Natural science
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Natural science
In science, the term natural science refers to a naturalistic approach to the study of the universe, which is
understood as obeying rules or laws of natural origin.
The term natural science is also used to distinguish those fields that use the scientific method to study nature from
the social sciences, which use the scientific method to study human behavior and society; from the formal sciences,
such as mathematics and logic, which use a different (a priori) methodology and from the humanities.
Overview
Natural sciences form the basis for applied
sciences. Together, the natural and applied
sciences are distinguished from the social
sciences on the one hand, and the
humanities on the other. Though
mathematics, statistics, and computer
science are not considered natural sciences
(mathematics
traditionally
considered
among the liberal arts and statistics among
the humanities, for instance), they provide
many tools and frameworks used within the
natural sciences.
Alongside this traditional usage, the phrase
natural sciences is also sometimes used
The Michelson–Morley experiment was used to disprove that light propagated
more narrowly to refer to natural history. In
through a luminiferous aether. This 19th century concept was then superseded by
this sense "natural sciences" may refer to the
Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity.
biology and perhaps also the earth sciences,
as distinguished from the physical sciences, including astronomy, physics, and chemistry.
Within the natural sciences, the term hard science is sometimes used to describe those subfields which some people
view as relying on experimental, quantifiable data or the scientific method and focus on accuracy and objectivity.
These usually include physics, chemistry and biology. By contrast, soft science is often used to describe the
scientific fields that are more reliant on qualitative research, including the social sciences.
History
In ancient and medieval times, the objective study of nature was known as natural philosophy. In late medieval and
early modern times, a philosophical interpretation of nature was gradually replaced by a scientific approach using
inductive methodology. The works of Ibn al-Haytham and Sir Francis Bacon popularized this approach, thereby
helping to forge the scientific revolution.
By the 19th century, the study of science had come into the purview of professionals and institutions. In so doing, it
gradually acquired the more modern name of natural science. The term scientist was coined by William Whewell in
an 1834 review of Mary Somerville's On the Connexion of the Sciences. But the word did not enter general use until
nearly the end of the same century.
According to a famous 1923 textbook Thermodynamics — and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances by the
American chemist Gilbert N. Lewis and the American physical chemist Merle Randall, the natural sciences contain
three great branches:
Natural science
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Aside from the logical and mathematical sciences, there are three great branches of natural science
which stand apart by reason of the variety of far reaching deductions drawn from a small number of
primary postulates — they are mechanics, electrodynamics, and thermodynamics.
Today, natural sciences are more commonly divided into life sciences, such as botany and zoology; and physical
sciences, which include physics, chemistry, geology and astronomy.
Branches of natural science
Astronomy
This discipline is the science of celestial objects and phenomena that
originate outside the Earth's atmosphere. It is concerned with the
evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial
objects, as well as the formation and development of the universe.
Astronomy includes the examination, study and modeling of stars,
planets, comets, galaxies and the cosmos. Most of the information used
by astronomers is gathered by remote observation, although some
laboratory reproduction of celestial phenomenon has been performed
(such as the molecular chemistry of the interstellar medium).
While the origins of the study of celestial features and phenomenon
can be traced back to antiquity, the scientific methodology of this field
began to develop in the middle of the 17th century. A key factor was
Galileo's introduction of the telescope to examine the night sky in more
detail.
Space missions have been used to image distant
locations within the Solar System, such as this
Apollo 11 view of Daedalus crater on the far side
of the Moon.
The mathematical treatment of astronomy began with Newton's
development of celestial mechanics and the laws of gravitation, although it was triggered by earlier work of
astronomers such as Kepler. By the 19th century, astronomy had developed into a formal science, with the
introduction of instruments such as the spectroscope and photography, along with much-improved telescopes and the
creation of professional observatories.
Natural science
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Biology
This field encompasses a set of disciplines that examines phenomena
related to living organisms. The scale of study can range from
sub-component biophysics up to complex ecologies. Biology is
concerned with the characteristics, classification and behaviors of
organisms, as well as how species were formed and their interactions
with each other and the environment.
The biological fields of botany, zoology, and medicine date back to
early periods of civilization, while microbiology was introduced in the
17th century with the invention of the microscope. However, it was not
until the 19th century that biology became a unified science. Once
scientists discovered commonalities between all living things, it was
decided they were best studied as a whole.
Some key developments in biology were the discovery of genetics;
Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection; the germ theory
of disease and the application of the techniques of chemistry and
physics at the level of the cell or organic molecule.
A fragment of DNA, the chemical sequence that
contains genetic instructions for the development
and functioning of living organisms
Modern biology is divided into subdisciplines by the type of organism and by the scale being studied. Molecular
biology is the study of the fundamental chemistry of life, while cellular biology is the examination of the cell; the
basic building block of all life. At a higher level, physiology looks at the internal structure of organism, while
ecology looks at how various organisms interrelate.
Chemistry
Constituting the scientific study of matter at the atomic and molecular
scale, chemistry deals primarily with collections of atoms, such as
gases, molecules, crystals, and metals. The composition, statistical
properties, transformations and reactions of these materials are studied.
Chemistry also involves understanding the properties and interactions
of individual atoms for use in larger-scale applications.
Most chemical processes can be studied directly in a laboratory, using
a series of (often well-tested) techniques for manipulating materials, as
well as an understanding of the underlying processes. Chemistry is
often called "the central science" because of its role in connecting the
other natural sciences.
This structural formula for molecule caffeine
shows a graphical representation of how the
atoms are arranged.
Early experiments in chemistry had their roots in the system of
Alchemy, a set of beliefs combining mysticism with physical experiments. The science of chemistry began to
develop with the work of Robert Boyle, the discoverer of gas, and Antoine Lavoisier, who developed the theory of
the Conservation of mass.
The discovery of the chemical elements and the concept of Atomic Theory began to systematize this science, and
researchers developed a fundamental understanding of states of matter, ions, chemical bonds and chemical reactions.
The success of this science led to a complementary chemical industry that now plays a significant role in the world
economy.
Natural science
Earth science
Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth Sciences), is an all-embracing term for the
sciences related to the planet Earth, including geology, geophysics, hydrology, meteorology, physical geography,
oceanography, and soil science.
Although mining and precious stones have been human interests throughout the history of civilization, the
development of the related sciences of economic geology and mineralogy did not occur until the 18th century. The
study of the earth, particularly palaeontology, blossomed in the 19th century. The growth of other disciplines, such
as geophysics, in the 20th century led to the development of the theory of plate tectonics in the 1960s, which has had
a similar effect on the Earth sciences as the theory of evolution had on biology. Earth sciences today are closely
linked to climate research and the petroleum and mineral exploration industries.
Physics
Physics embodies the study of the fundamental
constituents of the universe, the forces and interactions
they exert on one another, and the results produced by
these interactions. In general, physics is regarded as the
fundamental science, because all other natural sciences
use and obey the principles and laws set down by the
field. Physics relies heavily on mathematics as the
logical framework for formulation and quantification of
principles.
The study of the principles of the universe has a long
history and largely derives from direct observation and
experimentation. The formulation of theories about the
This free body diagram illustrates the different forces acting on a
governing laws of the universe has been central to the
projectile.
study of physics from very early on, with philosophy
gradually yielding to systematic, quantitative
experimental testing and observation as the source of verification.
Key historical developments in physics include Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation and classical
mechanics, an understanding of electricity and its relation to magnetism, Einstein's theories of special and general
relativity, the development of thermodynamics, and the quantum mechanical model of atomic and subatomic
physics.
The field of physics is extremely broad, and can include such diverse studies as quantum mechanics and theoretical
physics, applied physics and optics. Modern physics is becoming increasingly specialized, where researchers tend to
focus on a particular area rather than being "universalists" like Albert Einstein and Lev Landau, who worked in
multiple areas.
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Natural science
Cross-disciplines
The distinctions between the natural science disciplines are not always sharp, and they share a number of
cross-discipline fields. Physics plays a significant role in the other natural sciences, as represented by astrophysics,
geophysics, chemical physics and biophysics. Likewise chemistry is represented by such fields as biochemistry,
geochemistry and astrochemistry.
A particular example of a scientific discipline that draws upon multiple natural sciences is environmental science.
This field studies the interactions of physical, chemical and biological components of the environment, with a
particular regard to the effect of human activities and the impact on biodiversity and sustainability. This science also
draws upon expertise from other fields such as economics, law and social sciences.
A comparable discipline is oceanography, as it draws upon a similar breadth of scientific disciplines. Oceanography
is sub-categorized into more specialized cross-disciplines, such as physical oceanography and marine biology. As the
marine ecosystem is very large and diverse, marine biology is further divided into many subfields, including
specializations in particular species.
There are also a subset of cross-disciplinary fields which, by the nature of the problems that they address, have
strong currents that run counter to specialization. Put another way: In some fields of integrative application,
specialists in more than one field are a key part of most dialog. Such integrative fields, for example, include
nanoscience, astrobiology, and complex system informatics.
See also
• Empiricism
• List of academic disciplines
• Nature
• Natural history
• Natural philosophy, the precursor of the physical sciences.
• Science
• Fields of science
• Natural sciences
• Behavioral sciences
• Social sciences
• History of science
• History of technology
• Science wars
External links
• The History of Recent Science and Technology [1]
• Reviews of Books About Natural Science [2] This site contains over 50 previously published reviews of books
about natural science, plus selected essays on timely topics in natural science.
References
[1] http:/ / hrst. mit. edu/
[2] http:/ / www. scibooks. org/
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Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
Natural science Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=386845518 Contributors: -- April, 16@r, 2over0, ABF, Abdullais4u, Adam78, Addionne, Ahoerstemeier, Alan Liefting,
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
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