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January/February
Janvier/Février
1988
HV
7405
A7
1988
Jan./Feb.
Canade
-
Correctional Service Service correctennel
Canada
Canada
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Document #
Correctional Effectiveness:
Success
Patricia Van Voorhis
Federal Probation
The High Cost Ignoring
1
"Mixed Nutters" and "Looney Tunes": The Emergence,
Development, Nature and Function of two Informal,
Deviant Subcultures of Chronic Ex-Psychiatric Patients
Nancy J. Herman
Deviant Behaviour
2
Cognitive Education in Four Canadian Penitentiaries
Richard Volpe, Mary Waksman, Colleen Keerney
Journal of Correctional Education
3
Prison Reform Litigation: Has the Revolution Gone Too Far? 4
Samuel Jan Brakel
Judicature
"Preparation"
John Irwin
Exerpt from The Jail: Manage the Underclass in
American Society
5
Psychotherapy in Prison Setting
Rudolf E. Mathiàs, Ronald Sindberg
International Journal of Offender Therapy and
Comparative Criminology
6
The Limits of Segregation in Prisons: A Reply to Jacobs
Samuel Walker
Criminal Law Bulletin
7
Copydght of this document does not belong to the Crown.
Proper authorization must be obtained from the author for
any intended use.
Les droits d'auteur du présent document n'appartiennent
pas à l'État. Toute utilisation du contenu du présent
document doit être approuvée préalablement par l'auteur.
V
/9
HeS
Cre:t n
//Articles Impacting on Corrections/
January/February, 1988
For additional copies or to be added to our mailing list, please contact:
Director, Corporate Policy & Strategic Planning
The Correctional Service of Canada
340 Laurier Avenue West
Ottawa, Ontario
KlA OP9
The objective of this document is to give a broad overview of the various
areas of corrections and the views expressed do not necessarily represent
the current policy of the Correctional Service of Canada.
We welcome your comments and appreciate any materials sent for inclusion
in future issues.
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Questions correctionnelles
Janvier/Février, 1988
Si vous désirez des copies additionnelles ou être ajoutés à notre liste
de distribution, veuillez vous adresser à la personne suivante:
Directeur, Politiques et planification stratégique
Service correctionnel du Canada
340 ouest, avenue Laurier
Ottawa (Ontario)
KlA OP9
L'objectif de ce document est de vous donner une vue d'ensemble des
divers secteurs correctionnels. L'opinion exprimée ne représente pas
nécessairement la politique actuelle du Service correctionnel du Canada.
N'hésitez pas à nous transmettre vos observations ou contribuer à nos
prochains numéros.
1
CSC ENVIRONMENTAL SCANNING FORM
TITLE:
AUTHOR:
SOURCE:
DATE:
PAGES:
Corrrectional Effectiveness:
Patricia Van Voorhis
Federal Probation
March 1987
6
The High Cost Ignoring Success
SUBJECT:
The author examines the issue of correctional programming effectiveness and
concludes that programs cannot be polarized into those that "work" and those
that "do not work". She argues that effective treatment programs must (1) have
system-level interventions, (2) use differential treatment methods; and (3)
abandon archaic, training school and reformatory-type programs instead of
deinstitutionalizing.
STATEMENTS:
Individuals are very much the product of the environment, social systems,
institutions, and social groups in which they interact. The practice of
targetting individual factors for treatement while neglecting factors in the
individual's environment has been criticized for some time now.
We still do not appear to be using differential treatment to maximum advantage.
There does appear to be widespread agreement that we cannot treat all offenders
alike, but commitments to this realization in the form of using system wide
classification measures and matching individuals to appropriate treatment models
based upon these assumptions do not appear to be occurring.
There is continued use of archetypal reformatories and training schools although
there is a large body of research which shows that they are not necessary.
Deinstitutionalization and the strengthening of community-based options may
bring about a problematic fragmentation of services. This requires adequate
monitoring and tracking systems.
Staff and administrators who fail to remain current with the literature in their
field, who neglect treatment manuals and policies, and who fail to work the
required hours,certainly will not be at the forefront of correctional
administration.
PUBLICATIONS INTÉRESSANT LE SCC
TITRE:
AUTEUR:
SOURCE:
DATE:
PAGES:
Correctional Effectiveness: The High Cost Ignoring Success
Patricia Van Vborhis
Federal Probation
Mars 1987
6
SUJET:
L'auteur examine la question de l'efficacité des programmes correctionnels et
conclut que les programmes ne peuvent être catégoriquement classés selon qu'ils
"fonctionnent" ou ne "fonctionnent pas". Elle soutient que, pour être
efficaces, les programmes de traitement doivent nécessairement (1) comporter des
interventions du système, (2) utiliser des méthodes de traitement différentiel
et (3) se démarquer des anciens programmes d'école de formation ou de réforme
comme solutions de rechange à l'emprisonnement.
DÉCLARATIONS INTÉRESSANT LE SCC:
Les personnes sont essentiellement le produit du milieu, des systèmes sociaux,
des institutions et des groupes sociaux auxquels elles appartiennent. On
critique depuis longtemps la pratique voulant qu'on ne s'intéresse qu'aux
Èacteurs individuels aux fins du traitement et qu'on néglige les facteurs du
milieu dans lequel évolue la personne.
Nous ne semblons pas être parvenus à tirer pleinement profit du traitement
différentiel. L'idée selon laquelle on ne peut traiter tous les délinquants de
la même façon semble généralement admise; cependant, la prise de mesures en ce
sens, comme le recours à des mesures de classement à l'échelle du système et
l'assignation de modèles de traitement particuliers aux personnes auxquelles ils
conviendront, ne semble pas se concrétiser.
On a toujours recours aux écoles de réforme et aux écoles de formation
archétypes, bien que de nombreuses recherches démontrent qu'elles ne sont pas
nécessaires.
La réduction du recours à l'emprisonnement et l'utilisation accrue des options
offertes au sein de la communauté peuvent entraîner une fragmentation
indésirable des services. Il faudra donc établir des systèmes appropriés de
contrôle et de dépistage.
Le personnel et les administrateurs qui ne se tiennent pas au courant des
ouvrages publiés dans le domaine, qui n'étudient pas les manuels et les
politiques sur les traitements et qui n'investissent pas le temps nécessaire ne
pourront certainement pas être au premier plan en matière d'administration
correctionnelle.
Correctional Effectiveness:
The High Cost of Ignoring Success*
BY PATRICIA VAN VOORHIS, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of Criminal Justice, University of Cincinnati
groups of offenders in speci fi c circumstances (1984).
Several sources supported a differential focus, encouraging us to think in terms of what worked for which
offender subgroups under what conditions and discouraging further searches for the "panacea" (Palmer,
1975, 1978, 1983, 1984; Warren, 1971; Gendreau and
UCH HAS been learned about correctional
treatment, especially during the later half of
this century. One of the sad ironies of the postMartinson years, however, is that the extreme "nothing works" orientation has obscured well-founiled
knowledge and sound utilization of "what works." Unfavorable evaluation reviews of the 1960's and early
1976's and their political aftermath have interrupted
the implementation of several practices that were wellgrounded in research and showed promise of greatly
improving the efficacy of correctional treatment.
In the wake of Martinson's (1974) research and other
studies, the common perception of correctional treatment was:
1. We should have but didn't find the intervention
that "worked" with all or most offenders.
2. The exi sting conglomeration of evaluation studies
were too inferior, methodologically, to conclude
that any treatments were effective with offenders. Generally, the State of evaluation research
was grossly inadequate.
In more recent years, these misperceptions have
been effectively countered, at least in print, by Ted
Palmer (1975, 1978, 1983, 1984), the National Academy
of Sciences Panel on Research on Rehabilitative Techniques (Sechrest et al., 1979; Martin et al., 1981),
Miehael Gottfredson (1979), and by more recent positive reviews of the evaluation research (e.g., see Gendreau and Ross, 1979; Garrett, 1985). The earlier unfavorable reviews of the treatment literature were
polarized. More logically, assessments of program effectiveness should not have been reduced simplistically
to the matter of "working" vs. "not working." We had,
in fact, observed degrees of success rather than total
success or total failure. Palmer's rather conservative
estimates of the pre-1975 studies suggest that 20 to
25 percent of all experiments had significantly reduced
recidivism, and an additional 10 to 15 percent of the
experimental programs had reduced it for specific sub-
M
Ross, 1979; Martin et al., 1981; Sechrest et al., 1979).
In response to the second misperception, we should
amend that assumption to assert, as several sources
have, that e xisting research certainly is not good enough
to let go of the need for continued research and continued improvements in the methodology of program
evaluation. But in many instances, prior research is not
bad enough to condone our continued neglect of some
crucially important results of those efforts. According
to Palmer (1984):
Even though most of the several hundred experiments were seriously flawed or limited, a great many studies remain; most of
the latter studies—their minor or at least far from critical flaws
notwithstanding—were of acceptable to high quality as judged
by long-standing, widely recognized scientific standards. Individually and especially collectively, studies need not be nearly perfect
in order to yield valuable results or strong clues.. . Results from
many of the latter, more reliable studies provide converging and
often mutually reinforcing leads and patterns, and most such patterns are further supported by a number of less reliable or more
limited, yet by no means worthless, studies. From this perspective, the convergence—and in some respects the partial replication
—in question is difficult to minimize (1984: 254).
This article focuses on the several findings of the
Martinson and post-Martinson years that do in fact appear to have been minimized. The issues addressed
represent a convergence of findings across numerous
studies. Although they appear to have obvious policy
implications for designing and administering treatment
programs, they do not appear to have been put into
practice to any significant degree. They might appropriately be termed the "most frustrating omissions of
the post-Martinson years," for our failure to move forward confidently in these areas represents a waste of
valuable, and costly, knowledge and a diminishment of
the effectiveness, of current efforts. In my opinion, the
three most costly omissions or unheeded lessons of the
recent treatment literature are as follows:
1. Successful interventions must target social institutions and groups as well as individuals. Exclusive attention to the pèrsonality or pathology of
*This article was developed from a presentation by the author
at the First International Conference on Reaffirming Rehabilitation, June 19-21, 1986 in Alexandria, Virginia. The conference
was organized by the National Center on Institutions and Alternatives and sponsored by the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation.
56
CSC ENVIRONMENTAL SCANNING FORM
TITLE:
AUTHOR:
SOURCE:
DATE:
PAGES:
"Mixed Nutters" and "Looney Tunes": The Emergance, Development, Nature
and Function of two Informal, Deviant Subcultures of Chronic
Ex-Psychiatric Patients
Nancy J. Herman
Deviant Behavior
1987
21
SUBJECT:
The author examines two subcultures of discharged, chronic psychiatric
patients. From the perspective of the subjects, the author seeks to find the
nature and functions of their subculture.
STATEMENTS:
This article provides an analysis of chronic psychiatric patients' subcultures
that will be useful reading for those dealing with chronic psychiatric inmates.
It is likely that discharged psychiatric patients in institutions will develop a
subculture distinct from the subculture of other inmates.
It is stated that the following conditions are important in the development of a
subculture: (1) experiencing a problem or set of problems; (2) communicating
such problems to others facing the same problems; (3) interacting over an
extended period of time with like others on the basis of such problems; and (4)
developing solutions to these common problems.
The deviant subcultures of chronic, ex-psychiatric patients possess five major
characteristics:
(1) Behavioral patterns
Members of the group center their attention, interests and activities around
their deviant attribute (their psychosis)
(2) Subcultural Norms
The ex-mentally disturbed patient subcultures establish a rather simple code
of beliefs, actions and sanctions. These norms indicate what behavior is
acceptable and what sanctions are to be applied to behavior contrary to
their norms.
(3) Language
The groups develop a distinct vocabulary that identifies outsiders from
insiders, and veterans from newcomers.
PUBLICATIONS INTÉRESSANT LE SCC
TITRE:
AUTEUR:
SOURCE:
DATE:
PAGES:
"Mixed Nutters" and "Looney Tunes": The Emergance, Development,
Nature and Function of two Informal, Deviant Subcultures of Chronic
Ex-Psychiatric Patients
Nancy J. Herman
Deviant Behavior
1987
21
SUJET:
L'auteur examine deux sous-cultures de malades mentaux chroniques en liberté.
En se mettant à la place des sujets, l'auteur tente de découvrir la nature et
les fonctions de leur sous-culture.
DÉCLARATIONS INTÉRESSANT LE SCC:
Cet article fournit une analyse des sous-cultures de malades mentaux chroniques,
laquelle constituera une lecture intéressante pour ceux qui traitent avec des
détenus souffrant de troubles mentaux chroniques. Il est probable que les
ex-malades mentaux dans les établissements carcéraux développeront une
sous-culture différente de celle des autres détenus.
L'auteur indique que les conditions suivantes sont essentielles au développement
d'une sous-culture: (1) expérience d'un problème ou d'une série de problèmes;
(2) communication de ces problèmes à d'autres qui les partagent; (3) interaction
avec d'autres personnes vivant les mêmes problèmes pendant une période prolongée
et (4) élaboration de solutions à ces problèmes communs.
Les sous-cultures déviantes des ex-malades mentaux chroniques comportent cinq
caractéristiques principales:
(1) Structures de comportement
Les membres du groupe concentrent leur attention, leurs intérêts et leurs
activités sur leur attribut déviant (leur psychose)
(2) Normes sous-culturelles
Les sous-cultures des ex-malades mentaux établissent un code plutôt simple
de valeurs, d'actes et de sanctions. Ces normes indiquent quel
comportement est acceptable et quelles sanctions doivent être appliquées à
un comportement contraire à ces normes.
(3) Langage
Les groupes développent un vocabulaire particulier qui distingue les
membres des non-membres ainsi que les anciens des nouveaux.
2
(4) Boundaries
In this study the subcultures limited their mobility to an area which
provided a sense of manageability and security in their lives.
(5) Ideology
The groups developed a perspective on themselves and on their relations with
other societal members, a set of ideas repudiating conventional,
stereotypical attitudes about their deviant attribute, and a set of
justifications for engaging in deviant or illegal behavior.
-2-
I
(4) Limites
1
flans cette étude, les membres des sous-cultures limitent leurs déplacements
à un secteur leur procurant un sentiment d'assurance et de sécurité dans
leur vie.
(5) Idéologie
Les groupes se font une opinion d'eux-mêmes et de leurs relations avec les
autres composantes de la société, établissent une série d'idées réfutant
les attitudes conventionnelles et stéréotypées entretenues à l'égard de
leur attribut déviant et se donnent un ensemble de motifs pour justifier
leur comportement déviant ou illégal.
CSC ENVIRONMENTAL SCANNING FORM
TITLE:
AUTHOR:
SOURCE:
DATE:
PAGES:
Cognitive Education in Four Canadian Penitentiaries
Richard Volpe, Mary Waksman, Colleen Keerney
Journal of correctional Education
June 1985
8
SUBJECT:
The authors evaluate the Instrumental Enrichment education program which is
based on the cognitive education model. This program was tested in four
Canadian penitentiaries and it was found that study participants showed
improvements over comparison groups.
STATEMENTS:
Cognitive education, or the revision in certain deficiencies in thinking, is
believed by some to provide a means of correcting criminal behavior.
Instrumental Enrichment (IE) assumes that criminal understanding of the world is
based on ineffective and inefficient ways of processing information. That is
criminals pay attention to the wrong stimuli or dimensions of situations.
Consequently, they respond to situations in an inappropriate and unpredictable
manner.
IE is designed to remedy deficits in three areas: (1) input or gathering
information, (2) elaborating or making situations meaningful, and (3) output or
responding to inputs.
The results of the IE experiment were indeterminate. Egocentricity, impulsivity
and cognitive rigidity were reported to be reduced in those inmates who remained
involved in the IE program. Some inmates and teachers indicated the program was
child-like.
Currently CSC is renewing its commitment to educating inmates.
IE offers a
program which may increase reasoning ability and mental capacity and,
consequently, may lead to a decrease of criminal tendencies.
PUBLICATIONS INTÉRESSANT LE SCC
TITRE:
AUTEUR:
SOURCE:
DATE:
PAGES:
Cognitive Education in Four Canadian Penitentiaries
Richard Volpe, Mary Waksman, Colleen Keerney
Journal of correctional Education
Juin 1985
8
SUJET:
Les auteurs évaluent le programme de perfectionnement instrumental fondé sur le
modèle d'éducation cognitive. Ce programme a été mis à l'essai dans quatre
pénitenciers canadiens et les participants ont fait des progrès par rapport aux
groupes témoins.
DÉCLARATIONS INTÉRESSANT LE SCC:
L'éducation cognitive, ou la révision de certaines lacunes de la pensée, est
considérée par certains comme un moyen de corriger un comportement criminel.
Les partisans du perfectionnement instrumental (PI) estiment que la façon dont
les criminels envisagent le monde s'appuie sur des moyens inefficaces ou
inefficients de traiter l'information. Autrement dit, les criminels
s'intéresseraient aux mauvais stimuli ou aux aspects inappropriés des diverses
situations dans lesquelles ils se trouvent, d'où leurs réactions inappropriées
et imprévisibles à celles-ci.
Le PI vise à corriger des lacunes à trois niveaux: (1) entrée ou collecte de
renseignements, (2) raisonnement ou interprétation des situations et (3) action
ou réaction à l'information reçue.
Les résultats de l'expérience de PI sont imprécis. On a constaté que les
problèmes d'égocentrisme, d'impulsivité et de rigidité cognitive avaient diminué
chez les détenus qui avaient continué de participer au programme de PI. Par
contre, certains détenus et enseignants ont indiqué que le programme était
enfantin.
Le SCC a entrepris de réaffirmer son engagement d'éduquer les détenus. Le PI
offre un programme permettant d'augmenter la capacité de raisonnement et la
capacité intellectuelle; par conséquent, il peut aboutir à une atténuation de
tendances criminelles.
JOURNAL 01- CORRECTIONAL EDUCATION
VOLUME 3t.), ISSUE 2, JUNE, 1985
InaliM11■91RIUM11.
Cognitive Education in
Four Canadian Prisons
cognitive deficiencies and criminality, Feuerstein (1980a);
Waksman, M., Silverman, H. and Weber, K. (1983); Narrol
and Giblon (1984).
Richard Volpe
Mary Waksman
Colleen Kearney
Background
As part of a general interest in improving the
educational programs of the Correctional Service of
Canada attention has been paid to the learning needs of
inmates.
Several reviewers have noted that the education
experience of inmates is extremely limited. Some inmates
are virtually illiterate, while many others are best described
as "functionally illiterate." While most have spent eicjit or
nine years in school, it is estimated that approximately 35
percent have not attained secondary school levels at
educational ability.
For a long time, the lowest segment of this population
was treated as learning disabled," i.e. unable to benefit
from regular classroom instruction primarily became their
performance revealed a variety of symptoms synonymous
with the condition of learning disability. Attempts to
substantiate this hypothesis often relied on the historicallyaccepted premise that criminality is linked to learning
disability. Furthermore, attempts to provide evidence of
neurological impairment in the performance of inmates lent
additional support to the theory that learning disability was
linked to criminality, Yeudall (1977).
VVhile there is growing skepticism about their link
among some researchers, e.g. Hare (1979), otl-nrs appear
to persist in the belief in the "delinquency triad", Murray
(1976); Roman (1957) which implies a triangular interrelationship among learning disability — early school
experience — and criminality. While attention continues to
be focused on learning disability or a possible explanation
for some of the reasons underlying criminal behavior, this
approach fails to address three important issues:
Abstract
Th e articae reports the evahration of a
cognithie education cornea designed for inmates
I nCameleer federal penitentiaries.
A auk may exist between cognitive
deficiencies Gird soesse forms of criminality.
casette adrecention or the correction of certain
cc-gel-eve tileficierscies provides 'a potentially
isegeorearat romans of rehabilitatioss and preteefeek.11
Aire-ester« post-test raiith comparison groups
eleaka was employed to assess the Impact of the
coewtc lv. four penitentiaries. Cognitive,
intelincesee and interpersonal criterion tests avare
need akee with interview schedules, questionmaim% coureadasthe and seinernative hunts-actor
facellkies reports.
test scores of the participating
inmates were compered to the scores of nonpextidensits, It was found that overall improvemeet lean grenterfor participants. Reports Irons
«knot inetructore indicate that participating
Earnctem showed improvement in their ability to
comenzarelcate and discuss ideas and were more
aerie ta stop and &ink before acting on a
problem. nese findings were supported by
Czeleennteera freers the inmates. Akhorigh sosie
ffecenli egg e2 course could hove been more
chaCarena, raout found It of service.
Sib% perticipant turnover and incomplete
delta ente, however, Isrlîbit conclusive assessment of the course's impact.
1. The adequacy and validity of the conventional assessment measures presently used to assess learning
disabilities, and their contribution to the rernediation
of the condition labeled as learning disability,
2. The specific features of the disability (in terms of information processing and learning processes), and
Introduction
Some fxgentially potent alternatives to traditional
notions of treatment and rehabilitation have emerged from
the depths of the past "nothing works in corrections" era.
Cognitive education or the revision of certain deficiencies in
thinking is believed by some to provide a means of
correcting criminal behavior, Ross and Fabiano (1983). This
position draws on developments in cognitive sciences and
emphasizes the development of life span competencies
necessary for social adaptation, Volpe (1983).
This article reports the evaluation of a cognitive
education course implemented in four Canadian maximum
security prisons. The course was based on a program called
Instrumental Enrichment (I.E.) that posits a link between
3. Remediation procedures: How such disabilities can be
overcome by educational intervention methods.
The third issue does not relate only to the inmate
population but to all other "learning disabled" populations.
In considering the above issues, researchers began to
question the usefulness of the term "L.D." as a 'blanket
label' which describes a variety of learning problems, some
of which are as yet unidentified, Coles (1978). Because
existing approaches were unsatisfactory, the specific
learning patterns of so called "learning disabled" students in
general, and of low functioning penitentiary inmates in
particular, have been examined.
66
CSC
TITLE:
AUTHOR:
SOURCE:
DATE:
PAGES:
ENVIRONMENTAL SCANNING FORM
Prison Reform Litigation: Has the Revolution Gone to Far?
Samuel Jan Brakel
Judicature
June-July, 1986
4
SUBJECT:
The author assesses the impact of prison litigation initiated by inmates.
STATEMENTS:
In the opinion of the author, there are only two paramount concerns in prison
administration reform: (1) prisoner health (2) prisoner safety. To the extent
that the corrections revolution has ameliorated serious deficiencies in these
two areas of concern, it is to be applauded.
The obverse of the primacy of prisoner health and safety interests is that all
other concerns are secondary. Secondary reforms, court-ordered or otherwise,
that jeopardize the primary rights of prisoners are almost certainly not worth
the price.
When reforms are imposed on a prison system by the courts, the weighing of the
costs of implementation against the envisioned benefits is taken out of the
hands of state functionaries who make these judgements in the ordinary course of
things.
There is also evidence that the new wave of litigation is itself a factor in the
perceived decline of safety - that some prisons are less safe because of
judicial scrutiny and reform.
Rather than unequivocally endorsing the revolution, the author concludes that
the courts have gone far enough, fast enough. The appropriate posture for the
present is toward honouring the internal, evolutionary process of change and
consolidating the best of what has been imposed from the outside.
PUBLICATIONS INTÉRESSANT LE SCC
TITRE:
AUTEUR:
SOURCE:
DATE:
PAGES:
Prison Reform Litigation: Has the Revolution Gone too Far?
Samuel Jan Brakel
Judicature
Juin-juillet 1986
4
SUJET:
L'auteur évalue les répercussions des litiges soumis par des détenus.
DÉCLARATIONS INTÉRESSANT LE SŒ:
Selon l'auteur, la réforme de l'administration pénitentiaire ne doit avoir que
deux grandes préoccupations: (1) la santé du détenu et (2) la sécurité du
détenu. La réforme des systèmes correctionnels est méritoire dans la mesure où
elle permet de remédier aux sérieuses lacunes relevées sur ces deux plans.
L'inconvénient de cette importance prépondérante accordée à la santé et à la
sécurité du détenu est que toutes les autres préoccupations deviennent
secondaires. Toute réforme, qu'elle soit ordonnée par les tribunaux ou non, qui
compromet les droits fondamentaux des détenus n'en vaut certainement pas la
peine.
Lorsque des réformes de système carcéral sont imposées par les tribunaux,
l'évaluation du pour et du contre n'est plus laissée au soin des fonctionnaires
qui prennent habituellement ce genre de décision.
En outre, la recrudescence des litiges montre que l'on estime que la sécurité
est en baisse, c'est-à-dire que certaines prisons sont moins sûres en raison des
vérifications et des réformes judiciaires.
Plutôt que d'appuyer catégoriquement la révolution dont il fait état, l'auteur
conclut que les tribunaux sont allés assez loin, assez vite. L'attitude à
adopter maintenant est de laisser les choses évoluer d'elles-mêmes à l'interne
et de mettre à profit les choses positives imposées de l'extérieur.
Prison refor m.litigation: has the revolution gone too far?
by Samuel Jan Brakel
t a recent conference on prison
reform litigation, one of the
participants offered the startling statistic that 45 states
have from one or two facilities to their
entire prison systems embroiled in major
litigation. In 37 states, the correctional
agencies or individual prisons are operating under the figurative gun of a federal court order, often unprecedented in
range'and power. Implementation in at
least 17 states-28 if litigation involving
jails is added—includes meticulous mon- itoring of the prisons' daily operations
by special masters and their assistants
and experts.
These statistics suggest a nationwide
corrections revolution in the making,
one in which the inmate-revolutionaries
have enlisted the federal judiciary as
their primary ally. The question posed
here is: What are we to make of this
revolution? Are these the best of times in
the administration of correctional justice, or are they the worst of times? Or, as
in Dickens' famous fiction, are they a bit
of both?
Revolutions, some historians theorize,
are typically forged during periods of I iberal iza ti on embarked on to stave off growing discontent. The effect of the liberalization is to heighten discOn tent by raising
expectations, rather than extinguishing
the demand for change. The revolutionary forces thus unleashed acquire an
escalating momentum that is difficult to
check, according to this thesis, and those
in control of the process are fOrced to
extreme measures that exceed the general
mandate for change, causing the revolution to lose its legitimacy.
Against the background of these historic characteristics of social revolutions,
how do ‘ve assess the changes that have
been forced on prison systems in the last
10 to 15 years? The answer must, I believe, be a divided one: Clearly, much
good has been accomplished in the relatively short course of court intervention
in the prisons, things that needed to be
done and could not wait for whatever
gradual reforms might or might tiot
eventuate via other processes or forums.
At the saine tirne, there have been excesses: The new openness of courts to
entertain prisoner suits and readiness to
intrude deeply into prison operations
has created problems of both volume
and substance. Too many prisoners' and
prison reformers' demands that have
surpassed what I would surmise to be the
general mandate have met with success
in the courts. The upshot has been a
series of judicial orders that are not only
open to question in and for themselves,
but that have come to undermine the
legitimacy of the entire revolution.
Details and reasons
In setting out some details and reasons
that lead to this mixed assessment, I malce
no claim to providing an evaluative
framework grounded on objective, neutral principles. The idea that neutrality
and objectivity are achievable in this context is not, I think, realistic. Nor am I
basing the case on my own or others'
public opinion polls. My only appeal is
to notions of "reasonableness," the hope
that the • perspective I present touches
sot-ne preconceptions, intuitions and react ions that are widely shared, or on which
reasonable persons who are unconvinced
and uncommitted can be convinced.
My perspective proceeds from the general premise that prisons are brutish
places and that imprisonment is a barbaric 'practice for which about the only
thing that can be said is that, at least in
today's world, it appears to be the one
course of action that responds to the
public's legitimate needs to express its
disapprobation of crime and to protect
itself from criminals.
There are, in my estimation, twoand only two—paramount concerns in
prison administration and its reform: ( I)
prisoner health, and (2) prisoner safety.
To the extent that the corrections revolution has ameliorated serious deficiencies
in these two areas of concern, it is to be
applauded. State prison systems, such as
Texas' in the mid- 1970s, that employ
only two or three . physicians for an
imnate population approaching 20.000,
or individual prisons such as those in
Alabama that housed 800 to 1,000 persons without a single full-time physician, are asking for judicial intervention. States that allowed such situations
to persist into the 1970s may well be
viewed as having forfeited the right to
proceed at more deliberate speed with
administrative or legislative teform. By
the same token, prison administrators
who have gi..en up control of their institutions to the organized intimidation
and mayhem of prison gangs or inmate
"enforcers" should not be heard to coinplain when the 'rule of law is imposed
from above.
While not absolute, the health and
safety rights of prisoners cannot lightly
be bargained away. Economic, administrative or security reasons invoked by the
state for compromising these primary
rights should be subjected to the tightest
scrutiny, and significant jurisprudential
and political costs, as well as financial
ones, may have to be incurred to assure
their adequate protection.
The obverse of the primacy of prisoner
health and safety interests is that * ail
This sug-othercnsady.
gests that the costs incurred in implementing reforin in areas of secondary
concern are more difficult toi ustify dia n
those associated with the primary—i.e..
health and safety—reforms. And secondary reforms—court-ordered or otherwise—that as a direct or side effect jeopardize the primary rights of prisonez
are almost certainly not worth the pi
Reforms in areas of secondary concern
have been of all kinds and on all levels.
T here have been court orders on what
would appear to be painstakingly uivial
5
CSC ENVIRONMENTAL SCANNING FORM
TITLE:
AUTHOR:
SOURCE:
DATE:
PAGES:
"Preparation"
John Irwin
Excerpt from The Jail: Manage the Underclass in American Society
1985
18
SUBJECT:
Arguing from a critical perspective, the author examines the extent to which the
prison milieu supports and maintains the "rabble" class of society. In
performing these functions, prisons operate on the inmate in psychological,
cultural and social ways.
STATEMENTS:
In the jail experience, many of the repulsive and feared aspects of the rabble
life are concentrated into a small space and a short Urne. Prisoners unfamiliar
with jail are shocked and disorganized by their introduction to it. But as time
passes, they begin to adjust, learn new skills and cope with the many imposed
restrictions.
The novice discovers that the condemned, disreputable types have internal
defenses for deflecting society's disapproval. Prolonged interaction with the
jail's disruputables familiarizes the novice with these self-justifying
viewpoints and further weakens the psychological barrier to an acceptance of the
rabble life.
In prison, the novice acquires the mentality or outlook needed for rabble
existence. The rabble mentality is characterized by wariness, opportunism, the
ability to make do in any situation and defiance toward conventional society.
Being completely surrounded by persons who possess deviant viewpoints and who
behave in jail according to the values inherent in these viewpoints must
inevitably influence the perspective and behaviour of anyone who spends much
time in jail.
Effective socializing institutions, such as the family and the school, hold
people in sustained relationships and provide the settings and the time needed
to communicate the norms and meanings of society. This is the case with the
jail, except it socializes persons into deviant or an outsider% culture.
PUBLICATIONS INT ERESSA
TITRE:
AUTEUR:
SOURCE:
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PAGES:
SUJET
LE SCC
"Preparation"
John Irwin
Extrait de The Jail: Manage the Underclass in American Society
1985
18
:
Sur un ton critique, l'auteur examine la mesure dans laquelle le milieu carcéral
entretient la "plèbe" de la société. En ce sens, les prisons exercent une
influence sur le détenu aux plans psychologique, culturel et social.
DÉCLARATIONS INTÉRESSANT LE SCC:
En prison, bon nombre des éléments repoussants et redoutes de la vie plébéienne
sont rassemblés dans un espace et une période de temps réduits. Les détenus qui
en sont à leur première expérience en prison sont bouleversés et désorganisés du
simple fait d'y être admis. Mais avec le temps, ils en viennent à s'adapter, à
acquérir de nouvelles habilités et à composer avec les nombreuses restrictions
imposées.
Le novice découvre que les pires crapules ont des mécanismes internes de défense
contre le rejet de la société. Une interaction prolongée avec ce type de
détenus amène le novice à adopter cette attitude d'auto-justification et sape
les barrières psychologiques à la vie plébéienne.
En prison, le novice adopte la mentalité ou l'attitude nécessaire à ce genre
d'existence. La mentalité plébéienne est caractérisée par la circonspection,
l'opportunisme, la capacité de se tirer d'affaire dans toute situation et du
mépris envers la société conventionnelle.
Le fait d'être entouré de personnes qui ont une attitude déviante et qui se
comportent en conséquence en prison aboutit nécessairement à un changement de la
perspective et du comportement de quiconque séjourne longtemps en prison.
Les institutions socialisantes comme la famille et l'école obligent l'individu à
entretenir des relations soutenues et lui fournissent le cadre et le temps
nécessaires pour assimiler les normes et les valeurs de la société. La prison a
elle aussi un effet socialisant, sauf que l'individu y acquiert des normes et
des valeurs déviantes.
ION NM MI Mg WM MIR
MI
1111111
IBM MI Ole Inn OM IRO
OM OM
Preparation
HILE SERVING as a social institution for
controlling the rabble, the jail also supports and maintains the rabble
class. For the rabble, it is a meeting house, a place where they find new
friends and reconnect with old ones who share comrnon goals and interests. It is a convalescent center, a place where the ailing and tired
among them can rest, hcal, and ready themselves for another effort at
living outside. It is a place where those among them who were migrating back toward a conventional lifestyle are reoriented and reattached
to the rabble life. And it is a place where persons already living on the
margins of society are introduced to the rabble life and are prepared
for the rabble existence. This preparation—which consists of experiences that cannot be avoided—is psychological, cultural, and social.
Psychological Preparation
Losing conventional sensibilities
The preparation for the rabble existence, which is complex
thorough,
begins w'nen new prisoners are ushered across an imporand
tant psychological barrier. Most outsiders see rabble existence as sordid, chaotic, hard, impoverished, and dangerous: and even if they have
been close to rabble 1 i fe, they understand and sometimes share the intense contempt that most people feel toward the rabble. indeed, the
repelling image of the rabble life provides a motivation for niany persons, and especially for those who are already struggling to maintain
85
CSC ENVIRONMENTAL SCANNING FORM
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Psychotherapy in the Prison Setting
Rudolf E. Mathias, Ronald Sindberg
International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology
1986
11
SUBJECT:
The authors relates the difficulties of psychotherapy in prisons. After
reviewing previous research on program evaluation, the authors suggests that the
"nothing works" mentality is misguided. He concludes that therapeutic treatment
programs can be successful if the programs are matched to offenders' needs and
certain barriers are overcome.
STATEMENTS:
Prisoners view psychologists as members of the prison authority structure
therefore the complete and unfettered trust necessary for a fruitful therapist client relationship can never be achieved.
In many prisons one finds a widespread attitude that "nothing works". This
attitude reflects a basic rigidity in thinking and is often reinforced by
massive needs for security and total control of the prison population.
The differential treatment model matches therapy approaches with specific
offenders or offender types. It attempts to ensure that those offenders most
amenable to a particular approach will receive that type of treatment.
A major problem for a treatment regime is inmate motivation. Power-oriented
individuals whose offences are highly aggressive are the most unlikely to
volunteer for treatment. Other offenders may be highly motivated to change but
once on the street they no longer feel compelled to go to treatment. The
problem which emerges is how to identify the prisoner who shows genuine
motivation for change.
The correctional system is becoming increasingly criminalized and the
correctional system is now the repository for greater numbers of seriously
disturbed persons.
A major practical question, given the scarcity of resources, is whether to
concentrate therapy efforts on the most disturbed inmates, usually located in
maximum security institutions, or on less disturbed inmates, usually located in
minimum security and nearer release.
PUBLICATIONS INTÉRESSANT LE SCC
TITRE:
AUTEUR:
SOURCE:
DATE:
PAGES:
Psychotherapy in the Prison Setting
Rudolf E. Mathias, Ronald Sindberg
International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative
Crtminology
1986
11
SUJET:
Les auteurs font état des problèmes de psychothérapie dans les prisons. Après
avoir examine les recherches faites antérieurement sur l'évaluation de
programmes, les auteurs laissent entendre que la mentalité selon laquelle "rien
ne fonctionne" est mal fondée. Ils concluent que les programmes de traitement
thérapeutique peuvent avoir du succès s'ils sont établis en fonction des besoins
du détenu et si certains obstacles sont supprimes.
DÉCLARATIONS INTÉRESSANT LE Kt:
Les détenus perçoivent les psychologues comme des membres de la hiérarchie
carcérale; par conséquent, il est impossible qu'un climat de confiance totale,
essentiel à des échanges fructueux, s'établisse entre le thérapeute et le
client.
Dans bon nombre de prisons, l'attitude selon laquelle "rien ne fonctionne" est
très répandue et dénote une rigidité fondamentale de la pensée; elle est souvent
exacerbée par les contraintes massives de sécurité et de contrôle total de la
population carcérale.
Selon le modèle de traitement différentiel, les méthodes thérapeutiques sont
établies en fonction de chaque délinquant ou type de délinquants. Son principe
est de veiller à ce que les détenus les plus susceptibles de bien réagir à une
méthode donnée puissent en bénéficier.
L'un des principaux problèmes liés aux traitements est la motivation du détenu.
Les personnes dominatrices qui ont commis des infractions de nature violente
sont les moins susceptibles de se porter volontaires pour ces traitements.
D'autres délinquants peuvent être fortement motivés à changer mais, une fois
libérés, ne plus sentir l'obligation de suivre un traitement. Le problème qui
se pose est de trouver une façon de repérer le détenu qui est réellement
intéressé à changer.
Le système correctionnel est de plus en plus criminalisé et accueille maintenant
un nombre croissant de personnes atteintes de troubles graves.
Une question des plus pratiques, étant donné la rareté des ressources, est de
savoir s'il faut concentrer les efforts de thérapie sur les détenus les plus
perturbés, habituellement incarcérés dans les établissements à sécurité
maximale, ou sur les détenus les moins perturbés, habituellement incarcérés dans
les établissements à sécurité minimale et sur le point d'être libérés.
Psychotherapy in Correctional Settings
Rudolf E. Mathias
Ronald Sindberg
Abstract: This article addresses difficult and unique problems in psychotherapy within the framework of a correctional setting. An apparent lack
of success in such endeavors is reviebved in some detail. Barriers to
therapeutic efforts within the prison setting are enumerated and reference is made to obstacles in the therapeutic alliance between psychotherapist and prison inmate. Current resea rch suggests the value of a treatment
model based on diOèrential diagnosis and the matching of therapist and
prison inmate. The need for further research on overcoming identified
bernera, developing and adapting therapeutic approaches, and effectively matching inmates to them is emphasized.
I n the United States, some 430,000 adults are serving time in state and
federal prisons (Stewart, 1984). Approximately 30,000 juveniles are
placed in special facilities. Every person serving time in a correctional
institution or adjudicated as a juvenile offender has come into conflict
with the law because of behavior that runs counter to the rules governing
our society. A great many of these offenders clearly have serious
intrapsychic problems as well as interpersonal problems, v, hich have
contributed to their unlawful behavior.
The direct cost of building, maintaining and staffing correctional
facilities is large. The indir .et cost, which includes the loss of productivity,
stipport of dependents, p tcement of children, parole supervision, etc.,
places on each state and the federal government tremendous expenditures.
Although these problems in human behavior are extremely expensive
to society at large, there has been relatively little systematic study of the
effectiveness of therapy and treatment of offenders. Since the great
majority of offenders eventually return to society, it would appear that
such studies deserve a much higher priority. Specialists in the fields of
psychology, psychiatry, and correctional administration have been reluctant to devote adequate time and effort to the study of such maladaptive
human behavior. Yet, if prisoner attitudes and behaviors are to be modified so that their internal and external conflicts are resolved in constructive rather than antisocial ways, therapeutic intervention is an essential
ingredient. But if therapeutic experiences are to be provided, research and
evaluation are crucial, since a prison population presents problems in
other dimensions than do traditional therapy patients, and the correctional environment is vastly different from the therapy setting in clinic,
office, or community center.
265
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111
The Limits of Segregation in Prisons: A Reply to Jacobs
Samuel Walker
Criminal Law Bulletin
Nov/Dec, 1985
10
SUBJECT:
This article addresses the problem of racial discrimination and
presents two opposing views on racial desegregation in prisons in
the U.S.
STATEMENT(S) OR IMPLICATIONS FOR CSC:
Racial discrimination compounds the problems of over-crowding and
increasing violence in U.S. prisons today.
James B. Jacobs believes that segregation is necessary to combat
the numerous occurrences of racial "warfare" which take place in
institutions. He surmises that increasing prisoners' rights
through such methods as racial integration has not had a
significant impact on prison violence.
The author disagrees with Jacob line of reasoning and thinks that
segregation fails to offer a realistic solution to the problem of
prison violence. He believes that, contrary to Jacobs, there are
benefits to be realized in prison life; such as cell size,
recreational facilities, work opportunities and so on. These
benefits are not equitably allotted in a segregation system.
Further, he reasons that desegregation deviates from the
management's role of facilitating the prisoner's integration into
the community and, in fact, encourages "administrative
irresponsibility".
1
1
The article presents an interesting example of the contest
between prisoners' rights and prison security. It also provides
criteria which could be considered in cell allocation and in
choosing whether an inmate, or group of inmates should be
segregated.
PUBLICATIONS INTÉRESSANT LE SCC
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SOURCE:
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The Limits of Segregation in Prisons: A Reply to Jacobs
Samuel Walker
Criminal Law Bulletin
Novembre/décembre 1985
10
SUJET:
Cet article porte sur le problème de la discrimination raciale et présente deux
points de vue opposés sur la déségrégation raciale dans les prisons américaines.
DÉCLARATIONS INTÉRESSANT LE SCC:
La discrimination raciale aggrave les problèmes de surpopulation et
d'augmentation de la violence dans les prisons américaines d'aujourd'hui.
Selon James B. Jacobs, la ségrégation s'impose pour endiguer les nombreux
affrontements raciaux qui surviennent dans les établissements. Il prétend que
le fait d'accorder plus de droits aux prisonniers par l'entremise de moyens
comme l'intégration raciale n'a pas eu de répercussions valables sur la violence
dans les prisons.
L'auteur n'est pas d'accord avec Jacobs et estime que la ségrégation ne
représente pas une solution réaliste au problème de la violence dans les
prisons. Il croit au contraire qu'il y a des avantages à tirer de la vie en
prison; il mentionne la taille des cellules, les installations récréatives, les
possibilités de travail, etc. Ces avantages ne sont pas offerts de façon
équitable en régime de ségrégation. De plus, il soutient que la ségrégation va
à l'encontre du rôle qui revient à la direction, faciliter l'intégration du
prisonnier dans la collectivité, et, en fait, encourage "l'irresponsabilité
administrative".
L'article donne un exemple intéressant du dilemme posé par la recherche d'un
équilibre entre les droits des prisonniers et la sécurité de la prison. Il
présente également des critères à considérer aux fins de l'attribution des
cellules, ces critères pouvant aussi entrer en ligne de compte pour décider si
un détenu ou un groupe de détenus doit être isolé.
The Limits of Segregation in
Prisons: A Reply to Jacobs
By Samuel Walker*
Professor Walker addresses a serious and dangerous problem in
our overcrowded and increasingly volatile prisons: racial segregation. Perhaps the three most obvious problems with our prisons
relate to overcrowding, gender discrimination (see From the Legal
Literature this issue for an excellent Yale Law Review Note on
Point), and racial discrimination.
Written in the style of a review-essay, Professor Walker challenges the views of James Jacobs (expressed in an earlier issue of
CLB) on racial integration in our prisons. Where Jacobs finds
segregation acceptable, Professor Walker finds the basis for
Jacobs's views .flawed.
Introduction
In an earlier issue of Criminal Law Bulletin, James B. Jacobs
challenged the conventional wisdom on racial integration in
American prisons. Prison officials do not, in his view, "have an
affirmative constitutional duty to integrate prisoners to the maximum extent feasible." In applying the legal reasoning behind
school desegregation decisions to prisons, the courts have failed
to take into account the legitimate security concerns of prison
officials. These concerns pertain primarily to race relations.
According to Jacobs, relations between White and black inmates
in many maximum security institutions border on "warfare."
Prison officials, consequently, should be legally justified in segregating inmates along racial lines if that will reduce the level of
violent conflict.'
This article challenges Jacobs's line of reasoning on the "limits of racial integration" in American prisons. His argument
suffers from three major problems: (1) it is based on a flawed
'critique of the school desegregation analogy; (2) it fails to offer
a realistic solution to the problem of prison violence; (3) it
encourages administrative irresponsibility.
* Professor, Department of Criminal Justice, University of Nebraska at Omaha.
' Jacobs, "The Limits of Racial Integration in Prison," 18 Crim. L. Bull. 117-153
(1982), reprinted in J. Jacobs, New Perspectives on Prisons and Imprisonment 80-98
(1983) (page references hereinafter refer to the original version).
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