ABORIGINALANDTORRESSTRAITISLANDER
PERSPECTIVESONTHERECURRENTAND
INDEFINITEDETENTIONOFPEOPLE
WITHCOGNITIVEANDPSYCHIATRIC
IMPAIRMENT
ASubmissiontotheSenateInquiryontheIndefiniteDetentionof
PeoplewithCognitiveandPsychiatricImpairment
Preparedby:
FIRSTPEOPLESDISABILITYJUSTICE
CONSORTIUM
AnallianceofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslandercommunity
organisations,disability,justiceandlegalresearchers,
UniversitiesandResearchInstitutes.
AninitiativeofFirstPeoplesDisabilityNetwork(Australia),its
strategicpartnersandsupports.
April2016
TableofContents
CORRESPONDINGCONTRIBUTORS
4
EXECUTIVESUMMARY
5
SUMMARYOFRECOMMENDATIONS
8
1.APREDICTABLEANDPREVENTABLEPATH:INDIGENOUSAUSTRALIANSWITHMENTALAND
COGNITIVEDISABILITIESINTHECRIMINALJUSTICESYSTEM
11
PROFESSOREILEENBALDRY,DRRUTHMCCAUSLAND,ASSOCIATEPROFESSORLEANNEDOWSE,ELIZABETHMCENTYRE,
UNSW
2.THELIFETRAJECTORYFORANABORIGINALANDTORRESSTRAITISLANDERPERSONWITH
DISABILITY
16
SCOTTAVERY,POLICYANDRESEARCHDIRECTOR,FIRSTPEOPLESDISABILITYNETWORK(AUSTRALIA)
3.FRAMINGRECURRENTANDINDEFINITEDETENTIONFROMADISABILITYPERSPECTIVE
20
ASSOCIATEPROFESSORLEANNEDOWSE,CHAIRININTELLECTUALDISABILITYBEHAVIOURSUPPORT
4.ADDRESSINGCOGNITIVEDISABILITYINCHILDRENANDYOUNGPEOPLE
23
PROFESSORCAROLBOWER,SENIORPRINCIPALRESEARCHFELLOW;NONIWALKER,SENIORRESEARCHFELLOW;
SHARYNNEHAMILTON,RESEARCHERBANKSIAHILLFASDPROJECT;GLENNPEARSON,HEAD,ABORIGINALRESEARCH
DEVELOPMENT,TELETHONKIDSINSTITUTE.
5.THEIMPACTOFTRAUMAANDFAMILYVIOLENCEUPONABORIGINALANDTORRESSTRAIT
ISLANDERWOMENWITHDISABILITY
29
ELISETHOMAS,NATIONALSECRETARIATSUPPORTOFFICER,FAMILYVIOLENCEPREVENTIONLEGALSERVICES
6.DIVERSION
31
DRLINDASTEELE,LECTURER,SCHOOLOFLAWUNIVERSITYOFWOLLONGONG
7.TOWARDSNATIONALSTANDARDSFORLAWSANDREGULATIONSAFFECTINGINDIVIDUALS
WHOHAVEBEENDECLAREDMENTALLY-IMPAIREDORUNFITTOPLEAD(PARTA)
40
NATIONALABORIGINALANDTORRESSTRAITISLANDERLEGALSERVICES
8.IMPLEMENTINGANATIONALSTANDARDFORLEGISLATION
47
PROFESSORPATRICKKEYZER,CHAIROFLAWANDPUBLICPOLICYANDHEADOFSCHOOL,LATROBELAWSCHOOLAND
DARRENO’DONOVAN,SENIORLECTURERINLAWATLATROBELAWSCHOOL
9.SUPPORTINGABORIGINALANDTORRESSTRAITISLANDERPEOPLEWITHMENTALHEALTH
CONDITIONSINCOURT
52
ASSOCIATEPROFESSORTHALIAANTHONY,FACULTYOFLAWUNIVERSITYOFTECHNOLOGYSYDNEY;ANDPROFESSOR
ELENAMARCHETTI,SCHOOLOFLAWUNIVERSITYOFWOLLONGONG
2
10.SUPPORTEDTRANSITIONFROMPRISONTOCOMMUNITY
57
DRMEGANWILLIAMS,SENIORRESEARCHFELLOW,UNIVERSITYOFWESTERNSYDNEY
11.TRANSLATIONOFEVIDENCEINTOPOLICY
64
SCOTTAVERY,POLICYANDRESEARCHDIRECTOR
BIOGRAPHIESOFCONTRIBUTORS
66
3
CorrespondingContributors
ScottAvery
PolicyandResearchDirector
FirstPeoplesDisabilityNetwork
Phone:0283990882
Email:[email protected]
ProfessorPatrickKeyzer
HeadofSchoolandChairofLawandPublicPolicy
LaTrobeLawSchool
Phone:0394792423
Email:[email protected]
4
ExecutiveSummary
Thissubmissionistheresultofworkbyanallianceofthenation’sleadingauthoritiesondisability
justiceforAustralia’sFirstPeoples.ThisallianceincludesthreeAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander
nationalpeakbodies,andresearchersfromsixdifferentuniversitiesandresearchinstitutes.We
havecometogethertopresentAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderperspectivesontheproblemof
theindefinitedetentionofpeoplewithcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairment.
Thissubmissionpresentsthebestavailableevidenceonwhattheissuesare,thefactorsthat
contribute,andmostimportantlyliststheactionsthatcanbetakentoalleviatetheproblemandits
consequences.
AlifetimeofbeingdetainedbecomestherealityfortoomanyAboriginaland
TorresStraitIslanderpeople
BythetimeanAboriginalorTorresStraitIslanderpersonwithdisabilityfirstcomesintocontactwith
thecriminaljusticesystem,theywillmostlikelyhavehadalifeofunmanageddisability.Coupled
withdiscrimination,basedontheirAboriginalityanddisability,theywillhavefacedbarriersfromthe
timetheyareborn,ofpoverty,earlyexposuretolifeininstitutionsthroughthechildprotection
system,strugglesatschool,lackofappropriatehealthcareandaninabilitytosecureemployment.
Comingintocontactwiththepolice,courts,juveniledetentionandprisonsisnormalizedintheirlife
trajectory.
Asthechaptersinoursubmissionhighlight,thejusticesystemdoeslittletoaddressthesefactors
andoutcomesandinfactoftenmakesthemworse.Peopleacquirethelabelofaprisonerwhomust
bepunished,notapersonwithdisabilitywhoneedssupport.Whenreleasedfromprison,the
personal,socialandsystemiccircumstancesthatpropelledthemintodetentionorprisonwillnot
havechanged.Thusmanyfaceacycleofrecurrentdetentionthatgoesonindefinitely.
AnissuewhichspeakstotheheartofinjusticetowardsAboriginalandTorres
StraitIslanderpeople
AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplewithdisabilityarethemostmarginalisedpeoplein
Australiansociety.Unjustdeprivationofliberty,poorhealthcareandpoorsupportintensifythe
marginalisationofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeopleandresultinseriouscasesofhuman
rightsabuses.
ThehistoricalexclusionofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplewithdisabilityfromsociety
hasmeantthisissuehasbeenkeptfromthepubliceye.Theresultinglackofpublicscrutinyhas
meantthatlittlehasbeendonetoredresstheseabuses.Onlyinrarecasesdoessuchabusebecome
5
publiclyevident,usuallyexposedthroughvigilanthumanrightsadvocacyandinthemedia,rather
thanthroughtheoperationofchecksandbalancesinthecriminaljusticesystem.Takeforexample
thecaseinwhichanAboriginalmanwithcognitiveimpairmentwasimprisonedforoveradecadefor
anallegedoffencethatneverwenttotrial.
CasessuchasthispointtoadeeperproblemofthenormalisedmanagementofAboriginaland
TorresStraitIslanderpeoplewithdisabilitybythepoliceandwithinthejusticesystem.That
AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplecanbeimprisonedbecauseoftheirdisabilitypointsto
thehistoricalinjusticesthathavebeengoingonsincecolonisation.Thatthisisallowedtocontinue
perpetuatesthatinjusticeandhurt.
ThisiswhatAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeopletelltheFirstPeoplesDisabilityNetwork,the
community-basedorganisationcreatedbyandforFirstPeopleswithdisability.ThisNetwork,with
theactivesupportandassistanceofLaTrobeLawSchool,coordinatedthecontributionstothis
submission.ThemandatetotakeactioncomesdirectlyfromtheFirstPeopleswithDisability
community.
Amulti-disciplinaryapproachbringingtogetherexpertsacrosslife’sspectrum
OfferinganewlifetrajectoryforanAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpersonwithdisability
requiresmorethanalegalsolution.Whilstfairlawsareessentialandareimportantchecksand
balances,thefactorsthatcultivateincarcerationforpeoplewithdisabilitymustalsobetackled.
ThissubmissionincludescontributionsthatexplainissuesexperiencedbyAboriginalandTorres
StraitIslanderpeoplewithdisabilityacrosstheirlifecourse.Contributionsarefrom:
● communitypractitionersandresearcherswhoworkwithAboriginalandTorresStrait
Islanderpeopleandunderstandthetraumatheyhavebeenexposedto;
● earlychildhooddevelopmentexpertswhoknowwhatittakestoputachildwithdisability
ontherightcourse;
● organisationswhichunderstandthedisablingimpactoffamilyviolenceonwomen;
● systemsthinkerswhocandesignearlydisabilitysupportforchildrenandfamiliesand
supporteddiversionprogramsasanalternativetoprison;
● expertsinlegislationwhichhaveasolidfoundationinhumanrights;
● researchersandpractitionerswhohaveworkedwithAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander
peoplepost-prisonreleasetopreventrecidivism;and
● policyadviserswhounderstandthemechanismsthatareneededtotranslatetheevidence
intopolicyreform.
ThestrengthsandsupportstructureswithinFirstPeoples’communitieshaveanuntappedpotential
todrivepositivechange.TheybestunderstandtheuniquetraumathatfacesFirstPeoplesandhow
thisimpactsupontheirsocialwellbeing.Whicheverpartoftheproblemyoulookat,community 6
basedandcommunity-directedservicesforFirstPeopleswithadisabilityarefundamentaltothe
solution.
AproposalforCommonwealthleadership
ThissubmissionshowshowAboriginalandTorresStraitIslandercommunityorganisationscancome
togetherwiththeresearchcommunitytocriticallyevaluatetheevidenceandcomeupwiththe
solutionsneededtoaddresstheproblemofrecurrentandindefinitedetention.AllAustralian
Governmentsneedtostepuptosupportthesesolutions.
ThereformsoutlinedbyourallianceofexpertsarecrucialtopreventingevermoreAboriginalpeople
beingcapturedindefinitelyinthecriminaljusticeandreducingspiralingcriminaljusticecosts.This
reformagendahasbeenderivedfromourevaluationoftheavailableevidence,recognisesthe
federatednatureofAustraliangovernment,andtherespectiverolesandresponsibilitiesofFederal,
StateandTerritoryGovernments.Therecommendationsinthissubmissionfocusparticularlyonthe
leadershiproleoftheCommonwealth,whichcanserveasamodelforreformintherespective
jurisdictions.
Thereismomentumforchange.InNovember2015,MinistersattendingtheLawCrimeandSafety
Councilagreedtoestablishaworkinggrouptobringtogetherthedataanddevelopresourcesfor
nationaluseinthetreatmentofpeoplewithcognitivedisabilityormentalimpairmentunfittoplead
orfoundnotguiltybyreasonofmentalimpairment.
TheAustralianGovernmenthasalsomadeavoluntarycommitmentintheUnitedNationsUniversal
PeriodicReviewtoimprovingthewaythecriminaljusticesystemtreatspeoplewithcognitive
disabilitywhoareunfittopleadorfoundnotguiltybyreasonofmentalimpairment.
Thebreadthanddepthofpeople’scontributionstothisandothersubmissionsreflectthepersonal
andcollectivecommitmenttoprovideafairer,betterlifeforAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander
peoplewithdisabilitywhoareatriskofbeingorarealreadycaughtupinthejusticesystem.
Correctingthisinjusticeisanationalpriority.
7
SummaryofRecommendations
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
AstrategicapproachisneededtoaddressthefactorsimpactingonAboriginalandTorres
StraitIslanderpeoplewithcognitiveimpairment:
(i)
toimproveaccesstotheirrightsuponcomingincontactwiththejusticesystem;
(ii)
toaddressthesocialriskfactorstoaltertheirlifetrajectoryandreducethe
likelihoodoftheircomingincontactwiththejusticesysteminthefirstinstance.
AstrategicapproachtotherecurrentandindefinitedetentionofAboriginalandTorresStrait
Islanderpeoplewithcognitiveandmentalimpairmentshouldbebasedontheprinciplesof
selfdetermination;personcentredcare;holisticandflexibleapproach;integratedservices;
andCulture,DisabilityandGender-informedpractice.
Asocialmodelofdisability,accommodatingthecomplexsocialandculturaldeterminants,
shouldbethebasisfordefining‘cognitiveandpsychiatricimpairment’asitaffectsthe
recurrentandindefinitedetentionofAboriginalandTiresStraitIslanderpeoplewith
cognitiveimpairment.
Systemsforaddressingdisabilityinandrelatedtothejusticesystemmustbediscretionary
toaccommodateanindividual’slevelofimpairmentaswellascontributingsocial
circumstances.Theprincipleofdiscretionshouldapplyinjudicialadministrationaswellas
disabilitysupports.
Aboriginalcommunity-controlledorganisationsshouldberesourcedtoprovidespecialised
andculturallyappropriatesupporttoAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplewith
cognitiveandpsychiatricimpairmentsindetention.
EarlydiagnosisofFetalAlcoholSpectrumDisorders(FASD)andinterventiontoprevent
engagementwiththelaw.
EarlyrecognitionthatayoungpersonhasFASDorotherneurocognitiveimpairmentswhen
firstengagingwiththelawsothatcourtscanprovidealternativestrategiestosentencing
andappropriatemanagementtoreducerecidivism.
Researchprogramsandincentivesshoulddevelopresourcesforthebetteridentificationand
managementofcognitivedisability,includingFASD,acrossarangeofsocialpolicyareas
includingearlychildhoodandchildprotection,educationandjustice.
Workforcedevelopmentstrategiesarerequiredtoincreasetheawarenessofdisabilityand
itsimpactuponjusticeoutcomesforpeoplewithdisability.Thesestrategiesshouldinclude
culturallycompatiblepracticeguidelines,protocolsandtrainingprogramsforpublicofficers
8
andprofessionalsworkingwithAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplewithdisabilityin
thejusticeandrelatedsectors.
10.
AppropriatesupportservicesshouldbeprovidedtoAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander
peoplewithcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairmentswhohaveexperiencedviolenceor
trauma,including:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
11.
12.
13.
screeningforpastexperiencesoftrauma,includingfamilyviolence,sexualassaultor
otherformsofgender-basedviolence
counsellingandemotionalandpsychologicalsupporttohelpsurvivorsontheirroads
torecovery,and
legalsupporttohelpthemaccesstheirrightsandobtainjustice.
Systemsfordiversionontosupporteddisabilityprogramsshouldbeestablishedatcritical
pointsofcontactwiththecriminaljusticesystem,withlinkagestotheNationalDisability
InsuranceScheme.
TheCommonwealthshouldadoptaleadroleinthecreationofnationallegislativestandards
forlegislationandregulatoryframeworksaffectingindividualswhohavebeendeclared
mentallyimpairedorunfittoplea.Thenationalstandardlegislationshouldataminimum
providefor:
(i)
Judicialdiscretiontoimposeanappropriateorderdependingonthecircumstances
ofthecase,includinglevelofimpairmentandcontributingsocialcircumstances.
(ii)
SpecialhearingsthatincludeinputfromAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander
communityrepresentativestotesttheevidenceagainstamentallyimpaired
accusedwhoisunfittostandtrial.Thisshouldentailaprocedurefordetermining
whether,ontheevidenceavailable,theaccusedcommittedtheobjectiveelements
oftheoffencesothatifitcannotbeproventhattheaccusedcommittedthe
objectiveelementsoftheoffence,theaccusedisdischarged.
(iii)
Minimumproceduralfairnessrequirementssuchasarighttoappear,rightof
review,righttowrittenreasonsfordecisionandrighttoinformation.
(iv)
Finitetermsforcustodyorders(andreleaseorders)–thedurationoftheorder
shouldbenolongerthanthedurationofthesentencethatwouldhavebeen
imposediftheaccusedhadbeenconvictedoftheoffence.
(v)
Determinationsaboutreleaseofmentallyimpairedaccusedfromcustodyor
communityreleaseordersshouldbemadebytherelevantboardwithanannual
rightofreviewbeforetheSupremeCourt.
TheCommonwealthshouldprovideasupportprogramforAboriginalandTorresStrait
Islanderpeoplewithcognitiveimpairment,asa‘safetynet’whentheseservicesarenot
madeavailableatalllevelsofcourtswithintheStateandTerritoryjurisdictions.
9
14.
15.
16.
Establishaworkinggrouptoestablishinterfaceprinciplesbetweenstateandterritorybased
post-releaseprogramswiththeNationalDisabilityinsuranceScheme,basedontheeffective
featuresofthethroughcaremodel.
Establishamulti-disciplinary‘PolicyTranslationGroup’includingAboriginalandTorresStrait
IslanderrepresentativestoadviseontranslatingevidenceemanatingfromCommunity
knowledgeandacademicresearchintopolicy.
ThattheserecommendationsformthebasisofaNationalDisabilityJusticeStrategywitha
dedicatedfocusontherightsandcircumstancesofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander
people.
10
1.APREDICTABLEANDPREVENTABLEPATH:INDIGENOUS
AUSTRALIANSWITHMENTALANDCOGNITIVEDISABILITIESINTHE
CRIMINALJUSTICESYSTEM
ProfessorEileenBaldry,DrRuthMcCausland,AssociateProfessorLeanneDowse,Elizabeth
McEntyre,UNSW
Keyissues:
● Thereisasevereandwidespreadlackofappropriateearlydiagnosisandpositive,
culturallyresponsivesupportforIndigenouschildrenandyoungpeoplewithcognitive
impairment.
● Intheabsenceofholisticdisability,educationandhumanservicessupport,thepathways
intoprisonforAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplewithcognitiveimpairmentare
predictable.Theyarealsopreventable.
● Effectiveresponsesshouldbefoundedontheprinciplesof:selfdetermination;person
centredcare;aholisticandflexibleapproach;integratedservices;andculture,disability
andgender-informedpractice.
1. TherecentreportoftheIndigenousAustralianswithMentalandCognitiveDisabilityinthe
CriminalJusticeSystem(IAMHDCD)Project,APredictableandPreventablePath1foundthat
acrossAustralia,thousandsofIndigenouspeoplewithmentalandcognitivedisabilitiesare
being‘managed’bypolice,courtsandcorrectionsratherthanbeingsupportedinthe
community.Thisquantitativeandqualitativestudyrevealsthewaysthatsystemsofcontrol
ratherthancareorprotectionarebeinginvokedforthisgroup,oftenfromaveryyoungage.
ThefindingsofthisprojecthighlightthewaysthatIndigenouspeoplewithmentaland
cognitivedisabilitiesexperiencemultiple,interlockingandcompoundingdisadvantageous
circumstances.
2. Thefindingsofthisprojectunequivocallydemonstratethatpathwaysintoandaroundthe
criminaljusticesystemformanyIndigenouspeoplewithmentalandcognitivedisabilitiesare
embeddedandentrenchedbytheabsenceofcoherentframeworksforholisticdisability,
educationandhumanservicessupport.Indigenouspeoplewithmentalandcognitive
disabilitiesareforcedintothecriminaljusticesystemearlyinlifeintheabsenceof
alternativepathways.Althoughthisalsoappliestonon-Indigenouspeoplewithmentaland
cognitivedisabilitieswhoarehighlydisadvantaged,theimpactonIndigenouspeopleis
1
EileenBaldry,RuthMcCausland,LeanneDowse&ElizabethMcEntyre,APredictableandPreventablePath:
Aboriginalpeoplewithmentalandcognitivedisabilitiesinthecriminaljusticesystem(UniversityofNewSouth
Wales,2015)<http://www.mhdcd.unsw.edu.au>
11
significantlygreateracrossallthemeasuresandexperiencesgatheredinthestudiesacross
theIAMHDCDProject.
3. Theseriousimplicationsofpoordiagnosisanduncleardefinitionsofmentalandcognitive
disabilityarestarklyhighlightedintheresearch.Thefindingsdemonstratethatthereisa
severeandwidespreadlackofappropriateearlydiagnosisandpositive,culturallyresponsive
supportforIndigenouschildrenandyoungpeoplewithcognitiveimpairment.Thisis
connectedtoschoolsandpoliceviewingcertainkindsofbehaviourthroughaprismof
institutionalracismratherthandisability,aswellasIndigenouscommunityreluctanceto
havechildrenassessedusingparticularcriteriathatareperceivedasstigmatisingandleading
tonegativeinterventioninAboriginalfamilies.Foradultsinthecriminaljusticesystem,
cognitiveimpairmentiseithernotrecognisedatall,orifrecognised,itispoorlyunderstood.
4. FormanyIndigenouspeople,diagnosisoftheircognitiveimpairmentcomeswithassessment
onentrytoprison.Howeversuchadiagnosisrarelyleadstoappropriateservicesorsupport
whileinprison;analysisofthedatarevealsthatsubsequentinterventionstendtocontinue
toforegroundoffendingbehaviourratherthancomplexsocialdisadvantageordisability,
mentalhealthoralcoholandotherdrugsupportneeds.Thefindingsilluminatethe
particularchallengesandvulnerabilitiesfacingIndigenouswomenwithmentalandcognitive
disabilitiesasthemostdisadvantagedgroupintermsoftheirmultipleandcomplexsupport
needs.
5. Thereisanurgentneedforanevidence-informedresponsebypoliticalleaders,policymakers,peopleworkingincriminaljusticesystems(police,magistrates,correctionalofficers,
paroleofficers)andserviceproviders.Fundamentally,usingthelawandcriminaljustice
servicesasmanagementtoolsforIndigenousAustralianswithcomplexsupportneedsisbad
policyandpracticeandhavingadevastatingimpactonthehumanrightsandwellbeingof
Indigenouspeoplewithmentalandcognitivedisabilities.
SolutionsfromtheCommunity
6. Basedonthequalitativeandquantitativefindingsofthestudy,theresearchteam
recommendedthefollowingfiveprinciplesandassociatedstrategies,derivedfrom
interviewsanddiscussionwithIndigenouspeopleinthestudy,shouldunderpinpolicy
reviewandimplementation.
Principle1:Self-Determination
7. Self-determinationiskeytoimprovingaccesstoandexerciseofhumanrightsandtothe
wellbeingofIndigenouspeoplewithmentalandcognitivedisability,especiallyforthosein
thecriminaljusticesystem.Strategiesinclude:
12
•
•
•
Indigenous-ledknowledgeandsolutionsandcommunity-basedservicesshouldbe
appropriatelysupportedandresourced;
theparticulardisadvantagefacedbyIndigenouswomenandpeopleinregionaland
remoteareasshouldbeforegroundedinanypolicyresponsetothisissue;and
resourcesshouldbeprovidedtobuildtheculturalcompetencyandsecurityofnonIndigenousagencies,organisationsandcommunitieswhoworkwithIndigenous
peoplewithmentalandcognitiveimpairmentwhoareincontactwiththecriminal
justicesystem.
Principle2:Person-CentredCare
8. Person-centredcarethatisculturallyandcircumstantiallyappropriateandwherebyan
individualisplacedatthecentreoftheirowncareinidentifyingandmakingdecisionsabout
theirneedsfortheirownrecoveryisessentialforIndigenouspeoplewithmentaland
cognitivedisability.
Strategiesinclude:
• disabilityservicesineachjurisdiction,alongwiththeNationalDisabilityInsurance
Scheme,shouldensurethereisacomplexsupportneedsstrategysupporting
Indigenouspeoplewithdisabilityincontactwithcriminaljusticeagencies;
• specialisedaccommodationandtreatmentoptionsforIndigenouspeoplewith
mentalandcognitivedisabilityinthecriminaljusticesystemshouldbemade
availableinthecommunitytopreventincarcerationandincustodialsettingsto
improvewellbeing;and
• Indigenouspeoplewithmentalandcognitivedisabilitywhoareatriskofharmto
themselvesorothersandwhohavebeeninthecustodyofpoliceorcorrections
shouldnotbereturnedtotheircommunitywithoutspecialistsupport.
Principle3:AHolisticandFlexibleApproach
9. AdefinedandoperationalisedholisticandflexibleapproachinservicesforIndigenous
peoplewithmentalandcognitivedisabilityandcomplexsupportneedsisneededfromfirst
contactwithservicesystems.
Strategiesinclude:
• earlyrecognitionviamaternalandinfanthealthservices,earlychildhoodandschool
education,communityhealthservicesandpoliceshouldleadtopositiveand
preventivesupport,allowingIndigenouschildrenandyoungpeoplewithdisabilityto
developandflourish;
• arangeof‘step-down’accommodationoptionsforIndigenouspeoplewithcognitive
impairmentinthecriminaljusticesystemshouldbeavailable(theNewSouthWales
CommunityJusticeProgramprovidesausefultemplate);and
13
•
community-basedsentencingoptionsshouldbeappropriatelyresourced,integrated
andinclusivesotheyhavethecapacityandapproachneededtosupportIndigenous
peoplewithmentalandcognitivedisability.
Principle4:IntegratedServices
10. Integratedservicesarebetterequippedtoprovideeffectivereferral,informationsharing
andcasemanagementtosupportAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeopleswithmental
andcognitivedisabilityinthecriminaljusticesystem.
Strategiesinclude:
• justice,correctionsandhumanservicesdepartmentsandrelevantnon-government
servicesshouldtakeacollaborativeapproachtodesigningprogrampathwaysfor
peoplewithmultipleneedswhorequiresupportacrossallthehumanandjustice
sectors;and
• allprisonerswithcognitiveimpairmentmustbereferredtothepublicadvocateof
thatjurisdiction.
Principle5:Culture,DisabilityandGender-informedpractice
11. ItisvitalthatAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoples’understandingsof‘disability’and
‘impairment’informallapproachestothedevelopmentandimplementationofpolicyand
practiceforIndigenouspeoplewithmentalandcognitivedisabilityinthecriminaljustice
system,withparticularconsiderationofissuesfacingAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander
women.
Strategiesinclude:
• bettereducationandinformationareneededforpolice,teachers,educationsupport
workers,lawyers,magistrates,health,corrections,disabilityandcommunityservice
providersregardingunderstandingandworkingwithAboriginalandTorresStrait
Islanderwomenandmenwithcognitiveimpairment,mentalhealthdisordersand
complexsupportneeds;
• informationandresourcesareneededforIndigenouscommunities,familiesand
carers,providedinaculturallyinformedandaccessibleway;and
• thedistinctandspecificneedsofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderwomenshould
beforegroundedinsucheducationandinformation.
RecommendedResponses:
12. Withthesefiveprinciplesinmind,APredictableandPreventablePathmadewide-ranging
recommendationsrelatingtothecriminaljusticesystem,includinglegislationand
sentencing,police,resourcesandsupportforLegalAidandAboriginalLegalServices,courts,
14
corrections,diversionaryprograms,post-releaseservicesandsupport;2aswellasto
communityservices,schools,disabilitymodels,servicesandsupport,mentalandother
healthconcerns,andhousing.3
2
Ibid,164-166.
3
Ibid,166-168.
15
2.THELIFETRAJECTORYFORANABORIGINALANDTORRESSTRAIT
ISLANDERPERSONWITHDISABILITY
ScottAvery,PolicyandResearchDirector,FirstPeoplesDisabilityNetwork(Australia)
Keyissues:
● AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplewithdisabilityareatheightenedriskof
encounteringindefinitedetentionduetothecomplexinteractionofpersonalandsocial
factorsaffectingboththeirIndigenousanddisabilitystatus.
● BythetimethatanAboriginalorTorresStraitIslanderpersonhascomeintocontactwith
thejusticesystem,theyarelikelytohavehadalifetimeofunmanageddisability.
● AstrategicapproachisneededtoaddressthefactorsimpactingonAboriginalandTorres
StraitIslanderpeoplewithcognitiveimpairment:
(iii)
toimproveaccesstotheirrightsuponcomingincontactwiththejusticesystem;
(iv)
toaddressthesocialriskfactorstoaltertheirlifetrajectoryandreducethe
likelihoodoftheircomingincontactwiththejusticesysteminthefirstinstance.
1. AnAboriginalorTorresStraitIslanderpersonwithdisabilityisamemberoftwo
communities;onepertainingtotheiridentityasanIndigenouspersonandanother
pertainingtotheirdisability.Addressingoneaspectofapersonrightsinisolationfromthe
compositerightscanleavethemexcludedfromanotheraspectofsocietyimportanttotheir
senseofidentity.
2. Intersectionalityisafieldofhumanrightsresearchwhichisanemerginginfluenceonpublic
policy.Intersectionalityacknowledgestherearemultipledimensionsofapersonsidentity
asaframeforunderstandingthelayersinwhichsocialinequitycanaccumulate.This
involvesunderstandingtherightstoculturalinclusionasanIndigenouspersonaswellasthe
rightsofinclusionasapersonwithdisability.Afailuretounderstandbothdualaccessrights
forIndigenousandtherightsofapersonineffectcreatesaminoritygroupwithinaminority
group.
3. ThesocialexclusionthatcanoccurbecausesomeoneisbothAboriginalorTorresStrait
Islanderandhasdisabilityhascolloquiallybeenreferredtoasexperiencinga‘double
discrimination’byAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplewithdisability.Whilstmore
overtformsofdiscrimination(suchasvilification)aremoreeasilydetectable,thereisalso
institutionalorsystemicbiaseswhichactagainsttherightsandinclusionofAboriginaland
TorresStraitIslanderpeoples.Forexample,theincidenceandimpactofinstitutionalracism
16
inthehealthsectorhasbeenwelldocumented,anditsfindingscouldreadilyapplytothe
justicesystem.4
4. Institutionalisedformsofdiscriminationsitswithinthesubconsciousofthosechargedwith
responsibilityforundertakingpublicfunctions–apolicywhichisnotintendedtobe
discriminatorycanbecomediscriminatorywheninterpretedbyanofficialbasedontheir
ownlevelsofawareness,assumptionsandsubconsciousprejudicesaboutAboriginaland
TorresStraitIslanderpeopleand/orpeoplewithdisability.
5. FailuresinaddressingtherightsofanIndigenouspersonintheirearlyyearscanleadtoa
further,andoftenrapid,deteriorationinrightsoverthecourseofalifetime.Hereisone
scenarioasanexample;
• AnIndigenousmotherlivinginpovertyandinacommunitywithinadequatepublic
healthfacilitiesismorelikelytohavealow-birthweightbabycomparedtononIndigenouspeople.
• Lowbirthweightisaknownriskfactorforchildhooddisabilityandlearning
impairment.
• TherateofremovingachildfromtheirfamiliesissignificantlyhigherforIndigenous
childrencomparedtonon-Indigenouschildren.InAustralia,thisdisparityisa10-fold
increaseintherateofchildremovalforIndigenouschildren.
• Clinicalprotocolsfortheassessmentfordisability,particularcognitiveimpairments,
canrequireastablehomeenvironmenttoenableanaccurateassessment.Ifshifting
fromhometohomeinanout-ofhome-caresystemcontinuallydisruptsachild,then
anassessmentofdisabilitymaynotoccur.
• Medical-basedmodelsofdisability(notjustinhealth,butalsoineducation)require
adiagnosistotriggersupportsforachild.
6. So,whenthebarrierstoaccesstherighttohealthforanIndigenouspersoninteractwith
thoseforapersonwithdisability,theconsequenceforachildwhoisIndigenousandwith
disabilityisthattheyareatheightenedlikelihoodofgoingthroughtheirearlychildhoodwith
anundetectedandunsupporteddisability.Theeffectsofthiscarriesforwardintotheir
schoolingyearsandplacesthemonatrajectorywheretheyaremorelikelytomatriculate
intoprisonthanintotertiaryeducation.
7. Whilstthisparticularperspectiveemphasisesdisabilityasanintersectionalrisktotherights,
healthandwellbeingforAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeople,theconceptalso
4
ALarsonetal,‘It'senoughtomakeyousick:theimpactofracismonthehealthofAboriginalAustralians’
(2007)31(4)AustralianandNewZealandJournalofPublicHealth322;NPriestetal,‘Experiencesofracism,
racial/ethnicattitudes,motivatedfairnessandmentalhealthoutcomesamongprimaryandsecondaryschool
students’(2014)43(10)JournalofYouthandAdolescence672-876;AFerdinandetal,MentalHealthImpactsof
RacialDiscriminationinVictorianAboriginalCommunities:TheLocalitiesEmbracingandAcceptingDiversity
(LEAD)ExperiencesofRacismSurvey(TheLowitjaInstitute,2012).
17
appliesinrelationtootherriskfactorswhichcanhaveacumulativedetrimentalimpact.
Theseriskfactorscaninclude:
• Gender
• Childrenandyoungpeople
• Exposuretotrauma,bothacuteandinter-generational
• Psychiatricandmentalhealthconditions
• Lesbian,gay,bisexual,andtransgender
• Drugandalcoholdependence
• Exposuretofamilyviolence
• Deprivationofliberty.
18
Table:ThedeteriorationofrightsacrossthelifetrajectoryofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander
peoplewithdisability
19
3.FRAMINGRECURRENTANDINDEFINITEDETENTIONFROMA
DISABILITYPERSPECTIVE
AssociateProfessorLeanneDowse,ChairinIntellectualDisabilityBehaviourSupport
Keyissues:
● Understandingcognitiveimpairmentfrompurelyamedicalmodel–ie.whereamedical
diagnosisisneededtoaccesssupports,willnarrowaccesstosupportsforthosemostin
need.
● Asocialmodelofdisabilitywillbetteraccommodatethecomplexsocialandcultural
determinantsaffectingtherecurrentandindefinitedetentionofAboriginalandTiresStrait
Islanderpeoplewithcognitiveimpairment.
● Thesocialmodelapproachwillleadtoamorediscretionarysupportsystemthatwillbe
moreeffectiveinaddressingthefactorsaffectingindividualswhoaredetainedoverthe
longerterm.
Overview
1. Therecognitionofcognitivedisabilitywithinthecriminaljusticesystemisamatterofsome
contention.Thisreflectstheunsettlednatureofterminology,variationinapproachesto
assessmentandthehistoricalconflationofmentalhealthdisorderandcognitive
impairment.Cognitiveimpairmentisatermutilisedtoencompassavarietyofdiagnostic
labelsincludingintellectualdisability,borderlineintellectualdisability,acquiredbraininjury,
autismanddementia.Cognitivedisabilityisusedtodenotethesocialunderstandingthat
impairmententailsarangeofsocialexclusionsthatattendtothepresenceofimpairment.
Generally,havingacognitiveimpairmentmeansthatapersonwillhavedifficultywiththings
suchasself-management,decision-makingandcommunication.Thismeansthatthisgroup
havesignificantdifficultyoperatingintheworld.
2. Whilemanypeoplewithcognitivedisabilitymayseemoutwardlyindependent,whenwe
drilldowntotheirfunctionalcapacityitisclearthattheirdisabilityisdirectlyrelatedtothe
likelihoodofoffending.Theirriskofoffendingisinfactoutofproportionbutitisdifficultto
separatedisabilityandoffending.Cognitiveimpairmentisalsorecognisedtobeassociated
witharangeofsocialdisadvantageincludingpooreducationaloutcomes,unemployment
andeconomicdisadvantage,theriskofahigherincidenceofmentalhealthproblemsand
co-existingmentalillnessordrugandalcoholissues.Commonlytheycomefromsituations
wheretheyfundamentallylacksocialsupport.Keychallengesinthisareaarethatpeople
withcognitiveimpairmentsmaybereluctanttoacceptadisabilitylabel,recognitionof
disabilityinoneservicedoesnotreadilytransfertoanother,andthatindividualsdonotfit
20
intothelimitingcategoriesrequiredforadisabilityservice.Thismeansthatmanyinthis
grouparenotrecognisedashavingadisabilityuntiltheyareassessedinprison.
3. Peoplewithcognitiveimpairmentinthecriminaljusticesystemareaverydiversegroup
withabroadspectrumofoffending,rangingfromminortroubletoseriousandmajorviolent
andsexualoffences.Offendingoftenbeginsatayoungage,withearlypolicecontact–
typicallyfromtheearlyteens,andwithcontactfrequentandextendingforlongerovertheir
lifetime.Inrelationtothenatureofdetentionexperiencedbythisgroup,theirpropensity
forlowleveloffendingandtheirinabilitytocomplywithbailconditionsandcommunity
ordersmeansthatformany,frequentshortsentencescombinedwithremandseethem
regularlycyclingbetweenprisonandthecommunity.Sowhiledetentionformanymaynot
beintheformofasingleindefinitelong-sentence,theinevitabilityoftheircyclinginand
outofprisonmeans,frequentandrecurrentdetentionthroughoutthelifecourse.
ComplexSupportNeeds
4. Inrelationtohumanlivesandsupportneeds,‘complexity’isaproductofthecompounding
ofindividuallifesituationsandthelackofcapacityofsupportstructurestorespond
appropriatelyovertime,thatis,theyarecreationsofsocialsystemsandorganisation,not
thefaultofanindividualperson.5Inapplyingacomplexityanalysistothelivedexperienceof
IndigenousAustralianswithMHDCDincontactwiththecriminaljusticesystem,anapplied
conceptualframingofthemultipledomainsofdisadvantageidentifiedas‘complexsupport
needs’hasbeenutilisedintheresearch.Whilethereremainsalackofagreementaround
terminologyinthearea,theterm‘complexsupportneeds’movesbeyondlimited
categorizationsdefinedbythepresenceofaprimarymedicaldiagnosis,andwhichattributes
thepresenceofaparticularcharacteristic,impairmentordysfunctionorcombinationstothe
individual.
5. Asanoverarchingconcept,complexsupportneedsprovidesaframeworkforunderstanding
multipleinterlocking6experiencesandfactorsthatspandisability,healthandsocialissues,
andcapturestheirnatureassimultaneousness,multifacetedandcompounding.7Broadly
thosewithcomplexsupportneedsareseenaspeoplewhorequirehighlevelsofhealth,
welfareandothercommunitybasedservicesandincludeindividualswhoexperiencevarious
combinationsofmentalillness,intellectualdisability,acquiredbraininjury,physical
disability,behavioursthatarearisktoselforothers,socialisolation,familydysfunction,
haveproblematicdrugand/oralcoholuse,insecureorinadequatehousing;cultural,
5
MargaretHamilton,‘PeoplewithComplexneedsandtheCriminalJusticeSystem’(2010)222CurrentIssues
inCriminalJustice307.
6
JenniferRankinandSueRegan,‘DisabilitiesandOffendingBehaviour’(2004)73Meetingcomplexneedsin
socialcare,Housing,CareandSupport4.
7
EileenBaldryandLeanneDowse,‘Compoundingmentalandcognitivedisabilityanddisadvantage:policeas
caremanagers’inDuncanChappell(ed)PolicingandtheMentallyIll:InternationalPerspectives(CRCPress,
TaylorandFrancisGroup2013)219,222-223.
21
circumstantialorintergenerationaldisadvantage;familyanddomesticviolenceandcontact
withthecriminaljusticesystem.8
6. Importantfortheanalysispresentedinthisreportistherecognitionthatcomplexsupport
needsarenotstaticandhaveatemporaldimension,suchthatheightenedneedforsupport
ismorelikelytoemergeduringcertainsituations,episodesorlifestagesincluding
transitionsaroundoutofhomecare,engagementwithorreleasefromthecriminaljustice
system,intimesoffamilystresssuchasillness,death,familyconflict,orremovalofchildren.
Theexperienceisparticularlycharacterisedbylackofsupportinacrisisandmaybe
exacerbatedinsituations,whichrequirenegotiationofmulti-agencysupport.Thosewith
complexsupportneedsarealsofrequentlydefinedinthecontextoftheirrelationshipor
otherwisetoservicesystems.Thesesystems,suchasthechildprotection,health,housing
andcriminaljusticesystemsstruggletoworkcollaborativelywithandsupporteffectively
suchindividualsandsopeoplewithcomplexsupportneedsareoftenmarginalisedand
disadvantagedwithintheservicesystemandinthecommunity.9
8
EileenBaldry,LeanneDowseandMelissaClarence,‘Peoplewithmentalandcognitivedisabilities:Pathways
intoPrison’(2012)BackgroundPaperforOutlawstoInclusionConference;TerryCarney,‘Complexneedsatthe
BoundariesofMentalHealth,JusticeandWelfare:GatekeepingIssuesinManagingChronicAlcoholism
Treatment?’(2016)173CurrentIssuesinCriminalJustice347;Draine,Jetal,‘Roleofsocialdisadvantagein
crime,joblessness,andhomelessnessamongpersonswithseriousmentalillness’(2002)535Psychiatric
Services565;MargaretHamilton,‘PeoplewithComplexneedsandtheCriminalJusticeSystem’(2010)222
CurrentIssuesinCriminalJustice307.
9
MargaretHamilton,‘PeoplewithComplexneedsandtheCriminalJusticeSystem’(2010)222CurrentIssues
inCriminalJustice307;aboven7.
22
4.ADDRESSINGCOGNITIVEDISABILITYINCHILDRENANDYOUNG
PEOPLE
ProfessorCarolBower,SeniorPrincipalResearchFellow;NoniWalker,SeniorResearchFellow;
SharynneHamilton,ResearcherBanksiaHillFASDProject;GlennPearson,Head,Aboriginal
ResearchDevelopment,TelethonKidsInstitute.
Keyissues:
● Ifunmanaged,cognitivedisabilitycancontributetolowerattainmentineducation,
employmentandincreasedcontactwithpolice.
● Childhooddisabilityisunder-identifiedinAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander
communities.Thisisduetoarangeofsocialfactorsincludingrelativelylowlevelsof
disabilityawarenessandstigmatisation.ThisisparticularlythecasewithFoetalAlcohol
SpectrumDisorders.
● ResearchonanAustraliandiagnosticinstrumentforFASDisclosetocompletion.Wide
disseminationanduseofthediagnosticinstrumentshouldleadtobetteridentification
andmanagementofcognitivedisabilityacrossarangeofsocialpolicyareasincludingearly
childhoodandchildprotection,educationandjustice.
● Complementaryresearchisdevelopingastrengths-basedmodelforthemanagementof
disabilitywithinjuvenilejustice(theBanksiaHillFASDProject).Thisresearchshowsthe
greatpotentialfortheintegrationofdisabilityexpertisewithinajusticesetting,for
adoptionbyjusticeanddisabilityagenciesincludingtheNationalDisabilityInsurance
Agency.
1. ThegoaloftheTelethonKidsInstituteis“..tobuildonoursuccessandcreatearesearch
institutethatmakesarealdifferenceinourcommunity,witharenewedfocusontranslation
anddiscovery,whichwillbenefitchildrenandfamilieseverywhere.Wewilldothistogether-
unifiedinourleadership,excellence,passion,andvision.”
2. AddressingthisgoalisamajorprogramofresearchattheTelethonKidsInstituteonalcohol
useinpregnancyandFetalAlcoholSpectrumDisorders(FASD).
3. Theaimsofthisprogramofresearchareto:
• preventalcoholuseinpregnancyanditseffectsonchildhealth;
• decreasetheincidenceofFASD;
• improveFASDdiagnosticcapacity;and
• improvemanagementofchildrenandyoungpeoplewithaFASDthrougheffective
interventions.
23
4. Weareworkingwithcommunitygroups,includingAboriginalcommunities,health,justice
andeducationprofessionstochangethewayFASDisprevented,diagnosedandtreated.
5. FASDarecharacterisedbycentralnervoussystemdysfunctiongivingrisetodevelopmental,
sensory,learningandbehaviouraldifficulties.Althoughonlyabout30%ofchildrenwith
FASDhaveanintellectualdisability(IQ<70),allhaveneurocognitivedeficitsthatare
permanent,resultinginlifelongprogressiveandcompleximpairment.
6. Theseimpairmentshaveanegativeimpactuponthelifetrajectoryofchildrenandyoung
peoplewithFASDincluding:impairedearlyattachmentandpsychosocialdevelopment,
impairedattention,increasedimpulsivityandmemoryandlearningdifficulties.Theycan
oftenleadtosecondaryproblemsincludingpooreducationaloutcomes,socialexclusion,low
self-esteem,mentalhealthdisorders,substancemisuseanddependence,andcontactwith
thelaw.
7. FASDcanleadtosociallyunacceptableharmfulbehaviours,antisocialactivities,violent
crime,andbeingsubjecttoorcommittingsexualpredation.DeficitsassociatedwithFASD
suchasmemory,understandingabstractconcepts,reasoning,understandingcauseand
effect,learningfrompastmistakes,andunderstandingandmeetingsocialnormsand
expectationshavespecificrelevancetoyouthengagingandinteractingwithpolice,lawyers
andjudicialofficers.
8. YoungpeoplewithFASDareeasilyledandcoercedbytheirpeersandmayalsobevictimized
bothoutsideandinsidethejusticesystem.Theymaybeunabletoprovidearecordof
events,namesofpeopleinvolvedandtimelines,andtheymayprovidedifferentversionsof
thestoryforpoliceatdifferentstagesoftheintervieworarrestprocessleadingto
allegationsofconfabulationandpossiblefalseconfessions.Thesedeficitsalsoinhibittheir
abilitytoprovideinstructiontotheirlawyer,understandthecourtprocessandproceedings
anddecisionmadebythemagistratesuchasmeetingbailconditionsorparoleorders.
9. AllaspectsoftheFASDresearchattheTelethonKidsInstitute-prevention,diagnosisand
management-arerelevanttothisInquiry,butthreeresearchfocusareasareparticularly
pertinent.
DiagnosisofFASD
10. TheTelethonKidsInstitutehasdevelopedanAustralianFASDdiagnosticinstrument,on
contracttotheFederalDepartmentofHealth,whichwillbedisseminatedAustralia-wide
(fromMay2016)alongwithon-linetrainingmodulesforhealthprofessionals.Diagnosisof
FASDinAustraliahasbeenlimitedbylackofknowledgeandexperienceofhealth
professionalsandanabsenceofacceptednationaldiagnosticcriteria.Withgreaternational
capacityfordiagnosis,FASDwillbegintobediagnosedearlierinlife,providingopportunities
24
forearlierinterventionandreductioninsecondarydisabilities,suchasengagementwiththe
law.
FASDinthejuvenilejusticesystem
11. AprojectattheBanksiaHillDetentionCentreinWesternAustraliaaimstotodetermine
howcommonFetalAlcoholSpectrumDisordersareinyoungpeopleindetention,developa
FASDscreeningtoolappropriateforyoungpeopleenteringthejuvenilejusticesystem,and
developappropriatemanagementstrategiesfortheseyoungpeople.Theprojectisfunded
bytheNHMRCTargetedCallforResearch:FetalAlcoholSpectrumDisorderamong
AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderPeoples.
12. SeventypercentofyoungpeopleinthejuvenilejusticesystemareAboriginalandand
reportedratesofFASDaregreaterinAboriginalcomparedwithnon-Aboriginalchildren.The
outcomesoftheresearchwillestablishthefirstAustralianestimateofFASDamongyoung
peopleindetentiontocomparewithoverseasdatathat20%youngpeopleinjuvenile
detentionhaveFASD.
13. YoungpeopleatBanksiaHill(between10and17years)whochoosetoparticipate,and
whoseparent/guardianconsents,areinterviewedbytheprojectresearchassistantandare
assessedbyapaediatrician,neuropsychologist,occupationaltherapistandspeech
pathologisttoprovideinformationthatmayidentifyFASDorotherconditionsor
impairments.
14. Areportforeachyoungpersonprovidesassessmentfindings,aprovisionaldiagnosisif
identified,theirindividualstrengthsanddifficultieswithrecommendationsforimproved
managementstrategiesfortheyoungpersonandreferralsifappropriate.Discussionwith
theyoungperson,theirparent/guardian/carersanddetentioncentrestaffabouttheir
strengthsanddifficultiesaimstofacilitateimprovedsupportforyoungpeoplewithFASD
andotherimpairmentsduringdetentionandinthecommunityfollowingtheirrelease.
15. DatawillalsobeanalysedtodevelopaFASDscreeningtoolappropriateforuseamong
youngpeopleenteringjuveniledetentioninAustralia.Improvementsintheidentification
andmanagementofindividualswithFASDinthejusticesystemhavethepotentialtobe
cost-effectiveandimprovewellbeingthroughtheprovisionofservicesandsupportthatis
moreappropriatetotheneedsoftheseyoungpeople.
16. Exploringhowtherecommendedstrategiesmatchwithexistingcommunicationand
managementpathwaysatBanksiaHillandwithprofessionaldevelopmentandtrainingfor
custodialofficersisunderwayintheworkforcedevelopmentcomponentoftheproject.
Interventionresourcesdevelopedwillbemadeavailableforusenationally.
25
17. Resourcesforjusticeprofessionalsavailablecurrentlyweredevelopedfromresearchbythe
TelethonKidsInstitutetoidentify:
• whatjusticeprofessionalsknewaboutFASD;
• howthisimpactedontheirwork;
• whatinformationtheyrequired;and
• howthisinformationshouldbedelivered.
18. Resourcesincludeaseriesof5onlinepresentationsandanoverview:FASDandissuesinthe
justicesystem.Acontinuingprofessionaldevelopmentmoduleforlawyersisalsoavailable
freeonline:http://alcoholpregnancy.telethonkids.org.au/fasd-justice/professionaldevelopment/
19. FASDinformationprovidedbytheTelethonKidsInstitutetotheDepartmentoftheAttorney
GeneralforWesternAustraliawasincludedinChapter4‘Peoplewithdisabilities’inthe
EqualitybeforetheLawBenchBook.
20. TelethonKidsInstitutealsocontributestoadvocacyforimprovementstothewayyouth
justiceisdeliveredinWAthroughitsrepresentationbyProfessorJonathanCarapetis
(Director,TelethonKidsInstitute)ontheYouthJusticeBoard.
ManagementandsupportforpeoplewithFASDandtheirfamilies
21. FundingfromtheNationalDisabilityInsuranceAgency(NDIA)hasprovidedTelethonKids
Institutewiththeopportunitytoconductacomprehensivereviewoftheinformation
availableonservicesandsupportsforpeoplelivingwithFASDtoinformthedevelopmentof
draftbestpracticeguidelinesforNDIAplanners.Theprojecthasledtodevelopmentof:
• adraftfunctionalseverityindexforpeoplewithFASDtoassistplannersindecision
makingaroundthelevelandtypeofservicesandsupportsrequired;and
• principlesthatprovideafoundationforworkforcerequirements.
TheNDIAExpertPanelhasassessedthesedraftguidelinesandfunctionalseverityindexfor
considerationofsupportforimpairmentsfromFASDintheNDIS.
22. TheAlertProgram®StudyistakingplaceintheFitzroyValleywhichislocatedapproximately
400kmeastofBroomeintheremoteKimberleyregionofWesternAustralia.TheValleyis
hometoapproximately3500predominantlyAboriginalpeoplebelongingtofourlanguage
groupsandlivinginmorethan45remotecommunities,someupto190kmfromthemain
townofFitzroyCrossing.Afterimplementingalcoholrestrictionsin2007,thecommunity
turnedtheirattentiontotheissueoffetalalcoholspectrumdisorders(FASD)andearlylife
trauma(ELT),whichposedathreattointergenerationaltransferoflanguageandculture.
Thisledtotheinitiationofacomprehensive,multifacetedprogram,theMaruluFASD
Strategy,whichincludedAustralia’sfirststudyintotheprevalenceofFASD(theLililwan
Project).SincetheLililwanProject,attentionhasbeenfocusedonhowtosupportchildren,
familiesandteachersimpactedbyFASDandELT.
26
23. ChildrenwithFASDandELTcanexperiencedifficultieswiththeirself-regulationand
executivefunctioning.Thiscanimpactonchildren’sabilitytoplan,organise,maintain
attentionandchooseanappropriatelevelofalertnesstosuitaparticulartaskorsituation.
TheAlertProgram®isbasedontheanalogyofthebodybeinglikeacarenginetoteachselfregulationandimproveexecutivefunctioning.Thebodycanrunatdifferentlevelsof
alertnesssuchashigh,loworjustright.Childrenaretaughtfivewaystochangetheirlevel
ofalertnessthroughlistening,moving,touching,lookingorputtingsomethingintheir
mouth.
24. Thegoaloftheresearchistodevelop,implementandevaluateacurriculumversionofthe
AlertProgram®,tobedeliveredbyteachersandschoolstafftoimproveimpairmentsinselfregulationandexecutivefunctioningofprimaryschoolagedchildrenintheFitzroyValley
withandwithoutFASD.
25. AnotherareaofresearchthatisrelevanttotheInquiryistoidentifychangesinthemental
healthsysteminordertoimproveservicedeliverytoNyoongarpeoplewithmentalillness.
TheLookingForwardAboriginalMentalHealthProjectisaparticipatoryactionresearch
projectaimedatincreasingaccesstoandtheresponsivenessofthementalhealthanddrug
andalcoholservicesystemforNyoongarfamilieslivinginthesouth-eastPerthmetropolitan
corridorwhoselivesareaffectedbymentalillness.TheresearchrevealedthattheNyoongar
communitywouldprefermentalhealthservicestobedeliveredinawaythatdemonstrates
acomprehensiveunderstandingandrespectforaNyoongarworldview,incorporatingits
protocols,practicesandculturalcontexts.Organizationalchangepracticesaredirectly
informedbythepartnershipbetweenEldersandservicestaffbasedonsharedhistories,
respectfulunderstanding,andopen,authenticrelationships.
26. Akeyoutcomeoftheprojectisthedevelopmentandimplementationofaculturallysecure
systemschangeframeworkformentalhealthservicedelivery,theMinditjKaart-Moorditj
Kaart(‘Sickhead,GoodHead’)EngagementFramework,whichenhancestheknowledgeand
skillsbaseofthementalhealthworkforcebybringingthemtogetherwithElderssoasto
betterrespondtothementalhealthneedsofAboriginalfamilies.NyoongarElders,ensure
thatservicestaff(1)haveanunderstandingaNyoongarworldviewandtheenduringimpact
ofColonisation,(2)aredevelopingwaystoworkwiththeneedsandaspirationsofthe
community,(3)arebuildingservicecapacitytoworkmoreconfidently,competentlyand
culturallysecurelywithNyoongarfamilies.Together,Eldersandservicescommittodevising
newwaysinwhichfamiliescanbetteraccessservicesandservicesbemoreresponsiveto
theirneeds.
Recommendations:
27. Wewilllearnfromexperienceabouthowbesttotranslateknowledgeintoaction–wedo
notneedtowaitformoreresearch!
27
i)EarlydiagnosisofFASDandinterventiontopreventengagementwiththelaw.
ii)EarlyrecognitionthatayoungpersonhasFASDorotherneurocognitive
impairmentswhenfirstengagingwiththelawsothatcourtscanprovidealternative
strategiestosentencingandappropriatemanagementtoreducerecidivism.
28. ByidentifyingyoungpeoplewithFASDorcognitivedisabilities(theearlierthebetter)and
providingthemandtheirfamilieswiththenecessarysupportsandappropriatemethodsto
understandpoliceinterviewing,courtprocesses,bailconditionsandotheryouthjustice
processes,thechanceofendingupinindefinitedetentionisgreatlylessened.
28
5.THEIMPACTOFTRAUMAANDFAMILYVIOLENCEUPON
ABORIGINALANDTORRESSTRAITISLANDERWOMENWITH
DISABILITY
EliseThomas,NationalSecretariatSupportOfficer,FamilyViolencePreventionLegalServices
Keyissues:
● AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderwomenwithcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairments
facemultipleformsofintersectingdisadvantage,discriminationandmarginalisation.
● Thesebarriers,whichwomenfaceonbothindividualandsystemiclevels,effectivelyclose
thedoorsonalternativepathwaysandfunnelthemdownanincreasinglynarrowroadof
optionswhich,formany,sadlyendswithincarceration.
1. AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplewithcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairmentsare
subjecttodiscriminationanddisadvantageasaresultofthelegaciesofcolonisation;the
StolenGeneration;pastandpresenttraumasofchildremovalandseveredfamilyties;
racism;ableism;highlevelsofundiagnoseddisability;andfrequently,intergenerational
cyclesoflowsocioeconomicstatus,unemployment,substanceabuseandincarceration.
Theseintersectingtraumasandvulnerabilitiesontheirownaremorethanenoughtoplace
individualsathighrisk.When“woman”isaddedintothismix,withallofthegender-specific
barriersandvulnerabilitiesthatentails,thisriskbecomesmagnified.
2. ThesesystemicfactorsmeanthatAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderwomenwithcognitive
andpsychiatricimpairmentsareoftencaughtinanexusofvulnerability,victimisationand
criminalisation.AsBaldry,McCausland,DowseandMcEntyreindicateintheirreporton
Aboriginalpeoplewithmentalandcognitivedisabilitiesinthecriminaljusticesystem,itis
notdisabilityalonebutratherthecombinationofcomplexformsofdisadvantagewhich
placesparticularindividualsatveryhighriskofvictimisation.10Theirreportalsofoundthat
AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderwomenwithinthestudyexperiencedthehighestrates
ofcomplexneeds,includingmultiplecontactswiththepolice,havingbeeninoutofhome
careaschildren,havingbeenhomelessandhavingbeenvictimsofcrime.11
3. Multiplestudieshavealsoindicatedastaggeringrateofmentalillnessandpsychiatric
impairmentamongstAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderwomenindetention.Forexample,
arecentstudybyBeyondBluefoundthatupto47%ofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander
10
EileenBaldry,RuthMcCausland,LeanneDowse&ElizabethMcEntyre,APredictableandPreventablePath:
Aboriginalpeoplewithmentalandcognitivedisabilitiesinthecriminaljusticesystem(UniversityofNewSouth
Wales,2015)75,<http://www.mhdcd.unsw.edu.au>.
11
Ibid,45.
29
womenindetentionsufferfrompost-traumaticstressdisorder(PTSD).70%weresuffering
fromanxietydisordersand39%withdepression.63%ofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander
womeninthestudywerealsostrugglingwithsubstanceabuse,12whichitseemsreasonable
tothinkmightbebothcausedbyandcontributingtotheirpoormentalhealth.
4. ManyAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderwomenindetentionhavethemselvesbeen
victimsofmultipleformsoftrauma,includingfamilyviolence,rape,sexualassault,genderbasedand/orracialisedviolence.Frequentlywomenarealsore-traumatisedbythevery
systemsandinstitutionswhichshouldbesupportingthem,includingbypolice,courtsand
childwelfaresystems.Theseoftenunresolvedanduntreatedexperiencesoftrauma
contribute,directlyandindirectly,tothecircumstanceswhichsetAboriginalandTorres
StraitIslanderwomenontheroadtodetention.
5. AddressingthemultipleandcomplexneedsofthatAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander
womenwithcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairmentsindetentionrequiresaculturally
appropriate,traumainformedandgenderawareapproach.Itisnotenoughtoaddresstheir
needsasAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeople;aswomen;aspeoplewithdisabilities;
andasvictimsoftraumaseparately.Thecompoundingandintersectionalnatureoftheir
disadvantageandthebarrierstheyfacemustberecognised,andaneffectiveresponsetoit
mustbeequallyintersectionalandmultifaceted.
6. TheNationalFamilyViolencePreventionandLegalServicesForumthereforerecommends:
ThatAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplewithcognitiveandpsychiatric
impairmentsindetentionbescreenedforpastexperiencesoftrauma,including
familyviolence,sexualassaultorotherformsofgender-basedviolence.
• AppropriatesupportservicesshouldbeprovidedtoAboriginalandTorresStrait
Islanderpeoplewithcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairmentswhohaveexperienced
violenceortrauma.Thisshouldincludebothcounsellingandotheremotionaland
psychologicalsupporttohelpsurvivorsontheirroadstorecovery,andlegalsupport
tohelpthemaccesstheirrightsandobtainjustice.
• Inparticular,thegender-specificneedsofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander
womenwithcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairmentsmustberecognisedand
respondedto.
• Aboriginalcommunity-controlledorganisationsshouldberesourcedtoprovide
specialisedandculturallyappropriatesupporttoAboriginalandTorresStrait
Islanderpeoplewithcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairmentsindetention.
•
12
EHeffernan,KAndersen,SKinner,AAboud,COber,AScotney,TheFamilyBusiness:improvingthe
understandingandtreatmentofpost-traumaticstressdisorderamongincarceratedAboriginalandTorres
StraitIslanderwomen(BeyondBlue,2015)5.
30
6.DIVERSION
DrLindaSteele,Lecturer,SchoolofLawUniversityofWollongong
Keyissues:
● Diversionshouldaddressthedeepentrenchmentinthecriminaljusticesystemof
IndigenousAustralianswithcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairmentandtheirindefinite
cyclinginandoutofmultipleformsandepisodesofpunishmentovertheirlifecourse.
● Diversionwhichhaspunitive,coerciveand/orsupervisorydimensionswillnotonlyfailto
addresstheissuesofentrenchmentandcyclingbutlikelyexacerbatethem.
● Diversionshouldtriggerappropriatedisabilityandsocialsupport,ratherthanbeanout-ofprisonformofpunishment.
● AsasignatorytotheConventionontheRightsofPersonswithDisabilitiesthe
Commonwealthhasanobligationtoensurediversionaryschemesdonotbreachhuman
rights,includingtherighttoequalityandnon-discrimination.
1. Diversionintosupporteddisabilityprogramsasanalternativetoimprisonmentisacritical
processtostemtheunnecessaryincarcerationofpeoplewithcognitiveandpsychiatric
impairment.Theuseofdiversionisanunderutilisedopportunityacrossthejurisdictions,
usedinanadhocandinconsistentmanner.TheSenateInquirypresentsanopportunityto
establishanationallyconsistentmodelfordiversion,solongasitisbasedonsupporting
peoplewithdisabilityandnotcreatinganalternativeformofpunishment.
2. Diversionmustbeconsideredinthecontextofthebiggerpictureofthecomplexwaysin
whichIndigenousAustralianswithcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairmentaredeeply
entrenchedinthecriminaljusticesystemandsubjectedacrosstheirlifecoursetoan
ongoingcycleofmultipleformsandepisodesofpunishment.Thecoreissuesof
criminalisation,incarcerationandmarginalisationwhichareapparentinthisbiggerpicture
willnotbeaddressedifthe‘problem’ofindefinitedetentionisseenasbecoming‘fixed’ifit
isreplacedwithyetanotherformofpunishment.
3. DiversionshouldaddressthedeepentrenchmentinthecriminaljusticesystemofIndigenous
Australianswithcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairmentandtheirindefinitecyclinginandout
ofmultipleformsandepisodesofpunishmentovertheirlifecourse.Diversionwhichhas
punitive,coerciveand/orsupervisorydimensionswillnotonlyfailtoaddresstheseissuesof
entrenchmentandcyclingbutlikelyexacerbatethem.ItisparticularlyimportanttheSenate
Committeeismindfuloftheseriskswhenconsideringdiversionbecauseofthetypical
positiveperceptionthatdiversionisnon-punitive,therapeuticandbeneficial.
31
WhatisDiversion?
4. Inthecontextofallegedoffenderswithcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairment,diversion
typicallyinvolvesshiftinganindividualfromtheirpassagealongthecriminaljustice
continuumfromcharge,conviction,sentenceandpunishmentintoanalternativesystemof
disabilityandmentalhealthservices.
5. Thereisnouniformityacrossjurisdictions(bothinternationallyandwithinAustralia)in
relationtotheservice,institutionalorlegalformthatdiversiontakes.Forexample,diversion
mightinvolveanindividualcourthavinganinformalpracticeofusinggeneralistbailand
sentencinglegislationtoattachconditionsrelatingtodisabilityormentalhealthservice
engagementtoallegedoffenders’bailorcommunitysentencingorders(‘informaloradhoc
diversion’).Attheotherextremediversionmightinvolveaspeciallegislativescheme
applicableexclusivelytopeoplewithcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairmentwhichprovides
forspecificlegalorderscompellingengagementwithdisabilityandmentalhealthservices
(‘formalisedlegaldiversion’).13
6. Whilediversioncanmeanmanythings,itisimportanttobeclearabouttheinstitutional,
serviceand,mostimportantly,legalformsthataparticulardiversionaryschemetakes.
Formalisedlegaldiversionhasgenerallybeensupportedinpastlawreforminquiries14and
bylegalstakeholdersbecauseitsformallegalstatussuggestsitwillbemoreaccessible
acrosscourtsandprovidegreatercertaintyofaccesstosupportservices.Yet,byveryreason
ofitsformallegalnature,thisformofdiversionisalsothemostdifficultformofdiversionto
removeorchangeonceinplaceandhassignificantlegalramificationsonindividuals
subjectedtodiversionaryorders(egcoercedengagementwithtreatmentandservices,
supervisionbyserviceprovidersofcomplianceandreversionbacktocriminalchargesif
ordersarebreached).Assuch,thissubmissionfocusesonadiscussionofformalisedlegal
diversion.
WhatHappensWithoutDiversion?
7. ResearchledbyEileenBaldryandLeanneDowseetalontheMHDCDdataset15establishes
thatIndigenousAustralianswithcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairmentwhoareinthe
13
See,eg,MentalHealth(ForensicProvisions)Act1990(NSW)s32.Foradiscussionofsomeexamplessee
ElizabethRichardsonandBernadetteMcSherry,‘DiversionDownUnder—ProgramsforOffenderswith
MentalIllnessesinAustralia’(2010)33(4)InternationalJournalofLawandPsychiatry249;RichardD
Schneider,‘MentalHealthCourtsandDiversionPrograms:AGlobalSurvey’(2010)33InternationalJournalof
LawandPsychiatry201.
14
See,eg,theNewSouthWalesLawReformCommission:NewSouthWalesLawReformCommission,People
withCognitiveandMentalHealthImpairmentsintheCriminalJusticeSystem:Diversion(ReportNo135,2012).
15
SeegenerallyAustraliansWithMHDCDintheCJSProject(29June2012)MentalHealthDisordersand
CognitiveDisabilitiesintheCriminalJusticeSystem<http://www.mhdcd.unsw.edu.au/australians-mhdcd-cjsproject.html>.
32
criminaljusticesystemasallegedoffendersexperienceongoingcriminalisationand
punishmentacrosstheirlife,whichformanyindividualsgenerallybeginsinchildhood.
Moreover,theirresearchhighlightsthesignificancetothisongoingcriminalisationand
punishmentofdisabilityandIndigeneity,compoundedbydynamicssuchasmarginalisation,
institutionalfailure,victimisationandlackofappropriatesupports,aswellascolonialism,
historicalinjusticesandintergenerationaltrauma.Moreover,theirresearchemphasisesthe
contributionofthecriminaljusticesystem,includingincarcerationandcommunity-based
interventions,totheongoingcriminalisationandpunishment.16
8. Yet,paradoxically,theongoingnatureofmanyoftheseindividuals’contactwiththecriminal
justicesystemisnottypicallyviewedbythecriminaljusticesystemandcriminallawasa
systemicproblem(inwhichthecriminaljusticeandotherinstitutionsarecomplicit)
requiringsolutionswhichoperateatasystemicandindividuallevelandwhichsupport
ratherthanpunishindividuals.Instead,theongoingnatureofcontactwiththecriminal
justicesystemisindividualisedandtypicallyviewedasaproblemofthefailureofthe
individualtorehabilitateandengageconstructivelywithcriminaljusticeandwelfare
agenciesandinturnbecomesanindicatorthattheindividualisahigherriskandinneedof
moreseriousformsofpunishment.Moreover,whentheindividualhasadisability,their
ongoingcontactwiththecriminaljusticesystemisattributedtointernal,pathological
characteristicsassociatedwiththeirdisabilityanddivorcedfromsocial,historicaland
politicalcircumstances.Mainstreamandconventionalformsofpunishmentthatindividuals
becomeincreasinglysubjectedtoastheybecomefurtherentrenchedinthecriminaljustice
systemfailtoaddressthesystemic,complexandhistoricalcircumstanceswhichhave
compoundedovertimetoshapethecriminaljusticepathwaysofIndigenousAustralians
withcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairment.
9. Diversion–ifunderstoodasamethodofshiftingindividualsfromthecycleofpunishment
andcriminalisationandaddressingsystemiccausesofcriminalisation(asopposedtoa
methodofshiftinganindividualawayfromconventionalpunishmentinrelationtoone
instanceofaspecificcriminalcharge)providesthepossibilityofinterveninginthiscycle.
Diversioncandothisifitisanalternativetopunishmentperseandanalternativeto
entrenchmentinthecriminaljusticesystemasopposedtoanalternativeformof
punishment–ifitoperatesinalegalandinstitutionalframeworkwhichisnotpunitive,
coerciveorsupervisory.Moreover,diversioncanaddresssomeofthesystemicissues
relatedtodisadvantageifitprovidesaccesstodisabilityandsocialsupportservicesand
providespathwaystoaccesstojusticeforpastexperiencesofvictimisation,institutional
failureandhistoricalinjustice.
16
EileenBaldry,RuthMcCauslandandLeanneDowseetal,APredictableandPreventablePath:Aboriginal
PeoplewithMentalandCognitiveDisabilitiesintheCriminalJusticeSystem(UniversityofNewSouthWales,
October2015).
33
WhyAreAboriginal-SpecificSolutionstoDiversionNecessary?
10. Additionally,diversionmustinvolveAboriginal-specificsolutions.Thisisnotonlytoensure
culturalandgeographicappropriateness,butalsobecauseoftheintensifiedmarginalisation
andcriminalisationofIndigenousAustralianswithcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairmentwho
areinthecriminaljusticesystemwhencomparedtotheirnon-Indigenouscounterparts.This
isdemonstratedbyabriefdiscussionofthefindingsofastudyofallindividualsinthe
MHDCDdataset(referredtoabove)whohadeverbeendivertedpursuanttosection32of
theMentalHealth(ForensicProvisions)Act1990(NSW)(‘section32cohort’).Thissection32
cohortconsistedofacohortof149individualswithdiagnosedcognitiveandpsychiatric
impairmentwhohavebeenincustodyinaNSWprisonandhavereceivedasection32order
atsomepointintheirlives.17Belowisasummaryofthekeyfindingswhichcomparethe
situationforIndigenousandnon-Indigenouscohortmembers.
17
See,generally,LindaSteele,LeanneDowseandJulianTrofimovs,‘WhoisDiverted?:MovingBeyond
DiagnosisTowardsaSocialandPoliticalAnalysisofDiversion’(2016)38(2)SydneyLawReview(forthcoming);
seealsoLindaSteele,LeanneDowseandJulianTrofimovs,‘Section32:AReportontheHumanServiceand
CriminalPathwaysofPeopleDiagnosedWithMentalHealthDisorderandCognitiveDisabilityintheCriminal
JusticeSystemWhoHaveReceivedOrdersUndertheMentalHealth(ForensicProvisions)Act1990(NSW)’
(UniversityofNewSouthWales,2013)
http://www.mhdcd.unsw.edu.au/sites/www.mhdcd.unsw.edu.au/files/u18/Steele%2C%20Dowse%20and%20
Trofimovs%20_MHDCD%20Section%2032%20Report.pdf.
34
Indigenous
Australian
membersof
section32
cohort(42)
Not-Indigenous
Australian
membersof
section32cohort
(107)
Percentagewithcognitiveimpairmentdiagnosis(eithersingle
diagnosisofCDorcomplexdiagnosisofCD-MHD)
95%
83%
Percentagewithcomplexdiagnosis(CD-MHD)
71%
50%
Averageagewhendatadrawn
31.74years
36.62years
Percentageinoutofhomecare(OOHC)aschild
21%
11%
Percentagewholeftschoolwithoutqualifications(ieHSC,
VCE,LeavingCertificate)
45%
40%
19%
36%
Averageageoffirstpolicecontact(FPC)
14.9yearsold
17.4yearsold
PercentagewhowereDJJclients(whetherinDJJcustodyor
not)
57%
27%
PercentagewhowereinDJJcustody
48%
19%
Averagenumberofcontactswithpoliceasapersonof
interest(POI)
106
110
Averagenumberofconvictions
34
27
Averagenumberofadultcustodyepisodes(DCS)
14episodes
12episodes
AveragetotalnumberofcustodydaysacrossallDCScustody
episodes
1259
944
Percentagewhohaveareportedself-harminDCScustody
76%
57%
Averagenumberofcontactswithpoliceasavictimofcrime
11
17
Diagnosis
Childhoodsocialdisadvantage
Disabilitysupport
Everreceiveddisabilityservices(ADHCsupport)
Contactwithcriminaljusticesystem
35
Percentagewhohavehadcontactwithpoliceundercivil
mentalhealthlegislation
50%
22%
Diagnosticbreakdownofgroupwhohavehadcontactwith
policeundercivilmentalhealthlegislation
ComplexCDMHDdiagnosis:
43%
ComplexCD-MHD
diagnosis:54%
Note:singleCDindicatesnoMHDdiagnosis
SingleMH
diagnosis:5%
SingleCD
diagnosis:52%
SingleMH
diagnosis:8%
SingleCD
diagnosis:38%
Diversionundersection32oftheMentalHealth(ForensicProvisions)Act1990(NSW)
Divertedasachild
0
1
Averagenumberofdiversionorders
1.9
1.6
Table1:Diagnostics,DemographicsandCriminalJusticePathwaysofaCohortofIndigenous
AustraliansandNot-IndigenousAustraliansDivertedPursuanttoSection32oftheMentalHealth
(ForensicProvisions)Act1990(NSW)
11. Table1indicatesthattheIndigenousAustraliancohortmembersaresubjectedtomore
intensecriminalisation(onaverageearlierentry,moretimeincustodyandmore
convictions)thantheirnon-Indigenouscounterparts.Thus,ingeneral,thesefindingsindicate
theextremeimportancethatdiversionfocusnotmerelyonshiftinganindividualawayfrom
conventionalpunishmentvis-à-visonespecificcriminaloffence,butbefocusedonproviding
analternativetopunishmentperseandaimtointerveneintheentrenchmentinthe
criminaljusticesystem.Furthermore,themoredeeplyentrenchednatureofIndigenous
Australiancohortmembersinthecriminaljusticesystemillustratesthatlengthycriminal
historiesmustnotbecomeacontra-indicatorofsuitabilityfordiversion.Instead,thisfact
aloneshouldindicatethegreatneedtointerruptthecycleofpunishmentandtoavoidany
furthercriminaljusticeorders(includingforensicmentalhealthorders)andpunishmentof
anysortwhichwillultimatelyexacerbatethiscycling.
12. Table1indicatesthatnoneoftheIndigenouscohortmembersweredivertedaschildren,
eventhoughonaveragetheywerealreadyinthecriminaljusticesystematanearlierage
andpotentiallyincarceratedinjuvenilecustodywhencomparedtotheirnon-Indigenous
counterparts.Thedataillustratestheneedtoconsiderhowdiversionwilloperateinthe
juvenilejurisdiction,includingitsinterfacewithoutofhomecareandeducation(given
higherincidenceofOOHCandpooreducationaloutcomes).
13. Table1alsoillustratesthatIndigenousAustraliancohortmembersexperiencedloweraccess
todisabilitysupportserviceswhencomparedtotheirnon-Indigenouscounterparts.Thus,a
36
diversionschememustensureequityofaccesstodisabilityservicesforIndigenous
Australianswithcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairment.Moreover,Table1indicatessocial
disadvantageexperiencedbyIndigenousAustraliancohortmembers,suchthatthrough
diversionIndigenousAustralianswithcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairmentmusthave
equitableaccesstosocialsupportservicesandaccesstojusticeandsupporttoaddress
institutionalinjusticesrelatedtopastsocialserviceprovision.
14. TotheextentthatTable1illustrateshighvictimcontactwithpoliceaswellashighincidence
ofOOHCandpooreducationaloutcomes,diversionshouldprovideaccesstojusticeand
supporttoaddressinstitutionalinjusticesandinstitutionalorpersonalviolenceexperienced
byIndigenousAustralianswithcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairment.Onasimilarnote,this
accessshouldextendtoaddressingpastinjusticesandviolencewhichhaveoccurredinthe
criminaljusticesystem.
15. Table1alsoillustratesthesignificanceofcivilmentalhealthlegislationtothepolicecontact
ofIndigenousAustralianswithdisability.Surprisingly,thisincludesahigherproportionof
Indigenousthannon-Indigenousindividualswhodonotevenhaveadiagnosedmental
illnessandhencedonotfallwithinthejurisdictionofthislegislation.Thisindicatestherisk
thattheuseofcivilmentalhealthservicesindiversion(particularlywheretheindividual
doesnotconsenttotreatmentordetention)mightprovideanadditionalmeansof
criminalisation.
WhyMustDiversionBeDoneProperly?
16. Theservice,institutionalandlegaldimensionsofadiversionschememustbecarefully
considered,becausethereareunforeseenramificationsofpoorlyimplicateddiversionorof
diversionthatoperatespursuanttocoercivecourtorders.Whilethelinkingofpeoplewith
disabilitysupportservicesispositiveifitiswhatanindividualwantsandchoosesandis
focusedoninterveningintheirentrenchmentinthecriminaljusticesystemandin
addressingsystemicfactors,thelegalframingofaformallegaldiversionschemecan
undercutanyservicebenefitsofdiversion.Thisisbecauseformallegaldiversioncaninvolve
courtorderswhichrequiretheindividualtocomplywithservicesandfailuretodosocan
resultintheirchargesbeingbroughtbackandhencepossibleconvictionandpunishment.
Furthermore,theuseofguardianshipandcivilmentalhealthordersasanadditionalwayto
coerceindividualsinrelationtotreatment,lifestyleoraccommodationcanprovide
additionalopportunitiesforcontactwithpolicebecausetheretrievalordersorcoercive
ordersassociatedwiththesecivillawframeworks.
17. Poorlyimplicateddiversionthatdoesnotinvolveserviceswhichareappropriatelyresourced
orstaffwhoareappropriatelytrainedandwhodonotholdprejudicesconcerningdisability,
Indigeneityorcriminality,canresultinvolatilesituationswhichcanresultinconflictand
additionalcontactwithpolice.Relatedtothis,considerationmustbegiventohowservice
37
governance,riskmanagement,workhealthandsafetyanddutyofcareframeworksprovide
additionalopportunitiesforindividualstohavecontactwiththecriminaljusticesystem.
18. Diversionwhichinvolvescoercionofindividualswhohavenotbeenconvicted(where
individualswithoutdisabilityarebeyondthescopeofpunishmentpursuanttocriminalor
forensicmentalhealthlaw)orwhichinvolvescoerciveengagementwithtreatmentor
servicesisdiscriminatoryandbreacheshumanrightsofnon-discrimination,legalcapacity
andpersonalintegrity.18Diversionmustalsohavemaximuminvolvementofplace-based,
communityownedIndigenousservicestoensureitsmaximumeffectiveness.19
HowShouldDiversionBeViewed?
19. Inconsideringthe‘roleandnature,accessibilityandefficacyofprogramsthatdivertpeople
withcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairmentfromthecriminaljusticesystem’(aspertermof
reference(i))theSenateCommitteeshouldconsiderthefollowingprinciples:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Commonwealthinter-jurisdictionconsistencyintheinstitutional,serviceandlegal
formofdiversion.
Diversionshouldbegovernedbyoverridingprinciplesofself-determinationand
non-discriminationandequality,andbedirectedtowardsaddressingthe
entrenchmentofIndigenousAustralianswithcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairment
inthecriminaljusticesystem.
Diversionshouldnotinvolvecoercion,punishmentorsupervision.Diversionshould
notonlyavoidcoercionbycriminallaworforensiclaworders,butalsoavoidtheuse
ofcoercionviacivilguardianshipormentalhealthlaws.
Diversionshouldbedirectedtoavoidinganyformofpunishment,ratherthan
merelybeinganalternativetopurportedlymoresevereformsofpunishment.
Diversionnotjustbeanalternativetoindefinitedetentionbutanalternativeto
punishmentandalternativetoalifeentrenchedinthecriminaljusticesystem
Diversionmustalsohavemaximuminvolvementofplacebased,communityowned
Indigenousservices.
Diversionshouldprovideculturallyandgeographicallyappropriatedisabilityand
socialsupportservicesandindividualsshouldonlybeexpectedtoengagewiththese
servicesiftheychoose.
18
Onregulatoryandcoerciveandpunitiveuseofcivilorders,seeegClaireSpivakovsky,‘FromPunishmentto
Protection:ContainingandControllingtheLivesofPeopleWithDisabilitiesinHumanRights’(2014)
16(5)Punishment&Society560;ClaireSpivakovsky,‘MakingDangerousnessIntelligibleinIntellectual
Disability’(2014)23(3)GriffithLawReview389.
19
HarryBlagg,TamaraTulichandZoeBush,‘DiversionaryPathwaysforIndigenousYouthwithFASDin
WesternAustralia:DecolonisingAlternatives’40(4)AlternativeLawJournal257.
38
•
•
•
•
Diversionshouldprovidewaystoconsiderimpactofinstitutionalandcriminaljustice
failuresontheindividual’scurrentsituationandopportunitiestoconsiderjustice
andotheravenuesforredressingthese
DiversionneedstoaddresstheneedsofyoungIndigenousAustralianswithcognitive
andpsychiatricimpairment,andalsoensurethatlongerorentrenched
criminalisationisnotacounter-indicatortosuitabilityfordiversion.
Ifdiversiondoeshavealegalorderattachedincludingcoercingengagementwith
servicesorisotherwisepunitive,itmustbeviewedasaformofcriminalpunishment
andbesubjectedtohumanrights,civillibertiesandsocialjusticescrutinyasare
otherformsofpunishment.
Ifdiversiondoeshavealegalorderattachedincludingcoercingengagementwith
servicesorisotherwisepunitive,itispertinentthatsupportservicesare
appropriatelyresourcedandstaffbeappropriatelytrainedtominimisevolatile
situationsandadditionalcontactwithpolice.Itisalsovitalthatthelegalprocessfor
determiningbreachesofdiversionaryordersgiveconsiderationtotheplaceof
services’legal,resourceandstaffdynamicsinthecircumstancesgivingrisetothe
allegedbreach.Diversionshouldaddresssocial,institutionalandpoliticalfactors,as
wellaslegalfactors(theroleoflawandjusticesystemthemselves),inthe
entrenchmentofIndigenousAustraliansinthecriminaljusticesystem.Diversion
shouldnotonlyprovideaccesstodisabilityandsocialservicestoaddresscurrent
circumstances,butalsoprovideaccesstojusticeandsupporttoaddresspast
injustices,includingthosewhichhaveoccurredinthecriminaljusticesystem.
39
7.TOWARDSNATIONALSTANDARDSFORLAWSANDREGULATIONS
AFFECTINGINDIVIDUALSWHOHAVEBEENDECLAREDMENTALLYIMPAIREDORUNFITTOPLEAD(PARTA)
NationalAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderLegalServices
Keyissues:
● Legislationandregulationsaffectingpeoplewhohavebeendeclaredmentallyimpaired
unfittopleaareinconsistentacrosstheStateandTerritoryjurisdictions.
● Eventhebestpracticelegislativemodelsdonotcontainadequatesafeguardsagainstthe
indefinitedetentionofpeoplewithcognitiveimpairment.
● TheCommonwealthhasaroleinleadinglegislativereformtosecuretherightsofpeople
withcognitiveimpairmentinthejusticesystemthroughnationallegislativestandards.
● TheNationalAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderLegalServicesproposesfivecore
principlesforminimumnationsstandardsforlegislationaffectingmentallyimpairedand
unfittoplea.
1. Thissectionofthesubmissionbrieflyhighlightsanumberofissueswithlegislationrelating
toaccusedwhoarefoundnotguiltybyreasonofunsoundnessofmind(insanityormental
impairment)orunfittostandtrial.NATSILSrecommendsthatminimumstandardsbe
introducedinlegislationinallstatesandterritories.Currently,therearesignificant
differencesinthelegislativeframeworksbetweenjurisdictionsandconsequentlyweare
unabletoprovideathoroughanalysisofjurisdictionaldifferencesandspecificneeded
reforms.However,wehaveprovidedexamplesfromparticularjurisdictionsinorderto
demonstratetheneedforrecommendedminimumstandards.Foranalysisofjurisdictional
specificissues,NATSILSnotesthatthereareanumberofsignificantreportsincludingthose
producedbytheVictorianLawReformCommission20,theNewSouthWalesLawReform
Commission21andtheGovernmentofWesternAustralia’sdiscussionpaperontheCriminal
Law(MentallyImpairedAccused)Act1996.
2. Itshouldbestressedthatinmakingtheserecommendations,wenotetheimportantrole
thattheCOAG’sStandingCouncilonHealthcouldplay.AsarguedintheAustralianLaw
ReformCommission(ALRC)reportondisabilities,theCOAG’sStandingCouncilonHealthhas
20
VictorianLawReformCommission,ConsultationpaperontheReviewoftheCrimes(MentalImpairmentand
UnfitnesstobeTried)Act1997
21
NewSouthWalesLawReformCommission,PeoplewithCognitiveandMentalHealthImpairmentsinthe
CriminalJusticeSystem:Diversion(May2012);NewSouthWalesLawReformCommission,Peoplewith
CognitiveandMentalHealthImpairmentsintheCriminalJusticeSystem:CriminalResponsibilityand
Consequences(June2013).
40
longoverseendevelopmentsinmentalhealthlaws,andmaybeabletoadvancethereview
andamendmentoflegislationinthisarea.22
MinimumStandards
3. BasedonNATSILS’analysisandthefirsthandexperiencesofourmembers,thefollowing
havebeenidentifiedasminimumstandardsthatalllegislationformentallyimpaired
accusedshouldadhereto.Ataminimumlegislationshouldprovidefor:
• Judicialdiscretion;
• Specialhearingstotestevidence;
• Proceduralfairness;
• Finitetermsforcustodyorders(andreleaseorders);and
• Rightsofreview.
Theseareexploredbelow.
Judicialdiscretion
4. Recommendation:Thereshouldbejudicialdiscretiontoimposeanappropriateorder
dependingonthecircumstancesofthecaseand,assuch,thereshouldbenoprovisionfor
mandatorycustodyordersformentallyimpairedaccused.
5. Acriticalissuewithlegislationinthisareaisthelackofjudicialdiscretiontomake
appropriateorders.Forexample,inWesternAustralia,undertheCriminalLaw(Mentally
ImpairedAccused)Act1996(WA)(‘theCLMIAAct(WA)’)acourtdealingwithapersonwho
hasbeenfoundtobeunfittostandtrialhasoneoftwooptions:indefinitecustodyor
unconditionalrelease.23Incontrast,amentallyimpairedaccusedwhoisacquittedon
accountofunsoundnessofmindmaybeplacedonacommunity-basedorder,conditional
releaseorderoranintensivesupervisionorder.24However,thecourtmustimposean
indefinitecustodyorderforamentallyimpairedaccused,whohasbeenacquittedon
accountofunsoundnessofmind,iftheoffencecommittedislistedinSchedule1ofthe
CLMIAAct(WA).WhileSchedule1includesoffencessuchasmurder,manslaughterand
sexualpenetration,italsoincludesoffencessuchasassaultoccasioningbodilyharmand
criminaldamage.Thislackofjudicialdiscretionisamajorobstacletothecourtsmaking
appropriateorders,asappropriateresolutionswillseldombereachedbyeitherofthe
extremeoptionsofunconditionalreleaseorindefinitedetention.Thiscanbecompared
withlegislationinVictoriawheretherearenomandatoryordersformentallyimpaired
accusedundercriminallegislation.Instead,treatment,custodialandjudicialmonitoring
22
AustralianLawReformCommission,DiscussionPaper:Equality,CapacityandDisabilityinCommonwealth
Laws(May2013,Canberra),233.
23
CriminalLaw(MentallyImpairedAccused)Act1996(WA)(“CLMIAAct(WA)”),ss16(5)and19(4).
24
CLMIAAct(WA),ss21(b)and22(b).Theseordersareonlyapplicableiftheoffencecommittedisnotlistedin
Schedule1oftheCLMIAAct(WA).
41
ordersareatthecourt’sdiscretion.Likewise,inSouthAustralia,thecourtshavewide
discretionarypowerstomakeappropriateorders.25
Specialhearingstotestevidence
6. Recommendation:Thereshouldbespecialhearingstotesttheevidenceagainstamentally
impairedaccusedwhoisunfittostandtrial.Thisshouldentailaprocedurefordetermining
whether,ontheevidenceavailable,theaccusedcommittedtheobjectiveelementsofthe
offencesothatifitcannotbeproventhattheaccusedcommittedtheobjectiveelementsof
theoffence,theaccusedisdischarged.
7. AseriousissueinWesternAustraliaisthatorderscanbemadeagainstaccusedunderthe
CLMIAActeventhoughevidenceagainsttheaccusedmaybesubstantivelylacking.In
WesternAustraliathecourtmustnotimposeacustodyorderunlesssatisfiedthatitis
appropriatetodosohavingregardtothestrengthoftheevidenceagainsttheaccused;the
natureoftheallegedoffenceandtheallegedcircumstancesofitscommission;theaccused’s
character,antecedents,age,healthandmentalcondition;andthepublicinterest.26
However,theassessmentofthestrengthofevidenceagainsttheaccusedisonlyundertaken
byreferencetothewrittenbriefofevidence–nowitnessesarecalledtogiveevidence,nor
cantheybecross-examined.
8. ThiscanbecomparedwiththeNorthernTerritory27andVictoria28wheretherearespecial
hearingsbeforeajurytodeterminewhetherthepersonisnotguiltyoftheoffence,not
guiltybecauseofmentalimpairment,orcommittedtheoffencecharged.29Afindingof"not
guilty"and"notguiltybecauseofmentalimpairment"aretobetakenforallpurposesasif
theywerefindingsmadeatacriminaltrial.30Findingsthattheaccused"committedthe
25
Forexample,inSouthAustralia,underDivision4,Section269O(1)oftheCriminalLawConsolidationAct
1935(SA)“CLCAct(SA)”),thecourtbywhichthepersonisdeclaredtobeliabletosupervisionhasthree
discretionarypowers:
1. 269O(1)(a):toreleasethedefendantunconditionally
2. 269O(1)(b)(i):tomakeasupervisionordercommittingthedefendanttodetention
3. 269O(1)(b)(ii):tomakeasupervisionorderreleasingthedefendantonlicense,subjecttocertain
conditions.
26
CLIMAAct(WA),ss16(6)and19(5).
27
IntheNorthernTerritory,theregimefordealingwithquestionsoffitnesstobetriedisfoundunderPartIIA
oftheCriminalCodeAct(NT)(“CriminalCode(NT)”).InboththeNorthernTerritoryandVictoria,thematter
mustgobeforeaspecialhearingwithin3months.(CMIAct(Vic)s12(5);CriminalCode(NT)s43R(3)).
28
SeeCrimes(MentalImpairmentandUnfitnesstobeTried)Act1997(Vic)(“CMIAct(Vic)”),ss12,15and
18(1),(2).
29
CMIAct(Vic),s15;CriminalCode(NT),ss43G(2)(c),(d),(e).InVictoriaandtheNorthernTerritory,wherea
juryataspecialhearingfindsthattheaccusedpersonisnotguiltyoftheoffenceduetomentalimpairment,or
thatthepersoncommittedtheoffence,thecourtmustmakeacustodialsupervisionorder,anon-custodial
supervisionorderorreleasetheaccusedpersonunconditionally:CriminalCode(NT),ss43X(2)(a),43X(3)and
43ZA;CMIAct(Vic),ss18(4),23(a)and26(2).
30
CMIAct(Vic)ss18(1),(2);CriminalCode(NT),ss43X(1),(2)).
42
offencecharged"mustbeproventothecriminalstandardofbeyondreasonabledoubt.31
Thisfindingissubjecttoappealinthesamemannerasiftheaccusedhadbeenconvictedof
theoffenceinacriminaltrial.32InNSW,ifaMentalHealthReviewTribunalmakesafinding
thatapersonwillnotbecomefittobetriedwithin12months,thecourtmustholdaspecial
hearingtotesttheevidenceagainsttheaccusedassoonaspracticableunlessDPPadvises
nofurtherproceedingswillbetaken.33Inthesehearingstheprosecutionmustprovebeyond
reasonabledoubtthattheaccusedcommittedtheoffences(s)charged.34However,evidence
maybelimitedinvariouswaysincludingaccusedmaybeunabletogiveevidenceoraccused
maybeunabletoadequatelyinstructtheirlawyer.
9. InSouthAustraliathelawprovidesadivisionbetweenobjectiveelementsandsubjective
elementsofanoffence.Undertheobjectiveelementsoftheoffencethecourthears
evidenceandrepresentationsbytheprosecutionandthedefenceonwhetherthecourt
shouldfindthattheobjectiveelementsoftheoffenceareestablished.35Ifthecourtis
satisfiedbeyondreasonabledoubtthattheobjectiveelementsoftheoffenceare
established,thecourtmustrecordafindingtothateffect,butotherwisethecourtmustfind
thedefendantnotguiltyoftheoffenceanddischargetheaccused.36
Proceduralfairness
10. Recommendation:Legislationshouldensureminimumproceduralfairnessrequirementssuch
asarighttoappear,rightofreview,righttowrittenreasonsfordecisionandrightto
information.
11. InWesternAustralia,thereisnostatutoryrightforamentallyimpairedaccusedorhisorher
advocate/representativetoappearbeforetheMentallyImpairedAccusedReviewBoard
and/ortoprovidewrittensubmissionstotheMentallyImpairedAccusedReviewBoard.In
additiontomakingrecommendationsforthereleaseofmentallyimpairedaccused,37the
MentallyImpairedAccusedReviewBoardalsomakesrecommendationsastowhetherit
shouldbegrantedthepowertomakealeaveofabsenceorder.38Furthermore,apartfrom
therequirementtoprovideacopyofawrittenreportoftheMentallyImpairedAccused
ReviewBoard(suchreporteitherrecommendingornotrecommendingthereleaseofthe
31
CMIAct(Vic),s17(2);CriminalCode(NT),s43V(2)).Suchafindingisnotthesameasaverdictofguilty,but
aqualifiedfindingofguilt,anddoesnotconstituteaconvictioninlaw(CMIAct(Vic)s18(3)(a);CriminalCode
(NT)s43X(3)(a)).
32
CMIAct(Vic),ss18(3)(b),(c);CriminalCode(NT),s43X(3)(c).
33
S19(1).
34
S19(2).Verdictsavailablearenotguilty,notguiltybyreasonofmentalillness,oronthelimitedevidence
available,theaccusedcommittedtheoffenceoranalternativeoffence(s22(1))
35
CLCAct(SA),s269NA(1).
36
CLCAct(SA),s269NA(2).
37
CLMIAAct(WA),ss33(2),(3).
38
CLMIAAct(WA),s27(1).
43
mentallyimpairedaccused)thereisnofurtherstatutoryrighttotheprovisionof
information.
12. ThiscanbecomparedwithlegislationinNSWlegislationwhichprovidesimportant
safeguardstoensureproceduralfairness,includingprovisionsthatapersonmustbelegally
representedatanymatterbeforetheMentalHealthReviewTribunal(MHRT)39andthat
anyonedeemedunfittostandtrialmustbelegallyrepresentedataspecialhearing.
Legislativeprovisionthatanaccusedmusthavelegalrepresentationataspecialhearingalso
existsintheAustralianCapitalTerritory(ACT).40
13. Furthermore,inNSWallmattersintheMHRTaretoberecorded41andanypersonwitha
matterbeforetheMHRT,ortheirrepresentative,isentitledtoinspectandhaveaccessto
anymedicalrecordsrelatingtotheperson.42InNSWtherearealsorightstoappealtothe
SupremeCourtagainstadeterminationoftheTribunalorthefailureorrefusalofthe
Tribunaltomakeadetermination.43
Finitetermsforcustodyorders(andreleaseorders)
14. Recommendation:Thedurationoftheordershouldbenolongerthanthedurationofthe
sentencethatwouldhavebeenimposediftheaccusedhadbeenconvictedoftheoffence.44
15. Amajorissueisthatinsomestatesandterritories,therearenofinitetermsforordersmade
forpeoplewithmentalimpairments.Forexample,custodyordersinWesternAustraliaare
indefiniteandamentallyimpairedaccusedcanonlybereleasedfromacustodyorderbyan
orderoftheGovernor.45Theeffectofacustodyorderisthatthementallyimpairedaccused
mustbedetainedinanauthorisedhospital,declaredplace,prisonordetentioncentre.46
39
Unlessovertheageof16anddoesnotwanttoberepresented(s154MHA).
S316(6).
41
S159MHA.
42
S156MHA.
43
S163MHA.
44
ThisrecommendationhasalsobeenmadebytheAustralianLawReformCommission:Proposal7–3:“State
andterritorylawsgoverningtheconsequencesofadeterminationthatapersonisunfittostandtrialshould
provideforlimitsontheperiodofdetention(forexample,byreferencetothemaximumperiodof
imprisonmentthatcouldhavebeenimposedifthepersonhadbeenconvicted)andforregularperiodicreview
ofdetentionorders.”AustralianLawReformCommission,‘AccesstoJustice’,Equality,CapacityandDisability
inCommonwealthLaws(AustralianLawReformCommission,No124)156,167,
<https://www.alrc.gov.au/sites/default/files/pdfs/publications/dp817._chapter_7_access_to_justice.pdf>.
45
IftheGovernormakesanorderforthereleaseofamentallyimpairedaccusedfromacustodyorder,the
Governormayreleasethepersonunconditionallyormakeareleaseorderwithconditions.SeeCLMIAAct
(WA),s35.
46
CLMIAAct(WA),s24.Untilrecentlytherewasno‘declaredplace’inWesternAustraliatoprovidean
alternativetoprisonforpeoplewithintellectualdisabilityorcognitiveimpairmentwhoarefoundunfitto
pleadtocriminalchargesandhavebeendeemedtobe'mentallyimpairedaccused'becauseoftheirdisability.
InAugust2015thefirstdeclaredplacetheBennettBrookDisabilityJusticeCentreopened.
40
44
16. Asaconsequencetherehavebeenanumberofhighprofilecasesofmentallyimpaired
accusedbeingdetainedinprisonformanyyearsandfarlongerthantheywouldhavespent
incustodyhadtheybeenconvictedoftheoffence.AsnotedbytheWesternAustralianChief
Justice,WayneMartin,theeffectisthat:
“lawyersdonotinvokethelegislationevenincasesinwhichitwouldbeappropriatebecauseof
theconcernthattheirclient,mightendupindetention,incustody,inprison,foralotlonger
47
periodthantheywouldiftheysimplypleadguiltytothechargebroughtbeforethecourt." 17. InVictoria,therearefinitetermsforcourtsecuretreatmentorderswhereanaccusedhas
beenfoundguiltythroughordinarytrialprocedures.48However,foranaccusedfoundunfit
tostandtrialorfoundnot-guiltybyreasonmentalimpairment,therearenofinitetermsfor
thesupervisionorderstowhichtheymaybesubject.Thisincludescustodialsupervision
orders.49Theparadoxicalresultisthattherearerightfullylimitsonthetimespentincustody
forthoseconvictedofcrimes,includingthosewhoarementallyimpaired,whilstthecurrent
legislationallowsforindefinitedetention,ofthosementallyimpairedaccusedwhoarenot
convictedinlawofanycrime.
18. IntheNorthernTerritory,custodialsupervisionordershavenoexpirydate.50Theonlyway
foranordertoceaseisiftheCourtacceptsexpertevidencethatthepersonsubjecttothe
orderisnolongeraseriousriskofharmtothecommunityorthemselves.51Theresultisthat
oncepeopleareputoncustodialsupervisionorders,thereisarealriskofbeingheld
indefinitely.52OurmemberorganisationCentralAustralianAboriginalLegalAidService
(CAALAS)andNorthAustralianAboriginalJusticeAgency(NAAJA)bothhaveclientswho
havebeendetainedonsupervisionordersforyearsbeyondthelikelylengthofsentence
theywouldhavereceivediftheywerefitornotmentallyimpairedatthetimeofoffending.
19. ThiscanbecomparedwithlegislationinSouthAustraliawhichexpresslyprovidesthatcourt
orderscannotexceedthatwhichwouldhavebeenimposediftheaccusedhadbeenfound
guiltyandsentencedfortheoffence.Inparticular,thelegislationprovidesthatinorderto
47
BronwynHerbert,‘Urgentreformneededinhowjusticesystemtreatspeoplewithmentalimpairment,says
ChiefJustice’ABCNews(10July2015).
48
Detentionpursuanttoacourtsecuretreatmentordercanonlybeimposedwhere,butforthepersonhaving
amentalillness,acourtwouldhavesentencedthepersontoatermofimprisonment:SentencingAct1991
(Vic),s94B(1)(a).Acourtsecuretreatmentorderisforafixedterm,anditsdurationmustbenolongerthan
theperiodofimprisonmentthatwouldhavebeenimposedhadtheordernotbeenmade:SentencingAct1991
(Vic),s94C(3).
49
SeeCIMAct(Vic),s27.Thecourthasthepowertovaryasupervisionorder,includingthepowertodirect
thatthematterbebroughtbackbeforethecourt(CIMAct(Vic),ss32(1),32(5),33(1)and33(5))morethan
once(CIMAct(Vic),ss32(6)and33(3).Sincethereisnolimittothenumberoftimesamattermaybebrought
backbeforethecourt,thereisnolimittotheeffectivelengthofasupervisionorder.
50
CriminalCode(NT),s43ZC.
51
CriminalCode(NT),ss43ZN(1)-(2),43ZJand43ZK.
52
SeeMindySotiri,PatrickMcGeeandEileenBaldry,NoEndinSight:TheImprisonment,andindefinite
detentionofIndigenousAustralianswithaCognitiveImpairment(September2012),66.
45
makeasupervisionorder,53thecourthastoseta“limitingterm”whichis“equivalenttothe
periodofimprisonmentorsupervision(ortheaggregateperiodofimprisonmentor
supervision)thatwould,inthecourt’sopinion,havebeenappropriateifthedefendanthad
beenconvictedoftheoffenceofwhichtheobjectiveelementshavebeenestablished.”54
Afterthelimitingterm,thesupervisionprocesslapses55andthepersonisreleasedintothe
communityunlessthereisasuperveningguardianshipormentalhealthorder.Thelawin
theACTalsoprovidesthattheSupremeCourtmustnotorderthatanaccusedbedetained
foraperiodgreaterthanthenominatedterm.56
Rightsofreview
20. Recommendation:Determinationsaboutreleaseofmentallyimpairedaccusedfromcustody
orcommunityreleaseordersshouldbemadebytherelevantboardwithanannualrightof
reviewbeforetheSupremeCourt.
21. Anotherissueisthelackofreviewavailableforcustodyorsupervisionorders.InWestern
AustraliawheredecisionsforreleasefromcustodyordersaremadebytheMentally
ImpairedAccusedReviewBoardorinthealternativetheGovernor-General,thereisnoright
ofrevieworappealaboutthemeritofdecisions.57InVictoriatherearesomerightsof
reviewunderthecurrentlegislationwhichallowsanewapplicationforthevariationofan
orderwithinthreeyearsoralesserperiodatthecourt’sdiscretion.However,threeyearsis
toofartoolongforaperiodicreviewprocess.
22. ThiscanbecomparedwiththeNorthernTerritorywherethereisarightofappealwiththe
reviewprocessbeingundertakenbytheSupremeCourtandwhereaccusedarelegally
represented.Thefirstmajorreviewisdeterminedaccordingtothenominalsentence,but
thereisscopeforannualreview.InNSWtherearealsorightstoappealtotheSupreme
CourtagainstadeterminationoftheTribunalorthefailureorrefusaloftheTribunalto
makeadetermination.58InSouthAustraliapersonssubjecttodetentionhaveannual
reviewsbypsychiatristsandthereareprovidedtothejudgewhosetthelimitingterm.
53
Pursuanttos269O(1)(b)(ii)or269O(b)(iii)oftheCLCAct(SA),asdiscussedinfootnote8.
CLCAct(SA),s269O(2).
55
CLCAct(SA),s260O(3).
56
CrimesAct1900(ACT)s301and302.
57
ForsupportofthispositionseecommentsbytheChiefJusticeofWesternAustralia,WayneMartin.ABC
News,'Urgentneed'forlawchangeasmentally-impairedaccuseddetainedindefinitely,WAChiefJustice
WayneMartinsays’10July2015.
58
MHA,s163.
54
46
8.IMPLEMENTINGANATIONALSTANDARDFORLEGISLATION
ProfessorPatrickKeyzer,ChairofLawandPublicPolicyandHeadofSchool,LaTrobeLawSchool
andDarrenO’Donovan,SeniorLecturerinLawatLaTrobeLawSchool
Keyissues:
● ProcessesarerequiredtoestablishlegislationwithinallStateandTerritoriesthatis
humanrightscompliant.
● Legalresearchershaveproposedproformalegislationwhichdemonstratesthatanational
approachtolegislativereformundertheleadershipoftheCommonwealthisan
achievableobjective.
1. TheSenateInquiryprovidesanexcellentopportunityforthestoriesofMarlonNoble,Rosie
AnnFultonandmanyotherindigenous(andnon-indigenous)Australianstobeheard.These
peoplehavelanguishedinprisonsforyearsbecausethereareaninsufficientnumberof
securecarefacilitiesavailableforpeoplewithcognitiveimpairmentinthecommunity.The
FederalParliamentnowhasawonderfulopportunitytoaddressthesignificanthumanrights
issuesraisedbytheAustralianHumanRightsCommissionintheirJuly2014reportonthis
topic.
2. Someofthewaysinwhichthechallengesinthisareacanbeaddressedmayalreadybe
known.InNovember2014,theLaTrobeUniversity“TransformingHumanSocieties”Group
supportedthe“LineintheSand”Conferenceinordertogeneratepossiblesolutionstothe
overrepresentationofindigenousAustralianswithcognitiveimpairmentinprison.The
conferencebroughttogethersixtyindigenousandnon-indigenousdisability,legaland
humanrightsadvocatesfromaroundthecountry,whowererecruitedonthebasisthatthey
havedirectexperienceworkingwithindigenouspeoplewithcognitiveimpairmentinthe
criminaljusticesystem.
3. Togeneratedatafromthisuniquegathering,afocusgrouptechniquecallednominalgroup
technique(NGT)wasused.InanNGTsession,participantsareaskedtoprovideresponses
toaparticularissueorquestion,pooltheirresponses,andthenasecretballotisconducted
tolistandrankresponsesinorderofimportance.Groupconsensusisreachedwithout
beinghamperedbyunevengroupdynamicsorpowerrelationships.NGTenablesthe
generationofdatathatisfreefromconfirmationbiasandalsoenablesthedevelopmentof
follow-upquestionnairesthathavecontentandconstructvalidity.
4. Conferenceparticipantswerefirstaskedtoidentifythesixmostsignificantchallengesfacing
indigenousAustralianswithcognitiveimpairmentwhocomeintocontactwiththecriminal
47
justicesystem.Thesechallenges,intheorderinwhichtheywererankedbythe
stakeholders,areasfollows:
i.Thereisalackofdistinctive,culturally-responsivesentencingandserviceoutcomesother
thanprisonforpeoplewithcognitiveimpairment:thereisaneedforsustainable,stable,
secure,individualised(non-congregate)culturally-responsiveaccommodation,community
supportsandtransitionaloptionsthatarespecificallyfunded,andstaffedbyindependent,
culturally-responsivecaseworkersforpeoplewithcognitiveimpairmentthatrecognisethe
effectofsystemsandagenciesandtheirinteractions,makesthemresponsive,andthat
adoptsystemiccaseandriskmanagementapproachesusingnon-punitive,therapeutic,least
restrictivepracticeframeworksthatleveragesupportfromfamiliesandotherrelevantsocial
services.
ii.Thereisaneedforearlyassessment,diagnosis,supportandintervention(includinginthe
juvenilejusticesystem)thatpreventscriminalizationandthatiscapableofidentifyingand
addressingrootcausesofoffending/anti-socialbehaviour.
iii.Thereisaneedfortargeted,uniform,human-rightsfocusedlawreformthat
acknowledgesindividualneeds,accommodatesbothsupportforpeoplewithcognitive
impairmentwithprotectionofthecommunitythataddressestheneedsfortestsofcapacity
tobenuanced,thatensurestermsarelimitedandregularlyreviewed,thatincorporatesa
complaintsmechanism,andensuresaccesstojusticeandproceduralfairnessareprovided.
iv.Thereisaneedforintegrated,long-termpoliticalwillandpublicsectorleadershipto
respondtothecrisisofoverrepresentationofindigenouspeoplewithcognitiveimpairment
inthecriminaljusticesystembybuildinganappropriateframeworkofresponsivepolicies,
administeredbyagenciesthatareaccountable.
v.Thereisaneedforidentificationandrecognitionofpeoplewithcognitiveimpairmentby
thejusticesystem(e.g.lawyers,police,corrections,guardians)thatacknowledgesindividual
differences(e.g.gender,language)anddiversityofsituations,conditionsandneeds.
vi.Thereisaneedtoraisepublicawarenessandknowledgeinthecommunity,withinand
acrossthecriminaljusticesystemandservicesystems(includingamongcorrections,among
lawyers),tobetterunderstandwhyandhowindigenouspeoplewithcognitiveimpairment
comeintocontactwiththecriminaljusticesystem.
5. ResearchersintheLaTrobeLawSchoolhavealsodevelopedDraftMinimumLegislative
StandardsfortheSenateInquirytoconsider,andarewelladvancedinadministeringa
nationalsurveywhichwillproduceadditionalusefuldatafortheInquiry.Thelegislation
couldbesupportedbyusingtheexternalaffairspower(s51(xxxix)oftheConstitution).
48
Proposeddraftlegislation:MentalImpairmentandCognitiveDisability
(TreatmentandSupport)Bill
Obligationtoprovideappropriateservices.AnidentifiedMinisterineveryStateorTerritory(‘the
Minister’)shallberesponsibleforensuringprovisionofreasonableaccesstoasecurecarefacility
orothersupportedaccommodationandcareandtreatmentforapersonaccusedofanoffencewho
isfoundunfittoplead(‘therelevantperson’)byanycourtofthatStateorTerritorybyreasonof
cognitivedisabilityormentalimpairment.Fortheavoidanceofdoubt,thisprovisionconfers
jurisdictiononeverycourtofaStateorTerritory,includingallinferiorandsuperiorcourts,to
determineforthesepurposesthatapersonisunfittopleadbyreasonofcognitivedisabilityor
mentalimpairment.
AssessmentofNeeds.EachStateandTerritorywillprovideadequateresourcesfortheprovisionof
expertreports,wherethisisrequired,inordertoassessthecognitivedisabilityand/ormental
impairmentoftherelevantpersonandtheirneeds(‘theassessment’).Anapplicationforan
assessmentcanbemadebytheCourtorbythelegalrepresentativeoftheaccusedperson.Afresh
assessmentmaybeundertakenwherethepreviousassessmentwasmademorethan12months
previouslyannually.
ObligationtodevelopandimplementServicePlan.TheMinisterhasanobligationtodevelopand
implementaserviceplan(‘theserviceplan’)whichmustprovidedetailedparticularsofwhat
measureswillbetakenandthetimeframeforaction,andanystepstheyhavealreadytaken,to
ensurethatthepersonhasreasonableaccesstoasecurecarefacilityorothersupported
accommodationandcareandtreatment.Takingassessmentsintoaccount,theserviceplanmust
detailhowtherelevantpersonwillhavereasonableaccesstolessandleastrestrictiveenvironments
overareasonableperiodoftime.AcourtofficerofthatcourtshallcausetherelevantMinisterfor
HealthoftheStateorTerritoryinwhichanaccusedpersonhasbeenchargedtobenotifiedof
makingoftheorderanditsreturndate,sothattheserviceplancanbepreparedandfurnishedto
thecourt.
Programmesandservicesforresidentsinsecurefacilitiesorthosesubjecttocommunitysupervision
aretobedesignedandadministeredsoastobesensitiveandresponsivetotheindividual’s
circumstancesandneeds.Theyshallinparticulartakeintoaccounttheirage,gender,spiritual
beliefs,culturalorlinguisticbackgroundandfamilyrelationships.
TheserviceplandevelopedbytheMinistershallalsoaddressthegoalsof:
a)
promotingtheindividual’sdevelopment;and
b)
providingfortheindividual’smanagement,care,supportandprotection;and
c)
supportingtheindividual’sreintegrationintothecommunity.
Circumstanceswhencustodialordercanbemade.AnAustraliancourtmustnotmakeacustodial
supervisionordercommittinganaccusedpersonfoundunfittopleadtocustodyinaprisonor
49
remandfacilityunlessitissatisfiedthatthereisnoreasonableorpracticable,lessrestrictive
alternative,inthecircumstances.TherelevantCourtshallensure:
a)
thatitsdecisionshouldtakeintoaccountnotonlytheadviceofaMinisterand/or
relevanthealthauthorities,butalsoindependentevaluationsbypersonsqualified
inriskassessmentofthefacilitiesorservicestheindividualrequires.
b)
thatitconsidersanylessrestrictiveoptionsavailablebeforemakingasupervision
orderandnotdeclaresomeoneliableforacustodialorderunlesssatisfiedonthe
evidencethatthepersonwouldbelikelytoseriouslyendangerthecommunityif
notdeclaredliabletosupervision.
Returndatewithinthreemonths,andannually.AnAustraliancourtthatmakesacustodial
supervisionordercommittinganaccusedpersonfoundunfittopleadtocustodyinaprisonor
remandcentremustsetareturndateforareviewoftheorderwithinthreemonthstoascertain
progressindevelopingandimplementingaserviceplan.Thecourtmustalsosetreturndatesfor
annualreviewsforthesamepurpose.
Inrecognitionoftheuniqueandabidingnatureofmentalimpairment,whichisdistinctfrommental
illness,thereshallbearebuttablestatutorypresumptionthatatreview,apersonshalltransitionto
alessrestrictiveorder.Thispresumptionisappliedtoensurethatthefocusofthereviewprocess
shallnotbemerelyuponthemanagementofrisk,butupontheobligationtoensurethattreatments
andsupportsremainappropriateandaretheleastrestrictivepossibleinallthecircumstances.
Allreportspreparedforthereviewhearingshallbeprovidedtoallpartiesatleast21dayspriorto
anyreviewhearing.
Reviewonapplication.Theguardianorlegalrepresentativeofarelevantpersoncommittedto
prisonorremandbyacourtmay,unlessasimilarapplicationhasbeenmadewithintheprevious3
months,makeanapplicationtothatcourt,ormayseekleavetohaveaspecialhearing,seeking
reviewoftheircontinueddetentiononthebasisthattheMinisterforHealthoftheStateorTerritory
inwhichtheaccusedpersonhasbeenchargedhasfailedtomeettheirobligationtoensurethatan
accusedpersonhasreasonableaccesstoasecurecarefacilityorothersupportedaccommodation
andcareandtreatment.TheMinistermaybeorderedtopaythereasonablecostsofsuch
applications.
Applicationsforleave.Bothcommunityandresidentialpatientsshallhavetherighttoapplyfora
leaveofabsencefromplaceofresidenceorotherrestrictiveconditionsoftheirorders.Aleave
applicationmaybemadewhereitpromotesgreaterparticipationinthecommunityandlifeskills.
Decisionsonleaveapplicationsaresubjecttotheguidingprinciplethattheleastrestrictiveapproach
totheindividual’slibertyshallbeadopted.Applicationsforleaveshallthereforebeapproved,
absenttheprospectofseriousendangermenttothecommunity,wheretheleaveperiodenablesthe
individualinquestion:
a)
toaccessmedicalservicesnototherwiseavailable;
b)
toattendcourt;
50
c)
toattendsignificantfamilyeventsandotherwisefurthersignificantfamilyand
othersocialandculturalrelationships;
d)
topreparetheindividualinquestionforreintegrationintothecommunityorto
transitiontoalowerleveloforder.
Inassessingapplicationsforleave,therelevantdecision-makershallrecogniseandrespectthe
distinctculture,historyandwayoflifeofindigenouspeoples,andshallensureleavedecisions
properlyrespecttheneedtopracticeculturaltraditions,relationshipsandcustoms.
Non-compliancewithcommunitysupervisionorders.Incircumstanceswhereanindividualfailsto
complywiththetermsoftheircommunitysupervisionorder,acourtshallalsohavetherightto
delayproceedingsinrelationtonon-compliance,wherethisisreasonableinordertoaffordthe
individualinquestionanopportunitytoresumecompliance.
RecognisingandClosingtheGapsintheCriminalJusticeSystem
6. Thisproposedlegislationaimstocombatthebureaucraticgapsthroughwhichindigenous
AustralianssuchasMarlonNobleandRosieAnnFultonhavepassed.Yetbeyondthedetails
oflegalwording,anystatutoryinterventionalsohastotriggerabroaderconversationabout
howsocialclassinteractswiththecriminaljusticesystem.AsBaldryetal59argue,prevailing
approachesseeindigenousyoungpeopleoftenbeingcharacterisedasbeing‘arisk’rather
thanbeing‘atrisk’.
7. Legislativereforminthisareamustensurethatengagementwiththeindividual’sspecific
circumstancesandcapabilitiesreplacesthebureaucraticdriftanddefaultscausedby
institutionalisedfailings,timeandresourcepressures.Thechangesproposedaboveare
motivatedbyadesiretoavoidthefalseisolationofcourtroomproceedingsfromthe
individuals’othercontactswithgovernmentservices–fromunstable,inappropriate
accommodationplacements,ahistoryofpooreducationalexperienceorhealthsupports.
8. Theissueofintellectualdisabilityandthecriminaljusticesystemcannotbedetachedfrom
broaderchallengesaroundtherecognitionofself-determinationortheneedforthe
NationalDisabilityInsuranceSchemetoallowindigenouspeoplestodesignflexible,
culturallyappropriate,community-basedservices.CommittingAustraliangovernmentsto
designingpathwaysbackhomeforthoseindigenouspeoplewhosecomplexsupportneeds
havenothistoricallybeenmet,canthusbeanimportantsteptopractical,notmerely,
symbolicrecognition.
59
EileenBaldry,RuthMcCausland,LeanneDowse&ElizabethMcEntyre,APredictableandPreventablePath:
Aboriginalpeoplewithmentalandcognitivedisabilitiesinthecriminaljusticesystem(UniversityofNewSouth
Wales,2015)<http://www.mhdcd.unsw.edu.au>
51
9.SUPPORTINGABORIGINALANDTORRESSTRAITISLANDER
PEOPLEWITHMENTALHEALTHCONDITIONSINCOURT
AssociateProfessorThaliaAnthony,FacultyofLawUniversityofTechnologySydney;andProfessor
ElenaMarchetti,SchoolofLawUniversityofWollongong
Keyissues:
● Communityinputinsentencingprocessesfacilitatesagreaterunderstandingofthe
culturalsocialfactorsthataffectanindividual’scase.
● Accesstoadequatesupportservicesduringthecourtprocessesarenotalwaysmade
availableatalllevelofcourts,particularlyforAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeople
withmentalhealthconditions.Thiscontributestounnecessaryincarceration.
● AssignatorytotheConventionoftheRightsofPersonswithDisabilities,Conventiononthe
EliminationofRacialDiscriminationandotherhumanrightsinstruments,the
Commonwealthhasaresponsibilitytosafeguardtherightsofanaccusedtosupport
servicesnecessaryfortheirdefence.
1. OftenIndigenouspeopleinprisonhave‘complexneeds’duetothecoexistenceofmultiple
mentalandcognitiveissues.60Thissubmissionaddressesthelimitationsofcurrentprocesses
andtheneedforculturallycompetentandcommunity-basedinputintothesentencing
hearinganddecisionsforIndigenouspeoplewithmentalhealthissues.Thisinformation
wouldbeequallyrelevantformentalhealthtribunalprocessesthatreviewthe
imprisonmentofpeoplewithpsychiatricillnesses.
2. WefocusonthefollowingtermsofreferenceinrelationtoIndigenousdefendants:
(h)accesstojusticeforpeoplewithcognitiveandpsychiatricimpairment,includingthe
availabilityofassistanceandadvocacysupportfordefendants;
(j)theavailabilityofpathwaysoutofthecriminaljusticesystemforindividualswithcognitive
andpsychiatricimpairment.
Needforsystemicunderstandingofmentalhealthissues
3. ForIndigenouspeople,mental(andphysical)healthissuesareoftenintimatelytiedto
intergenerationaltraumaflowingfromcolonialandpostcolonialpracticesandpolicies.61
Sherwoodstates,
60
EileenBaldryetal,APredictableandPreventablePath:Aboriginalpeoplewithmentalandcognitive
disabilitiesinthecriminaljusticesystem(UniversityofNewSouthWales,2015)19,
<http://www.mhdcd.unsw.edu.au>.
61
SeeJuanitaSherwood,‘Colonisation–it’sbadforyourhealth:thecontextofAboriginalhealth’(2013)46(1)
ContemporaryNurse28.
52
Thishasresultedinwell-beingco-morbiditiesthataredirectlylinkedtotraumaand
loss(mhfa,2008).Traumaisanormalandpredictableresponsetooverwhelming
distressresultingfromaneventwhichisleftuntreatedor,atworst,ignored.Itleads
tointergenerationalhopelessnessandunresolvedgrief(mhfa,2008,p.2).Reviewing
theevidence,itisclearthatithasnotbeenjustoneact;ithasbeenasustainedand
mercilessprocess.Acknowledgingthedeeplyetchedimpactthelast200+yearsof
colonisationhashadonthehealthandwell-beingofIndigenousAustralians,the
significanceofthisprocesscanbegintobeappreciated.62
4. Indigenoushealingandwell-being,accordingtohealthresearch,requiresstrengtheningof
culturalidentity.63Whenitcomestojusticeprocesses,culturalidentityisstrengthenedby
providingaccesstocommunity-basedservicesandlocalcommunityresourcessuchas
‘elders,culturalactivitiesandfamilies’.64Italsorequiresimprovinghousingconditions65and
buildingconnectionstoCountryforIndigenous,including,whererelevant,accessto
Indigenoushomelands.66Thehealingoftheindividualisintimatelylinkedtothehealingof
thecommunity67andrequiresself-determinationinthehealingprocess.68
Lackofjudicialrecognitionofsystemicfactorsincriminalsentencing
5. In2013theHighCourtofAustralia,initsdecisionofBugmy,69rejectedthesubmissionthat
Indigenoussystemicfactorsarerelevantsentencingconsiderations.TheseincludeoverimprisonmentofIndigenouspeople,over-representationofIndigenouschildrenremoved
fromtheirfamilies,socio-economicdisadvantage,poorhealthstatus,lackofaccesstohealth
services,institutionaldiscriminationandtherestraintsonself-governancewithinIndigenous
societiesduetocolonisation.
62
Ibid,36.
63
RHintonetal,‘DevelopingabestpracticepathwaytosupportimprovementsinIndigenous
Australians'mentalhealthandwell-being:aqualitativestudy’(2015)5(8),BMJOpen.
64
Ibid. 65
RSBailie,MStevensandELMcDonald,‘Impactofhousingimprovementandthesocio-physical
environmentonthementalhealthofchildren'scarers:acohortstudyinAustralianAboriginalcommunities’
(2014)14,BMCPublicHealth472.
66
CPBurgessetal,‘HealthyCountry:HealthyPeople?ExploringthehealthbenefitsofIndigenousnatural
resourcemanagement’(2005)29(2)AustralianandNewZealandJournalofPublicHealth,117;StephenT
Garnettetal,‘HealthyCountry,HealthyPeople:PolicyImplicationsofLinksbetweenIndigenousHumanHealth
andEnvironmentalConditioninTropicalAustralia’(2009)68(1)AustralianJournalofPublicAdministration,53;
ChristopherPBurgessetal,‘Healthycountry,healthypeople:therelationshipbetweenIndigenoushealth
statusand“caringforcountry”’(2009)190(10)MedicalJournalofAustralia567.
67
RWildandPAnderson,‘AmpeAkelyernemaneMekeMekarle‘LittleChildrenAreSacred’,Reportofthe
NorthernTerritoryBoardofInquiryintotheProtectionofAboriginalChildrenfromSexualAbuse’(Northern
TerritoryGovernment,2007)175.
68
DCox,MYoungandABairnsfather-Scott,‘NoJusticewithoutHealing:AustralianAboriginalPeopleand
FamilyViolence’(2009)30AustralianFeministLawJournal151.
69
(2013)249CLR571.
53
6. Thisjudicialoutcomedefiessubstantialevidence,emergingwiththeRoyalCommissioninto
AboriginalDeathsinCustody,thatsystemicfactorsarerelevanttothecollectiveand
individualcircumstancesoftheIndigenousoffender.70ForIndigenouspeoplewithcomplex
needs,theyareincreasinglybeing“managed”bypolice,courtsandprisonsduetoacritical
lackofappropriatecommunity-basedservicesandsupport.71Exacerbatingthistrendisthe
characterisationofindividualIndigenouspeoplewithcomplexneedsasahighriskthat
requirescontainmentinpenaldetention.Suchcharacterisationneglectsthecontributionof
systemicfactorstotheirconditionandoffending,theroleofthecriminaljusticesystemin
reproducinganotionofanIndigenouscrimeproblem,andtheroleofcommunityinassisting
Indigenouspeoples’healingandrehabilitation.
Needforcommunityinputinsentencingprocesses
7. ThesimilarsituationinCanadainrelationtotheimprisonmentofFirstNationspeople,
includingoverwhelminglywithmentalhealthissues,precipitatedanamendmenttothe
CanadianCriminalCodethatrequiredthatsentencingcourtsaccountfortheunique
circumstancesfacingFirstNationsdefendants.Thisledtotheintroductionofreports,known
asGladueReports,producedbyAboriginalorganisationsonthecircumstancesofthe
offenderandhis/hercommunity,includingastheyaffectmentalhealth.Theyaddress
communityprogramsandfamilysupportstructuresforoffenderswithawidespectrumof
needs,includingrelatingtoFASD,post-traumaticstress,addictionissues,anxietyand
depression.Thesereportsaresubmittedtothecourtpriortosentencingandconstitutean
importantconsiderationinthesentencingoutcome.Theyhelppromotenon-prison
outcomes.Thecommunitycaseworkerpreparingthereportalsohasresponsibilityin
followinguptheoffender,assistingcomplianceofordersandfacilitatingaccessto
communityprogramsandotherservices.
8. AcrossAustralia,withexceptionsinsomecourtsinQueenslandandtheNorthernTerritory,
pre-sentencereportsdonotgenerallyincludetheperspectivesofIndigenouscommunity
organisations,respectedpersonsorElders.TheyareproducedbyCorrectiveServicesstaff
foroffenderswhoarelikelytofaceaprisonsentence.Toaddressthisshortcoming,
IndigenousLawandJusticeGroupsintheNorthernTerritoryandCommunityJusticeGroups
inQueenslandhaveendeavouredtosupplementtheinformationwithcommunityreports.
Theirreportscanexplaintheconnectionsbetweentheoffender’smentalhealthand
wellbeingtosystemicandcommunityfactors,aswellasopportunitiesforhealingand
supportinthecommunity.InformationisalsoprovidedthroughAboriginalfieldofficers,
70
RichardEdney,‘ImprisonmentasaLastResortforIndigenousOffenders:SomeLessonsfromCanada?’
(2005)6(12)IndigenousLawBulletin23,23.
71
Baldryetal,aboven48,19.Seealso,EileenBaldry,LeanneDowseandMelissaClarence,‘Peoplewith
mentalandcognitivedisabilities:pathwaysintoprison’(BackgroundPaperfortheNationalLegalAid
ConferenceDarwin,2011)16.
54
employedbyAboriginalLegalServices.Whiletheyonlyoccasionallyprovideinformationto
courts,duetolimitedresources,theycancriticallyaffectsentencingoutcomes.
9. AnothercourtinitiativethatgoessomewayinallowingIndigenouscommunityinputina
sentencehearingoccursincourtsitesthatofferIndigenoussentencingcourts.Thesecourts
werefirstestablishedin1999inPortAdelaide,SouthAustralia,andsincethenhavebeen
operatingineveryjurisdictionasidefromTasmaniainsomeformoranother.Indigenous
sentencingcourtsinvolveonetofourEldersorCommunityRepresentativessittingwiththe
magistrate(orotherjudicialofficer,wherethecourtsoperateathigherlevels)inthe
sentencingprocess,wherebytheyhavetheopportunitytoparticipateinafrankdiscussion
withtheoffenderabouttheiroffendingbehaviour.Notonlydoesthisprocessbetterengage
theoffenderinthesentencingprocess,makingthemmorelikelytounderstandandaccept
thepenaltiesimposed,andtoleavecourtwithanimprovedperceptionofjustice,72italso
providesthecourtwithinformationaboutanoffender’srehabilitationneedsasaresultof
theinputofEldersandCommunityRepresentativeswhoknowtheoffenderandhis
community.Indeed,inanevaluationoftheCountyKooriCourtinVictoria,alegal
practitionerwhoseclienthadanintellectualimpairmentthatwasdiagnosedasaresultof
theIndigenoussentencingcourtprocessmadethefollowingcomments:
Thethingthatblewmeawaythemostwasthatthisclienthadanintellectual
disability,hewas[ayoungman],andhehadbeendiagnosedfive(5)yearsbefore
butnoneofthatinformationhadcomethroughtome,andnoneofthatinformation
hadactuallybeenrecordedwithinthesystem.SotheJudgedidn’tknow,Ididn’t
know,nobodyknewaboutit,exceptCorrections.Butwhathadhappenedwasthe
Judgesaid‘Iwanthimassessed’,thentheycamebackandsaid‘Ohhehasan
intellectualdisability’,fromthispassingcommentintheirreport,andthenweall
went,“What?!”AndthethingthatIlikedaboutthissystemwasthatassoonasthis
issuewasidentifiedtheJudge,myselfandtheclientthensatdownandstarted
discussingwheretogowithit.Becauseallofasuddentheballgamechangesdoesn’t
it?Imeanhere’sakidwithanintellectualdisabilitysoheneedstobedealtwith
quitedifferentlytoanordinarypunterwho’scommittingoffences.TheJudgecame
backdownandsaid‘Iunderstandhowangryandfrustratedyouareaboutnot
findingoutaboutthisinformation,Iamtoo’.Sowecameupwithaformula
togethertosentencehim,andIreckonthiswholethingwouldneverhavehappened
inanordinarycourt,wewouldneverhavebeenabletogettheinformationout,
whichiswhymyoneexperienceintheCountyKooriCourthasreallyhighlightedhow
theordinarysystemissoinconclusiveinthatitdoesn’tallowinformationtocome
out.Butbyhavingthisdiscussion,averyrelevantpieceofinformationcameout
whichisgoingtoaffectthiskidfortherestofhislife.Butnooneknewaboutit,not
hismum,no-one,andforfive(5)yearsnothingwasbeingdoneforhim,hewas
72
EMarchetti,‘AnAustralianIndigenous-FocusedJusticeResponsetoIntimatePartnerViolence:Offenders'
PerceptionsoftheSentencingProcess’(2015)55(1)BritishJournalofCriminology86.
55
committingseriousoffences;andhehadanintellectualdisability,anditwasthis
systemthatfounditout.73
10. WesuggestthatasimilarprovisiontothatintheCriminalCodeinCanada,enacted
uniformlythroughCOAG,wouldhelppreventunnecessaryprisondetentionforIndigenous
peoplewithmentalillness.Crucially,thisshouldbesupplementedwithsupportfora
communitypre-sentencereportingstrategy,supportforfieldofficerstoprovidein-court
statementsonrelevantIndigenouscommunityconditions,andIndigenoussentencing
courts.
11. Ultimately,aholisticapproachisneededtodecarcerateIndigenouspeoplewithmental
illnessesfromprison.ThisrequiresappropriateservicesandprogramsforIndigenouspeople
withmentalhealthissuesand,importantly,addressingsystemicissuesincludinginstitutional
discrimination(egintheover-policingIndigenouspeopleonstreets;disproportionately
removingIndigenouschildrenfromfamiliesratherthansupportingfamilies),socio-economic
disadvantageandprovidingsubstantiveaccesstoearly-interventionservices74aswellas
adequatelyresourcedcommunity-basedsanctionsintheformofrehabilitativeprograms
andservices(suchasdrug,alcoholormentalservices).Thereisalsoaneedforgreater
specialisedsentenceoptionsthataccommodatetheintersectionsofIndigenousbackground
andgenderand/ormental,cognitiveorphysicalimpairment.Forexample,servicesthat
accommodateIndigenouswomen’scircumstancesofongoingvictimizationtofamily
violence;thetraumaticeffectsofremovalofIndigenouswomen’sownchildren;and/ortheir
‘complexneeds’whereacognitivedisabilitycoexistswithamentalhealthand/oraddiction
issueand/orotherdisorder.75
73
ZDawkinsetal,CountyKooriCourt:FinalEvaluationReport(CountyCourtofVictoriaandtheVictorian
DepartmentofJustice,2011),29.
74
Hinton,aboven63.
75
SeeJuanitaSherwoodandSachaKendall,‘Reframingspacesbybuildingrelationships:Community
collaborativeparticipatoryactionresearchwithAboriginalmothersinprison’(2013)46(1)Contemporary
Nurse83;Baldryetal,aboven48.
56
10.SUPPORTEDTRANSITIONFROMPRISONTOCOMMUNITY
DrMeganWilliams,SeniorResearchFellow,UniversityofWesternSydney
Keyissues:
● AssessmentofneedsinmakingtransitionfromprisontoCommunityarenotalways
culturallyrelevantnorsuitedtothecomplexneedsofpeoplewithcognitiveimpairment.
Thiscontributestorecidivism.
● Modelsofthroughcare,withintegratedandtailoredservices,areaneffectivemeansfor
supportingpeoplewithcomplexneedspost-release,althoughjurisdictionalcommitment
tothethroughcareconceptissporadic.
● Specificactionisrequiredtointegratestateandterritorybasedpost-releaseprograms
withtheNationalDisabilityInsuranceSchemebasedonthedesirablefeaturesofthe
throughcaremodel.
1. WhileratesofincarcerationofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeopleareamongthe
highestintheworld,thesebelieanevengreaterproblem:thatwhenreleased,amajority
(77%)facethelikelihoodofbeingreincarcerated,oftenmultipletimes.76Thisisnotto
suggestthatpeopleshouldnotbereleasedonthebasisoffailingatcommunity
reintegration.Rather,highrecidivismrateshighlighttheurgentneedtoaddressunderlying
factorsandmakeavailablemoresupportservices.Thefollowingpagesoutlineimportant
featuresofrecidivismpreventionandpost-prisonreleasecareinculturallysensitivewaysfor
andbyAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeople.
Assessment
2. Beginningattheirentryintocustody,allpeoplearetoundergoassessmentstoascertainthe
needsandissuesthatarelikelytoimpactontheirtransitionfromprisontocommunitylife
andposerisksforreoffendingandreincarceration.Theassessmentsareintendedtobring
aboutanactionplanforrehabilitationaswellasrelease-planning.
3. However,reoffendingriskassessmenttoolshaveoftenbeenquestionedfortheircultural
relevancetoAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeople,77ashaveotherassessmenttools78
76
AustralianBureauofStatistics,PrisonersinAustraliaCatno.4517.0
<http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mf/4517.0>
77
RJonesetal,‘CulturallyrelevantassessmentofIndigenousoffenders:Aliteraturereview’(2002)37(3)
Australianpsychologist197;ESavinaandMWilliams,ReducingIndigenousImprisonmentForumreport(2009),
ANTaR&theBridgeNetwork.
78
MYoungetal,‘SF-36:notthetooltomonitorthehealthofsubpopulationswithintheQueenslandwomen's
prisonsystem’(2005)29(5)AustralianandNewZealandJournalofPublicHealth487.
57
becausetheyarenotderivedfromtheholisticnotionofindigenouspeople’shealthand
healing79,prioritisationofneeds80norregardforthecomplexityofissuesexperienced.81
Few,ifany,prisonassessmentsandreleaseplanningtoolsarerelevanttothelivesof
AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplegenerally,northoseinprisonwithcognitiveand
psychiatricdisabilities.
Rehabilitation
4. In-prisonrehabilitationprogramsandprogramsthatpreparepeopleforlifeafterprisonare
insufficientlydesignedtotakeintoaccounttheneedsofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander
people,orculturalprotocols,processesandknowledges.82Programsrarelyaddressunique
needsofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeopleincludinganger,forcibleremovalasa
childandintergenerationaltrauma,83nordotheyaddressfactorscontributingto
incarcerationincludingmarginalisedsocialandeconomicposition.Onedecades-oldstudy
did,however,findthatAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeople’spost-release
participationinwork-releaseprograms,financialsupportandemploymentuponrelease
wereassociatedwithlowerrecidivism84–addressingsomeofthedeterminantsofboth
crimeandhealth.
Legislatedandpolicyimpetustoprovidethroughcare
5. Onerelativelyrecentshiftincorrectionalprogramminghasbeentheintroductionof
‘throughcare’programs,conceptualisedasthecontinuousprovisionofsupportbothin
79
MSheldon,‘PsychiatricassessmentinremoteAboriginalcommunities’(2001)35(4)AustralianandNew
ZealandJournalofPsychiatry435;LMuller,AtheoryforIndigenousAustralianhealthandhumanservicework:
ConnectingIndigenousknowledgeandpractice(Allen&Unwin,2014).
80
JPerkinsetal,‘Thedevelopmentofanewmethodologytoassessperceivedneedsamongindigenous
Australians’(1995)41(2)SocialScience&Medicine267.
81
CMSchlesingeretal,‘ThedevelopmentandvalidationoftheIndigenousRiskImpactScreen(IRIS):A13itemscreeninginstrumentforalcoholanddrugandmentalhealthrisk’(2007)26(2)DrugandAlcoholReview
109.
82
JAnaya,ReportbytheSpecialRapporteuronthesituationofhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedomsof
indigenouspeople,15thsess,UNDocA/HRC/15/37/Add.4(1June2010);EBaldry,‘Prisonsandvulnerable
persons:Institutionsandpatriarchy’(ConferencepaperpresentedattheAustralianandNewZealandCritical
CriminologyConference,Melbourne,2009);CCunneen,‘Criminology,criminaljusticeandIndigenouspeople:
Adysfunctionalrelationship?’(2009)20(3)CurrentIssuesinCriminalJustice323;EJohnston,Reportofthe
RoyalCommissionintoAboriginalDeathsinCustody(AustralianGovernmentPublishingService,1991).
83
ADayetal,‘ThemeaningofangerforAustralianAboriginaloffenders:Thesignificanceofcontext’(2006)
50(5)InternationalJournalofOffenderTherapyandComparativeCriminology520;Jonesetal,aboven62;D
Goulding,Severedconnections:Anexplorationoftheimpactofimprisonmentonwomen'sfamilialandsocial
connectedness(CentreforSocialandCommunityResearch,MurdochUniversity,2004);PMalsetal,‘Adapting
violentrehabilitationprogramsfortheAustralianAboriginaloffender’(2000)30(1)JournalofOffender
Rehabilitation121;BSteelsandDGoulding,‘Whenit'saquestionofsocialhealthandwellbeing,theansweris
notprison’(2009)7(12)IndigenousLawBulletin15.
84
RGBroadhurstetal,‘AboriginalandnonaboriginalrecidivisminWesternAustralia:Afailurerateanalysis’
(1988)25(1)JournalofResearchinCrimeandDelinquency83.
58
custodyandafterreleaseintothecommunity,includingplanningforprisonrelease,and
supervisionorsupportpost-release.85
6. Fordecadesinternationalhumanrightsinstrumentshaveassertedtheneedforthroughcare,
statingthatprisonershavetherighttorehabilitationappropriatetotheirageandlegal
status,andwithrespectfortheirdignity86fromthebeginningoftheirsentence.Such
rehabilitationincludeshealthcare,specialattentiontoimproverelationshipswithfamily
andcommunity,preparationforworklife,educationintegratedwiththecommunity,
culturalactivitiesandcoordinatedafter-care.Thesebuildonthe1955UNMinimumRules
fortheTreatmentofPrisonersstatements,whichassertthatpost-prisonreleaseaftercare
shouldbeconsideredfromtheoutsetofpeople’sincarceration.87
7. Recommendedfeaturesofthroughcareforthelocalcontextinclude‘floatingcare’with
integratedandtailoredservices,asinglecasemanagerwhoactsasanintensivesupport
personandaleadagencybrokeringappropriateservicesbeforerelease,andpostrelease
wasfoundhighlydesirable.88Baldryetal89foundthatthoseprisonerswhoreceivedpostreleasesupportinadditiontoaccommodationweresignificantlylesslikelytoreturnto
prison,with24%ofthoseincontactwithaservicereturningtocustodycomparedto45%
whodidnotreceivespecialistaccommodationsupport.
8. ‘Front-loading’ofclient-centredservicesisrecommendedinthefirsthours,days,andweeks
afterrelease90,supportingthe“’person-in-context’”91andbasedondischargeplanning.92In
addition,WinnungaNimmityjahAboriginalHealthService’s93throughcaremodel
85
CJardineandBWhyte,‘Valuingdesistence?ASocialReturnonInvestmentcasestudyofathroughcare
projectforshort-termprisoners’(2013)33(1)SocialandEnvironmentalAccountabilityJournal20;SRoss,
Bridgingthegap:AsupportprogramforVictorianprisoners:Finalevaluationreport(MelbourneCriminology
ResearchandEvaluationUnit,UniversityofMelbourne,2013);MMaguireandPRaynor,‘Howdoesthe
resettlementofprisonerspromotedesistancefromcrime:Ordoesit?’(2006)6(1)CriminologyandCriminal
Justice9.
86
InternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights;InternationalCovenantonEconomic,Social,andCultural
Rights.
87
Standardminimumrulesforthetreatmentofprisoners(UnitedNations,OfficeoftheHighCommissioner,30
August1955)<http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/TreatmentOfPrisoners.aspx>
88
MBorzyckiandEBaldry,‘Promotingintegration:Theprovisionofprisonerspost-releaseservices’in
AustralianInstituteofCriminology,TrendsandIssuesinCriminalJusticeNo.262(AustralianInstituteof
Criminology,2003);EBaldry,DMcConnell,PMaplestoneandMPeeters,Ex-prisonersandaccommodation:
Whatbearingdodifferentformsofhousinghaveonsocialreintegration?(AustralianHousingandUrban
ResearchInstitute,2003).
89
Baldryetal,aboven73.
90
BRichie,NFreudenbergandJPage,‘Reintegratingwomenleavingjailintourbancommunities:Adescription
ofamodelprogram’(2001)78(2)JournalofUrbanHealth:BulletinoftheNewYorkAcademyofMedicine290.
91
AJShinkfield,Athree-partecologicalmodelofcommunityreintegrationofex-prisoners(Doctoral
dissertation,2006)246.
92
CVisherandKMallik-Kane,‘Reentryexperiencesofmenwithhealthproblems’inR.Greifinger(ed),Public
healthbehindbars:Fromprisonstocommunities(Springer,2007)434-60.
93
NPoroch,Youdothecrime,youdothetime,WinnungaNimmityjahAboriginalHealthService,2007).
59
incorporateshealthandspiritualcareandfamily-basedandlessformalcommunity-based
strategiessuchaslocalsportingclubs,andtheAboriginalMedicalServiceofWesternSydney
providedintegratedprimaryhealthcare.94
9. On-the-groundserviceshavebeendescribedasoftenactiveandinnovativeintheir
responses.95Theyhaveexpertisein“developingcommunity-basedsolutions”96particularly
becausethey“provideaccesstoresourcesthatpromotereintegration”97informallyinthe
community,inadditiontoformalinterventions.
Barrierstothroughcare
10. Mostjurisdictionshavemadeonlyarelativelyrecentcommitmenttothroughcare.
AdministrativedatafromQueenslandindicatedonly7%ofQueenslandprisonershadaccess
tothroughcareandnumbersofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeopleparticipating
wereevensmaller.98Preparationfortransitionfromprisonisgenerallylacking99and
arguablymoresoamongAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeople,particularlythosewith
complexneedssuchascognitiveandpsychiatricdisabilities.
11. Aformativeevaluationofthreepost-prisonreleasesupportservicesforAboriginalwomen
foundmultiplesystemandorganisational-levelbarrierstothroughcare,beyondthe
individualresponsibilityandpowerofwomenexitingcustody.100
12. Throughcaremodelsdependalmostentirelyonbrokerageofservicesinthecommunityfor
supportofpeople,101ratherthantheprovisionofsupportassuch.Fromthe1950sto1970s
94
DDelaney-ThieleandJLloyd,SPRINTqualitativefindings(Presentationnotes,2013)
<http://files.aphcri.anu.edu.au/resources/lectures-presentations/conversationsaphcri/SPRINT%20findings%20-%20SPRINT%20TEAM%20-%2017%20Sept%202013.pdf>;MHaswelletal,
Returninghome,backtocommunityfromcustodialcare:Learningsfromthefirstyearpilotprojectevaluation
ofthreesitesaroundAustralia(Manuscriptsubmittedforpublication,2014).
95
Project10%,SubmissiontoQueenslandGovernment-ReducingincarcerationratesinQueensland:Athree
yearplan(Project10%,2010).
96
ASKrieg,‘Aboriginalincarceration:Healthandsocialimpacts’(2006)184(10)MedicalJournalofAustralia
534.
97
CRobbins,SMartinandHSurratt,‘Substanceabusetreatment,anticipatedmaternalroles,andreentry
successofdrug-involvedwomenprisoners’(2009)55(3)Crime&Delinquency388.
98
LRobsonandAEugene,‘TheOffenderReintegrationSupportService:Supportingthroughcarewitheffective
partnershipsbetweenthegovernmentandNGOsector’(conferencepresentation,ReintegrationPuzzle
Conference,Melbourne,June2008).
99
PJSchrametal,‘Supervisionstrategiesandapproachesforfemaleparolees:Examiningthelinkbetween
unmetneedsandparoleoutcome’(2006)52(3)Crime&Delinquency450;RPSeiterandKRKadela,‘Prisoner
reentry:Whatworks,whatdoesnot,andwhatispromising’(2003)49(3)Crime&Delinquency360;BSteels,
Declaredguilty:Anever-endingstory:Ananalysisoftheimpactofthecriminaljusticesystemupontheself
(Doctoraldissertation,2005)
<http://catalogue.curtin.edu.au/primo_library/libweb/action/search.do?vid=CUR_ALMA>
100
Haswelletal,aboven79.
101
RobsonandEugene,aboven83.
60
aprisonerwasthoughttobecloselyassistedwithre-entryplansandwasoftenreleasedtoa
halfwayhousewithacaseworker,volunteersupportandcarefulcommunitysupervision.102
However,comparativelyfewpart-timetransitionaryreleaseprogramsorhalfwayhousesare
nowavailable,comparedwiththenumbersofoftenthesamepeopleenteringandexiting
prisons.103Overthepastfewdecadesaweakeningandreductioninavailabilityofpostreleasesupportprogramshasoccurred.104
13. AlargeUSstudyof7000inmatesreleasedfromFloridaprisonsfoundthatanyvisitsfrom
familyandfriendswereassociatedwithalowerlikelihoodofrecidivismovertwoyears.105
OntheonehandlegislationinAustraliaisveryclearaboutmaintaininganddeveloping
familyrelationshipswhilstamemberisincustody,howeverinrealitytherearemany
barriers.106
Multipledifficultiesinthetransitionfromprisontocommunity
14. Muchresearchdemonstratesthatpeoplehavecomplexneedsandthattheyexperience
challengingobstacleswhentheyexitprison.Theyfacemanyofthesameproblems,or
worse,thatmayhaveledtoincarcerationinthefirstplace.107Peopleexitingcustodyalso
facetherealitythattheirfamiliesandcommunitieshavechangedwhiletheywereaway108
andaredamagedasaresultoftheirmember’sabsencewhileincarcerated.109
15. Datashowthatmortalityratespost-releaseamongAboriginalpeopleareamongthehighest
reportedintheworld110andhealthandwellbeingdeclinepost-prisonrelease.111
102
SeiterandKadela,aboven84.
103
JPetersilia,Whenprisonerscomeshome:Paroleandprisonerreentry(OxfordUniversityPress,2003);Seiter
andKadela,aboven84.
104
JTravis,Buttheyallcomeback:Rethinkingprisonerre-entry(SentencingandCorrections,NationalInstitute
ofJustice,USDepartmentofJustice,2000).
105
ASolomonetal,Understandingthechallengesofprisonerreentry:ResearchfindingsfromtheUrban
Institute’sPrisonerReentryPortfolio(WashingtonDC,2006).
106
MAlexander,DMartinandMWilliams,ReportonQueenslandCorrectionalCentres(PrisonersLegalService
andCatholicPrisonMinistry,2011);Haswelletal,aboven79.
107
Baldry,aboven67;Goulding,aboven68;Johnston,aboven67;SMaruna,Makinggood:Howex-convicts
reformandrebuildtheirlives(AmericanPsychologicalAssociation,2001);SRose,BBurdekinandRJenkin,
Humanrightsandmentalillness:ReportoftheNationalInquiryintotheHumanRightsofPeoplewithMental
Illness(HumanRightsandEqualOpportunitiesCommission,1993);TWalsh,InCorrections:Investigatingprison
releasepracticeandpolicyinQueenslandanditsimpactoncommunitysafety(QueenslandUniversityof
Technology,2004).
108
CUggen,JManzaandABehrens,‘Lessthantheaveragecitizen’:Stigma,roletransitionandthecivic
reintegrationofconvictedfelons’inSMaruna&RImmarigeon(eds),Aftercrimeandpunishment:pathwaysto
ex-offenderreintegration(WillanBooks,2004)261.
109
SteelsandGoulding,aboven68.
110
SDarkeetal,‘Heroin-relateddeathsinNewSouthWales,Australia,1992–1996’(2000)60(2)Drugand
AlcoholDependence141;AGraham,‘Post-prisonMortality:UnnaturalDeathAmongPeopleReleasedfrom
VictorianPrisonsBetweenJanuary1990andDecember1999’(2003)36(1)AustralianandNewZealandJournal
ofCriminology94;CMcGregoretal,‘AccidentalfatalitiesamongheroinusersinSouthAustralia,1994-1997:
61
16. Individualsarethoughttoenteralongaprocessofde-institutionalisation,112needing
“recommunalisation”,113recoveryandhealingfromthetraumaofincarcerationandremoval
fromsocial,culturalandeconomiclife.114Peoplewhohavebeenincarceratedhavebeen
describedasexperiencinghostility,isolationandworry,aswellashopeforthefuture,115
albeitsometimesunrealisticallygiventheobstaclestheyhavetocontendwith.116Stigma
associatedwithbeinganex-prisonerhasbeendescribedaspotentiallylastingalifetime,
resultinginpeoplebeingfurtherestrangedfromfamiliesandneighbourhoods,andlimiting
employment,housingandcommunityparticipationopportunities.117
17. Itisobvioustoothatthereisaneedforgreatereffortfosteringrelationshipsbetween
correctionalhealthservicesandcommunityorganisations,forcontinuityofcareovertime118
andopportunitiestoconnectwithfamilyandcommunity.119
18. Theimportantpointhereisthatregardlessofaperson’sengagementincrime,orcognitive
andpsychiatricdiagnosesandexperiences,“itisnotthatex-offendersshouldbeleftalone
togetonwiththebusinessofself-change”.120
19. WillisandMoore’s121qualitativeresearchamongAboriginalpeoplepost-prisonrelease
foundthat:
Toxicologicalfindingsandcircumstancesofdeath’(2002)10(4)AddictionResearchandTheory335;LStewart
etal,‘Riskofdeathinprisonersafterreleasefromjail’(2004)28(1)AustralianandNewZealandJournalof
PublicHealth32.
111
SAKinner,ThePost-releaseexperienceofprisonersinQueensland(AustralianInstituteofCriminology,
2006);MBorzycki,Interventionsforprisonersreturningtothecommunity(AustralianInstituteofCriminology,
2005);Graham,aboven95.
112
KEllem,JWilsonandWHChui,‘Effectiveresponsestooffenderswithintellectualdisabilities:Generalist
andspecialistservicesworkingtogether’(2011)65(3)AustralianSocialWork398.
113
Steels,aboven84.
114
NMorseu-Diop,Healinginjustice:AninternationalstudyofIndigenouspeoples’custodialexperiencesof
prisonrehabilitationprogramsandtheimpactontheirjourneyfromprisontocommunity(Doctoral
dissertation,2010)<http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:210170>
115
TClearetal,‘Coercivemobilityandcrime:Apreliminaryexaminationofconcentratedincarcerationand
socialdisorganization’(2005)20(1)JusticeQuarterly33;AHochstetler,MDeLisiandTCPratt,‘Socialsupport
andfeelingsofhostilityamongreleasedinmates’(2010)56(4)CrimeandDelinquency588.
116
RBurnett,‘Toreoffendornottoreoffend?Theambivalenceofconvictedpropertyoffenders’inSMaruna
andRImmarigeon(eds),Aftercrimepunishment:Pathwaystooffenderreintegration(WillanPublishing,2004).
117
Petersilia,aboven88;Steels,aboven84;SteelsandGoulding,aboven68;Uggenetal,aboven93.
118
Baldryetal,aboven73;BorzyckiandBaldry,aboven73,EOgilvie,Post-release:Thecurrentpredicament
andthepotentialstrategies(AustralianInstituteofCriminology,2001);Visher,aboven77.
119
MBorzycki,Interventionsforprisonersreturningtothecommunity(AustralianInstituteofCriminology,
2005);JBurrowsetal,Thenatureandeffectivenessofdrugsthroughcareforreleasedprisoners(HomeOffice
Research,DevelopmentandStatisticsDirectorate,2000).
120
SMaruna,RImmarigeonandTLeBel,‘Ex-offenderreintegration:Theoryandpractice’inSMaruna&R
Immarigeon(eds),Aftercrimeandpunishment:Pathwaystoex-offenderreintegration(WillanBooks,2004)2,
16.
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Respondentsacknowledgedthattostoptheirownviolentbehaviour,changesneededto
occurwithinthefamilyunitandwithinthecommunityatlarge.Whenaskedhowtoimprove
suchprograms,oneprisonerfromSouthAustraliasaid:
‘Wegobacktoourfamiliesandweneedtotaketheinformationbacktothe
communitytobreakthecycleofviolence.Weneedthemtostopviolencetoo.’
20. Itisarguablyalsotheresponsibilityofcommunitymembers,particularlyfamiliesandservice
providers,tocreatemoreinclusivecommunitiesandshareresourceswithpeoplewhohave
beenconvictedandsentencedforacrime,then‘donetheirtime’toalsoincludecivic
participationanddevelopmentofsocialcapital.122BazemoreandErbe123believethat
opportunitiesinthecommunitytobuildthesesociallysupportiverelationships,however,
arealmostentirelymissingfromcurrentpolicyandpracticeabouttransitionsfromprison
andpreventingreincarceration.
21. QualityevidenceisincreasinglyavailableaboutAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeople’s
community-drivencollectivehealingprograms,indicatingthatsuchprogramsarecosteffectiveandhaveanimportantroleinreducingincarcerationrates.124
121
MWillisandJPMoore,ReintegrationofIndigenousprisoners(ResearchandPublicPolicySeriesNo.90)
(AustralianInstituteofCriminology,2008)88.
122
SFarrall,‘Socialcapitalandoffenderreintegration:Makingprobationdesistancefocussed’inSMaruna&R
Immarigeon(eds),AfterCrimeandPunishment:PathwaystoOffenderReintegration(WillanBooks,2004)57;
Maruna,aboven92;Marunaetal,aboven105;FTaxman,DYoungandABehrens,‘Witheyeswideopen:
Formalizingcommunityandsocialcontrolinterventioninoffenderreintegrationprogrammes’inSMarunaand
RImmarigeon(eds),Aftercrimeandpunishment:Pathwaystoex-offenderreintegration(WillanBooks,2004)
233.
123
GBazemoreandCErbe,‘Operationalizingthecommunityvariableinoffenderreintegration:theoryand
practicefordevelopinginterventionsocialcapital’(2003)1(3)YouthViolenceandJuvenileJustice246.
124
AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderHealingFoundation,Prospectivecostbenefitanalysisofhealingcentres
(AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderHealingFoundation,2014)<http://healingfoundation.org.au/ourpublications/?category_name=reports>;MWhitesideetal,PromotingAboriginalhealth:TheFamilyWellbeing
empowermentapproach(Springer,2014).
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11.TRANSLATIONOFEVIDENCEINTOPOLICY
ScottAvery,PolicyandResearchDirector
Keyissues:
● UnderstandingtheissuesaffectingAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplewith
cognitiveandmentalhealthimpairmentrequiresamulti-disciplinaryapproach.
● AsGovernmentAgenciestendtobeorganisedalongdisciplinarylines(ie.separate
departmentforjustice,education,healthetc),thereisnonaturalhomewhereanalysisof
theissuesandpolicydiscussionscantakeplace,andawealthofsocio-legalresearchon
theissuegoesunder-utilised.
● Amechanismisneededtocapturecurrentandexitingresearchandknowledge,bothfrom
theCommunityandacademicresearch,toadviseGovernmentsontranslationofevidence
intopolicy.
● APolicyTranslationGroupcouldguidethedevelopmentoftheseprinciplesintoaNational
DisabilityJusticeStrategywhichspecificallyaddressestherightsandcircumstancesof
AboriginalandTorrsStraitIslanderpeople.
1. ThiscompositesubmissionhasbroughttogethercontributionsfromthreeAboriginaland
TorresStraitIslandernationalpeakbodiesandthirteenofthenation’sleadingdisabilityand
justiceresearchersfromsixdifferentuniversitiesandresearchinstitutes.
2. Collectively,theexpertisecoveredinthissubmissioncoversabreadthofdisciplines
includingAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderhealthwellbeingandculture,disability,
humanrights,earlychildhood,education,familyviolenceprevention,genderstudies,laws
andlegislation,courtprocessesandsentencing,postreleaserehabilitation,researchand
datamanagement.Thebreadthofthisexpertisereflectsthecomplexity,whichisareality
whendealingwiththeproblemofrecurrentandindefinitedetentionofAboriginaland
TorresStraitIslanderpeoplewithcognitiveandmentalimpairment.
3. Contrastingly,publicpolicyisderivedfromagovernmentstructurenaturallyorganisedalong
functionallines.ThereareseparatedepartmentsforAttorneysGeneral,Health,Education,
andSocialServices.Thereconsequencesofafunctionalapproachmeanthattheissuesare
notcomprehensivelydealtwith:
• Governmentagencyledpolicysolutionsaffectingonepartoftheproblem.Ajustice
ledapproachwillnaturallyleadtoalegalresponse,butriskinadequatelyhavinga
balancefromdisabilityperspective;andconverselyadisabilityledapproachrisks
inadequatelyaddressinglawslegislationandsystemicbarriersinjudicial
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•
administration.Bothperspectivesareneededinbalancewithco-ordinationacross
thespectrumofissues.
IntersectionalissuesaffectingpeoplewhoarebothAboriginalandTorresStrait
Islanderandhavedisabilityfallintothetoo-hardbasket.Theneedsandrightsofthe
marginalisedofthemarginalisedareultimatelyignored.
4. Thecomplexityofthisissueneedstoberecognisedandembraced.Athereisnonatural
homewithinthegovernmentagencystructuretoaddressthebreadthofissues,a
mechanismneedstobecreated.Werecommendtheformationofa‘PolicyTranslation
Group’toreviewthebreadthofresearchactivityandevidence,andformallyadvisethe
variousgovernmentagenciesonaco-ordinatedapproachtopolicyandgovernmentaction
plans.Thisshouldbemultidisciplinaryandcompriserepresentativesfromgovernment,the
researchcommunity,andAboriginalandTorrespeoplewithdisability.
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Biographiesofcontributors
FirstPeoplesDisabilityNetwork(Australia)isanationalorganisationestablishedby,forandbehalf
ofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeople,familiesandcommunitieswithlivedexperienceof
disability.WithaBoardofDirectorsentirelycomprisingFirstPeopleswithdisability,weareguided
bythelivedexperienceofdisabilityindeterminingourprioritiesandourwayofdoingbusiness.
FPDNiscommittedtoresearchandpolicydevelopmentthatcapturestheknowledge,expertiseand
experienceofdisabilityinourcommunities.FPDNaimstobetheinterfacebetweentheFirstPeoples
disabilitycommunity,policymakersandresearchersingeneratingpracticalmeasuresthatsecure
thehumanrightsofFirstPeopleswithinasocialmodelofdisability.Wehavealong-standinghistory
ofadvocatingfortherightsofFirstPeopleswithdisabilitythroughhigh-levelpolicyadviceto
AustralianGovernmentsandininternationalhumanrightsforums.FDPNisundertakinga
community-directedresearchprogram,whichissupportedthroughtheNationalDisabilityResearch
andDevelopmentScheme.
TheNationalFamilyViolencePreventionLegalServiceswasestablishedinMay2012tocoordinate
andfunctionasaunitednationalvoiceforthe14FamilyViolencePreventionLegalServices(FVPLS)
memberorganisationswhoprovidelegalassistance,casework,counsellingandcourtsupportto
AboriginalandTorresStraitIslandervictim/survivorsoffamilyviolence,includingsexualassaultand
abuse.FVPLSsalsoprovidecommunitylegaleducation,andearlyinterventionandprevention
activities.FVPLSsservicesareculturallyinclusiveandaccessibletoAboriginalandTorresStrait
Islanderadultsandchildreninthespecifiedserviceregion,regardlessofgender,sexualpreference,
familyrelationship,location,disability,literacyorlanguage.
NationalAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderLegalServices(NATSILS)isthepeaknationalbodyfor
AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderLegalServices(ATSILS)inAustralia.NATSILSbringstogether
over40years’experienceintheprovisionoflegaladvice,assistance,representation,community
legaleducation,advocacy,lawreformactivitiesandprisonerthrough-caretoAboriginalandTorres
StraitIslanderpeoplesincontactwiththejusticesystem.TheATSILSaretheexpertsonthedelivery
ofeffectiveandculturallycompetentlegalassistanceservicestoAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander
peoples.ThisrolealsogivesusauniqueinsightintoaccesstojusticeissuesaffectingAboriginaland
TorresStraitIslanderpeoples.NATSILSrepresentsthefollowingATSILS:
·AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderLegalService(Qld)Ltd(ATSILSQld);
·AboriginalLegalRightsMovementInc.(ALRM);
·AboriginalLegalService(NSW/ACT)(ALSNSW/ACT);
·AboriginalLegalServiceofWesternAustralia(Inc.)(ALSWA);
·CentralAustralianAboriginalLegalAidService(CAALAS);
·NorthAustralianAboriginalJusticeAgency(NAAJA);
·TasmanianAboriginalCommunityLegalService(TACLS);and
·VictorianAboriginalLegalServiceCo-operativeLimited(VALS).
The‘ChangetheRecord’(CTR)CoalitionisagroupofleadingAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander,
communityandhumanrightsorganisationsworkingcollaborativelytoaddressthedisproportionate
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ratesofincarcerationandviolenceexperiencedbyAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeople.The
ChangetheRecordcampaignhastwooverarchinggoals,to:
1.Closethegapinratesofimprisonmentby2040;and
2.Cutthedisproportionateratesofviolencetoatleastclosethegapby2040withprioritystrategies
forwomenandchildren.
ToChangetheRecord,weneedtoworkwithAboriginalandTorresStraitIslandercommunitiesto
investinholisticearlyintervention,preventionanddiversionstrategies.Thesearesmarter,
evidence-basedandmorecost-effectivesolutionsthatincreasesafety,addresstherootcausesof
violenceagainstwomenandchildren,cutre-offendingandimprisonmentrates,andbuildstronger
communities.
CarolBowerisaSeniorPrincipalResearchFellowatTelethonKidsInstitutewithqualificationsin
medicine,epidemiologyandpublichealth.Herareasofresearchexpertiseincludeepidemiologyof
birthdefects,includingFetalAlcoholSpectrumDisordersandneuraltubedefects.Herresearchhas
astrongfocusoninvestigatingcausesandeffectsofbirthdefects,ontranslatingresearchfindings
intopublichealthpolicyandpracticeandonevaluatingtheeffectivenessofthattranslation.
Leadingexamplesarethepreventionofneuraltubedefects(promotingpericonceptionalfolicacid
supplementuseandmandatoryfortificationofflourwithfolicacid)andresearchonprevention,
diagnosisandmanagementofFetalAlcoholSpectrumDisorders(FASD).
DamianGriffisisanAboriginalpersonidentifyingwiththeWorimipeople,CEOofFirstPeoples
DisabilityNetwork(Australia)andaleadingadvocateforthehumanrightsofAboriginalpeoplewith
disability.In2004-05,DamianundertookamajorconsultativeprojectvisitingAboriginal
communitiesacrossthestateofNewSouthWalesdiscussingtheunmetneedsofAboriginalpeople
withdisabilitydirectlywithAboriginalpeoplewithdisabilityandtheirfamilies.Thisculminatedin
theground-breakingreportentitledTellingItLikeItIs.Hehasworkedformorethan20yearsin
variouscapacitieswithinthedisabilitysectorandhasbeeninstrumentalinconsolidatingthe
developmentofthesocialmovementofAboriginalpeoplewithdisability.Damianwasawardedthe
TonyFitzgeraldMemorialCommunityAwardatthe2014HumanRightsAwardsinrecognitionofhis
advocacyfortherightsofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplewithdisability.
DrDarrenO’DonovancompletedhisPhDthesisonequality,multiculturalismandhousingrightsat
UniversityCollegeCorkinIrelandin2009.HeworkedatUCCasalecturerforthreeyearsbefore
movingtoAustralia.DarrenwillsoontakeuparoleasseniorlecturerinlawatLaTrobeLawSchool,
wherehewillbeworkingwithLaTrobe’sscholarsattheLivingwithDisabilityResearchCentre.
Darrenteachesadministrativelaw,humanrightsanddisabilitylaw,andrecentlyco-wrotethe
secondeditionoftheEndeavourFoundation’sguidetotheNDIS,Discover.
ProfessorEileenBaldry(BA,DipEd,MWP,PhD)isaProfessorofCriminologyatUNSWAustralia
whereshehasbeenanacademicsince1993.Eileenisanesteemedresearcherintheareasof
Criminology,SocialPolicyandSocialWorkandwasrecentlynamedasoneoftheinauguralPLuS
AllianceFellowsinSocialJustice.EileenalsoholdsthedistinguishedpositionofAcademicChair,
UNSWDiversityandEqualityBoardandisthecurrentDeputyChairoftheDisabilityCouncilNSW.In
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2009,theLawandJusticeFoundationofNSWrecognisedBaldry’s“indefatigable”supportfor
justice-relatedcausesbyawardingheritshighesthonour:theJusticeMedal.
ProfessorElenaMarchettiisaResearchProfessorintheSchoolofLawandamemberoftheLegal
IntersectionsResearchCentre,UniversityofWollongong.Herresearchexaminesthejustice
experiencesofIndigenousAustraliansinthecriminaljusticesystem,howtobetteraccommodate
thejusticeneedsofvictimsofIndigenouspartnerviolence,andwhatmethodsshouldbeusedto
evaluateIndigenous-focusedjusticeprocessestobetterreflecttheIndigenous-centricnatureofthe
programs.ShewasawardedanAustralianResearchCouncil,5-yearAustralianResearchFellowship
in2009andanAustralianResearchCouncil,4-yearFutureFellowshipin2014.
GlennPearson,aNyoongarfromWesternAustralia,istheHeadAboriginalResearchDevelopment
atTelethonKidsInstitutewhichincludesmanagingtheKulungaAboriginalResearchdevelopment
Unit(KARDU).HisareasofresearchexpertiseincludeAboriginalHealthandEmotionalWellbeing;
AboriginalResearchMethodologies;PolicyandAdvocacy.GlennisaChiefInvestigatorinthe
Institute'sCentreofResearchExcellenceinAboriginalHealthandWellbeingandiscompletinga
DoctorateattheUniversityofWesternAustralia(UWA).HeisalsoamemberoftheHealth
ConsumerCouncilofWA,CurtinUniversity'sHumanResearchEthicsCommitteeandtheInstitute's
CommunityandConsumerParticipationAdvisoryCouncil.
LeanneDowseisAssociateProfessorandChairinIntellectualDisabilityandBehaviourSupportinthe
SchoolofSocialSciences,UNSW.TheworkoftheChairaimstoexpandthebodyofknowledgeand
increasecapacityinthedeliveryofappropriateandeffectiveservicestopeoplewithanintellectual
disabilitywithcomplexneedsthroughtrainingandeducation,enhancedpolicyandservicemodels
andtargetedresearch.Leanne’sresearchgenerallyseekstounderstandthedynamicsofgender,
raceandethnicity,ageingandcontemporarysocial,politicalandculturaldiscoursesastheyintersect
withdisability.Herrecentworkaddressesissuesforpeoplewithcomplexneeds,particularlythe
intersectionsofcognitiveandpsychosocialdisabilitywithotherdimensionsofsocialdisadvantage
andthewaystheseinterlockforpeopleinthecriminaljusticesystemasbothvictimsandoffenders.
Shealsoundertakesresearchexaminingtheintersectionofdisability,genderandviolence.
DrLindaSteeleisalecturerinlawattheUniversityofWollongongwheresheteachescriminallaw
andtortlaw.Linda’sresearchexploreslaw’scomplexandcontradictoryrolesinthemarginalisation
ofpeoplewithdisability.Linda'sdoctoralthesiswasondiversionofindividualswithcognitive
impairmentfromtheNSWLocalCourt.Hercurrentresearchisfocusedonviolenceagainstpeople
withdisability.Lindahasaprofessionalbackgroundinsocialjustice,includingasasolicitoratthe
IntellectualDisabilityRightsServiceandanexecutivecommitteememberoftheWomeninPrison
AdvocacyNetwork.
DrMeganWilliams,fromMuruMariAboriginalhealthunitatUNSW,isadescendentof
theWiradjuripeopleofcentralNSWthroughherfather’sfamily.Shehasqualitativeandquantitative
researchtraining,specialisinginusingresearchasatoolforcapacitybuilding,andfocussingonthe
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strengthsofAboriginalpeopletodeterminestrategiestoreducerecidivism,morbidityandmortality
post-prisonrelease.
NoniWalkerisaSeniorResearchFellowintheAlcoholPregnancyandFASDResearchgroupat
TelethonKidsInstitutewithexperienceinpublichealthandhealthpromotion.Herroleistosupport
theprojectandclinicalteammembersworkingontheBanksiaHillFASDprojectfundedbythe
NHMRCthataimstoimprovethemanagementofyoungpeoplewithFetalAlcoholSpectrum
Disorderintheyouthjusticesystem.
ProfessorPatrickKeyzerisHeadoftheLaTrobeLawSchoolandChairofLawandPublicPolicyatLa
TrobeUniversity.Patrickco-coordinatedthedevelopmentofthisSubmissionwithScottAvery.
Patrick’scontributiontothisSubmission,co-writtenwithDarrenO’Donovan,wasrecentlypublished
inslightlydifferentform,intheIndigenousLawBulletin.Patrickco-wrotetheEndeavour
Foundation’sguidetotheNationalDisabilityInsuranceScheme,Discover.Patrickhaswrittenor
editedfivebooksandreportsonthetopicofpreventivedetention,andinhiscapacityasabarrister
hasprovidedlegaladvicetotheAboriginalDisabilityJusticeCampaignforsomeyears.
DrRuthMcCauslandisaResearchFellowintheSchoolofSocialSciencesatUNSW.ShewascoauthorwithEileenBaldry,LeanneDowse andElizabethMcEntyreoftherecentreportAPredictable
andPreventablePath:Indigenouspeoplewithmentalandcognitivedisabilitiesinthecriminaljustice
system,andanearlierstudyontheeconomiccostsoftheover-representationofpeoplewithmental
andcognitivedisabilitiesinprison.HerPhDwasonevaluationandthediversionofAboriginal
womenfromprison,anddevelopedanalternativeapproachtoevaluationofdiversionaryprograms
thatcouldprovidemoremeaningfulmeasuresofimpactandwellbeing.RuthisalsoVice-President
oftheBoardoftheCommunityRestorativeCentre.
ScottAveryisdescendantfromtheWorimipeopleandisthePolicyandResearchDirectoratthe
FirstPeoplesDisabilityNetwork(Australia),anon-GovernmentOrganisationconstitutedbyandfor
AustralianAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderPeopleswithdisability.Hehasanextensivecareerin
researchandpublicpolicyinAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderaffairs,health,disability,justice
andeducation.HeisundertakingadoctorateonIndigenousdisabilityandistheleadInvestigatoron
acommunity-directedresearchprogramwhichhasbeenawardedfundingsupportthroughthe
NationalDisabilityResearchandDevelopmentScheme,andisareceiptofascholarshipthroughthe
LowitjaInstituteforAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderHealthResearch.
SharynneHamiltonisaNgunnawalwomanfromCanberra.Sharynnehasworkedintheareaof
parentalandfamilyengagementinchildprotectionformorethan20yearsasacommunityworker,
advocateandscholar.From2010,sheworkedwiththeRegulatoryInstitutionsNetwork’s(Australian
NationalUniversity)CommunityCapacityinChildProtectionProjectteamresearchingthe
experiencesofcommunityworkers,workingwithfamilieswithchildprotectioninterventions.
SharynnejoinedtheTelethonKidsInstituteinAugust2015workingtheAlcohol,PregnancyFASD
Researchgroup,undertakingresearchfortheNHMRCscreening,diagnosisandworkforce
developmentprojectatBanksiaHillJuvenileDetentionCentre.
69
AssociateProfessorThaliaAnthonyisaLawacademicattheUniversityofTechnologySydney.Hr
researchexpertiseisintheareasofcriminallawandprocedureandIndigenouspeopleandthelaw,
ThaliaAnthony’sresearchhasinfluencedpolicydevelopmentandpublicdebateregardingremedies
forwrongsinflictedonIndigenouspeoples.Herworkhasbeenutilisedinsenatecommitteereports,
parliamentarydebate,policyannouncementsandlawreformcommitteereports.Shehas
contributedtoHighCourtcases,theworkofUnitedNationscommittees,conductedresearchforthe
RoyalCommissionintoInstitutionalResponsestoChildSexualAbuseandappearedbefore
parliamentaryinquiriesonIndigenousredress.
ResearchAssociates
GabriellaRaetzisaResearchAssistantandstudentatLaTrobeUniversitycompletingherfinalyear
ofaBachelorofLaws/Arts.
HaninaRindisaResearchAssistantandstudentatLaTrobeUniversitycompletingherfinalyearofa
BachelorofLaws.
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