape. Ask the students to write down
the approximate number of beans in each bottle.
Follow this with a discussion of the challenges
that have to be overcome to determine the
number of beans in the taped over bottle. A
suggestion of possible methods could also be
discussed. There is an activity later in these
notes that you might what to do with your
students.
what sustainable fishing practices are and how
they might they be applied to local trout and
salmon stocks. Extend this discussion to threats
to sustainability. Some points that students
might bring up include:
Good sustainable practices
• respecting limits and seasons
• reporting catch
• respecting the habitat and
surrounding environment
Threats to sustainability
• pollution of local streams and
ponds
• not reporting catches
• poaching
• netting
• not respecting catch limits
• environmental change
• bycatch
• habitat loss and destruction
• disease
Cover fisheries data collection with a visit from
a fisheries officer or a visit by a fisherperson
who is participating in the sentinel fishery. The
following suggestions and resources might help
further cover some of the material:
•
•
•
•
Images of fish tags are available on the
internet.
An activity that shows students how the
mark and recapture method can be used
to determine population is found as
BLM 15 – 5 Determining Fish
Populations: Mark and Recapture.
Hydroacoustic
demonstrations
are
available on YouTube.
High quality pictures of otholiths are
available online. Students can use these
to determine the age of a fish.
The following can be used to elaborate on the
treats to sustainability:
Population status: Teachers could begin by
showing students a food web representing the
dominate species in the North Atlantic and ask
questions such as:
• what might happen if capelin populations
were reduced?
• what might happen if seal population
increased/decreased?
• what might happen if cod populations
increased?
Biological characteristics of species: Teachers
could have students select one of the following
species: cod, capelin and turbot. Students would
then engage in research to collect information on
life cycle, optimum water temperatures and
migration patterns for their species. Teachers
could then have students discuss how each of
these factors might impact on the fishery for
these species.
T
eachers should briefly outline how the
sentinel fishery works. Teachers should
emphasize that this program actively gets fisher
persons involved in making a valuable
contribution to the understanding and
management of the fishery.
Students could read the Eco Spotlight “David
and Irene Bath–Sentinel Fish Harvesters.”
282
Environmental: Cod is a good example here and
there is lots of literature available on the impact
of environment on cod growth and survivability.
The seal hunt and the impact of seals on cod
and other fish stocks can be looked at by having
students study BLM 15 – 3 Harp Seal Mean
Population Estimates And TAC 1971 – 2000.
Bycatch: Teachers should focus students on
identifying ways to reduce bycatch. These
include:
Focus of the material is on how the diet of seals
is determined and their impact on fish stocks.
Review both stomach contents and quantitative
fatty acid signature analysis as methods of
determining diet. Use BLM 15 – 7 Harp Seal
Stomach Contents as an example of a set of
results from the stomach contents analysis of
harp seals.
• mesh size
• selective fishing areas and seasons
• setting bycatch levels
• the Nordmore grate in the shrimp fishery
Habitat loss and destruction: Teachers could
have students think-pair-share their answer to
the question “what do you think would happen if
a causeway was built across the entrance of a
narrow cove where fish came each spring to
spawn?” Students should be able to draw on
both their general knowledge and specific
knowledge from other sections/topics in this
course to address the role of habitat in sustaining
a species. Teachers could use a KWL chart to
summarize the overall class understanding of
this topic.
Perhaps one of the greatest threats facing the
world’s fishery is climate change. Because fish
have narrow tolerances to salinity, temperature,
and water quality small fluctuations in water
temperatures can impact on a species range and
their ability to reproduce successfully. It is
believed that this may have played a role in the
demise of the Northern Cod stocks.
Review the potential impacts of sea ice, salinity,
and temperature using the example species on
page 544 of the student text. Keep in mind that
we are not sure what the future impacts of
climate change will be so it is important that
teachers be aware of any new and developing
theories or predictions.
Pollution and disease: Teachers could relate to
topics already covered on pollution from
residential and commercial sources.
E
xplain to students what mobile bottom fishing
gear is with some examples. Use the attached
BLM 15 – 6 A Typical Bottom Trawl and have
students study the excellent video clips available
on YouTube showing bottom trawls travelling
over the sea bottom to drive home the
environmental impacts of this technique.
Most of what we eat is domesticated in that we
grow it in the ground or raise it on the pasture.
Fishing from the wild is perhaps one of your last
‘wild’ sources of food other than what is
harvested from recreational hunting and fishing.
Aquaculture is the way of the future and it has
already had an impact on the amount of wild fish
harvested making up 30% all the fish we eat.
Cover the topic of ghost fishing (ghost nets)
using the text material and again by looking at
underwater footage of ghost fishing on
YouTube. Have students suggest technology
based methods of dealing with this issue other
than those listed on page 537 of the student text.
Aquaculture is the fastest growing sector of the
agricultural economy. If your school is located
near an aquaculture operation (salmon or
mussel), arrange a visit and make it the
foundation for the topic of agriculture.
Students will be surprised to learn how much
fish is discarded as bycatch. Add this to the
amount of the world’s catch directed to making
animal food and they can clearly see why the
oceans are in trouble.
Review site selection and the environmental
issues related to aquaculture.
283
Answers to Questions
Check your Understanding (page 518)
1. The most crucial issue facing the global fishery is overfishing. Fifty percent of the world’s fish
populations are fully exploited, twenty-five percent are being driven into decline and the remaining
twenty -five percent are over exploited and being driven to extinction.
2. Fish are so important to mankind because nearly one billion people rely on fish as a primary source of
animal protein; the fishery provides full-time employment for approximately 38 million people
worldwide and a livelihood for another 150 million people in fisheries, aquaculture, and associated
activities.
3. In Newfoundland and Labrador the term ‘fish’ and ‘cod’ have the same meaning because the early
fishery was based on only one species of fish, the cod.
4. Some of the possible reasons for the demise of the northern cod stocks include:
• Overfishing by distant-water fleets from Europe.
• Replacing of the foreign fishing fleets with Canadian trawlers.
• New and efficient fishing technologies and methods.
• Possible environmental changes (cooler water temperatures).
5. The list of commercially important species is found in the side-panel on page 517 of the student text.
Teachers should update this list as new species find a market niche.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (page518)
6. Trends in cod landings are outlined in the table below.
Year
Trends
1958 - 1968
- longliners introduced
- distant water trawler from Europe exploited the
edge of the continental shelf
- catch rates were over 800.000 tons
- catch rates being to decline in 1968
1969 - 1978
- 200-mile limit established in 1977
- distant-water fleets decreased
- Canada permitted trawlers to replace the foreign
fleets
1979 - 1988
- cod stocks declined rapidly during the late 1980’s
and into the early 1990’s
1989 - 2006
- Canada declares a moratorium on northern cod in
July of 1992
284
7. Students will have to do research to answer this question as theories and survey data change annually.
In 1992 the stocks were expected to recover within a few years. In 2006, fourteen years after the
moratorium, the stocks were only one to two percent of their 1980 levels.
Check your Understanding (page 521)
1. The ICNAF is the International Commission for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries. It was established in
1950 to protect and conserve the fish resources of the Northwest Atlantic using the most modern
fishery science.
2. The ICNAF was replaced by NAFO (Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization) in 1979 as the
ICNAF mandate was no longer valid with the extension of jurisdictions to 200 miles.
3. The role of NAFO is to contribute to the rational management and the conservation of fisheries
resources in the North Atlantic.
4. Some of the measures that NAFO has adopted to improve the conservation and management of fish
stocks included:
•
•
•
•
Setting total allowable catches and quota allocations of member nations
Technical conservation measures such as minimum fish sizes, minimum mesh sizes, and
chafing gear requirements.
Measures designed to promote and coordinate scientific cooperation.
Measures of surveillance, control, and enforcement.
5. The Canadian Constitution Act of 1867 gave the federal government the sole power to manage the
inland and sea-coast fisheries.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (page 521)
6. In Newfoundland and Labrador the federal and provincial governments share responsibility for the
management of the fisheries. Fisheries and Oceans Canada, also known as the Department of Fisheries
and Oceans (DFO), manages fisheries primarily through the authority of two acts.
•
Under the Fisheries Act, the Minister is responsible for management of fisheries, habitat, and
aquaculture. In early 2007, the Minster of Fisheries and Oceans introduced amendments to the
Fisheries Act.
•
Under the Oceans Act, the Minister of Fisheries and Oceans is responsible for leading oceans
management.
In Newfoundland and Labrador, the provincial Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture (DFA) is
responsible for licensing fish processors, as well as supporting and promoting the development of
sustainable and viable fishing and aquaculture industries.
7. Students will come up with a variety of answers. Some might include how they can manage a resource from afar or the fishery occurs off the shores of Newfoundland and Labrador therefore we should manage it. 285
8. The government of Newfoundland and Labrador created the Professional Fish Harvesters Certification
Board to improve the quality of the catch. The purpose of the board is to:
• promote the interest of fish harvesters as a professional group;
• operate and maintain a fish harvester registration system;
• develop, evaluate, and recommend courses under the professionalization program;
• be responsible for defining the standards for professionalization;
• issue certificates of accreditation to qualifying fish harvesters;
• provide an independent appeals procedure for fish harvesters
• develop, maintain, and monitor compliance of a Code of Ethics;
• apply sanctions against fish harvesters who violate the Board's Code of Ethics; and
• provide an advisory role to the federal and provincial governments in the formation of fisheries
policies consistent with the common good of fish harvest
9. Teachers might consider assigning each measure to a group of students and have them prepare a
presentation for the class.
10. If possible, teachers should consider inviting an elder to speak to the class on this issue. Aboriginal
peoples also have other traditional fishing and hunting rights they would like to share.
Check Your Understanding (page 528)
1. Fish stocks are assessed to determine how many fish there are in a stock or population, how this
compares with the size of the stock historically, the age or size distribution of fish in the population,
whether the population is increasing or decreasing, and whether there are many or only a few young
fish entering the population (recruitment). Using this information, it is possible to determine if various
catch levels will cause the population to increase, decrease, or stay the same.
2. The answer to this question is summarized in the table below.
Data Source
Commercial fisheries
Log books
Catch samples
Scientific Surveys
Institutional (MUN, government) studies
Stratified random bottom-trawl surveys
Hydroacoustics
Fish tagging
The sentinel fishery
Information
Catch weigh
Gear use
Fishing effort
Size, sex, age and maturity of the fish
Fish distribution
Recruitment
Sex, age and size
Fish growth, health and maturity
Population trends
Fish biomass
Distribution (vertical and horizontal)
Population size (herring and capelin stocks)
Migration patterns
Mortality
Relative abundance of inshore cod
Tagging and recapture of cod
286
3. Recent fish tagging has shown that the population of cod in the inshore waters of eastern
Newfoundland and Labrador remain inshore throughout the year.
4. The purpose of the sentinel fishery is to use commercial fishers to assist in determining the relative
abundance of inshore cod populations in eastern Canada.
5. When talking about fish population, the term ‘production’ refers to the addition of young individuals
to the stock (recruitment), the growth of the fish and the removal of individuals from the stock by the
fishery or natural causes. Knowing ‘production’ will help determine allowable catch and manage the
fishery so that production is not reduced to a negative value which signals a stock in decline.
6. Uncertainties associated with the sequential population mode of estimating fish stocks are catches may
not be reported accurately, natural mortality is difficult to measure, and estimates of fishery discards
may be inaccurate or lacking.
For Further Discussion and /or Research (page 528)
7. Unlike terrestrial habitats, the marine environment is largely closed, fish are hidden from view, and
may migrate unseen.
8. It is difficult to get an accurate population size for fish populations the reasons listed above in question
seven.
Check Your Understanding (page 535)
1. Sustainable fishing is harvesting and managing to meet today’s needs without jeopardizing the stocks
ability to meet humankind’s future needs.
2. The factors that can affect the sustainability of marine resources include present population levels,
biological characteristics of individual fish species, environmental change, fishing pressure, by-catch,
habitat destruction, pollution, and disease.
3. A ‘keystone’ species is a species whose abundance can dramatically alters the structure and dynamics
of ecological systems. Capelin is considered a ‘keystone’ species because it is an important prey for
many species of fish, marine mammals, and marine birds. Dramatic changes in capelin population can
seriously impact the species that depend on them.
4. It is estimated that in 2003 seven million tonnes of by-catch was discarded. This figure represents ten
percent of the global fish catch.
5. The key elements of responsible fishing includes the use of fishing gear and fishing methods that
allow a fishery to be sustained indefinitely; respecting catch limits and ensuring that other fish
stocks, other marine life, and the entire marine environment are not damaged as a result of
fishing activities.
6. Responsible fishing is promoted in Canada through encouraging the use of fishing gear and fishing
practices that promote conservation of fish stocks, professionalization of fish harvesters and training in
responsible fishing practices, and a code of conduct for responsible fishing.
287
Check your Understanding (page 545)
1. Environmental impact of mobile bottom fishing gear includes damage to seabed features such as
boulders, bedforms (ripples and hollows formed on the sea bottom), and benthic organisms. Students
may want to view bottom trawling videos available on YouTube.
2. Following the precautionary approach refers to taking precautionary steps to protect the environment
from human activities even if there is scientific uncertainty.
3. Ghost fishing occurs when traps or nets are lost at sea and they continue to fish. In Newfoundland and
Labrador lost gillnets are the main problem. Students may want to view ghost fishing videos available
on YouTube.
4. Some regulations that have been introduced by DFO to reduce the impact of ghost nets include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The use of radar reflectors and inflatable buoys on the end of each fleet.
Buoy lines that are at least ½ inch in diameter and at least 1 ½ times the depth of the
water in length.
Attach lead ropes to each buoy line 5 fathoms below surface.
Set only as much gear as can be retrieved in a day.
Avoid setting nets across other gear or in areas of high vessel traffic.
Have a gillnet retrieval device or ‘creeper’ on board.
Report lost nets and begin searching immediately.
5. The advantages and disadvantages of gill nets are listed in the table below.
Advantages
Yield a high quality catch
Disadvantages
Lost nets continue to fish (ghost nets)
Mesh size does not control the type of fish caught
If not retrieved due to bad weather, the catch
becomes prey for other fish
6. By-catch is the unintentional harvest of fish other than what is intended to be caught. It is an important
issue because up to 10 percent of the global fish catch is bycatch.
7. The traditional method used to determine the diet of seals is the analysis of stomach contents and
feces. A more recent form of analysis is to use the fatty acid signature of the prey.
8. Some difficulties in determining the impact of seals on fish stocks include the complexity of the
marine ecosystem.
9. All species have varying tolerance to many environmental factors. The environmental factors that are
important to marine species inhabiting the north Atlantic include salinity, temperature, sea ice,
currents, and available nutrients.
288
10. The Arctic's sea ice is a major driver of global weather systems. The light surface of the ice reflects
solar energy away from the Earth and acts as a natural refrigerator for the planet. Ice and melt water
from the Arctic Ocean have profound effects on ocean circulation patterns on the North Atlantic, and
from there to ocean and other climate systems over the entire planet. The Arctic's sea ice is home to a
wide variety of wildlife, including polar bears, arctic foxes, seals, walruses, and whales, fish species
such as Arctic cod and char, and sea birds such as guillemots, auks, and eiders. The sea ice is also used
as an important transportation route by caribou and muskox and a traditional hunting ground for the
Inuit, that remarkable indigenous culture of the far north.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (page545)
11. Students should prepare for the debate by doing research on the impact of mobile bottom fishing gear
(MBFG). Images and videos (YouTube) can be collected and linked to their presentation. Encourage
them to use PowerPoint presentations and Smart boards if they are available.
12. Answers to this question will vary. Students must support their arguments.
Check Your Understanding (page 555)
1. Some impacts of aquaculture on the environment include the possible interaction of escaped fish with
wild stocks, pollution of the water and environment where the farm is located, and pollution of the
microenvironment within the farm itself which affects the quality of the stock.
2. The purpose of the Code of Containment for salmonid fish farmers is to minimize escape of farmed
salmonids and to provide the industry with a mandate for sound practice.
3. The selection of the aquaculture site, husbandry practices, maintenance of water quality, feed, density
of stock within the enclosure, and disease control are factors influencing the health of farmed stocks.
For Further Discussion and/or discussion (page 555)
4. Escaped fish compete with native fish for food. They may breed with native fish and may produce
viable offspring or offspring that cannot reproduce, and they may spread disease or parasites.
5. Answers to this question will vary. Students should consider the environmental, economic and social
impacts of such a facility.
6. Answers to this question will vary. Students should be aware that the capability is there to design and
run aquaculture operations that have minimal risks to wild stocks. Problems arise when companies fail
to invest funds to deal with potential problems.
289
BLM 15 - 1 Estuary
This activity consists of two parts and should be done when the tide is low. Be sure to consult the
tide table, tide software, or tide clock before planning the activity. Before beginning the activity,
ensure that all students have rubber boots and are adequately dressed for the weather.
Although shallow water extends a considerable distance from shore, safety is still a concern.
Discuss the dangers of wandering too far from shore. Remind students that the estuary ecosystem
is fragile and that it is important to minimize disturbance by returning plants and animals to their
original locations.
Part 1 Collecting Estuary Animals
Begin this activity by reviewing the impact of tides on estuaries and then divide students into
groups of three to look for organisms pictured on the handout. Encourage students to pick up and
study the plants and animals they find, but remind them to treat all estuary life with care and
return it to where it was found. The use of viewing boxes and a small white collecting pan will
minimize handling.
When your students have had enough time to adequately explore the estuary, bring them together
in a circle. Using the supplied information sheets, a field guide, and the bucket of organisms
collected, talk about selected organisms in detail and answer any questions. When you are
finished with the bucket of organisms, have students carefully return them to the estuary.
Part 2 Collecting with a seine
This part is best done when the water is knee deep. A seine is used to capture larger animals in
the water column. It is a large rectangular net with weights at the bottom edge and floats at the
top edge. It is dragged through the water with poles attached to each end of the net. When using
the seine, have students select a location with a smooth bottom that is shallow enough for wading
(about knee deep). The impact of the seine on fish and other organisms is minimal because they
are collected alive and are generally unharmed.
Select a group of four students to use the seine (two students to work the seine and two to walk
towards it). Have students place their “catch” in large white buckets filled with seawater.
Encourage students to study the animals with viewing boxes and trays.
290
Source: Where Continents Collide: An Outdoor Education Curriculum, WNLSD
291
BLM 15 - 2 Intertidal Zone
Source: Where Continents Collide: An Outdoor Education Curriculum, WNLSD
292
BLM 15 - 3 Global Capture Fisheries Production and
Exploitation Levels.
Source: The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2008, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
293
BLM 15 – 4 Northern Cod Stocks 1960 - 2000
Drawing by: Ed Hollett
294
BLM 15 – 5 Determining Fish Populations:
Mark and Recapture
In this activity you will learn about the mark and recapture method of determining fish populations. You
will be trying to find out the population of two fish species that were in the plastic bottles passed around
at the beginning of this chapter. Some bottles contain a population of dry kidney beans while others
contain white navy beans.
Sampling
•
Remove the bottle cap and shake out a sample of 25 beans, and mark them clearly with a black
marker or white-out.
•
Once you have marked your beans, put them back into the bottle, replace the cap and shake them
gently to assure thorough mixing.
•
Remove the bottle cap and shake out another a sample of 25 beans.
•
Write down the number of beans that were recaptured (had a mark on them).
•
Record the class data in the data chart.
Calculations
Use the equation below to determine the number of individuals in the population according to your data.
Show your work!
Estimated Population =
total number of marked individuals X total number captured
Number of marked individuals (recaptured)
Calculated Bean Population =
The teacher will tell you how many beans there really were in the container that you had. You can use this
information to calculate percentage error.
Actual Bean Population = _______
What was your % error for each population?
% error= Actual – Calculated X 100
Actual
295
CLASS DATA
Group
Calculated
population
Real Population
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Averages
1. Calculate and record the class averages for the different bean populations
296
% error
BLM 15 - 6 Bottom trawl
Source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/science/nature/6147896.stm
297
BLM 15 – 7 Harp Seal Mean Population Estimates
And TAC 1971 - 2000
298
BLM 15- 8 Harp Seal Stomach Contents
Source: Diet of Harp Seals (Phoca groenlandica) in Divisions 2J and 3KL During 1991–93 J. W. Lawson, G. B. Stenson and D. G.
McKinnon Science Branch, Department of Fisheries and Oceans
299
Chapter 16: Stressors on the Marine Ecosystem
In this Chapter
9 Habitat destruction
9 Marine oil pollution
9 Invasive marine species
9 Oil spills and the marine environment
9 Marine Debris
9 Protecting marine spaces
9 Oil and gas production
Suggested Activities
BLMs
16 – 1 Average Annual Contribution from Major
Sources of Petroleum in Worldwide Marine
Waters 1990 – 2000 (thousands of metric
tonnes)
16 – 2 ACAP Fact Sheets
- Marine Debris
- Industrial Effluent
- Municipal Water Treatment
- Coastal Management in the Bay of Islands
Notes
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
300
Chapter Overview
For most, the ocean experience consists of exploring that thin interface between sea, land, and sky - the
coast line. In this chapter students will learn about the stressors on the marine ecosystem. Most of these
stressors have their beginnings at the coast, but their impact is felt globally as all oceans are
interconnected by current and tide. The primary focus will be in coastal impacts. Habitat destruction,
marine debris and oil pollution all occurs in the near shore.
Key Terminology
Coastal infrastructure
Dredging
Marine debris
Drilling mud
Emulsification
Booms
Skimmer
Biological remediation
Dispersants
Marine Protected Area
Teaching Strategies and Approaches
There are a series of four BLMs that can be
Explain how habitat destruction occurs along
used to support the topics in this chapter.
coastal areas due to human activities. Include
resource extraction and pollution.
Students could consider the proposed garnet
beach mine operation for Northern Labrador and
the possible impacts this operation may have on
the beaches in this pristine area of the province.
The Hutton beaches are located in an
uninhabited area about 360 km north of Nain.
It will be difficult for students to conceptualize
that the oceans, covering almost seventy five
percent of the planet, are under stress. Again
have them look at the oceans using Google
Earth. Have them focus on the extent of our
coastline, its proximity to the mouth of the St.
Lawrence River and the North East coast of the
United States of America. Follow this with an
overview of the oceans’ currents, in particular
those that run near our shores. Use Google Earth
to explore these currents or Virtual Ocean. From
where does the current originate? Where does it
flow? Where possible, try to connect with local
examples and/or experiences.
Pollution arrives in coastal areas via two primary
routes; from shore based activities or by direct
dumping into the oceans whereby currents
transport the pollution landward. The latter
source can be accidental like in the case of oil
spills or they can be intentional like bilge water
dumping that is prevalent near the south coast of
the island of Newfoundland. Ships passing in
shipping lanes find the isolation along this route
a convenience when illegally disposing of bilge
water that often contains contaminants like oil
and metals such as copper and lead.
Explain
that currents act as distributors of
ocean contaminants. Therefore, any land based
pollutants such as toxins and solids that enter an
ocean-land boundary has the potetial to be
moved great distances from their origin via the
ocean. The rise and fall of tidal waters allow
flushing of bays and the subsequent movement
of pollutants.
Communities along coastal regions significantly
affect the natural habitats that normally exist
where oceans and lands meet. This is
particularly true when human population
densities are high. Teachers could have students
compare larger coastal centers (St. John’s or
Halifax) to smaller communities in terms of how
habitats might be affected by sewage disposal,
storm run-off, beach erosion/alterations,
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cleanups can be a fundraiser and held on a
Saturday afternoon and if the annual data is kept
for successive years, trends in types and amount
of marine debris can be tracked. Samples of
marine debris should be kept for analysis and
cataloging.
commercial
and
residential
building
developments, and recreational activities.
I
f your school is in a coastal community and the
harbor and coastline are within a short walking
distance, bring students to the water and have
them, through direct observation, record some of
the obvious visual impacts that we have had on
the coastline. The most obvious might be
garbage, loss of natural coastline habitat, and old
deteriorating wharfs and cribs. At the same time
have them identify any attempts to reduce
human impacts i.e. breakwaters, wharf
construction techniques etc.
As a side project, have your students design a
sign that can be placed near the community
stage to communicate the importance of
reducing marine debris by keeping the shoreline
clean and eliminating throwing garbage
overboard while at sea.
Begin
If there is a community wharf that has been
the lessons on hydrocarbons and the
marine environment by passing around a plastic
pan containing oil soaked sand, oil covered
beach rock, small stuffed animals and a few
feathers. Ask students to comment on what they
see and if they think it would be easy to clean
the items in the pan.
constructed recently, it most likely meets present
environmental guidelines. Have students
compare the new wharf with a more traditional
one in the harbor in terms of how its
construction and design might lessen impacts.
Have students use the list of standard mitigations
listed on page 561 of the text as their guide.
Explain that the oil has been seeping naturally
into the ocean for millions of years and that
nature has dealt with these low volume seeps.
The problem faced today with oil spills is the
sheer volume of a single oil spill in one place
and at one time. Refer to BLM 16-1 for the
Average Annual Contribution from major
sources of petroleum in worldwide marine
waters 1900-2000. In addition to this, there are
the large quantities of continuous oil running
from sewage and storm sewers.
Define invasive species and have students list
ways these species might find their way to the
waters of Newfoundland and Labrador and ways
that their transport can be avoided. Follow this
with a review of the three species outlined in the
text. With increased shipping traffic to
Newfoundland and Labrador, the risk of new
species being introduced is highlighted.
Teachers may want to consult with DFO to find
out about the most recent introductions.
Recently a bryozoid species has been found in
the waters near Rocky Harbour. This species
fouls kelp beds eventually killing them.
There are many small natural oil seepages along
the west coast of the Island of Newfoundland.
Have students share with the class the location
of these interesting geological features and any
noticeable local impacts.
Students
might be interested in how antifouling paints work to prevent organisms from
attaching themselves to the hull of a boat and the
potential negative environmental impacts of
anti-flowing.
Outline the physical properties of oil found on
page 574 of the student text and then review the
different ways that oil can find its way into the
marine environment. YouTube has many video
clips available that show the impacts of spills on
coastline and marine animals and some the
methods used to clean them up.
I
f possible cover the topic of marine debris by
having students participate in a sponsored beach
cleanup or they could organize their own. Beach
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•
Immediately after the spill, the Alaskan
Governor issued a fishing ban for Prince
William Sound to prevent cutting back
the populations of fish which had
survived the pollution. 4,000 jobs in the
fishing industry were affected.
•
A risk assessment study on consumer
health was carried out based on the
analysis of hundreds of samples of fish
and mollusks. The risk of cancer
connected to the consumption of sea
produce from areas affected by the oil
spill appeared to be negligible. This data
did not however satisfy everyone: the
year following the spill a study
conducted to assess changes in eating
habits within the native population
reported a significant decrease (from
31% to 77%) in the consumption of
seafood in 10 of the 15 villages studied.
During the second and third year
following the spill, subsistence fishing
resumed in all but a few families.
Break students into groups and ask them to
think back to the plastic container they saw at
the beginning of this topic. Have different
groups brainstorm and write down what they
think would be the economic, social, and
environmental impacts of a major oil spill in
Placentia Bay or along the coast line near their
community. The material below summarizes the
impact on humans, fauna, and the fishery of the
Exxon Valdez oil spill that occurred on March
24, 1989.
Impact on humans
•
One year after the spill, a study assessed
the frequency of psychiatric symptoms
and the association of these symptoms
with the level of exposure to the oil spill
and to clean-up operations.
•
Exposure was significantly associated
with the occurrence of general anxiety,
post-traumatic stress syndrome and
depression.
•
Impact on Fauna
These results showed that the hypothesis
of a link between the oil spill and an
increase in psychiatric problems within
the population living in the affected
areas was plausible. Women and natives
of the polluted area seemed to be the
most at risk.
•
Between 3,700 and 5,800 mammals of 9
different species were affected by the
pollution. 300 cases of direct mortality
of seals were reported, mainly caused by
breathing in volatile fractions of the oil.
Some 2,800 otters died of smothering,
ingestion of oil, and hypothermia. 14 of
the 36 killer whales counted in the
sound before the spill disappeared
between 1989 and 1990. Considerable
efforts were made to direct deer and
bears towards unpolluted areas to
prevent
them
from
consuming
contaminated substances.
•
No less than 71 species of seabirds were
affected. Guillemots were especially
heavily hit, with some 22,000 corpses
collected. The total number of seabirds
killed by the oil spill is estimated at
between 250,000 and 350,000. The bald
eagle, emblem of the United States of
America, was no exception: 153 corpses
Impact on the Fishery
•
Fishing in Alaska involves some 12,000
fishermen. Landings in the fishing
harbours of Prince William Sound
reached $174 M in 1987, almost 6% of
the American market.
•
The herring fishing season opens at the
beginning of April and represents an
annual sum of around $14 M. The pink
salmon fishing season opens in
June/July and brings in some $33 M on
a yearly basis.
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(MCTS). Containment involves efforts to keep
oil within a series of deployed booms.
were recovered. Some 1,630 live oiled
birds were sent to 4 rehabilitation
centres and 837 of them were released
after treatment. The cost of this
operation was estimated at $25.3 M
(over $30,000 per saved bird).
•
Recovery can include the use of chemical
detergents that emulsify the oil. These detergents
will chemically interact with both oil and water,
thus stabilizing the interface between oil or
water droplets in suspension. This makes
cleanup of the oil with skimmers and vacuums
easier. Another recovery method uses steam and
heat to manually remove the spilled oil. Large
steamers heat the oil which is then removed
using various absorbent products. This method
is time consuming and labour intensive. The
type of oil spilled determines the recovery
technique used. Once the spill has been cleaned
as much as possible, biological remediation
technologies may be used to allow the site to
remediate naturally. This involves the use of
specially designed microbes and fertilizers that
will enhance soils and encourage the re-growth
of plants.
A very high invertebrate mortality rate
was recorded around the oil tanker
during the 2 weeks following the spill:
almost all crustaceans disappeared and
other invertebrates became rare. Heavy
losses were incurred by certain species
living on the foreshore, in particular
winkles and limpets. Several thousand
dead fish were observed during the same
period, a relatively low impact in
comparison to other groups. However,
few fish escaped non-lethal effects, such
as erosion of fins and/or the
accumulation of oil in the gills and
reproductive organs.
After the oil is recovered, it’s separated from the
water, and the oil is disposed of, along with any
remaining cleanup materials and other debris.
Relatively fresh oil may be re-refined. In other
cases the recovered oil is burned.
Source: Black-tides.co
Describe mitigation strategies for marine oil
pollution. Include:
• preparedness
• containment
• recovery
• disposal
Sometimes cleanup crews can’t get to a slick
because the weather is too bad. In these cases,
waves re-circulate the oil in the water, and
natural processes eventually break the oil down.
Sometimes the oil is burned off the water. It
must first be contained to make it thick enough,
and then set alight. Studies have shown the
resulting smoke plume is an acceptable trade-off
under some circumstances. Finish off this
chapter by looking at protecting marine areas.
Students would have touched on this topic in
chapter 5 of the text. If the school is located in a
coastal area, consider having students compile a
list of the advantages of having a section of their
coast protected.
In
terms of preparedness, it involves
contingency
planning,
exercising,
and
training/education by the Environmental
Emergencies Section (EES), in the Atlantic
Region, which is a multi-disciplinary team
which delivers the departmental responsibilities
for environmental emergencies in the four
Atlantic Provinces.
Preparedness also involves prevention measures
such as navigational aids for tankers like the
Marine Communications and Traffic Services
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Answers to Questions
Check Your Understanding (566)
1. Coastal activities impact on marine habitat in a variety of ways. These include habitat destruction,
introduction of invasive species and coastal pollution.
2. Invasive species are carried from one part of the world in the bilge and/or ballast water of ships or
attached to their hulls.
3. Most plastics are now recyclable. The impact of plastic on the marine environment can be reduced
through recycling, the introduction of more containers made of biodegradable and non-toxic plastic,
and through beach cleanups.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (566)
4. Students can organize their own beach cleanup and make it an annual community event as well as a
part of their Environmental Course.
Check your Understanding (page 582)
1. The different sources of oil pollution in Newfoundland and Labrador include:
• Hydrocarbons from drilling mud.
• Hydrocarbons transported in production water.
• Bilge dumping.
• Tanker transfer spills
• Bunkering
• Marine hydrocarbon seepage
2. The Canadian Coast Guard is responsible for cleaning up oil spills. Some of the methods employed to
clean up a spill include the use of booms to create a barrier preventing the oil from spreading,
skimmers, to remove oil from the surface of the water, biological remediation, the use of bacteria to
break down the oil, dispersants to break oil up into small droplets and steaming and manual cleanup.
3. Sensitive coastal areas are indentified and mapped using available data on sea bird nesting areas,
current and prevailing wind patterns and coastal topography.
4. There are social, economic and environmental implications of oil.
Possible Impacts
Social
Economic
environmental
- loss of recreational areas
- job loss
- closure of a fishery
- damaged fishing gear
- job loss
- contamination of marine organisms
- habitat loss
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5. The three strategies involved in an oil spill response plan include planning, exercising (practicing),
training and research and development.
Check your Understanding (page 586)
1. Marine protected areas are areas of intertidal or sub-tidal terrain, together with its overlaying water
and associated flora and fauna, historical and cultural features, which have been reserved by law or
other effective means to protect all or part of the enclosed environment. Protected areas are established
to protect:
•
•
•
•
•
Commercial and non-commercial fisheries resources.
Marine mammals and their habitats.
Endangered or threatened marine species and their habitats.
Unique habitats.
Marine areas of high biodiversity or biological productivity.
2. Besides Marine Protected Areas, the other components that make up Canada’s Marine Protected Areas
Strategy include the Oceans Act, Marine Wildlife areas, and National Marine Conservation Areas.\
3. Marine protected areas are located in Gilbert Bay, along the southeast coast of Labrador. In
Eastport, there are two adjacent Marine Protected Areas: one near Duck Island and another
near Round Island. Leading Tickles is currently the only Area of Interest (AOI) in the
province.
For Further Discussion and/or Research (page 586)
4. Marine Protected Areas fit with Integrated Management in that it builds upon co-operation
between government agencies, communities, and industry.
5. Answers to this question will vary. Students should support their answer.
306
BLM 16 – 1 Average Annual Contribution from major sources of petroleum in
worldwide marine waters 1990 – 2000 (thousands of metric tons)
Source Oil from the sea National Research council 2002
307
BLM 16 – 2 ACAP Factsheets
308
309
310
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Sample Review Questions – Unit 4
1.
Identify one function of a watershed.
2.
Name two types of water bodies that drain into a watershed.
3.
What is one function of a riparian zone?
4.
Describe one characteristic for each type of wetlands.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Bog
Fen
Swamp
Marsh
5.
Identify and describe two physical indicators of water quality.
6.
Identify and describe two chemical indicators of water quality.
7.
List one negative effect on aquatic ecosystems of each of the following activities.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Forestry
Mining
Hydroelectric development
Urbanization
8.
9.
List and describe two typical methods of treating drinking water.
List and describe two alternate methods for treating drinking water.
10.
What is one significant source of this type of marine pollution?
11.
What are two impacts of this type of marine pollution? Your answer could include
social, economic, and/or environmental impacts of this type of pollution.
12.
What is one specific method of cleaning up this type of marine pollution?
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