P r e p r i n t Series
of t h e
I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f Management, D-1000 B e r l i n 33, G r i e g s t r . 5
1/76-12
DOES ORGANIZATION MATTER?
TASK STRUCTURE AND INTERACTION I N THE
MINISTERIAL BUREAUCRACY
by
F r i t z W. Scharpf
I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f Management
Wissenschaftszentrum
Berlin
Paper p r e s e n t e d t o t h e Workshop on "Process,
and system i n p u b l i c p o l i c y : e m p i r i c a l
o f t h e ECPR Conference,
structure
research"
L o u v a i n , A p r i l 8 - 1 4 , 1976.
The p r e p r i n t s e r i e s i n c l u d e s papers c i r c u l a t e d f o r
p r e l i m i n a r y d i s c u s s i o n purposes. S e v e r a l o f t h e
s e r i e s a r e subsequently s u b m i t t e d f o r p u b l i c a i o n
in journals.
February 19 76
Abstract
The paper r e p o r t s on a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n study o f t h e
F e d e r a l M i n i s t r y o f T r a n s p o r t . I t d e s c r i b e s t h e methods
developed f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e o v e r a l l t a s k s t r u c t u r e
and o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n p a t t e r n s between l o w e r - l e v e l
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l u n i t s o f the m i n i s t r y . I n the study i t
was found t h a t t h e p a t t e r n s o f i n t e r a c t i o n i n p o l i c y
making correspond v e r y c l o s e l y t o t h e p a t t e r n s o f t a s k
i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s , w h i l e b o t h seem t o c u t across t h e
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l boundaries o f m i n i s t e r i a l d i v i s i o n s . These
f i n d i n g s suggest t h a t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
boundaries i n p o l i c y making r e q u i r e s c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n .
Some i n d i c a t o r s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e paper suggest, however,
t h a t even though o r g a n i z a t i o n a l boundaries may n o t
i n h i b i t i n t e r a c t i o n , t h e y are s t i l l e f f e c t i v e as b a r r i e r s
t o i n f o r m a t i o n exchange and c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n .
Zusammenfassung
Der A u f s a t z b e r i c h t e t über e i n e Untersuchung z u r
R e o r g a n i s a t i o n des Bundesministeriums, für Verkehr. Er
b e s c h r e i b t d i e im P r o j e k t e n t w i c k e l t e n Methoden z u r
Analyse d e r A u f g a b e n s t r u k t u r und der I n t e r a k t i o n s m u s t e r
zwischen den M i n i s t e r i a l r e f e r a t e n . Die Untersuchungs­
e r g e b n i s s e zeigen e i n hohes Maß von A u f g a b e n v e r f l e c h t u n g
zwischen den A b t e i l u n g e n des M i n i s t e r i u m s und im wesent­
l i c h e n m i t der A u f g a b e n v e r f l e c h t u n g übereinstimmende,
e b e n f a l l s abteilungsübergreifende I n t e r a k t i o n s m u s t e r
zwischen den R e f e r a t e n . Die damit nahegelegte Frage nach
der Bedeutung d e r O r g a n i s a t i o n s g l i e d e r u n g für d i e Aufgabenerfüllung e i n e s M i n i s t e r i u m s kann durch e i n i g e zusätzliche
I n d i k a t o r e n b e a n t w o r t e t werden. S i e weisen d a r a u f h i n ,
daß A b t e i l u n g s g r e n z e n zwar n i c h t d i e Zusammenarbeit v e r ­
h i n d e r n , daß s i e aber doch a l s merkbare B a r r i e r e n des
I n f o r m a t i o n s a u s t a u s c h e s und d e r K o n f l i k t r e g e l u n g wirksam
sind.
Does O r g a n i z a t i o n M a t t e r ?
Task S t r u c t u r e
and I n t e r a c t i o n i n t h e M i n i s t e r i a l
Bureaucracy.
1.
Introduction
The p r e s e n t paper discusses some o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l
and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a
r e o r g a n i z a t i o n study o f t h e F e d e r a l M i n i s t r y o f
T r a n s p o r t i n West Germany, and some o f t h e e m p i r i c a l
f i n d i n g s produced i n t h a t s t u d y . The study was
commissioned by t h e (now d e f u n c t ) i n t e r - m i n i s t e r i a l
P r o j e k t g r u p p e Regierungs- und V e r w a l t u n g s r e f o r m , and
i t was c a r r i e d o u t under t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r
from January t o October 1975 by a team i n c l u d i n g s t a f f
members o f t h e m i n i s t r y under s t u d y , o f t h e P r o j e k t 1)
gruppe and o f a p r i v a t e r e s e a r c h and c o n s u l t i n g f i r m '.
I t was t h e purpose o f t h e study t o analyze t h e i n t e r n a l
s t r u c t u r e and processes o f t h e m i n i s t r y i n o r d e r t o
a r r i v e a t p r o p o s a l s t h a t would improve t h e p o l i c y - m a k i n g
capacity of the m i n i s t r y i n the f i e l d o f transportation
p o l x.c y . 2)
n
The m i n i s t r y i s o f medium s i z e by German s t a n d a r d s , w i t h
a t o t a l s t a f f o f about 1150, i n c l u d i n g about 350 p r o f e s s i o n a l l e v e l s t a f f members. I t s 103 b a s i c w o r k i n g u n i t s
("Referate", s e c t i o n s ) a r e o r g a n i z e d i n t o 9 d i v i s i o n s ,
- 2 -
o f which 6 are d i v i d e d i n t o 2 s u b d i v i s i o n s each.
Of these d i v i s i o n s , one i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r " c e n t r a l
s e r v i c e s " (Z) i n c l u d i n g b u d g e t i n g , p e r s o n n e l and
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s , w h i l e a " p l a n n i n g " d i v i s i o n (A)
i s charged w i t h p o l i c y p l a n n i n g , c o o r d i n a t i o n and
i n f o r m a t i o n f u n c t i o n s f o r t h e whole m i n i s t r y . A l l o t h e r
" l i n e " d i v i s i o n s are o r g a n i z e d by t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
s e c t o r s . They a r e : t h e r a i l r o a d d i v i s i o n (E) w i t h
6 s e c t i o n s ; t h e road t r a n s p o r t d i v i s i o n (StV) w i t h
2 s u b d i v i s i o n s and 10 s e c t i o n s ; t h e i n l a n d w a t e r
t r a n s p o r t d i v i s i o n (B) w i t h 7 s e c t i o n s ; t h e
sea
t r a n s p o r t d i v i s i o n (See) w i t h 2 s u b d i v i s i o n s and
11 s e c t i o n s ; t h e a i r t r a n s p o r t d i v i s i o n (L) w i t h
9 s e c t i o n s ; the r o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n d i v i s i o n (StB)
w i t h 2 s u b d i v i s i o n s and 18 s e c t i o n s ; and t h e w a t e r ways
d i v i s i o n (W) w i t h 2 s u b d i v i s i o n s and 13 s e c t i o n s .
The r e o r g a n i z a t i o n study had been commissioned
p r i m a r i l y because o f c o n t i n u i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s e x p e r i e n c e d
by d i v i s i o n A i n i t s a t t e m p t t o i n f l u e n c e and c o o r d i n a t e
the p o l i c y - m a k i n g f u n c t i o n s o f the l i n e d i v i s i o n s . The
e x i s t e n c e o f s e r i o u s c o o r d i n a t i o n problems was
confirmed
by the study. I n i t s c o n c l u d i n g r e p o r t , t h e p r o j e c t team
proposed an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o l u t i o n which would reduce
t h e need f o r p o l i c y c o o r d i n a t i o n by r e d r a w i n g t h e
j u r i s d i c t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s among the l i n e d i v i s i o n s i n
such a way t h a t t h e i m p o r t a n t p o l i c y i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s
would be l o c a t e d w i t h i n , r a t h e r t h a n between, l i n e
d i v i s i o n s . The p r o p o s a l would p r o v i d e f o r seven
( i n s t e a d o f 9) d i v i s i o n s , and i t would reduce t h e
number o f s e c t i o n s from 103 t o 90. I t i s p r e s e n t l y
under r e v i e w by a w o r k i n g p a r t y w i t h i n the m i n i s t r y .
+) A few s e c t i o n s (e.g. . c a b i n e t a f f a i r s or p u b l i c
r e l a t i o n s ) r e m a i n outside the d i v i s i o n a l s t r u c t u r e .
They are assigned d i r e c t l y t o t h e l e a d e r s h i p ( m i n i s t e r ,
state secretary, parliamentary state s e c r e t a r i e s ) ;
- 3 -
The f o l l o w i n g paper w i l l n o t d i s c u s s t h e s u b s t a n t i v e
r e o r g a n i z a t i o n p r o p o s a l i n any d e t a i l . I n s t e a d , i t
w i l l focus on some o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l
problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an a p p l i e d study aimed a t
i m p r o v i n g p o l i c y making t h r o u g h r e o r g a n i z a t i o n .
2. Assumptions, Working Hypotheses and t h e Pragmatics
o f A p p l i e d Research
I d e a l l y , an a p p l i e d study s h o u l d be a b l e t o a p p l y a
body o f w e l l t e s t e d s u b s t a n t i v e t h e o r y and v a l i d a t e d
methods t o a g i v e n r e a l - w o r l d problem. As i n o t h e r
areas o f t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , however, t h i s i d e a l i s
n o t approximated i n t h e f i e l d o f government o r g a n i z a t i o n
and r e o r g a n i z a t i o n r e s e a r c h . A f t e r t h e demise o f an
3)
e x p l i c i t e l y p r e s c r i p t i v e "science o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n "
4)
which had ( i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and i n Germany )
included t h e m i n i s t e r i a l or departmental l e v e l i n i t s
search f o r " p r i n c i p l e s " o f e f f e c t i v e and e f f i c i e n t
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h e p r e s e n t body o f e m p i r i c a l l y based
organization theory i s rooted p r i m a r i l y i n behavioral
s t u d i e s i n p r i v a t e i n d u s t r y and i n p u b l i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s
5)
f a r below t h e m i n i s t e r i a l l e v e l .
U n t i l very r e c e n t l y ,
t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and f u n c t i o n s o f government departments
and m i n i s t r i e s have n o t been a s u b j e c t o f s y s t e m a t i c ,
t h e o r y - o r i e n t e d s o c i a l - s c i e n c e r e s e a r c h ; ^ ' t h e y were
l e f t t o t h e concern o f a d e s c r i p t i v e l y o r i e n t e d
" i n s t i t u t i o n a l s c h o o l " o f p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e , o f ad-hoc
i n q u i r i e s conducted o r commissioned by governmental
agencies, and o f some management c o n s u l t i n g f i r m s
a t t e m p t i n g t o t r a n s f e r t h e l a t e s t "management-by"
f a s h i o n s from p r i v a t e i n d u s t r y i n t o t h e new market o f
government r e o r g a n i z a t i o n .
- 4 -
While many o f these c o n t r i b u t i o n s may be q u i t e v a l u a b l e ,
we do n o t now have an e s t a b l i s h e d body o f e m p i r i c a l
t h e o r y t h a t would l i n k t h e p o l i c y - m a k i n g performance
of
governments i n a s y s t e m a t i c f a s h i o n t o s t r u c t u r a l
v a r i a b l e s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g governmental
departments and
m i n i s t r i e s , and we do n o t have a s e t o f v a l i d a t e d
s c i e n t i f i c methods f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e presence o r
absence o f such l i n k a g e s between s t r u c t u r e and p e r ­
formance. Thus, a p p l i e d r e s e a r c h
undertaken
at all)
( i f i t s h o u l d be
w o u l d need t o develop r e l e v a n t
t h e o r y and a p p r o p r i a t e methods b e f o r e i t c o u l d a p p l y them.
O r d i n a r i l y , t h i s i s more than c o u l d be expected
of
any p r o j e c t f a c e d w i t h t h e n e c e s s i t y t o produce
u s a b l e recommendations w i t h i n severe c a p a c i t y and t i m e
c o n s t r a i n t s . As a consequence, r e o r g a n i z a t i o n s t u d i e s
may e i t h e r t e n d t o w a r d t h e u n c r i t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f
"standard" s o l u t i o n s w i t h o u t regard t o t h e i r
u s e f u l n e s s i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e , o r t h e y may
l e a n t o w a r d t h e o t h e r extreme o f ad-hoc recommendations
for
t h e p a r t i c u l a r case based upon u n e x p l a i n e d and
u n t e s t e d assumptions and upon an i m p l i c i t and m o s t l y
i n t u i t i v e methodology. While t h e c l i e n t may r e c e i v e
v a l u e f o r h i s money i n e i t h e r case, n e i t h e r approach
w i l l add t o t h e s t o r e o f c u m u l a t i v e , s y s t e m a t i c
t h e o r e t i c a l and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l knowledge upon which
l a t e r s t u d i e s m i g h t draw. T h i s needs t o be changed.
Even when a p p l i e d r e s e a r c h s h o u l d have t o proceed w i t h o u t
the
guidance o f s y s t e m a t i c t h e o r y and methodology, i t
s h o u l d c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e f u t u r e growth o f s y s t e m a t i c
knowledge by l a y i n g open t o d i s c u s s i o n and c r i t i c i s m
i t s s u b s t a n t i v e assumptions and w o r k i n g h y p o t h e s e s ,
the
methods employed, and t h e f i n d i n g s t o which
they
l e a d . Only i n t h i s way may we a c h i e v e t h e s y s t e m a t i c
i n t e r a c t i o n o f b a s i c and a p p l i e d r e s e a r c h i n t h e f i e l d
of
governmental
o r g a n i z a t i o n on w h i c h b o t h seem t o
depend f o r t h e i r f u t u r e development. I w i l l
begin
- 5 -
w i t h a b r i e f s k e t c h o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g assumptions
o f o u r r e o r g a n i z a t i o n study i n t h e M i n i s t r y o f
Transport.
2.1
Can O r g a n i z a t i o n M a t t e r ?
Given i t s purpose, t h e s t u d y n e c e s s a r i l y proceeded
from t h e assumption t h a t p o l i c y making m i g h t be
improved t h r o u g h r e o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h i s i s a
c o n t r o v e r s i a l assumption which i s o f t e n c h a l l e n g e d
by emphasizing t h e l a c k o f autonomy o f governmental
i n s t i t u t i o n s and t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p o w e r f u l " e x t e r n a l "
7)
- u s u a l l y economic - i n t e r e s t s upon p u b l i c p o l i c y . '
Thus, i f p o l i c y s h o u l d be t h e r e s u l t a n t o f e x t e r n a l
f o r c e s , how c o u l d i t be improved t h r o u g h an i n t e r n a l
r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e machinery o f government?
Now, t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f i e l d i s c e r t a i n l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d
by t h e e x i s t e n c e o f p o w e r f u l e x t e r n a l i n t e r e s t groups
( i n c l u d i n g t h e b u r e a u c r a t i c empires o f t h e highway
and waterway a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s and t h e r a i l r o a d workers'
union) and by t h e immense p r e s s u r e o f economic and
f i s c a l problems caused by t h e s e c u l a r s h i f t from r a i l
t o road t r a n s p o r t a t i o n w i t h t h e r e s u l t i n g o p e r a t i n g
d e f i c i t s o f t h e r a i l r o a d s and o f urban p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t
systems i n t h e o r d e r o f magnitude o f DM 13 B i l l i o n
a n n u a l l y . Under such c o n d i t i o n s i t would be more than
n a i v e t o assume t h a t t h e m i n i s t r y c o u l d e n j o y , o r
a c h i e v e , p o l i c y - m a k i n g " a u t a r k y " i n t h e sense t h a t
the substance o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p o l i c y and i t s
e f f e c t i v e n e s s would be determined s o l e l y , o r even
p r i m a r i l y , by i t s own n o r m a t i v e g o a l s and p r e f e r e n c e s .
But i f i t i s u n r e a l i s t i c t o assume complete
independence from
environment,
( o r c o n t r o l over) t h e r e l e v a n t p o l i c y
i t i s e q u a l l y u n r e a l i s t i c t o assume t h e
- 6
complete p o l i c y - m a k i n g impotence o f t h e m i n i s t r y .
While t h e groups and i n s t i t u t i o n s o p e r a t i n g i n
the f i e l d o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n may be p o w e r f u l i n
a t t a c k and defense, t h e y are a l s o dependent upon
one a n o t h e r and upon d e c i s i o n s , r e s o u r c e s and
s e r v i c e s p r o v i d e d by t h e m i n i s t r y , a n d t h e y are
v u l n e r a b l e t o p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e s a n c t i o n s i n
many d i f f e r e n t ways. The i n t e r a c t i o n s between t h e
m i n i s t r y and i t s environment a r e t h e r e f o r e b e t t e r
d e s c r i b e d by a complex network o f s y m m e t r i c a l
and a s y m m e t r i c a l exchange r e l a t i o n s h i p s , r a t h e r t h a n
by a s i m p l i s t i c model o f e i t h e r u n i l a t e r a l c o n t r o l o r
u n i l a t e r a l dependence. I n such a n e t w o r k , t h e m i n i s t r y
may pursue a t l e a s t some o f i t s n o r m a t i v e g o a l s and
p r e f e r e n c e s w i t h some degree o f success i f i t i s
capable o f d e v e l o p i n g r e a l i s t i c s t r a t e g i e s t h a t
e x p l o i t t h e s t r e n g t h s and p r o t e c t t h e weaknesses
of i t s own p o s i t i o n and o f r e s p o n d i n g a t t h e t a c t i c a l
l e v e l t o t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s and r i s k s g e n e r a t e d by
r a p i d changes o f t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n environment.
I t i s these s t r a t e g i c and t a c t i c a l c a p a b i l i t i e s ' , o f
the m i n i s t r y which may be a f f e c t e d t h r o u g h i n t e r n a l
r e o r g a n i.z a t i.o.n . 8)
On t h i s b a s i s , we assumed f u r t h e r t h a t t h e s t r a t e g i c
and t a c t i c a l c a p a b i l i t y f o r p o l i c y making i s i n c r e a s e d
t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e m i n i s t r y succeeds i n i n t e g r a t i n g
the p o l i c y i n i t i a t i v e s and responses o f i t s s e p a r a t e ,
s p e c i a l i z e d u n i t s under common g o a l s and o b j e c t i v e s
and i n response t o a shared s e t o f r e a l i t y p e r c e p t i o n s .
But g i v e n t h e h i g h degree o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f t h e
103 w o r k i n g s e c t i o n s , t h e d i f f e r e n t problems t o which
they have t o address themselves, t h e d i f f e r e n t groups
t o which t h e y have t o respond and t h e d i f f e r e n t
p r o f e s s i o n a l s k i l l s which t h e y need t o employ, a h i g h
degree o f n o r m a t i v e and i n f o r m a t i o n a l i n t e g r a t i o n i n
p o l i c y making i s h a r d t o achieve and would be e x t r e m e l y
- 7 -
"expensive"
i n terms o f t h e c a p a c i t y f o r i n f o r m a t i o n
exchange and c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n r e q u i r e d w i t h i n t h e
m i n i s t r y . Thus, an e x h o r t a t i o n t o maximize n o r m a t i v e
and i n f o r m a t i o n a l i n t e g r a t i o n ( o r " p o s i t i v e
1 0)
coordination")
would n o t be a m e a n i n g f u l response
t o t h e s t r a t e g i c and t a c t i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f p o l i c y
making v i s - a - v i s a d i f f e r e n t i a t e d ,
interdependent,
11
changing and p o w e r f u l ( " t u r b u l e n t " ) p o l i c y environment.
P o s i t i v e c o o r d i n a t i o n must be c o n s i d e r e d a scarce
good which ought t o be a l l o c a t e d p r i m a r i l y t o p r i o r i t y
areas d e f i n e d by a h i g h l e v e l o f interdependence among
separate p o l i c y choices and, t h u s , by t h e h i g h
p r o b a b i l i t y o f mutual f r u s t r a t i o n and blockage i n t h e
1 2)
absence o f e f f e c t i v e c o o r d i n a t i o n .
T h i s was t h e c e n t r a l t h e o r e t i c a l assumption g u i d i n g
our p r o j e c t , and on i t s b a s i s our m e t h o d o l o g i c a l
i n t e r e s t was p r i m a r i l y focussed on d e v e l o p i n g s u i t a b l e
a n a l y t i c a l procedures t h r o u g h which p o l i c y i n t e r dependencies and, t h u s , p r i o r i t y areas f o r p o s i t i v e
c o o r d i n a t i o n c o u l d be i d e n t i f i e d i n a s y s t e m a t i c way.
But even i f t h i s c o u l d be a c h i e v e d , we would s t i l l be
f a c e d w i t h t h e choice o f an e f f e c t i v e medium f o r
coordination.
2.2
Incentives f o r Coordination
I n t h e a b s t r a c t , p o s i t i v e c o o r d i n a t i o n may
be
facilitated
t h r o u g h t h e p e r s o n n e l system, t h r o u g h s u b s t a n t i v e
programs and p l a n s , t h r o u g h p r o c e d u r a l r u l e s
and
1 3)
t h r o u g h the s t r u c t u r e o f f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n .
Of
t h e s e , the p e r s o n n e l system, w h i l e c o n t a i n i n g perhaps
the most p o w e r f u l v a r i a b l e s , had t o be l a r g e l y accepted
as g i v e n . W i t h i n t h e s u b s t a n t i v e and p r o c e d u r a l
c o n s t r a i n t s o f e x i s t i n g r e c r u i t m e n t and p r o m o t i o n
r u l e s , n e i t h e r the harmonization of values, perceptions
and a t t i t u d e s achieved t h r o u g h common p r o f e s s i o n a l
- 8 -
training,
nor t h e c a r e e r s o l i d a r i t y and
t h e ease
15
o f communication a c h i e v e d i n the French grands c o r p s ,
nor even i n r e l a t i v e l y h i g h h o r i z o n t a l m o b i l i t y
achieved i n the B r i t i s h C i v i l S e r v i c e was w i t h i n the
reach o f r e a l i s t i c recommendations. On the whole, i t
had t o be accepted t h a t the p e r s o n n e l system o f t h e
m i n i s t r y w i t h i t s communication problems between
s p e c i a l i s t groups o f e n g i n e e r s , lawyers and e c o n o m i s t s ,
w i t h i t s p a t t e r n of recruitment from s p e c i a l i z e d
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s e r v i c e s ( r a i l r o a d s , waterways, r o a d
c o n s t r u c t i o n ) , w i t h i t s low degree o f h o r i z o n t a l
m o b i l i t y , and w i t h t h e s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e o f s e n i o r i t y
r u l e s on p r o m o t i o n , would tend t o impede r a t h e r t h a n
facilitate
c o o p e r a t i o n and p o l i c y i n t e g r a t i o n between
16)
the s p e c i a l i z e d d i v i s i o n s o f the m i n i s t r y .
Policy i n t e g r a t i o n through substantive
planning
has been a t t e m p t e d by the m i n i s t r y s i n c e t h e l a t e 1960s
when a p l a n n i n g s u b d i v i s i o n was e s t a b l i s h e d and charged
w i t h the t a s k o f d e v e l o p i n g an " i n t e g r a t e d t r a n s p o r t
ways p l a n " t h a t would guide f e d e r a l i n v e s t m e n t p o l i c y
i n highway c o n s t r u c t i o n , waterway c o n s t r u c t i o n , r a i l w a y
c o n s t r u c t i o n , a i r p o r t s and a i r t r a f f i c c o n t r o l and i n
urban p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t systems. I n v e s t m e n t p l a n n i n g
has made c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o g r e s s d u r i n g t h e p r e s e n t
decade. But even i n the second, r e v i s e d v e r s i o n o f t h e
p l a n promulgated i n 1975, t h e degree o f i n t e g r a t i o n
a c t u a l l y achieved remains l i m i t e d , and i t s a c t u a l
i n f l u e n c e upon s e c t o r a l p l a n n i n g (and even more so
on the a c t u a l p r o g r e s s o f i n v e s t m e n t p r o j e c t s ) remains
1 7)
highly doubtful.
The p l a n n i n g s u b d i v i s i o n has n o t
been able t o c r e a t e ,the i n f o r m a t i o n base and t h e
c a p a c i t y f o r c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n which would have
p e r m i t t e d a h i g h degree o f i n f o r m a t i o n a l and n o r m a t i v e
i n t e g r a t i o n even w i t h i n the l i m i t e d f i e l d o f
i n v e s t m e n t s f i n a n c e d w h o l l y out o f t h e m i n i s t r y ' s
- 9 -
budget. I n o t h e r p o l i c y areas, such as t a r i f f s and
c a p a c i t y r e g u l a t i o n s , t a x e s and s u b s i d i e s o r s a f e t y
r e g u l a t i o n s , where t h e need t o respond t o changing
economic s i t u a t i o n s and t o t h e s t r a t e g i e s o f
independent a c t o r s i s much g r e a t e r , s u b s t a n t i v e p l a n s
and programs have been used even l e s s s u c c e s s f u l l y
as i n s t r u m e n t s o f p o l i c y c o o r d i n a t i o n . Where p o l i c y
g u i d e l i n e s have been announced a t a l l , t h e y were
u s u a l l y f o r m u l a t e d a t such a h i g h l e v e l o f a b s t r a c t i o n
as t o be o f l i t t l e use f o r t h e guidance o f s p e c i f i c
d e c i s i o n s , and where they a t t e m p t e d g r e a t e r s p e c i f i c i t y
they u s u a l l y had t o be abandoned soon i n t h e f a c e o f
18)
changing circumstances o r p o l i t i c a l
opposition.
Outside o f t h e i n v e s t m e n t f i e l d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e
m i n i s t r y tended t o r e l y on p r o c e d u r a l r u l e s more t h a n
on s u b s t a n t i v e g u i d e l i n e s t o f a c i l i t a t e
coordination
among i t s i n t e r d e p e n d e n t p o l i c y areas. A p r o c e d u r a l
s o l u t i o n was employed w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e success i n
urban p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t p o l i c y , where t h e s p e c i a l i z e d
sections w i t h i n f o u r separate d i v i s i o n s o f t h e m i n i s t r y
d i d achieve a h i g h e r degree o f p o l i c y coherence when
a " c o o r d i n a t o r " ( w i t h d i r e c t access t o , and t h e s t r o n g
s u p p o r t o f , t h e m i n i s t e r ) was a p p o i n t e d . He managed
to b u i l d an e f f e c t i v e group s t r u c t u r e among t h e
p a r t i c i p a t i n g u n i t s w i t h common g o a l s and p e r c e p t i o n s
developed t h r o u g h i n t e n s i v e i n t e r a c t i o n s i n r e g u l a r
work s e s s i o n s . I n t h e absence o f such s p e c i a l e f f o r t s
and s p e c i a l l e a d e r s h i p a t t e n t i o n , however, p r o c e d u r a l
r u l e s i n t e n d e d t o assure h o r i z o n t a l c o o r d i n a t i o n
among separate u n i t s o f t h e m i n i s t e r i a l bureaucracy
t e n d t o produce " n e g a t i v e c o o r d i n a t i o n " ( i . e . t h e
avoidance o f m u t u a l i n t e r f e r e n c e ) r a t h e r t h a n t h e
i n t e g r a t i o n o f separate p o l i c i e s i n t h e p u r s u i t o f
a common g o ail .19)
- 10 -
The major weakness o f s u b s t a n t i v e p l a n s and
p r o c e d u r a l r u l e s as c o o r d i n a t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s seems
t o l i e i n t h e f a c t t h a t they a r e n o t supported by
the i n c e n t i v e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e German m i n i s t e r i a l
bureaucracy. W i t h a good d e a l o f e x a g g e r a t i o n , t h i s
i n c e n t i v e s t r u c t u r e c o u l d be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e
f o l l o w i n g f o u r i m p e r a t i v e s , addressed t o a b u r e a u c r a t
on h i s way up:
- Don't g e t i n t o t r o u b l e w i t h t h e e x t e r n a l groups
and o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h i n your area o f
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y on whom you depend f o r i n f o r m a t i o n
and p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t , and who may h u r t you t h r o u g h
damaging p u b l i c i t y o r p a r l i a m e n t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n s ;
- don't g e t i n t o t r o u b l e w i t h y o u r immediate
c o l l e a g u e s w i t h whom you w i l l have t o l i v e f o r
a l o n g t i m e and who may " b l a c k b a l l " you when you
are up f o r p r o m o t i o n ;
- don't g e t i n t o t r o u b l e w i t h y o u r immediate s u p e r i o r s
who have t h e power t o v e t o y o u r p r o p o s a l s and who
may a c c e l e r a t e o r f r u s t r a t e y o u r c a r e e r even i n a
s t r o n g l y s e n i o r i t y - o r i e n t e d p r o m o t i o n system;
- i n o r d e r t o g e t ahead, t r y t o i n c r e a s e t h e v i s i b i l i t y
of y o u r p r e s e n t work t o t h e l e a d e r s h i p w i t h o u t
v i o l a t i n g any o f t h e p r e c e d i n g i n j u n c t i o n s .
I f these r u l e s should d e f i n e s i g n i f i c a n t aspects o f
t h e i n c e n t i v e system m o t i v a t i n g t h e b u r e a u c r a c y , i t
should be n o t e d t h a t t h e i r i m p o r t a n t parameters a r e
a l l determined by t h e f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . By
a s s i g n i n g s p e c i f i c t a s k s and areas o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
t o i n d i v i d u a l s e c t i o n s , i t d e f i n e s t h e range o f
r e l e v a n t e x t e r n a l i n t e r e s t s , and by combining s e c t i o n s
- 11 -
i n t o l a r g e r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l u n i t s ( s u b d i v i s i o n s and
d i v i s i o n s ) i t determines t h e i d e n t i t y o f immediate
c o l l e a g u e s as w e l l as o f h i e r a r c h i c a l s u p e r i o r s i n
a f o r m a l way. While t h e importance o f i n f o r m a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n s h o u l d n o t be u n d e r e s t i m a t e d , f o r m a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n by i t s e l f appears as a s u f f i c i e n t l y
p o w e r f u l r e a l i t y i n t h e German m i n i s t e r i a l bureaucracy
to j u s t i f y the expectation t h a t i t w i l l tend t o
dominate t h e i n c e n t i v e system.
To t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h i s i n c e n t i v e system i s a t a l l
favorable t o c o l l a b o r a t i o n ( r a t h e r than c o m p e t i t i o n ) ,
i t favors c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h i n , r a t h e r than across,
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l u n i t s . T h i s would have i m p o r t a n t
consequences f o r p o l i c y c o o r d i n a t i o n which,as a
consequence, s h o u l d b e n e f i t g r e a t l y from u t i l i z i n g t h e
i n c e n t i v e s p r o v i d e d by t h e f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n
structure.
2.3
Pragmatic Approaches
Even though t h e p r o j e c t was g u i d e d by t h e major w o r k i n g
h y p o t h e s i s t h a t p o l i c y c o o r d i n a t i o n would be improved
to the extent t h a t the s t r u c t u r e o f formal organization
c o u l d be made more congruent w i t h t h e p a t t e r n o f
i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s among t h e p o l i c y - m a k i n g f u n c t i o n s
assigned t o i n d i v i d u a l s e c t i o n s , we were u n w i l l i n g t o
base t h e whole r e o r g a n i z a t i o n p r o j e c t on t h i s t h e o r e t i c a l
f o u n d a t i o n . I n s t e a d , we chose t o combine s y s t e m a t i c
a n a l y s i s w i t h a whole s e r i e s o f ad-hoc approaches
based upon a comprehensive e x p l o r a t o r y study conducted
d u r i n g t h e f i r s t t w o - a n d - a - h a l f months o f t h e p r o j e c t .
I t was used t o achieve an e x p l i c i t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
the s u b s t a n t i v e p o l i c y problems c o n f r o n t i n g t h e
m i n i s t r y and o f t h e i r p o s s i b l e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l causes.
Our i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s (as w e l l as our l a t e r f i n d i n g s
- 12
-
d u r i n g t h e course o f t h e p r o j e c t ) were f u l l y
communicated t o , and d i s c u s s e d w i t h , groups a t a l l
l e v e l s o f the m i n i s t r y i n a l a r g e number o f "group
feedback" sessions used t o check t h e p l a u s i b i l i t y
o f our hypotheses and t h e v a l i d i t y o f our
0)
findings.
2
On the b a s i s o f the e x p l o r a t o r y s t u d y , we chose t o
c a r r y out s u b s t a n t i v e p o l i c y analyses i n those f i e l d s
which we had i d e n t i f i e d as the major problem a r e a s ,
namely " i n v e s t m e n t p o l i c y " , " r e g u l a t o r y p o l i c y " and
" r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n p o l i c y " . Of t h e s e , t h e f i r s t i s
concerned w i t h the m i n i s t r y ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , t h e second w i t h
i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e c o m p e t i t i o n between
s e c t o r s and w i t h i n s e c t o r s o f t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
i n d u s t r y , and t h e t h i r d w i t h the e f f i c i e n c y o f
those o r g a n i z a t i o n s f o r whose o p e r a t i n g d e f i c i t s t h e
m i n i s t r y i s d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e
- m a i n l y the r a i l r o a d s , t h e waterways a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,
and a i r t r a f f i c c o n t r o l . R e l y i n g on e x t e n s i v e
i n t e r v i e w i n g w i t h i n t h e m i n i s t r y and i n the p o l i c y
environment and upon a v a i l a b l e m a t e r i a l s , t h e p r o j e c t
team (which i n c l u d e d economists and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
s c i e n t i s t s ) c a r r i e d out s u b s t a n t i v e problem analyses
i n o r d e r t o i d e n t i f y the e f f e c t i v e p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t s
a v a i l a b l e t o t h e m i n i s t r y and t h e i r necessary
c o m b i n a t i o n i n e f f e c t i v e problem s o l v i n g s t r a t e g i e s .
R e l a t i n g these s u b s t a n t i v e p o l i c y analyses t o t h e
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d i v i s i o n o f f u n c t i o n s , i t was
p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y o r g a n i z a t i o n a l problems o f
p o l i c y c o o r d i n a t i o n and, u l t i m a t e l y , t o develop
r e o r g a n i z a t i o n concepts f o r p a r t s o f t h e m i n i s t r y
which appeared o p t i m a l from the p e r s p e c t i v e o f
i n v e s t m e n t p o l i c y , or r e g u l a t o r y p o l i c y or
rationalization policy.
- 13 -
The approach t o r e o r g a n i z a t i o n by way o f s u b s t a n t i v e
problem analyses has the advantage o f b e i n g d i r e c t ,
e a s i l y communicable and, t h e r e f o r e , w e l l s u i t e d t o
correction t h r o u g h group feedback d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h i n
the m i n i s t r y . I t s disadvantages a r e , f i r s t , t h e
d i f f i c u l t i e s i n h e r e n t i n any a t t e m p t by an o u t s i d e
group t o c a r r y o u t s u b s t a n t i v e analyses o f p o l i c y
problems and p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t s a t a l e v e l o f
competence a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s p e c i a l i s t s
i n the m i n i s t r y . C l o s e l y r e l a t e d i s the danger o f
becoming t o o dependent upon the s u b s t a n t i v e problem
and p o l i c y p e r c e p t i o n s p r e v a i l i n g i n t h e m i n i s t r y
(which m i g h t be s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by i t s p r e s e n t
o r g a n i z a t i o n ) . Even i f these d i f f i c u l t i e s c o u l d be
overcome, however, r e o r g a n i z a t i o n by way o f
s u b s t a n t i v e p o l i c y analyses i s bound t o be e x t r e m e l y
"expensive" and can o n l y focus on a few p o l i c y areas a t
oni; t i m e . However c a r e f u l l y they should be
s e l e c t e d , i t i s c l e a r t h a t the m i n i s t r y w i l l have
t o p e r f o r m a g r e a t number o f o t h e r f u n c t i o n s as
w e l l , and t h a t an o p t i m i z a t i o n o f i t s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
s t r u c t u r e w i t h r e g a r d t o o n l y a few f u n c t i o n s i s
l i k e l y t o be s u b o p t i m a l i n the l a r g e r c o n t e x t .
Thus, s u b s t a n t i v e p o l i c y a n a l y s i s may l e a d t o
h i g h l y p l a u s i b l e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n concepts f o r a few
major p o l i c y areas, b u t t h e y need t o be checked
against the o v e r a l l task s t r u c t u r e of the m i n i s t r y .
This was the g o a l o f the more systematic.approaches
used i n our r e o r g a n i z a t i o n s t u d y , tasjk-impact a n a l y s i s
and i n t e r a c t i o n a n a l y s i s . I t was f o r t u n a t e , t h a t , i n
the end, t h e i r f i n d i n g s should correspond q u i t e
c l o s e l y t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n s based upon the s u b s t a n t i v e
policy studies.
- 14
-
3. Task-Impact A n a l y s i s
On the b a s i s o f our p r i n c i p a l w o r k i n g h y p o t h e s i s ,
p o l i c y c o o r d i n a t i o n would depend s i g n i f i c a n t l y upon
the degree o f congruence between t h e f o r m a l o r g a n i ­
s a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e o f the m i n i s t r y and the s t r u c t u r e
o f t a s k i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s among o r g a n i z a t i o n a l u n i t s .
I n o r d e r t o determine the degree o f congruence between
t a s k s t r u c t u r e and o r g a n i z a t i o n s t r u c t u r e , we
developed an a n a l y t i c a l procedure which c o u l d be
21 )
l a b e l l e d "task-impact analysis"
. I t r e l a t e s the p o l i c y
t a s k s o f t h e m i n i s t r y t o a p r e d e f i n e d s e t o f "impact
areas" i n the p o l i c y environment i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e
task interdependencies r e q u i r i n g c o o r d i n a t i o n .
The
r e s u l t i n g p a t t e r n o f t a s k i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s can t h e n
be compared t o t h e p r e s e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e .
3.1
Data Base
I n o r d e r t o s i m p l i f y d a t a c o l l e c t i o n we chose t o t a k e
the p o l i c y t a s k s a s s i g n e d t o the s m a l l e s t
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l u n i t s i n the m i n i s t r y as our u n i t o f
a n a l y s i s . I n the course o f s t a n d a r d i z e d i n t e r v i e w s
conducted i n a l l s e c t i o n s o f t h e m i n i s t r y (which
a l s o covered a range o f o t h e r p r o b l e m s ) , respondents
( u s u a l l y the s e c t i o n head, and sometimes one o r two
members o f h i s s t a f f ) were p r e s e n t e d a l i s t o f 70
"impact a r e a s " , s y s t e m a t i c a l l y d e f i n e d t o cover a l l
r e l e v a n t s e c t o r s o f the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p o l i c y en­
vironment." "^ They were t h e n asked t o i n d i c a t e t h e
impact areas which would be a f f e c t e d ( d i r e c t l y or
1
+) Areas were d e f i n e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o p o l i c y impacts
on " c o s t s " , " p r i c e s " , "demand", " t r a n s p o r t way
capacity",
" c a r r i e r c a p a c i t y " , and " s a f e t y " i n each o f the f o l l o w i n g
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s e c t o r s : " p r i v a t e c a r " , "bus", "urban
p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t : r a i l " , "urban p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t : under­
ground", " r a i l t r a n s p o r t : passengers", " a i r t r a v e l " ,
"short-haul t r u c k i n g " , "long-haul t r u c k i n g " , " r a i l
t r a n s p o r t : goods", "domestic w a t e r t r a n s p o r t " , "oversea
transport".
- 15 -
i n d i r e c t l y ) by p o l i c y o p t i o n s w i t h i n t h e t a s k area
o f t h e i r own s e c t i o n , and t o w e i g h t those impacts
on a t h r e e - p o i n t s c a l e .
On t h e b a s i s o f p r e t e s t s , i t was d e c i d e d t h a t i n t e r ­
viewers s h o u l d i n t e r v e n e w i t h " l e a d i n g q u e s t i o n s "
o n l y i n cases o f an a p p a r e n t l y extreme i n s e n s i t i v i t y
o f respondents t o obvious t a s k impacts. Such cases
were v e r y r a r e . More f r e q u e n t l y , respondents would
t e n d t o emphasize the importance o f t h e i r t a s k s by
e x a g g e r a t i n g the number and i n t e n s i t y o f i m p a c t s .
The a n a l y t i c a l procedure used tended t o m i n i m i z e
t h e d i s t o r t i n g e f f e c t s caused by these i n e v i t a b l e
v a r i a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e d a t a base.
3.2
Analytical
Procedures
On t h e b a s i s o f t h e i n t e r v i e w d a t a , i t was p o s s i b l e t o
c o n s t r u c t a t a s k - i m p a c t m a t r i x w i t h t h e rows r e p r e ­
s e n t i n g t h e t a s k s o f m i n i s t e r i a l s e c t i o n s , ^ t h e columns
r e p r e s e n t i n g impact a r e a s , and w i t h c e l l s e i t h e r empty
or c o n t a i n i n g w e i g h t s ( 1 , 2, o r 3) r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e
p e r c e i v e d ( p o t e n t i a l ) e f f e c t o f a s e c t i o n ' s t a s k on
an impact area.
Impact Areas
+
X
a
o
•H
-P
Ü
s
1
S
2
(L)
in
s
3
0)
U
X
1
J
2
I
3
...
4
J
k
3
2
0
1
1
3
3
1
0
3
1
0
2
3
3
•
•
•
*
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
M
m
S
n
0
0
3
3
3
+) S e c t i o n s whose t a s k s were l i m i t e d t o i n t e r n a l ( o r g a n i z a t i o n
and management) f u n c t i o n s w i t h i n t h e m i n i s t r y were
excluded from t h i s p a r t o f t h e a n a l y s i s .
- 16 -
W i t h i n t h i s m a t r i x , t a s k areas ( s e c t i o n s ) may be
compared w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e s i m i l a r i t y o r d i s ­
s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e i r impacts. I n t h e above example,
sections
and S 2 as w e l l as S 3 and S^ would be
q u i t e s i m i l a r i n t h e impact o f t h e i r t a s k s on t h e
s p e c i f i e d impact areas. Conversely, S^/S^, S^/S^,
S 2 / S 3 and ^2^k
l ^ ^ less s i m i l a r p a i r s . I n
o r d e r t o o b t a i n a more p r e c i s e measure o f t h i s
" s i m i l a r i t y " , a number o f c o e f f i c i e n t s were
c o n s t r u c t e d . T o be u s e f u l , they would have t o r e ­
p r e s e n t t h e r a t i o o f common impacts t o t h e p o t e n t i a l
maximum o f common impacts f o r each p a i r o f s e c t i o n s .
I n t h e a c t u a l a n a l y s i s , two d i f f e r e n t c o e f f i c i e n t s
were used, b u t t h e r e s u l t s d i f f e r e d so l i t t l e t h a t
i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o c i t e o n l y t h e s i m p l e r one.
I t d e f i n e s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f s i m i l a r i t y between
s e c t i o n s (rows) i and j as t h e n o r m a l i z e d c o v a r i a n c e
o f S-| and S j :
w o u
e
k
* ik'
a
r
i • -
—
a
j k
~ZIIZIIIZIZZZZZZZZZ—
2
"V *
a
1
2
i k• *
a
jk
w i t h k r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e number o f columns o f t h e
m a t r i x and a r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e impact numbers i n t h e
c e l l s o f the matrix.
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t e p i n t h e a n a l y s i s can be
p r e s e n t e d i n t h e form o f a ( s y m m e t r i c a l ) s i m i l a r i t y
matrix with the cells containing the s i m i l a r i t y
c o e f f i c i e n t s ( v a r y i n g between 0 and 1) f o r each p a i r
o f s e c t i o n s . For t h e above example, t h i s would be
the f o l l o w i n g m a t r i x :
- 17 -
1
0,87
0,48
0,3
1
0,55
0,43
1
0,92
• • •
1
Much u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n can be o b t a i n e d from a v i s u a l
i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e s i m i l a r i t y m a t r i x . Given i t s l a r g e
s i z e , however, t h e u l t i m a t e g o a l o f i d e n t i f y i n g t h e
o v e r a l l t a s k s t r u c t u r e o f t h e m i n i s t r y does depend
upon t h e use o f more p o w e r f u l methods o f s t r u c t u r a l
analysis. I n the p r o j e c t , both h i e r a r c h i c a l c l u s t e r
22)
analysis
and f a c t o r a n a l y s i s were employed t o
analyze t h e s t r u c t u r a l p a t t e r n s r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e
s i m i l a r i t y matrix.
Due t o l i m i t a t i o n s i n t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f computer
programs, some d i f f i c u l t i e s o f h i e r a r c h i c a l c l u s t e r
a n a l y s i s c o u l d n o t be s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s o l v e d b e f o r e
+)
the end o f t h e p r o j e c t .
I n p r i n c i p l e , however,
c l u s t e r a n a l y s i s s h o u l d p r o v i d e a v a l i d and r e l i a b l e
method f o r i d e n t i f y i n g groups o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l u n i t s
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h each o t h e r t h r o u g h h i g h scores i n
the c e l l s o f t h e s i m i l a r i t y m a t r i x .
The r e s o r t t o f a c t o r a n a l y s i s
was u n d e r t a k e n i n a
s p i r i t of methodological experimentation. I t s
v a l i d i t y seemed d o u b t f u l
i n view o f t h e f a c t t h a t
+) The main problem was t h a t one u n i t c o u l d be a s s i g n e d o n l y
t o one c l u s t e r t h r o u g h t h e a v a i l a b l e p r o c e d u r e s . For t h e
purposes o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s , however, t h e
simultaneous a s s o c i a t i o n o f one u n i t w i t h d i f f e r e n t
g r o u p i n g s would be o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t . I t s h o u l d be
p o s s i b l e t o develop c l u s t e r i n g programs a l l o w i n g f o r
m u l t i p l e assignments.
- 18 -
the a p p l i c a t i o n o f f a c t o r a n a l y s i s presupposes t h e e x i s t e n c e
o f a c o r r e l a t i o n matrix.Based.upon i n t e r n a l d a t a .
' While
our s i m i l a r i t y m a t r i x was outwardly' q u i t e similar., t o
a c o r r e l a t i o n matrix (also containing continuously
v a r i a b l e c o e f f i c i e n t s between 0 and 1 ) , i t was, o f
course, g e n e r a t e d i n a d i f f e r e n t way. S t i l l , t h e
+)
procedure worked i n p r a c t i c e , and a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l
j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r i t s a p p l i c a t i o n has been found i n
24)
the meantime. * On t h e b a s i s o f varimaxr o t a t e d f a c t o r a n a l y s i s we o b t a i n e d g r o u p i n g s o f
s e c t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h each o t h e r by v i r t u e o f
t h e i r h i g h l o a d i n g s on one f a c t o r . I t was o f
p a r t i c u l a r v a l u e t h a t some o f t h e " s m a l l e r " f a c t o r s
o f t e n i d e n t i f i e d subgroups w i t h i n l a r g e r groups,
and t h a t any s e c t i o n c o u l d appear w i t h v a r y i n g
loadings i n s e v e r a l f a c t o r g r o u p i n g s , a t t h e same
time.
The o u t p u t o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h f a c t o r a n a l y s i s c o u l d be
d i r e c t l y i n t e r p r e t e d i n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l terms: Groups o f
s e c t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d by h i g h l o a d i n g s on one f a c t o r
would be h i g h l y s i m i l a r i n t h e i r t a s k - i m p a c t p a t t e r n s ,
c r e a t i n g a p r e s u m p t i o n o f a h i g h need f o r c o o r d i n a t i o n
among t h e i r t a s k s . Subgroups w i t h i n l a r g e r f a c t o r
groups were l i k e l y t o be a s s o c i a t e d t h r o u g h a d d i t i o n a l
task-impact interdependencies j u s t i f y i n g s p e c i a l
a t t e n t i o n i n o r g a n i z a t i o n d e s i g n ; and s e c t i o n s s c o r i n g
h i g h on s e p a r a t e f a c t o r s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y would p o i n t t o
the f a c t t h a t t h e s i m i l a r i t y m a t r i x was l e s s than
c o m p l e t e l y "decomposable" and t h a t s e r i o u s c o o r d i n a t i o n
problems between t h e groups d e f i n e d by f a c t o r a n a l y s i s
+) One r e m a i n i n g d i f f i c u l t y was t h e l i m i t a t i o n o f a v a i l a b l e
programs t o m a t r i c e s no l a r g e r t h a n 60x60. As t h e s i z e
o f o u r s i m i l a r i t y m a t r i x was much l a r g e r ( c a , 90x90),
we had t o c o n s t r u c t o v e r l a p p i n g subsets which were
s e p a r a t e l y f a c t o r - a n a l y z e d . This s e e m s t o have p r o v i d e d
a welcome i n c r e a s e i n t h e " r e s o l v i n g power" o f t h e f a c t o r
a n a l y t i c program a p p l i e d .
- 19 -
would remain. I n such cases i t would be u s e f u l t o
l o o k more c l o s e l y a t t h e t a s k s e t o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r
s e c t i o n i n o r d e r t o determine whether i t m i g h t be
s u f f i c i e n t l y heterogeneous t o suggest s p l i t t i n g
the s e c t i o n ; o t h e r w i s e s p e c i f i c arrangements
f a c i l i t a t i n g i t s " l i n k i n g f u n c t i o n " m i g h t be u s e f u l .
3.3
Findings
I n t h e n e x t step o f a n a l y s i s , t h e g r o u p i n g s
o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h t a s k - i m p a c t a n a l y s i s were compared
to the e x i s t i n g d i v i s i o n a l s t r u c t u r e . This could
be done i n s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t ways, o f w h i c h t h e
simple g r a p h i c o v e r l a y o f t h e f a c t o r g r o u p i n g s on
the o r g a n i z a t i o n c h a r t o f t h e m i n i s t r y proved most
i n s t r u c t i v e . I n o r d e r t o achieve a l e s s c o n f u s i n g
g r a p h i c p r e s e n t a t i o n , t h i s was done f o r each d i v i s i o n
s e p a r a t e l y , each time i n c l u d i n g a l l g r o u p i n g s o f
which a t l e a s t one s e c t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r
d i v i s i o n was a member. The comparison r e v e a l e d a
p r e v a l e n c e o f f a c t o r g r o u p i n g s c u t t i n g across d i v i s i o n a l
b o u n d a r i e s , s u g g e s t i n g a low degree o f congruence
between the t a s k . s t r u c t u r e and t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s t r u c t u r e
o f the m i n i s t r y .
For the i n d i v i d u a l d i v i s i o n s , t h e comparison
25)
the f o l l o w i n g p a t t e r n s :
revealed
- The r a i l r o a d d i v i s i o n (E) appeared t o be i n t e n ­
s i v e l y connected t o s e c t i o n s w i t h i n the road
t r a n s p o r t d i v i s i o n ( S t V ) , the p l a n n i n g d i v i s i o n (A)
and - l e s s s t r o n g l y - the road c o n s t r u c t i o n d i v i s i o n
( S t B ) . W i t h i n the d i v i s i o n , t a s k - i m p a c t a n a l y s i s
r e v e a l e d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f two sub-groupings o f
s e c t i o n s r e s p o n s i b l e p r i m a r i l y f o r economic
r e g u l a t i o n and f o r t e c h n i c a l and s a f e t y r e g u l a t i o n s .
- 20 -
- The road t r a n s p o r t d i v i s i o n (StV) d i d n o t appear
as a cohesive g r o u p i n g i n t a s k - i m p a c t a n a l y s i s .
I t was d i v i d e d i n t o a group o f s e c t i o n s concerned
w i t h road s a f e t y which were s t r o n g l y connected
t o s e c t i o n s i n road c o n s t r u c t i o n ( S t B ) , a group
of sections responsible f o r p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t
( s t r o n g l y r e l a t e d t o s e c t i o n s w i t h i n A, E and StB)
and a s e c t i o n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e economic
r e g u l a t i o n of the t r u c k i n g i n d u s t r y i s o l a t e d w i t h i n
the d i v i s i o n b u t s t r o n g l y r e l a t e d t o o t h e r d i v i s i o n s
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e r e g u l a t i o n o f competing
carriers.
- C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , road c o n s t r u c t i o n
(StB)
showed s t r o n g
c o n n e c t i o n s t o StV and A i n s e c t i o n s
responsible
f o r s a f e t y aspects and f o r urban p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t .
- I n l a n d w a t e r t r a n s p o r t ( B ) , waterways (W), and
sea t r a n s p o r t (See) were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a v e r y
h i g h degree o f connectedness. The main g r o u p i n g s
d i d c u t across a l l t h r e e d i v i s i o n s and i n a l l
cases t h e r e were sub-groupings w i t h i n the d i v i s i o n
which suggested t h a t t h e i n t e r n a l cohesiveness o f
the i n d i v i d u a l d i v i s i o n s was q u i t e low. E x t e r n a l
l i n k a g e s t o o t h e r d i v i s i o n s i n c l u d e d A, StV, and E.
- A i r t r a n s p o r t (L) p r o v i d e d t h e one e x c e p t i o n t o t h e
g e n e r a l p a t t e r n . On the b a s i s o f t a s k - i m p a c t
a n a l y s i s , i t appeared as a c o m p l e t e l y cohesive
u n i t w i t h no s i g n i f i c a n t t a s k - i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s
l i n k i n g i t t o o t h e r d i v i s i o n s i n the m i n i s t r y . ^
+
+) T h i s " s p l e n d i d i s o l a t i o n " o f the d i v i s i o n seems t o r e f l e c t
t h e n o n - c o m p e t i t i v e p o l i c y o f t h e LUFTHANSA i n t h e f i e l d
o f domestic a i r s e r v i c e s (thus a v o i d i n g i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h
t h e i n t e r - c i t y network o f the f e d e r a l r a i l r o a d s ) .
- 21 -
With t h e e x c e p t i o n o f a i r t r a n s p o r t , these f i n d i n g s
i n d i c a t e the existence o f extensive task i n t e r dependencies c u t t i n g across d i v i s i o n a l boundaries
and, c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e need f o r a h i g h l e v e l o f
i n t e r - d i v i s i o n a l c o o r d i n a t i n g a c t i v i t i e s generated
by t h e p r e s e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e .
4. I n t e r a c t i o n A n a l y s i s
I n a d d i t i o n t o t a s k - i m p a c t a n a l y s i s , an a n a l y s i s o f
t h e a c t u a l i n t e r a c t i o n p a t t e r n s among a l l s e c t i o n s o f
t h e m i n i s t r y was c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e p r o j e c t . I t was
i n t e n d e d t o serve two purposes:
F i r s t , i n t e r a c t i o n a n a l y s i s c o u l d p r o v i d e an independent
check f o r t h e t a s k i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s r e v e a l e d t h r o u g h
t a s k - i m p a c t a n a l y s i s . I f these, s h o u l d be r e a l ( r a t h e r
t h a n m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a r t e f a c t s ) one would expect them
t o be r e f l e c t e d i n t h e a c t u a l p a t t e r n s o f i n t e r a c t i o n
among m i n i s t e r i a l s e c t i o n s .
On t h e o t h e r hand, i n t e r a c t i o n a n a l y s i s c o u l d a l s o
p r o v i d e an independent t e s t f o r t h e o r i g i n a l
assumptions r e g a r d i n g t h e r e l e v a n c e o f f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n
as a medium f o r c o o r d i n a t i o n . I f i n t e r a c t i o n p a t t e r n s
s h o u l d f o l l o w t a s k i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s w i t h o u t any r e g a r d
t o o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s , t h e major w o r k i n g
h y p o t h e s i s o f o u r r e o r g a n i z a t i o n study - t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n
s t r u c t u r e s h o u l d conform as c l o s e l y as p o s s i b l e t o t a s k
s t r u c t u r e i n o r d e r t o f a c i l i t a t e c o o r d i n a t i o n - would
need s e r i o u s r e e x a m i n a t i o n .
As i t t u r n e d o u t , i n t e r a c t i o n a n a l y s i s proved u s e f u l
i n both regards.
- 22 -
4.1
Data Base and A n a l y t i c a l Procedures
I n our s t u d y , we used two i n d i c a t o r s f o r i n t e r a c t i o n
between s e c t i o n s , t h e exchange o f p o l i c y r e l e v a n t
i n f o r m a t i o n and the a c t u a l " p a r t i c i p a t i o n "
( c o n s u l t a t i o n , c o o r d i n a t i o n , c l e a r i n g ) o f one . s e c t i o n
i n the t a s k s o f another s e c t i o n . I n b o t h cases,
respondents i n our s t a n d a r d i z e d i n t e r v i e w s were
asked t o i n d i c a t e on t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n c h a r t o f t h e
m i n i s t r y those o t h e r s e c t i o n s w i t h whom t h e y i n t e r ­
a c t e d r a r e l y (a few times a y e a r ) , i n t e r m i t t e n t l y
(about once a month) or f r e q u e n t l y ( s e v e r a l times
each month).
C o l l a p s i n g the responses o f b o t h p a r t n e r s i n each
p a i r o f s e c t i o n s , symmetrical m a t r i c e s f o r i n f o r m a t i o n
exchange and f o r mutual p a r t i c i p a t i o n c o u l d be
c o n s t r u c t e d . The i n t e r a c t i o n scores i n each c e l l
were n o r m a l i z e d by d i v i s i o n t h r o u g h the maximum
p o s s i b l e s c o r e , so t h a t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n m a t r i x and
the p a r t i c i p a t i o n m a t r i x c o n t a i n e d " i n t e r a c t i o n
c o e f f i c i e n t s " v a r y i n g (but n o t c o n t i n u o u s l y ) between
0 and 1 .
The n e x t s t e p i n t h e a n a l y t i c a l procedure was the
d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f these i n t e r a c t i o n m a t r i c e s i n o r d e r
t o i d e n t i f y groups o f s e c t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
i n t e n s i v e i n t e r a c t i o n among i t s members. This i s the
2 6)
c l a s s i c a l task of sociometric analysis
usually
c a r r i e d o u t "by hand" i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a g r a p h i c
representation of i n t e r a c t i o n patterns i n small
groups. For t h e d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f l a r g e i n t e r a c t i o n
m a t r i c e s , a number o f computer programs a p p l y i n g
g r a p h - t h e o r e t i c approaches have been d i s c u s s e d i n
27)
the l i t e r a t u r e .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , none o f these
programs was a v a i l a b l e , o r c o u l d be implemented, i n
- 23 -
t i m e t o be used i n t h e p r o j e c t . Our own a t t e m p t s '
t o develop g r a p h - t h e o r e t i c programs f o r t h e a n a l y s i s
o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n m a t r i c e s produced u s e f u l i n f o r ­
mation on t h e e x i s t e n c e o f " c l i q u e s " and, t h u s , t h e
connectedness among t h e m i n i s t e r i a l s e c t i o n s , b u t
t h e y d i d n o t produce d i s c r e t e o r s e m i - d i s c r e t e
groupings o f s e c t i o n s which c o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d
as cohesive i n t e r a c t i o n u n i t s , and which would use
a l l o f the i n f o r m a t i o n contained i n the m a t r i c e s . ^
+
As i n t h e case o f t a s k - i m p a c t a n a l y s i s , we f i n a l l y
t r i e d t o decompose t h e i n t e r a c t i o n m a t r i c e s t h r o u g h
t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f f a c t o r a n a l y s i s . Of course, t h e
m e t h o d o l o g i c a l doubts were even more s e r i o u s as
our i n t e r a c t i o n m a t r i x had even l e s s resemblance
t o t h e c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x presupposed i n f a c t o r
a n a l y s i s than t h e s i m i l a r i t y m a t r i x used i n t a s k 29)
impact a n a l y s i s .
Y e t , a g a i n , t h e procedure worked
w e l l , producing semi-discrete groupings
of sections
+) Graph t h e o r e t i c a n a l y s i s as used i n t h e programs
developed at.
GMD c o u l d n o t r e s o l v e two m a j o r
d i f f i c u l t i e s . F i r s t , i n interpreting the interaction
m a t r i x as a graph, t h e programs c o u l d r e c o g n i z e o n l y t h e
e x i s t e n c e o r absence o f a l i n k a g e between two p o i n t s , b u t
n o t g r a d a t i o n s o f l i n k a g e s . T h e r e f o r e i t was necessary
to specify c u t - o f f points f o r the i n t e r a c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s ,
below which i n t e r a c t i o n v a l u e s would be d i s r e g a r d e d i n
t h e a n a l y s i s . Given t h e r i c h n e s s o f i n t e r a c t i o n s i n t h e
m a t r i c e s , t h i s l e d t o t h e dilemma t h a t a c u t - o f f p o i n t
p l a c e d h i g h enough t o produce d i s c r e t e groupings would
d i s r e g a r d most o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e m a t r i c e s and
would leave most o f t h e s e c t i o n s unassigned t o g r o u p i n g s .
I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e c u t - o f f p o i n t was l o w e r e d ,
t h e degree o f o v e r l a p between t h e groupings would
i n c r e a s e so r a p i d l y t h a t t h e r e s u l t s would become
u n i n t e r p r e t a b l e . The second d i f f i c u l t y tends t o aggravate
t h e problem. C l i q u e - d e t e c t i n g procedures r e q u i r e t h e
s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e minimum degree o f connectedness
among a l l members assigned t o any g r o u p i n g . I f complete
l i n k a g e i s s p e c i f i e d , t h e c r i t e r i o n may be t o o r e s t r i c t i v e ,
b u t i f i t i s r e l a x e d , t h e o v e r l a p between groupings
w i l l again i n c r e a s e r a p i d l y . I n e i t h e r case, t h e
i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d i n t h e m a t r i c e s on g r a d a t i o n s o f
i n t e r a c t i o n i n t e n s i t y would be l o s t i n t h e a n a l y s i s . .
-
24
-
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i g h l o a d i n g s on i n d i v i d u a l f a c t o r s .
The r e s u l t s were e a s i l y i n t e r p r e t a b l e because each
s e c t i o n was c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h r o u g h ( h i g h o r low)
l o a d i n g s on a l l f a c t o r s (so t h a t no i n f o r m a t i o n
c o n t a i n e d i n t h e o r i g i n a l m a t r i x was l o s t ) w h i l e
varimax r o t a t i o n maximized t h e d i s c r e t e n e s s o f t h e
groupings which c o u l d thus be i n t e r p r e t e d as groups
o f s e c t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i g h i n t e r a c t i o n
i n t e n s i t y among t h e members and by r e l a t i v e l y low
i n t e r a c t i o n i n t e n s i t y w i t h t h e members o f o t h e r
groups.
4.2
Findings
The groupings o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h f a c t o r analyses o f t h e
i n f o r m a t i o n exchange and t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n m a t r i c e s
were superimposed on t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n c h a r t o f t h e
m i n i s t r y as had been done w i t h t h e groupings o b t a i n e d
t h r o u g h t a s k - i m p a c t a n a l y s i s . W h i l e t h e r e were, o f
course, d i f f e r e n c e s i n d e t a i l , t h e h i g h degree o f
congruence between t h e groupings o b t a i n e d by two
d i f f e r e n t methods and on t h e b a s i s o f t h r e e d i f f e r e n t
d a t a s e t s was most remarkable,. I n t e r a c t i o n
p a t t e r n s d i d , a g a i n , c u t across d i v i s i o n a l boundaries
and d i d r e v e a l t h e e x i s t e n c e o f sub-groups w i t h i n t h e
d i v i s i o n which were more connected t o o t h e r d i v i s i o n s
than t o o t h e r s e c t i o n s w i t h i n t h e same d i v i s i o n . And,
a g a i n , t h e a i r t r a n s p o r t d i v i s i o n appeared as a
cohesive u n i t w i t h l i t t l e o r no i n t e r a c t i o n l i n k s
to other divisions.
On t h e whole, t h e i n t e r a c t i o n
i n f o r m a t i o n exchange d a t a and
d a t a were h i g h l y s i m i l a r , and
closely t o t h e task s t r u c t u r e
task-impact
p a t t e r n s based on
based on m u t u a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n
b o t h corresponded v e r y
i d e n t i f i e d through
a n a l y s i s . T h i s we i n t e r p r e t e d as a
- 25 -
c o n f i r m a t i o n o f t h e v a l i d i t y o f our t a s k - i m p a c t f i n d i n g s
as i n d i c a t o r s o f t h e " o b j e c t i v e " need f o r c o o r d i n a t i o n
i n p o l i c y - m a k i n g processes w i t h i n t h e m i n i s t r y .
A p p a r e n t l y these c o o r d i n a t i o n needs were r e c o g n i z e d
by t h e m i n i s t e r i a l bureaucracy i t s e l f and r e f l e c t e d i n
the a c t u a l p a t t e r n s o f i n f o r m a t i o n exchange and
p a r t i c i p a t i o n between l o w e r l e v e l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l u n i t s .
F u r t h e r c o n f i r m a t i o n was o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h a d i r e c t
q u e s t i o n i n o u r i n t e r v i e w s a s k i n g respondents t o
i d e n t i f y those o t h e r s e c t i o n s w i t h which they would
want t o be combined under t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l c o n d i t i o n
t h a t s e c t i o n s would be amalgamated i n t o l a r g e r
"groups" i n a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e m i n i s t r y . A g a i n ,
the n o m i n a t i o n o f d e s i r a b l e "groups p a r t n e r s " c u t
across d i v i s i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s and corresponded q u i t e
c l o s e l y t o t h e groupings obtained
through task31 )
impact and t h r o u g h i n t e r a c t i o n a n a l y s e s .
5. The Relevance o f O r g a n i z a t i o n a l
Boundaries
While t h e v a l u e o f t a s k - i m p a c t a n a l y s i s seemed c o n f i r m e d
by t h e r e s u l t s o f i n t e r a c t i o n a n a l y s i s , t h e s e same
r e s u l t s tended t o u n d e r c u t t h e v a l i d i t y o f o u r b a s i c
w o r k i n g h y p o t h e s i s r e g a r d i n g t h e importance o f f o r m a l
organization f o r policy coordination w i t h i n a ministry.
I f i n f o r m a t i o n exchange and p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n p o l i c y ­
making processes d i d conform so c l o s e l y t o t a s k
i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s c u t t i n g across d i v i s i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s ,
i t seemed t o f o l l o w t h a t d i v i s i o n a l boundaries were n o t
much o f an impediment t o c o o r d i n a t i n g a c t i v i t i e s
r e q u i r e d by t a s k i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s . By t h e same t o k e n ,
presumably, r e o r g a n i z a t i o n p r o p o s a l s aimed a t a c h i e v i n g
g r e a t e r congruence between t a s k s t r u c t u r e and d i v i s i o n a l
s t r u c t u r e would be u n l i k e l y t o improve p o l i c y
c o o r d i n a t i o n t o a s i g n i f i c a n t degree.
- 26 -
Such s c e p t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s were, however,
c o n t r a d i c t e d by o u r s u b s t a n t i v e p o l i c y analyses w h i c h
had i d e n t i f i e d s e r i o u s d e f i c i t s o f p o l i c y c o o r d i n a t i o n
which were e x p l a i n e d as r e s u l t s o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l
c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t between m i n i s t e r i a l d i v i s i o n s
and o f t h e c o n c o m i t a n t o b s t a c l e s t o communication and
collaboration i n i n t e r - d i v i s i o n a l policy-making
32 )
processes.
These c o n t r a r y c o n c l u s i o n s seemed t o
have a good d e a l o f f a c e v a l i d i t y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e y
were based upon q u a l i t a t i v e , " s o f t " d a t a o f low
r e l i a b i l i t y whose i n t e r p r e t a t i o n depended t o a l a r g e
degree upon t h e judgement o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e s e a r c h e r .
The problem had n o t been c l e a r l y a n t i c i p a t e d i n our
r e s e a r c h d e s i g n . Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s
i t was
lucky
t h a t our s t a n d a r d i z e d i n t e r v i e w s had i n c l u d e d a number
o f items which c o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d as independent
i n d i c a t o r s o f the relevance o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l boundaries
for policy
interaction:;
Respondents had been asked t o i d e n t i f y
interaction
problems by naming those o t h e r s e c t i o n s which i n
t h e i r opinion
- ought t o p r o v i d e p o l i c y i n f o r m a t i o n more f r e q u e n t l y
o r more comprehensively than they d i d , o r w h i c h
- ought t o u t i l i z e more f u l l y t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d
by respondents.
F u r t h e r m o r e , respondents were asked t o name those
o t h e r s e c t i o n s w i t h which t h e y found themselves i n
- f r e q u e n t and p r o t r a c t e d c o n f l i c t s over j u r i s d i c t i o n
or i n
- f r e q u e n t and p r o t r a c t e d c o n f l i c t s over s u b s t a n t i v e
policy.
- 27 -
Responses t o these q u e s t i o n s c o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d
as i n d i c a t o r s o f q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e
communication d e f i c i t s and o f d e f i c i e n c i e s o f
c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n i n policy-making i n t e r a c t i o n .
Thus, when we compared t h e number o f " d e f i c i e n t " i n t e r ­
a c t i o n s ./within and across d i v i s i o n s , we c o u l d g e t a
rough measure o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f d i v i s i o n a l
boundaries,as b a r r i e r s t o i n t e r a c t i o n . To be m e a n i n g f u l ,
however, t h e measure needed to., be " n o r m a l i z e d " w i t h . r e g a r d
t o t h e r a t i o o f a l l i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h i n and across d i v i s i o n s .
Taking t h e i n s t a n c e s o f " f r e q u e n t " ( s e v e r a l t i m e s each
month) i n f o r m a t i o n exchange as our s t a n d a r d o f comparison,
we o b t a i n e d t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t s :
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
within
across
ratio
I ( b ) / ( a ) as
d i v i s i o n s divisions (b)/(a) | % pf 1 .
1. I n f o r m a t i o n
exchange
721
540
0,748
100 %
2. I n f o r m a t i o n
Supply D e f i c i t
19
57
3 ,00
401
3. I n f o r m a t i o n
Demand D e f i c i t
35
85
2,42
323 %
205
330
1 ,61
215 %
98
108
1 ,10
147 %
4. S u b s t a n t i v e
Conflict
5. J u r i s d i c t i o n a l
Conflict
%
These r e s u l t s are s u g g e s t i v e . They i n d i c a t e t h a t
p e r c e i v e d d e f i c i t s i n i n f o r m a t i o n s u p p l y are f o u r
t i m e s as l i k e l y t o occur i n i n t e r a c t i o n s across
d i v i s i o n s than w i t h i n d i v i s i o n s ; t h a t c o n f l i c t s over
p o l i c y substance are more than t w i c e as f r e q u e n t i n
i n t e r - d i v i s i o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n ; and t h a t even c o n f l i c t s
over j u r i s d i c t i o n (which can o n l y be s e t t l e d
a u t h o r i t a t i v e l y by t h e c e n t r a l d i v i s i o n and t h e
-28-
l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e m i n i s t r y ) have a 50% h i g h e r proba­
b i l i t y o f o c c u r i n g i n i n t e r a c t i o n s between d i v i s i o n s
than w i t h i n d i v i s i o n s .
Of course, t h e f i g u r e s must be taken w i t h more t h a n
a g r a i n o f s a l t . As we had n o t p r e c i s e l y a n t i c i p a t e d
the problem, our i n t e r v i e w q u e s t i o n a i r e had n o t been
designed t o p r o v i d e s t r i n g e n t c o n t r o l s f o r t h e t e s t
q u e s t i o n s used i n t h e above t a b l e . As a consequence,
d i f f e r e n t degrees o f r e l u c t a n c e o r eagerness o f
respondents t o "admit" t h e e x i s t e n c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n
d e f i c i t s and o f s u b s t a n t i v e o r p r o c e d u r a l c o n f l i c t s
w i t h o t h e r s e c t i o n s may have a f f e c t e d o u r d a t a i n
v a r i o u s ways. S t i l l , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p r e v e a l e d by
the d a t a seems so s t r o n g , and i t corresponds so w e l l
w i t h the f i n d i n g s o f our substantive p o l i c y studies,
as t o make i t u n l i k e l y t h a t these r e s u l t s s h o u l d be
e n t i r e l y t h e a r t e f a c t o f an i m p e r f e c t q u e s t i o n a i r e .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e i s much room f o r m e t h o d o l o g i c a l
improvement i n f u t u r e s t u d i e s .
I f t h e r e s u l t s mean a n y t h i n g , however, t h e y suggest
t h a t even w i t h i n a h i e r a r c h i c a l l y i n t e g r a t e d
organization
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l boundaries do m a t t e r . They mav n o t
p r e v e n t i n t e r a c t i o n b u t t h e y seem t o c r e a t e semi-permeable
w a l l s which impede t h e f l o w o f i n f o r m a t i o n (on t h e
demand s i d e as w e l l as on t h e supply side) and which
reduce t h e c a p a c i t y f o r c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n i n t h e case
o f s u b s t a n t i v e and j u r i s d i c t i o n a l c o n f l i c t . The
explanation f o r t h e relevance o r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
b o u n d a r i e s i n p o l i c y making i s l i k e l y t o be found i n
the c o m b i n a t i o n o f h i e r a r c h i c a l d e c i s i o n a u t h o r i t y ,
group s o l i d a r i t y and c a r e e r i n c e n t i v e s a v a i l a b l e
within
(but n o t t o t h e same e x t e n t beyond) t h e d i v i s i o n a l
33)
structure o f a ministry.
- 29 -
6. C o n c l u s i o n
I f i t i s t r u e t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l boundaries w i t h i n
a (German) m i n i s t r y c r e a t e b a r r i e r s t o i n f o r m a t i o n
exchange and c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n , t h e y must a l s o
impede p o l i c y c o o r d i n a t i o n . T h i s h y p o t h e s i s was
s t r o n g l y c o n f i r m e d by o u r s u b s t a n t i v e p o l i c y s t u d i e s
which cannot be d i s c u s s e d w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f t h i s
paper. As a consequence, p o l i c y c o o r d i n a t i o n c o u l d be
improved by measures which would e i t h e r reduce t h e
e f f e c t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s , o r which would
u t i l i z e the coordinating capacity of organizational
units.
D u r i n g t h e l a s t decade, t h e F e d e r a l M i n i s t r y o f T r a n s p o r t
has pursued t h e f i r s t s o l u t i o n t h r o u g h t h e c r e a t i o n
and expansion o f i t s p l a n n i n g d i v i s i o n (A) which was
charged w i t h t h e t a s k o f d e v e l o p i n g p o l i c y d i r e c t i v e s
f o r t h e l i n e d i v i s i o n s and o f c o o r d i n a t i n g t h e i r p o l i c y ­
making a c t i v i t i e s . So f a r , t h i s s o l u t i o n seems t o have
34)
produced as many problems as i t has s o l v e d .
The
planning d i v i s i o n i s embroiled i n continuous c o n f l i c t
w i t h t h e l i n e d i v i s i o n s w i t h an inadequate i n f o r m a t i o n
base and no independent power base o f i t s own. I t s
o n l y source o f support i s t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e m i n i s t r y
w h i c h , however, cannot u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y s u p p o r t t h e
p l a n n i n g d i v i s i o n w i t h o u t a n t a g o n i z i n g and f r u s t r a t i n g
the
l i n e d i v i s i o n s w h i c h , a f t e r a l l , remain t h e
immediate producers o f s u b s t a n t i v e p o l i c y o u t p u t s on
which t h e p o l i t i c a l ' s u c c e s s o f the m i n i s t r y
u l t i m a t e l y depends. I n s h o r t , t h e p r e s e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
s o l u t i o n depending upon t h e p l a n n i n g d i v i s i o n f o r t h e
coordination of l i n e divisions with highly i n t e r ­
dependent t a s k s t r u c t u r e s seems t o have reached t h e
l i m i t s o f i t s u s e f u l n e s s . I t i s h a r d t o see how i t c o u l d
be f u r t h e r developed.
- 3D
-
Our r e o r g a n i z a t i o n p r o p o s a l , t h e r e f o r e , a t t e m p t e d
t o s t r e n g t h e n p o l i c y c o o r d i n a t i o n not by f u r t h e r
i n c r e a s i n g the c a p a c i t y o f the p l a n n i n g d i v i s i o n
b u t by r e d r a w i n g the boundaries o f the l i n e d i v i s i o n s
i n such a way as t o reduce the degree o f t a s k i n t e r ­
dependence among, and thus the need f o r
c o o r d i n a t i o n between d i v i s i o n s . T h i s would r e q u i r e
r a d i c a l changes i n the d i v i s i o n a l s t r u c t u r e . Our
p r o p o s a l p r o v i d e s f o r o n l y 5 ( i n s t e a d 7) l i n e d i v i s i o n s ,
o f which two are f u n c t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d (one f o r
i n v e s t m e n t p o l i c y , and one f o r r e g u l a t o r y p o l i c y
i n the f i e l d o f domestic t r a n s p o r t ) w h i l e t h r e e remain
s e c t o r a l l y d e f i n e d ( a i r t r a n s p o r t , roads
35)
and
waterways and
sea
transport).
'
The p r o p o s a l would c l o s e l y f o l l o w the g r o u p i n g s
i d e n t i f i e d t h r o u g h t a s k - i m p a c t and i n t e r a c t i o n analyses
and c o n f i r m e d t h r o u g h s u b s t a n t i v e p o l i c y a n a l y s e s .
On the b a s i s o f our d a t a , i t s h o u l d s i g n i f i c a n t l y
reduce the need f o r p o l i c y c o o r d i n a t i o n between l i n e
36)
divisions.
Each d i v i s i o n would i n t e r n a l l y c o n t r o l
most of the p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t s r e l e v a n t t o i t s area
o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; i t would have the o p p o r t u n i t y t o
a t t e m p t i n t e g r a t e d p o l i c y making; and i t c o u l d be h e l d
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e combined e f f e c t s o f r e l e v a n t p o l i c y
i n s t r u m e n t s i n i t s area o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . The p r o p o s a l
would not garantee b e t t e r , or more e f f e c t i v e , t r a n s ­
p o r t a t i o n p o l i c y - m a k i n g . But i t s h o u l d improve t h e
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s under which t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
37)
p o l i c y must be developed.
NOTES
1.
The f i n d i n g s and recommendations o f t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n
study are c o n t a i n e d i n : F.W. Scharpf, H a u p t b e r i c h t , i n :
P r o j e k t g r u p p e Regierungs- und V e r w a l t u n g s r e f o r m beim
B u n d e s m i n i s t e r des I n n e r n , Untersuchung z u r R e o r g a n i s a t i o n
des Bundesministeriums für Verkehr, 2 v o l s . , Bonn,
November 1975, v o l . 1 , p.1 f f .
2.
Thus i t was n o t t h e g o a l o f t h e s t u d y t o s y s t e m a t i c a l l y
search f o r c o s t savings t h r o u g h a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e
m i n i s t e r i a l s t a f f i t s e l f . I f t h e p e r s o n n e l budget o f t h e
m i n i s t r y (ca. DM 53 m i l l i o n a n n u a l l y ) i s compared t o t h e
o v e r a l l t r a n s p o r t a t i o n budget (ca. DM 19 b i l l i o n )
f o r which t h e m i n i s t r y i s r e s p o n s i b l e , t h e focus on
p o l i c y - m a k i n g seems j u s t i f i a b l e though c o s t r e d u c t i o n s
have become an o v e r r i d i n g concern o f German government.
3.
L. G u l i c k / L . U r w i c k , eds., Papers on t h e Science o f
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , New York 1937.
4.
See, e.g. S.C.Wallace, F e d e r a l D e p a r t m e n t a l i z a t i o n ,
A C r i t i q u e o f T h e o r i e s o f O r g a n i z a t i o n , Westport,Conn.
1972 ( f i r s t p u b l i s h e d 1941) and A.Brecht, The A r t
and Technique o f A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n German M i n i s t r i e s ,
W e s t p o r t , Conn. 1971 ( f i r s t p u b l i s h e d 1940).
5.
Any p e r u s a l o f e m p i r i c a l l y and t h e o r e t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d
j o u r n a l s such as " A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Science Q u a r t e r l y " o r
" O r g a n i z a t i o n and A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Sciences" w i l l c o n f i r m
t h i s estimate.
6.
Much o f t h e r e c e n t i n t e r e s t i n Germany i n t h e e m p i r i c a l
and n o r m a t i v e s t u d y o f governmental o r g a n i z a t i o n a t t h e
ministerial
l e v e l has been generated d i r e c t l y o r
i n d i r e c t l y by work commissioned by t h e P r o j e k t g r u p p e
für Regierungs- und V e r w a l t u n g s r e f o r m and t h e ensuing
c r i t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n : See, e.g. R.Mayntz/F.W.Scharpf,
eds., P l a n u n g s o r g a n i s a t i o n : Die D i s k u s s i o n um d i e
Reform von Regierung und V e r w a l t u n g des Bundes,
Munich 1973; R.Mayntz/F.W.Scharpf, P o l i c y - M a k i n g i n t h e
German F e d e r a l Bureaucracy, Amsterdam 1975; G.Schmid/
H . T r e i b e r , Bürokratie und P o l i t i k : Zur S t r u k t u r und
F u n k t i o n d e r Ministerialbürokratie i n d e r B u n d e s r e p u b l i k
D e u t s c h l a n d , München 19 75.
7.
See, e.g. V.Ronge/G.Schmieg, R e s t r i k t i o n e n p o l i t i s c h e r
Planung, F r a n k f u r t 1973; P.Grottian/A.Murswieck, eds.,
Handlungsspielräume d e r S t a a t s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , Hamburg 1 9 74;
B.Blanke, R e s t r i k t i o n e n e i n e r "demokratischen Planung" K o n s t i t u t i o n und Wandel e i n e r p o l i t i s c h e n T h e o r i e , i n :
Systemwandel und D e m o k r a t i s i e r u n g , F e s t s c h r i f t für
O.K.Flechtheim, F r a n k f u r t 1975, p. 271 f f .
8.
T h i s i s t h e major t h e s i s developed i n Mayntz/Scharpf
1 975.
9.
T h i s i s , o f c o u r s e , t h e c l a s s i c a l problem d e f i n i t i o n
p r e s u p p o s e d i n t h e t h e o r y , o f teams: J . M a r s c h a k ,
E l e m e n t s f o r a T h e o r y o f Teams, Management S c i e n c e ,
v o l . 1 , 1955, p. 127 f f .
10. The c o n c e p t s o f " p o s i t i v e " and " n e g a t i v e c o o r d i n a t i o n "
were d e v e l o p e d i n : F.W.Scharpf, Komplexität a l s
Schranke d e r p o l i t i s c h e n Planung, P o l i t i s c h e V i e r t e l ­
j a h r e s s c h r i f t , S o n d e r h e f t 4, 19 72, p. 168 f f ;
s e e a l s o , M a y n t z / S c h a r p f 1975, p. 147 f f .
11. The c o n c e p t o f " t u r b u l e n t " o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t s
was f i r s t p r e s e n t e d by F . E . E m e r y / E . L . T r i s t , The C a u s a l
T e x t u r e o f O r g a n i z a t i o n a l E n v i r o n m e n t s , Human R e l a t i o n s ,
18, 1965, p. 21 f f . See a l s o : S . T e r r e b e r r y , The E v o l u t i o n
of O r g a n i z a t i o n a l Environments, A d m i n i s t r a t i v e
S c i e n c e Q u a r t e r l y , 12, 1967/68, p.590 f f ; J . L . M e t c a l f e ,
System Models, Economic Models and t h e C a u s a l T e x t u r e
o f O r g a n i z a t i o n a l E n v i r o n m e n t s , Human R e l a t i o n s , 2 7 ,
1974, p . 639 f f .
12. S c h a r p f 1972. See a l s o J.D.Thompson, O r g a n i z a t i o n s i n
A c t i o n , New Y o r k 1967, p. 5 7 f f , d e v e l o p i n g s i m i l a r
c r i t e r i a for the departmentalization of production
organizations.
13. The f u n c t i o n a l e q u i v a l e n c e o f p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
s u b s t a n t i v e programs and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e a s
d e c i s i o n premisses i n f l u e n c i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s
h a s been d e v e l o p e d i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f N i k l a s Luhmann.
S e e , e.g. N.Luhmann, Reform und I n f o r m a t i o n : T h e o r e t i s c h e
Überlegungen z u r Reform d e r V e r w a l t u n g , D i e V e r w a l t u n g ,
3, 1970, p.15 f f .
14.
S e e , H. Kaufmann, The F o r e s t R a n g e r : A Study i n
A d m i n i s t r a t i v e B e h a v i o r , B a l t i m o r e 1960.
15. S e e , e.g. E . F r i e d b e r g / D . D e s j e u x , R o l e de L ' E t a t e t
F o n c t i o n s d e s Grands C o r p s : l e C a s du Corps d e s M i n e s ,
i n : A n n u a i r e de l a F o n c t i o n P u b l i q u e , P a r i s 19 72.
16. D a t a on t h e p e r s o n n e l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e m i n i s t r y a r e
a n a l y z e d by E . Müller, Aufbau und A b l a u f o r g a n i s a t i o n
des B u n d e s m i n i s t e r i u m s
für V e r k e h r , i n : P r o j e k t g r u p p e
19 75, v o l . 1, p. 127 f f . I n a more g e n e r a l c o n t e x t ,
t h e p e r s o n n e l s y s t e m o f German M i n i s t r i e s i s r e v i e w e d
by R.Koch, P e r s o n a l s t e u e r u n g i n d e r M i n i s t e r i a l v e r w a l t u n g , Baden-Baden 19 75.
17.
E . Bohne e t a l . , Probleme d e r I n v e s t i t i o n s p o l i t i k und
o r g a n i s a t o r i s c h e Konsequenzen, i n : P r o j e k t g r u p p e 1975,
v o l . 2, p. 270 f f .
18.
T h i s was most r e c e n t l y t r u e f o r t h e " o b j e c t i v e s "
s p e c i f i e d by t h e m i n i s t r y f o r t h e f e d e r a l r a i l w a y
system which implied a d r a s t i c r e d u c t i o n of r a i l s e r v i c e .
The g e n e r a l need f o r r a p i d a d j u s t m e n t i n r e g u l a t o r y
p o l i c y i s e m p h a s i z e d by: P.Kessel/A.Wender, Probleme d e r
O r d n u n g s p o l i t i k und o r g a n i s a t o r i s c h e Konsequenzen, i n P r o j e k t g r u p p e 1975, v o l . 2, p. 416 f f .
19.
See Mayntz/Scharpf, 1975.
20.
C f . F . A . H e l l e r , Group F e e d b a c k A n a l y s i s : A Method o f
F i e l d R e s e a r c h , P s y c h o l o g i c a l B u l l e t i n , V o l . 72, 1969,
p. 108 f f .
21.
A l l d a t a a n a l y s e s were c o n d u c t e d by s t a f f members o f
t h e G e s e l l s c h a f t für Mathematik und D a t e n v e r a r b e i t u n g
(GMD), B i r l i n g h o v e n .
The development o f a n a l y t i c a l
methods f o r t h e p r o j e c t was g r e a t l y a i d e d by
Dr. W i l l y K l o e s g e n o f GMD: W. K l o e s g e n , Methodik d e r
G r u p p i e r u n g s v e r f a h r e n , i n : P r o j e k t g r u p p e 1975, v o l . 1,
p. 252 f f .
22.
S e e , e.g., R.R. Sokal/P.H.A. S n e a t h , P r i n c i p l e s o f Nume­
r i c a l Taxonomy, San F r a n c i s c o , 1 9 6 3 .
23.
S e e , K . U e b e r l a . F a c t o r e n a n a l y s e , 2nd e d . , B e r l i n 1 9 7 1
p. 302 f f . B u t a p p a r e n t l y , f a c t o r a n a l y s i s i s i n
p r a c t i c e often applied to .correlation matrices based
upon o r d i n a l d a t a a s we h a d u s e d .
24.
L.Gerhards/W.Kloesgen,
Graphentheoretische,clusterund f a k t o r e n a n a l y t i s c h e V e r f a h r e n i n d e r O r g a n i s a t i o n s ­
p l a n u n g , GMD w o r k i n g p a p e r , B i r l i n g h o v e n 1975.
25.
The f i n d i n g s a r e d e s c r i b e d
26.
S e e , e.g. J . B o i s s e v a i n , F r i e n d s o f F r i e n d s :
M a n i p u l a t o r s and C o a l i t i o n s , O x f o r d 1974.
27.
S e e , e.g. J . B o i s s e v a i n / J . C . M i t c h e l l , e d s . , Network
A n a l y s i s : S t u d i e s i n Human I n t e r a c t i o n - , The Hague 1 974;
D.E.Himmelblau, e d . , D e c o m p o s i t i o n o f L a r g e - S c a l e
P r o b l e m s , Amsterdam 1973; New computer programs
(SOCK and COMPLT.) f o r s o c i o m e t r i c network a n a l y s i s have
been d e v e l o p e d by a group o f r e s e a r c h e r s a t C o l u m b i a
U n i v e r s i t y . S e e , e.g. R.A.Alba, Some New P r o c e d u r e s
f o r Sociometric A n a l y s i s , Bureau of Applied S o c i a l Research,
Columbia U n i v e r s i t y , N.Y. n.d.; C K a d u s h i n / R . A l b a ,
Methods o f F i n d i n g C l u s t e r s and Networks o f I n f l u e n c e
i n L a r g e S c a l e D a t a , C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y , N.Y., n.d.
28.
The programs were d e v e l o p e d by s t a f f members o f GMD
i n c l o s e c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e p r o j e c t team.
i n detail
g
i n : E . M u e l l e r , op c i t .
Networks,
29.
But see, Ueberla,
loc.cit.
30.
The p a t t e r n s
31.
E . M u e l l e r op c i t . , p. 185-196
32.
Scharpf,
33.
See M a y n t z / S c h a r p f 1975, p.54 f f , 63 f f .
34.
The problems a r e f u l l y d i s c u s s e d by S c h a r p f , i n :
P r o j e k t g r u p p e 1975, p. 42 f f .
35.
The i n v e s t m e n t p o l i c y d i v i s i o n would be r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r t h e p l a n n i n g and f i n a n c i n g d e c i s i o n s o f t h e
m i n i s t r y with regard to investments i n a l l t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
sectors. S i m i l a r l y , the regulatory policy d i v i s i o n
would e x e r c i s e a l l f u n c t i o n s of t h e m i n i s t r y i n t h e
f i e l d s of t a r i f f r e g u l a t i o n s , capacity r e g u l a t i o n s ,
t a x a t i o n and s u b s i d i e s f o r r a i l t r a n s p o r t , , r o a d
t r a n s p o r t and d o m e s t i c w a t e r t r a n s p o r t . The r o a d
d i v i s i o n would combine t h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e p r e s e n t
r o a d t r a n s p o r t and r o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n d i v i s i o n s w i t h o u t
t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f o r i n v e s t m e n t p l a n n i n g and
regulation.
36.
B e c a u s e t h e t a s k a r e a s o f a number o f s e c t i o n s h a d
t o be r e d e f i n e d i n t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n p r o p o s a l , a
p r e c i s e b e f o r e / a f t e r comparison o f . i n t e r - d i v i s i o n a l
task interdependencies
and i n t e r a c t i o n s i s i m p o s s i b l e .
S t i l l , a number o f q u a n t i t a t i v e i n d i c a t o r s s u g g e s t
t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n would be a c h i e v e d by
r e o r g a n i z a t i o n : S c h a r p f i n : P r o j e k t g r u p p e 1975, p.109 f f .
37.
I t s h o u l d be o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e t h a t b o t h t h e
i n v e s t m e n t p o l i c y d i v i s i o n and t h e r e g u l a t o r y p o l i c y
d i v i s i o n would be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s e v e r a l t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
s e c t o r s . T h u s , t h e p r e s e n t one-to-one r e l a t i o n s h i p
between m i n i s t e r i a l l i n e d i v i s i o n s and " t h e i r "
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n d u s t r i e s would be r e p l a c e d by t h e jo.int
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f a d i v i s i o n f o r competing i n d u s t r i e s .
are described
i n E . M u e l l e r , op c i t .
Bohne und K e s s e l / W e n d e r , i n : P r o j e k t g r u p p e 1975.