Institute of Wildlife Biology and Game Management (IWJ)
University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences,
Vienna (BOKU)
The Current Status of Lagomorphs in Asia
Thesis for the Degree of
Master of Science in European Forestry (MScEF)
Eramus Mundus
submitted by
Royce Kin Chung TO
Matriculation Number: 0740062
September 2008
Under the Supervision of
Univ.Prof. Dr. Klaus HACKLÄNDER
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest appreciations to Prof. Klaus
Hackländer and Prof. Gerda Schneider for being my examiners. Your valuable comments on
my work are the most important support and approval for what I have been working
wholeheartedly for the past six months. In addition, I am grateful to the selection committee
of MSc European Forestry and awarded scholarship from the Eramus Mundus program.
This is the day I have been waiting for the past two years. I thank Prof. Hackländer
once again for being my thesis supervisor and supported my trip to Asia and the coming 3rd
World Lagomorph Conference in Mexico with funding by the World Lagomorph Society
(WLS). I particularly enjoy our close collaborations in every stage of thesis development;
your encouragements and advice are the most important factors keep pushing me forward
whenever I have doubts in myself. I thank our institute secretary Ms. Diana Pöttschacher and
Ms. Judith Weiss from the international office for helping me to arrange many things during
my study at BOKU. I thank Doris Zitta from the Institute of Zoology and Ms. Hildtraut Windl
from the Natural History Museum for literature collections. I thank Prof. Gerda Schneider and
Dr. Thomas Bauer for teaching me GIS that benefited this study in many ways. It is always a
joy working with all of you.
My appreciations could not be completed without mentioning my advisors during my
Bachelor’s study. I gratefully thank Prof. Tzung Su Ding for always being my most important
mentor at all times. I thank Prof. Ling Ling Lee, Prof. Ya Nan Wang and Prof. Er Yang Lu for
teaching me in many things. I thank Dr. Eric Tsao from Taipei Zoo for being my referee for
this program as well.
I thank Hanna Watzal, Monika Nagal, Liz Kummer, Ludwig Englisch, Alberto
Recuenco, Cristina Cocho, Huang Zhang, Yi ping, Yi Shan, Dong Li, Yan Liang, 308/401 and
friends from NTU for always keeping me busy beside my study.
For my parents Anthony and Lilian, my brother Nigel, it is unthinkable for me without
your undivided support for all these years. It is always my dream to become a scientist since
childhood. Thanks for being understanding and I love you all.
23.08.2008, Admont, Styria, Austria.
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CONTENT
AKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................................................. 1
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................................. 3
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................................... 4
Previous study.....................................................................................................................................5
Why Asia .............................................................................................................................................6
Objectives............................................................................................................................................7
METHOD...................................................................................................................................................... 8
Acquisition of literatures ......................................................................................................................8
Extraction of Information .....................................................................................................................9
Summarizing the collected information ...............................................................................................9
Maps and locations .............................................................................................................................9
RESULTS................................................................................................................................................... 11
Genus Caprolagus (Blyth, 1845) .......................................................................................................11
Genus Lepus (Linnaeus, 1758) .........................................................................................................12
Genus Nesolagus (Forsyth-Major, 1899) ..........................................................................................21
Genus Pentalagus (Lyon, 1904)........................................................................................................22
Genus Ochotona (Links, 1795) .........................................................................................................23
DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................................. 42
Studied Locations..............................................................................................................................42
Types of common threats..................................................................................................................43
Challenges of Asian Lagomorphs study............................................................................................44
Suggestions for future research ........................................................................................................45
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 45
REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................... 49
Appendix I, summary of Lagomorphs distribution by country .................................................................... 65
Appendix II, summary of Red List Category and Criteria for all studied Lagomorphs................................ 67
Appendix III, an overview of Lagomorph distributions from literatures....................................................... 73
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The Current Status of Lagomorphs in Asia
Royce Kin Chung TO
MScEF Thesis Dissertation,
Institute of Wildlife Biology and Game Management (IWJ),
University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU)
ABSTRACT
1) The current status of Lagomorphs was unclear after the first published report by
IUCN/SSC Lagomorph Specialist Group in 1990. Based on the current standard
taxonomy, I reviewed 46 species that were reportedly presented in Asia.
2) All information was gathered from literatures in Chinese and in English from the
1990s'. The collected information was summarized into categories of distribution,
habitat, life history and threats. In addition, the endangered status of each species
was assigned based on the latest IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria (version
3.1).
3) Of the total 46 species, 13 species were evaluated as threatened species (i.e.
Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable), 10 species with insufficient
information (i.e. DD) and 22 non-Threatened species (i.e. LC and NT). Due to the
recent reconstruction of taxonomy, Cape hare (Lepus capensis) is no longer an
Asian species but distributed restrictedly in Africa.
4) Apart from discussing the current status of individual species, I extended the
discussion in order to account for the current knowledge and opportunities of Asian
Lagomorphs studies. This includes the overall studied locations, types of common
threats, challenges of Asian Lagomorphs studies and suggestions for future
research.
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INTRODUCTION
The order Lagomorpha refers to species of hares, pikas and rabbits that can
be found in many parts of the world. According to the latest taxonomy (Hoffmann &
Smith, 2005) there were altogether 90 identified species in two families, i.e.
Leporidae (rabbits and hares) and Ochotonidae (pikas). Generally speaking,
Leporidae are medium size mammal with elongated ears and powerful hind legs
which weights about 5kg, whereas Ochotonidae are rodent-like Lagomorphs with
round ears and egg-shaped body which weights some 100g (Chapman & Flux,
1990).
Despite the distribution of Lagomorph is widespread, the abundances of many
species were in fact rather unstable and the biology of many species were poorly
understood (Hackländer et al., 2008). This was first reported by Chapman & Flux
(1990) through the networking of IUCN/SSC Lagomorph specialist group (LSG). It
was the first of its kind to provide such an insightful of information regarding the
global situation of Lagomorphs and to urge for more conservation actions and
additional studies in Lagomorph biology. In addition, information from their report also
served as a base for the Red List status of many Lagomorphs reviewed in 1996.
Since Chapman & Flux (1990), there were several studies describing the
situation of lagomorphs in different countries (e.g. Alves et al., 2008 and Smith & Xie,
2008), however, the collective knowledge of regional or global knowledge were still
missing. In addition, the Red List categories of Lagomorphs were no longer valid due
to the changes of situations in the field and many newly described species were not
included in the list (e.g. Lepus peguensis, Lepus tibetanus, and Ochotona
turchanensis). The situations of Lagomorphs in Asia were even more urgently
needed for revision due to the fact that half of the identified species were distributed
in Asia. These include species that were least known and critically endangered (e.g.
species in Nesolagus spp., Pentalagus spp., and Carpolagus spp.). In addition,
English is not the native language for many Asian countries, therefore literatures
written in other languages (e.g. Chinese, Russian, Japanese and Arabic) might easily
miss out from the international scientific communities.
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Due to the accumulation of information and the lack of collective knowledge for
Asian Lagomorphs for the past 20 years, therefore, the aim of this study is to provide
a general overview of Asian Lagomorphs status through literature review. Literatures
published in Chinese and in English were the two main sources of information
referenced in this study. The addition of Chinese literatures was due to the fact that
China has the highest number of Lagomorphs in Asia (appendix I), many Chinese
literatures were published for the past 20 years (82 literatures were used in this
study) and it is one of my native languages apart from English therefore additional
information were able to extract from Chinese literatures.
In the following paragraphs, I shall further address the following three
important topics: 1) Previous study: what we have learned and what opportunities
ahead for revision, 2) Why Asia: the importance of understanding the current status
of Asian Lagomorph, and; 3) the objectives achieved in this study.
Previous study
Supported by the LSG of IUCN/SSC, Chapman & Flux (1990) produced the
report: Rabbits, Hares and Pikas: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan, in
order to understand the current status of Lagomorph in the world. It was the first of its
kind to provide very extensive description of all existing species, to give suggestions
for future research and to outline appropriate conservation action plan. Their
contribution benefited many later Lagomorph research and conservation action
planning. As approaching its 20th year of publication and with huge amount of later
research, it is necessary to review these materials in order to provide an overview of
our current understanding of Lagomorphs.
Over the past 2 decades, the “research landscape” of Lagomorph study
changed enormously with the additions of diversities of topics from various fields of
study, such as: Molecular phylogeny (e.g. Niu et al., 2004), disease control (e.g.
Yang, et al., 2006b), life history (e.g. Takeda, et al., 1994) and distribution (e.g.
Sugimura et al., 2000). How these new findings would benefit our understanding for
each species was fairly unknown. This was because there were no researches alike
after Chapman & Flux (1990) to fill in the gaps in between and information were
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scattered in various publications. Unlike Chapman & Flux (1990), this study was
greatly benefited from modern technologies such as Geographic Information System
(GIS), the Internet and search technology that were not common until recent
decades.
With the advancement of GIS, geographic coordinates were commonly
referenced in many literatures. They provided very insightful of information when
combined with sample size, habitat description and period of study. These
information were computed into GIS software (ArcGIS was used in this study) to
provide very precise and clear images for illustrations. The advancement of the
Internet and search technology provided a very efficient and less costly method for
information and literature gathering. Information and literatures used in this study
were all obtained over the internet. With the advancement of search technology,
keyword searching were able to provide results of publications that were only
marginally related with Lagomorph, however, embedded with very important
information such as locations, habitat description and human impact etc.
Why Asia
Asia is the biggest continent with diverse geographical terrains and ecologies.
There were more than half of the existing Lagomorphs distributed in Asia. This
includes genera of Caprolagus, Lepus, Nesolagus, Ochotona and Pentalagus and a
total number of 46 species (appendix I). These species were distributed in many
Asian countries, from Russia to Indonesia and across Japan to Kazakhstan, North to
South, East to West respectively (Hoffmann & Smith, 2005). Within these countries,
the situation of Lagomorphs varies differently in terms of human impact, wildlife
management and conservation strategies. How these would affect the population of
each species locally and regionally were not being discussed thus far. Therefore
there was a pressing need for understanding the current situation of Lagomorphs.
In addition to the above mentioned situation, the medium of academic
language in Asia is also one of the main reasons for conducting this study. Over the
past 20 years, there were observed increase of scientific publications in other Asian
languages (for example: Chinese, Japanese and Russian and Korean) along with
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English publications as well in Lagomorph study. Chinese is one of the most
important languages due to the fact that there is a considerable amount of literatures
written in Chinese (82 literatures were used in this study) and the fact that China has
the highest number of species in Asia (34 species, see appendix I). Therefore by
combining literatures from Chinese and English, it provides additional information to
account for our current knowledge.
In this study, Asia is defined as countries that were in Asia and in the Middle
East; borders beyond the westernmost part of Russia, Georgia, Armenia, Iran, Iraq
and Syria were excluded from this study. This arrangement was aimed to include as
many countries and geographical range as possible, however, not to out focused the
objectives of this study i.e. to investigate and to review literatures available in
Chinese and English for Lagomorphs that were distributed in Asia.
Objectives
The objectives in this study are.
1) Identify the total number of Lagomorphs in Asia.
2) Collecting publications in Chinese and in English that were published after
Chapman & Flux (1990).
3) Extracting information related to the distribution, habitat, life history and threats of
all Asian Lagomorphs in order to account for their current status in the field.
4) Assigning appropriate IUCN Red List category and criteria according to the latest
guideline version 3.1.
5) To discussion the current knowledge of Lagomorph studies in Asia.
6) To give appropriate suggestions for future research opportunities.
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METHOD
The nature of this study is literature review, which collects and review
literatures in Chinese and in English after Chapman & Flux (1990) in order to
understand the gain of knowledge after their work. List of species were based on the
taxonomy of Hoffmann & Smith (2005). The total number of species in Asia was 46
and the total number of literature reviewed in this study was 165. The procedures of
literature review can be divided into three consecutive stages, i.e. 1) acquisition of
literatures, 2) extraction of information, and; 3) To review all collected information and
writing summaries for each species. The description and criteria for each stage of
information gathering were explained as followings:
Acquisition of literatures
The acquisition of literatures were gathered in the month of June 2007 and
February 2008 via leading web search engines for scientific literatures, they were: 1)
Google™ Scholar (Beta), http://scholar.google.com/, 2) Elsevier SCOPUS™,
http://www.info.scopus.com/,
http://isiwebofknowledge.com/,
3)
Thomson
and
ISI
4)
Web
Wan
of
KnowledgeSM,
Fang
Data,
http://www.wanfangdata.com.cn/. Google™ Scholar (Beta) is a popular, freely
accessible scholarly literature search engines that covers multiple languages.
Elsevier SCOPUS™ and Thomson ISI Web of KnowledgeSM are traditional,
subscription based scholarly literature search engines for journals in English. Wan
Fang Data is one of the leading subscription services for Chinese publications. The
literatures of interest were disciplinarily independent and the period of interest was
between 1990 and 2008 together with any known future publications. Significant
publications before 1990, especially articles that were not included in Chapman &
Flux (1990) were also included in order to provide a complete picture on the current
status of Asian Lagomorph. The selected articles were then obtained either directly
from the search engines, libraries or by personal communications. The obtained
literatures were then organized by different species as presented in results.
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Extraction of Information
Prior to the acquisition of literatures, each paper was read thoroughly in order
to understand their respective research purposes and their significant results. Due to
this study was being aimed to understand the current status of Lagomorphs in the
field, therefore, the following information were particularly paid attention to: 1) species
name, 2) sample size, 3) the location of where and how the samples were taken, 4)
their surrounding habitat or niche; and, 5) the subject of study and its significant
results.
Summarizing the collected information
In order to provide an overview of the current status of Asian Lagomorph,
information gathered from literatures were then organized according to the following
titles: 1) Distribution, 2) Habitat, 3) Life History, 4) Threats, and, 5) Remarks (table 1).
In addition, I assigned the IUCN Red List category and criteria to each species based
on the latest guideline version 3.1.
Maps and locations
In addition to the verbal information gathered from literatures, the geographic
locations of studied areas were collected as well for mapping. This served for two
purposes: 1) to understand the overall distribution of studied locations, 2) to
understand the relative distribution of Lagomorphs from literatures. Results from
maps were discussed in order to understand our current knowledge of Lagomorph
studies.
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Table 1. The explanations of writing each title for review
Distribution, to give a general overview of the geographic locations and the population
status of a given Lagomorph. Therefore to allow a quick understanding of their current
situation and their currently known locations compared to previous knowledge.
Habitat, to describe the habitat of a given Lagomorph. Therefore to understand their
surrounding environment and niche.
Life History, to understand the life cycle of a given Lagomorph. Therefore to provide a base
for understanding their population dynamics whether they were in a steady or unsteady
manner.
Threats, to understand if there were any threats or potential threats of a given Lagomorph
and the magnitudes of their respective impacts. Therefore to understand if species were
under threatened and to understand the cause of threats were abiotic, biotic or anthropic.
Remarks, to summarize our current knowledge from the above titles, to investigate whether
the available literatures were adequate to give a complete picture for a given Lagomorph;
and, to give directions for future research.
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RESULTS
Family Leporidae (Fischer, 1817)
Genus Caprolagus (Blyth, 1845)
Caprolagus hispidus (Pearson, 1839), Hispidus Hare.
Distribution: A belt-shaped distribution along the foot hills of the Himalaya crossing
Nepal, Bangladesh and India (Bell et al., 1990). No sighting records were found since
the 1990’s. Hispidus Hare is the longest unsighted Lagomorph besides Nesolagus
netscheri (10 years) and Nesolagus timminsi (7 years) in Asia.
Habitat: Dense tall grassland along the rivers and clear cut forest (Bell et al., 1990).
Grasslands are established in early succession on open lands after disturbances,
such as flooding, fire and clear cut forest. In recent decades, Peet el al. (1999)
studied methods of conserving Imperata cylindrica, one of the most important
grasses for Hispidus Hare in the Royal Bardia National Park, however no sighting
records was mentioned.
Life History: Breeding season begins in January, gestation last up to 43 days and
reproduces one young per liter (Bell et al., 1990).
Threats: Lost of tall grassland habitat due to the alternation of land by human
activities such as agriculture, forest plantation, cattle grazing, etc. (Bell et al.,1990)
Remarks: The last sighting record was 1987 in Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam
state, India (Bell et al., 1990).
The significant of this record was the described
location had well preserved habitat and possible population expansion.
Red List: EN A4c possibly qualified for B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v);C1 as well. Formerly EN
A1c+2c, B1+2abcde ver 2.3 (1994). The last sighting was 21 years ago.
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Genus Lepus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Lepus brachyurus (Temminck, 1845). Japanese Hare.
Distribution: Endemic species of Japan distributed on all main islands except
Hokkaido (Shimano et al., 2006), some populations on Oki Islands (Dogo and
Nishinoshima) and Sado Island (Hirakawa et al., 1992) as well.
Habitat: Inhabits grasslands and shrublands in forests with opened canopy from
sea-level to 1600 m (Shimano et al., 2006). The combination of opened canopy and
dense undergrowth is to provide maximum protection and vegetation for
consumption. Higher populations of Japanese Hare are found in young Japanese
cedar plantations and deforested sites which both habitats has the right combination
of vegetations (Shimano et al., 2006). Natural predators include Red Fox (Vulpes
vulpes) and Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos).
Life History: Breeding season between March and October, gestation period last for
45 days, reproducing one to two young per liter (Takeda et al. 1994). In captive
environment, the annual production of Japanese Hare could reach 7.5 litters (Takeda
et al., 1994).
Threats: Unsustainable hunting. However, observed diminishing trends in terms of
harvesting rate and the number of active hunters (Shimano et al., 2000).
Remarks: Proposed subspecies status by Hirakawa et al. (1992) based on skulls
and external morphology.
Red List: LC, however their population in remote islands is uncertain.
Lepus capensis (Linnaeus, 1758). Cape Hare
Remarks: The taxonomy of Cape Hare underwent major reconstruction in Hoffmann
& Smith (2005) which now refers to species distributed in Africa. Other distribution of
“Cape Hare” that was previously described by Flux & Angermann (1990) might be
separate species or should be integrated to other species. The following review of
“Cape Hare” in Asia refers to literatures that were published using L. capensis.
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Distribution: China in Jangsu, Shanxi, Shaanxi and Ningxia (Liu et al., 1994; Li et
al., 2001; Shang et al., 2006; Wu, 2003; Zhu et al., 2004); Iran (Razavi Khorasan)
(Azarkar et al., 2006), the United Arab Emirates (Al Khatam) (Brown et al., 2003) and
many Asian countries (Flux & Angermann, 1990).
Habitat: Deserts in central Asia (Azarkar et al., 2006; Brown et al., 2003), desert
grassland and temperate deciduous forests in China. In N China, the described
desert grassland in Mt. Xiang is between 1300 to 2100 m a.s.l. (Shang et al., 2006).
In Mt. Helan, it occupies temperate deciduous forest between 1900 to 3100 m a.s.l.
(Wu, 2003).
Threats: Wind erosion in Iran might reduce suitable vegetations for Cape Hare
(Azarkar et al., 2006).
Red List: Not applicable, due to the reconstruction of taxonomy.
Lepus comus (Allen, 1927). Yunnan Hare
Yunnan Hare is distributed in SW China, in Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau and the nearby
mountains (Wang et al., 1985; Chen, 2003); N Myanmar (Smith et al., 2008). Inhabit
mostly in secondary forest, shrub and grassland between 1300 and 3000 m a.s.l.
(Yang, 1999; Wang et al., 1985). According to Smith et al. (2008), Yunnan Hare is
sexually dimorphic: males are smaller than females. Breeding season starts in April;
its average litter size is two and could reproduce up to three times per year.
Threats: Unsustainable hunting and logging are major threats to Yunnan Hare in
China (Wu et al., 2000; Yang et al., 1999).
Remarks:
1) After its first identification by Allen (1927), this species left little attention until
recent decades by means of morphological (Wang et al., 1985) and molecular (Wu et
al., 2000) analysis for its systemic status. The results from both studies were rather
conflicting with each other. From the morphological data, this species was proposed
with further division into three subspecies (i.e. L. c. comus, L. c. peni and L. c.
pygmaeus) (Wang et al., 1985). In contrast, the molecular study disapproved such
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diversities and supported only one species hypothesis (Wu et al., 2000). The
geographical range of Yunnan Hare is rather confined to the Yunnan-Guizhou
Plateau. The situation of Yunnan Hare in northern Myanmar was unknown.
2) Formerly included in L. oiostolus (Hoffmann & Smith, 2005).
Red List: LC.
Lepus coreanus (Thomas, 1892). Korean Hare
Korean Hare is distributed in the Korean peninsula and borders between China (Won
& Smith, 1999). It inhabits mixed forest dominated by mature (~50 years) Chinese
cork oak (Quercus variabilis) and Monogolian oak (Q. mongolica) with dense
vegetation on the forest floor (Rhim & Lee, 2002; 2007). Potential threats include
excessive hunting and habitat destruction (Won & Smith 1999).
Remarks: Formerly included in L. sinensis, and L. brachyurus in different period of
time (Hoffmann & Smith, 2005).
Red List: LC, the effects of hunting and habitat destruction require further
investigations.
Lepus hainanus (Swinhoe, 1807). Hainan Hare
Hainan Hare is an endemic species of China distributed exclusively in Hainan Island
close to Guangdong (Yuan et al., 1990). Suitable habitats include shrubland and
short grassland above sea-level (Smith et al., 2008). Little information is available
from the past 20 years regarding its distribution and abundances and there were no
conservation efforts reported for this species. In recent decades, tourism plays an
important role for the island’s economy. Whether the increase of visitors and human
activities would further devastate the endangered status of Hainan Hare is unknown.
Remarks: Formerly included in L. peguensis as subspecies (Hoffmann & Smith,
2005).
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Red List: VU A2cd+3cd;B1ab(iii) (Smith et al., 2008). Little information is available to
understand its situation in the field.
Lepus mandshuricus (Radde, 1861). Manchurian Hare
Distribution: NE China in Jilin, Liaoning and Inner Mongolia (Zhou, 1999; Wang et
al., 2003; Zhang, 1999); possible distribution in Russia and in N Korean as well
(Smith et al., 2008; Won & Smith, 1999).
Habitat: Mixed deciduous and coniferous forests between 300 and 900 m a.sl. (Zhou
& Ma, 2002; Zhou et al., 2003). Their activities are rather restricted beyond old
growth forest and are common on flat plans and slopes facing south (Zhou et al.,
2003). Typical tree species in the forest consist of Alnus mandshurica, Fraxinus
mandshurica, Phellodendron amurese, Pinus koraiensis and Taxus cuspidate.
Besdies consuming available herbaceous plants on the forest floor, they also
consume young stems of Populus spp. and Befwla spp. (Zhou, 1999).
Life History: Breeding season starts in April; the litter size is between one and two
(Smith et al., 2008). Apart from reproduction, Zhou & Ma (2002) studied the age
composition of Manchurian Hare in Jilin, China based on lens weight model. Their
studies suggested that the overall sex ratio is neutral. Sex ration is male-biased in
juvenile and in sub adult groups. However, population of male declined to as low as
30% less than female in adult group.
Threats: The overall population of Manchurian Hare is stable (Wang et al., 2003).
However, sharp decline was reported in Mt. Changbai, Jilin of China due to
unsustainable hunting (Zhou & Ma, 2002). The record of Manchurian Hare in the
Korean peninsula is reaching a decade old (Won & Smith, 1999).
Remarks:
1) Formerly included in L. brachyurus (Hoffmann & Smith, 2005).
2) Parapatric with L. coreanus in distribution and sympatric with L. timidus and L. tolai
(Hoffmann & Smith, 2005).
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Red List: LC, Reported sharp decline in Jilin of China. Current distribution in Russia
and Korea are uncertain.
Lepus nigricollis (F. Cuvier, 1823), Indian Hare
India Hare is vastly distributed in the Indian subcontinent including Bangladesh,
India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka (Hoffmann & Smith, 2005; Jain et al., 2007; Hameed et
al., 2002). It inhabits a wide range of habitats including desert, scrubland and jungle
(Flux & Angermann, 1990). Vegetation consist mainly grasses such as Dichanthium
annulatum, Cenchrus pennisetiformis and Cynodon dactylon in Pakistan (Hameed et
al., 2002) and Capparis spp., Panicum spp., and Crotalaria spp. in India (literature
cited in Flux & Angermann, 1990).
Remarks: Information regarding the abundances, habitat selection and life history
are still largely based on Flux & Angermann (1990).
Red List: LC, however, little information is available regarding its abundances and
habitat selection in recent decades..
Lepus oiostolus (Hodgson, 1840). Woolly Hare
Woolly Hare is distributed in C W China, in Sichuanm Qighai, Xianjiang, and Xizang
(Cui, 2003; Sheng, 2006; Huang, et al., 2007; Zong et al., 2005; Jiang et al., 2001b)
and India, along the trans-Himalayan (Mishra et al., 2001). Populations of Woolly
Hare occupy a wide range of habitat, including montane meadows, shrub meadow,
forest and tundra between 3000 and 5000 m a.sl. (Zong et al., 2005; Smith et al.,
2008; Mishra et al., 2001). Breeding season begins in April and litter size is two
(Smith et al., 2008).
Remarks: The distribution of L. oiostolus might be clear as it was repeatedly
mentioned in many literatures. However its abundances and its biology is poorly
understood. Livestock competition for vegetations in the trans-Himalayan might be
potential threats for control measurements (Mishra et al., 2001).
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Red List: LC, hunting and overgrazing by livestock are potential threats to Wooly
hare.
Lepus peguensis (Blyth, 1855). Burmese Hare
Burmese Hare is distributed in Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam
(Flux & Angermann, 1990). Recent records were found in Laos, in Dong Khanthung
and Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Timmins & Vongkhamheng,
1996a,b); Thailand, in Kaeng Krachan National Park (Grassman, 2000); and
Vietnam, in Cat Tien National Park (Polet & Ling, 2004). There were no direct
surveys of Burmese Hare in recent decades although it is believed that they are
generally widespread (Polet & Ling, 2004). Suitable habitat is largely unknown,
reportedly in clear cut forest and open land (Flux & Angermann, 1990).
Remarks:
1) The distribution of Burmese Hare might be widespread. However, our current
understanding regarding its habitat and its biology are poorly understood.
Populations of Burmese Hare might be stable in National Parks (Polet & Ling, 2004).
2) The species status of Burmese Hare remains debatable (Suchentrunk, 2004).
Red List: LC, however its habitat and its biology are poorly understood. Suggest
assigning DD if no additional information is available in the near future.
Lepus sinensis (Gray, 1832). Chinese Hare
Distribution: SE China in Gansu, Guangdong, Guizouh, Hunan and Zhejiang (Song
et al., 2002; Wu, 2003; Chen, 2000b; Deng et al., 1996; Jiang et al., 2007); Taiwan
as subspecies L. sinensis formosanus (Chen, 1993); and N Vietnam (Smith et al.,
2008).
Habitat: Occupies a variety of habitat from wetlands above sea level to forests in
mountains around 2000 m a.s.l. (Jiang et al., 2007; Deng et al., 1996). In Mt. Yuelu,
Hunan, the forest is dominated by Castanopsis spp., Cyclobalanopsis glauca and Ilex
!'!
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taiwanicola (Deng et al., 1996). In Taiwan, they forage along the forest edge and
consume vegetations such as Juncus leschenaultia, Eleocharis conquest, Ligularia
japonica and Denstaedtia scalar (Chen, 1993; Chang, 1999).
Life History: Breeding season last from April until August (Smith et al., 2008).
Reproduce up to three times a year and litter size is between three and four (Song et
al., 2002).
Threats: Unsustainable hunting is the major threat to Chinese Hare (Deng et al.,
1996; Jiang, et al., 2007; Xu, 2001). On the contrary, overpopulation was reported in
Wuqi County of Gansu and measurements were already taken in order to reduce its
population size to an acceptable level (Song et al., 2002). In Taiwan, illegal hunting
and habitat destructions are major concerns. National Parks such as Yanymingshan
National Park and Kenting National Park reportedly discovered traps and gun shells
that were targeted at wildlife with similar size (Chen, 1993; Ma, 1996). Urban
expansion also forced the migration of population towards higher elevations in the
central part of the island.
Remarks: Formerly included L. coreanus (Hoffmann & Smith, 2005).
Red List: LC, hunting and habitat lost due to land conversion are potential threats.
Lepus tibetanus (Waterhouse, 1841). Desert Hare
Desert Hare is distributed in Afghanistan, NW China, Pakistan and S Siberia (Smith
et al., 2008). Occupies arid land and steppe; consumes vegetations in grassland or
shrubland on the slopes of river banks (Smith et al., 2008).
Breeding season
unknown; however, it could reproduce up to three times per year with litter size no
less than three (Simth et al., 2008). Its taxonomic status has a long history of unrest
debates which was included in L. europaeus, L. tolai, L. capensis one way or the
other since 1930’s (Hoffmann & Smith, 2005). Therefore many field data were unable
to reflect the distribution and status of Desert Hare. Despite the lack of relevant
information and its taxonomic status is still questionable, Desert Hare is less likely to
be categorized as endangered (Smith et al., 2008).
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Red List: LC, unrest taxonomic debate might led to difficulties in accessing its Red
List category.
Lepus timidus (Linnaeus, 1758). Mountain Hare
Distribution: Across Asia and Europe (Hoffmann & Smith, 2005). In Asia, Mountain
Hare is distributed in N China in Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang (Aptimi et
al., 2003; Jin et al., 2006; Tang 2003); Japan, exclusively in Hokkaido as subspecies
L. t. ainu (Yamada, 2002); and Russia from Scandiavia to E Siberia (Smith et al.,
2008).
Habitat: Coniferous forests with rich grassland alongside; during winter, Mountain
Hare digs tunnels under snow cover as deep as one meter for forage and passage
purposes (Jin et al., 2006; Smith et al., 2008). In Japan, apart from their natural
habitat, L. t. ainu also occupies Soybean farmland which produced considerable
amount of damage to Soybean seedlings.
Life History: Breeding season starts in early spring where gestation period last for
50 days with litter size between one and two (Smith et al., 2008).
Threats: Observed sharp decline of population in Heilongjiang, China. A survey in
the province suggested that their population is around 0.88 per km2 (Jin et al., 2006).
Major reasons for its population decline are because of hunting and land conversion
(Jin et al., 2006; Lu et al., 2001). In the meantime, Mountain Hare is considered as
pest in Inner Mongolia with notable damages to seedlings, shoots and leaves (Tang
et al., 2003). Therefore the effects of pest control to their population in China require
further study. Similar situation also appears in Japan, whether the control of Mountain
Hare in Soybean farmland would affect the overall population in Hokkaido requires
further study.
Red List: LC for its global status. Close monitory is essential for its already declining
population in China and Japan.
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Lepus tolai (Pallas, 1778). Tolai Hare
Central Asia; S Siberia; S Mongolia in Omnogobi Aimag; and C, N China in Gansu,
Hebei, Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Shanxi, Xinjiang. (Smith et al., 2008; McCarhy et al.,
2005; Wang, 2007; Hou, 1994; Tang et al., 2003; Li et al. 2005; Chen, 2000a). Tolai
Hare inhabits fragmented grassland in desert steppe and loess plateau in China and
Mongolia around 1000 m a.s.l. (Reading et al., 1999; Teng et al., 2003; Chen,
2000a). Populations were also found in farmlands and plantation forest (Chen, 2000;
Lu et al., 1996; Li et al., 2005). Reproduce up to three times per year with litter size
between two and six (Smith et al., 2008).
Red List: LC, status of its abundance is unclear.
Lepus yarkandensis (Günther, 1778). Yarkand Hare
Yarkand Hare is an endemic species of China, distributed exclusively in Tarim Basin
of Taklimakan Desert, S Xinjiang (Wang, 1998; Li et al., 2006b). Yarkand Hare
occupies forests along the Tarim River dominated by Tamarix spp., and Populus spp.
River (Li et al., 2003; Smith et al., 2008). Their populations are patchy with observed
subdivision of genetic content (Smith et al., 2008). The latest population estimation
was 200,000 (Wang, 1998). Their breeding season is between February and
September (Smith et al., 2008). Litter size between two and five (Gao, 1983).
Threats: Illegal hunting and development of petroleum infrastructures are major
threats to Yarkland Hare since the early 1980’s (Gao, 1983; Li et al., 2006b).
Red List: VU A1cd (Smith et al., 2008). Yarkand Hare has a very restricted
distribution, possible genetic drift (Li et al., 2006b) and unknown effects of petroleum
infrastructures in the Basin.
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Genus Nesolagus (Forsyth-Major, 1899)
Nesolagus netscheri (Schlegel, 1880), Sumatran Striped Rabbit
Sumatran Striped Rabbit is distributed on Sumatra of Indonesia. It represents the
southernmost distribution of Lagomorphs in Asia that passes the equator. This
species inhabits in remote montane forest between 600 and 1200 m a.s.l. (Can et al.,
2001; Flux 1990). This species is critically endangered and there were only two
sighting record by automatic camera in Bukit Barisan National Park (BBC News
2007) and Kerinci Seblat National Park (literature cited in Surridge et al., 1999). The
previous sighting before 1998 was 26 years ago in 1972 (Flux, 1990). Current
knowledge on almost every aspect of this species remains very limited.
Remarks: After the most extensive yet incomplete description of this species by Flux
(1990), there is no study alike that could provide any missing information for this
species. Within the past 2 decades there were only two sighting record in 1998 and
2007. With the difficulties of sighting and understanding the biology of this species,
conservation or rescue program are difficult to implement. Habitat survey from the
last camera captured location and installing more cameras around the sighted
location would be initial steps for understanding the situation of Sumatran Striped
Rabbit.
Red List: CR B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v);C2a, formerly CR B1+2abcde, C2a ver 2.3 (1994).
Only two sighting record were filed for the past 20 years. Little information were
available for understanding its situation and status.
Nesolagus timminsi (Averianov, Abramoc and Tikhonov, 2000). Annamite
Striped Rabbit.
Annamite Striped Rabbit is distributed in the C, N part of the Annamite Range
between the border of Laos and Vietnam (Can et al., 2001). This species was first
discovered in a local food market of Ban Lak in Laos in 1995 (Surridge et al., 1999;
Can et al., 2001). Its vertical distribution remains uncertain as there were mismatch of
information between the discovered location (200 m a.s.l.) and the information
provided by local hunters (in higher elevation) (Can et al., 2001). Only a handful of
"!!
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records were available for study and its current distribution and abundances are
largely unknown.
Threats: Unsustainable Hunting, permanent traps were sighted in its discovered
location (Can et al., 2001).
Remarks: Since its first discovery in 1995 and a follow up expedition in 2001 there
are no further records regarding its presence. There are only a handful of confirmed
records of this species available for study. This species is classified as data deficient
in IUCN Red List where it is believed that they are in fact endangered due to the lack
of follow up discoveries for the past seven years and intensive hunting pressure
within the region.
Red List: EN B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v), formerly DD. The raise of its endangered status can be
summarized into two main reasons: 1) >7 years of no record; 2) previous description
of intensive hunting activities in the region. Conservation effort should focus entirely
to survey if this species still exist in the wild.
Genus Pentalagus (Lyon, 1904)
Pentalagus furnessi (Stone, 1900), Amami Rabbit
Distribution: Endemic species of Japan distributed on the remote islands of Amami
and Tokuno (Yamada, 2008).
Habitat: A forest-dwelling Rabbit, occupies mature forests and cut-over areas in hilly
terrain up to 700 m a.s.l. (Sugimura et al., 2000; Yamada, 2008). Vegetation in
mature forests are broad-leaved evergreen forest dominated by Castanopsis sieboldii
and Schima wallichii, whereas cut-over areas consist of perennial grasses
Miscanthus sinensis and ferns Dicranopteris pedata (Sugimura et al., 2000). Amami
Rabbit consumes young parts of plants as well as grasses in forest gaps and edges
(Yamada, 2008). It burrows L-shaped tunnels or occupies natural burrows in rocks
and dead logs for shelters and breeding purposes (Yamada, 2008). Information
regarding its territoriality and sociality are fairly unknown although vocalization and
ground beating behaviour was observed (Yamada, 2008).
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Threats: Severe threats by human activities (logging activities and road construction)
and predations by non-indigenous animals (dogs, cats and Indian Mongoose)
(Sugimura et al., 2000). To date, the population estimation of Amami Rabbit is
between 2000 and 4800 on Amami Island, which is 20% lower than its first
population in 1994 (Yamada, 2008).
Remarks: Amami Rabbit is one of the most primitive Lagomorph in the word
(Sugimura, 1990). They only exist in Amami Island and Tokuno Island which their
respective land area is 820km2 and 250 km2. While many conservation efforts were
already established for Amami Rabbit conservation, it appears that logging and road
construction are still active with the support from government by means of subsidies.
Red List: EN B1b(ii,iii,iv)+2ab(ii,iii,v), formerly EN A2b,B1+2bce,C1 ver 2.3 (1994).
Logging activities and the expansion of Indian Mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) are
major threats to the survival of Amami Rabbit.
Its population is continuously
decreasing.
Family Ochotonidae (Thomas, 1897), Pika
Genus Ochotona (Links, 1795)
Ochotona alpina (Pallas, 1773). Alpina Pika
Distribution: N China, in Gansu, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Mongolia, Ningxia and N
Xinjiang (Liu, 2005; Shen et al., 1994; Huang et al., 2007; Chu et al., 2006; Ma &
Jiang, 2006); Kazakhstan; Mongolia and Russia (Smith et al., 2008; Tinnin et al.,
2008). Possible distribution in Mt. Altai, Altai Republic and Russia (Ricankova, et al.,
2006).
Habitat: Inhabits rocks and crevices in mixed forest and grassland along the border
of tree line above 2000 m a.sl. (Jiang et al., 2001a; Ricankova et al., 2006; Smith et
al., 2008). In Mt. Changbai of China, populations of Alpina Pika were found in stunted
Ermans birch (Betula ermanii) forest mixed with grassland which consist of Japanese
globe flower (Trollius japonicus), wide-word parnassia (Parnassia palustris), Sitka
burnet (Sanguisorba sitchensis), etc. (Yang & Xu, 2003). In Qinghai, they were found
"#!
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in grasslands above 3000 m a.s.l. with dominated species such as Kobresia spp. (Ma
& Jiang, 2006). In addition to their natural habitat, they were also found in Scots Pine
plantation (Shen et al., 1994). Observed caching behavior with large haypiles (up to
30 kg/ha) (Smith et al., 2008). Habitats in other countries are unknown.
Life History: Alpina Pika is monogamous, breeding season last from May to
September (Jiang et al., 2001a) with distinct vocalization by male for mating and
other warning purposes (Smith et al., 2008). Deliver up to 3 young per season (Smith
et al., 2008)
Threats: Generally considered as pest due to competition with livestock for
vegetation (Liu, 2005).
Remarks:
1) O. argentata and O. hyperborean were previously considered as O. alpina;
however, both species have different chromosome numbers (Hoffmann & Smith,
2005).
2) Records in Mt. Altai were unclear between O. alpina and O. pallasi.
Red List: LC. However the effects of pest control is unknown.
Ochotona argentata (Howell, 1928). Silver Pika
Endemic species of China, restrictedly distributed in Mt. Helan, Ningxia (Erbajeva &
Ma, 2006). Silver Pika is rock-dwelling, inhabits rock crevices in forests with caching
behavior (Smith et al., 2008). Information regarding its life history remains unknown.
Threats: Unknown
Remarks:
1) Formerly included as subspecies of O. alpina and of O. pallasi, however, Silver
Pika is unique in morphology, number of chromosomes, molecular characteristics
and vocalizations (Smith et al., 2008). Confusion still remains whether O. argentata
and O. helanshanensis are separate species (Hoffmann & Smith, 2005).
"$!
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2) For taxonomic description between O. argentata, O. alpina and O. pallasi, please
refer to Erbajeva & Ma (2006) and Lissovsky et al. (2007).
Red List: CR B1ab(i,ii)+2a, formerly CR A2cd ver 2.3 (1994). Silver Pika has an
extremely restricted distribution (2x1.5km at ridge-top area) in Mt. Helan, Ningxia, N
China (Smith et al., 2008). The abundances and the biology of Silver Pika are poorly
understood.
Ochotona cansus (Lyon, 1907). Gansu Pika
Distribution:
Endemic species of China, distributed in Gansu, Inner Mongolia,
Qinghai, Sichuan and Xijiang (Wu et al., 2002; Yang et al., 2006a; Lu 2005).
Habitat: A burrowing Pika, which either construct its own burrows or utilize
abandoned burrows from Plateau Zokor (Myospalax fontanierii) (Zhang et al., 2003).
Inhabits dense vegetation in shrub, meadow, forest and abandoned farmland
between 2700 and 4000 m a.s.l. (Su et al., 2004; Wu et al., 2002). According to Su et
al. (2004), Gansu Pika is highly selective for dicotyledons over monocotyledons. It
consumes mainly Gentiana straminea, Oxytropis spp, and Saussurea superba. In
addition, caching behavior starts in late September and it is curial for its survival
during winter. Population density is between 30 and 60 per ha. Vocalization observed
less frequent and shorter duration than Plateau Pika (Ochotona curzoniae) where
both species have overlapping distribution.
Life History: Gansu Pika is monogamous (Smith et al., 2008); breeding season
starts from May until August each year (Jiang et al., 2001a). Deliver four to six young
per litter, the rapid growth of infant Gansu Pika last for 35 days (Su & Liu, 2001).
Threats: Non-threatened species. However their population density is inversely
proportional to livestock density (Liu et al., 1999). Therefore overgrazing by livestock
would devastate their population.
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Remarks:
1) Common name was confused between Jianlu Pika (Smith et al., 2008) and Gansu
Pika (Hoffmann & Smith, 2005). With references to its species name “cansus”, it is
more appropriate to refer its common name as Gansu Pika.
2) Formerly included in O. roylei and later in O. thibetana. However, Gansu Pika is
unique in morphology and ecological niches (Hoffmann & Smith, 2005). ;
3) Intermediate host of parasite Echinococcus multilocularis, which will led to human
alveolar echinococcosis (Wang et al., 2007).
Red List: LC, their population density is inversely proportion to livestock density (Liu
et al., 1999). Therefore overgrazing by livestock would devastate their population.
Ochotona curzoniae (Hodgson, 1858). Plateau Pika.
Distribution: W China, N India and N Nepal. In China, they are distributed in the
Tibetan plateau (i.e. within Qinghai, Xinjiang and Xizang) (Liu & Liu, 2002; Hoffmann
& Smith, 2005; Jiang et al., 2001b).
Habitat: A burrowing Pika inhabits in alpine meadow between 3200 and 4500 m
a.s.l. (Lai & Simth, 2003; Lui & Liu, 2002). They consume vegetations such as
Kobresia spp., Stipa spp., and Carex spp. (Fan et al., 1995; Yin et al., 2004). Plateau
Pika is social, live in family groups and philopatric (Dobson et al., 1998). Highly
vocalize for mating and warning purposes by male, female and its offspring (Smith et
al., 2008). Plateau Pika has high population fluctuates between 100 and 200 per ha
or even higher especially in summer (Yan et al., 2005; Smith et al., 2008). Their
current status in Nepal and India is unknown.
Life History: According to the collected information by Liu & Liu (2002), breeding
season is between April and August. Female Plateau Pika reproduces up to two
times per season with three to four offspring. The growth of Plateau Pika can be
divided into four stages i.e. infant (0th to 10th day), juvenile (10th to 30th day), subadult (30th to 65th day) and adult (65th day thereafter). New born offspring usually
attach to the same family until the end of winter. The lifespan of Plateau Pika is
"&!
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relatively shorter than other Pikas, between 2 and 3 years; high mortality rate before
and during winter (50 to 90%). Their mating system is monogamous, polygamous or
polyandrous (Dobson et al., 1998). Plateau Pika is philopatric, their dispersal
distance is short (Dobson et al., 1998).
Threats: Non-threatened species. Plateau Pika is treated as pest in China and
poisoning scheme has been applied for nearly 50 years (Zhou et al., 2002b).
Remarks: Previously included in O. dauurica as they have overlapping geographic
range in Hainan County, Qinghai, China. These two species were however different
in morphology, number of chromosomes and other molecular information (Hoffmann
& Smith, 2005).
Red List: LC, their current status in Nepal and India is unknown. Their unusual high
population in China might due to complex reasons of human intervention through
poisoning scheme.
Ochotona dauurica (Pallas, 1776). Daurian Pika.
Distribution:
W China, Mongolia and Russia. In China, they are distributed in
Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Qinghai, Xizang Hebei, Liaoning and Shanxi (Liu et
al., 2004; Wang & Zhong, 2006; Zhang et al., 2003; Liu, 2005). In Mongolia, they are
distributed in Ulaanbaatar and Ulaan Tsutgaalan (Matsuzaki et al., 1998; Tinnin et
al., 2008). In Russia, they are distributed in the Buryat Republic.
Habitat: A burrowing pika inhabits in steppe between 1100 and 4000 m a.s.l. (Wang
& Zhong, 2006; Zhang et al., 2003; Tinnin et al., 2008). Annual precipitation is low
(<350 mm) and affects the growth of vegetations which in turn, affects the population
of Daurian Pika (Wang & Zhong, 2006). Vegetations in the Tibetan Plateau consists
of Carex spp., Kobresia spp., Stipa spp., Achantherum splendens and Potentialla
fruticlas (Zhang et al., 2003). Steppe in Inner Mongolia consists of Artemisia frigida,
Leymus chinesis, Stipa krylovii, etc. (Wang & Zhong, 2006). Daurian Pika has distinct
vocalizations and they are highly social (Smith et al., 2008).
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Life History: According to Matsuzaki et al. (1998), breeding season is between April
and September. Female Daurian Pika could reproduce up to two times within the
same season and deliver up to six litters in one time. In laboratory environment, three
infants were born by a female. Newborn infants were weighted around 8.4 g and
completely hairless. Within the first 7 to 10 days, skin gradually darkens and brown
hair grows. At 13 to 21 days old eyes were opened and were able to venture longer
distance. Daurian Pika weans at 4 weeks old and growth completes at 13 weeks old.
Mature Daurian Pika weights between 140 and 170 kg (Matsuzkai, 1998).
Threats: No reported threats.
Remarks:
1) Previously included in O. curzoniae, for details please see O. curzoniae.
2) Two subspecies in China, they are: O. d. bedfordi Thomas, 1908 (together with
shaanxiensis Xu & Wang, 1992) in Henan, Ningxia, Shanxi, Shaanxi; and O. d.
dauurica Pallas, 1776 in N Hebei, Liaoning, Inner Mongolia. The form annectens is
considered as subspecies of O. cansus rather than O. dauurica (Hoffmann & Smith,
2005).
Red List: LC
Ochotona erythrotis (Büchner, 1890). Chinese Red Pika.
Endemic species of China, distributed in the E edge of Tibetan Plateau and
Chaidamu Plateau in Gansu, Qinghai and Sichuan. Chinese Red Pika occupies
many different habitat including arid desert, grassland and forests (Li et al., 2003ab).
Breeding season between May and August, deliver two litters and in total three to
seven offspring in one season (Smith et al., 2008; Jiang et al., 2001a).
Remarks: Previously included O. gloveri and O. rutila.
Red List: LC, however many information regarding its biology, habitat selection are
still poorly understood.
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Ochotona forresti (Thomas, 1923). Forrest’s Pika.
Forrest’s Pika is distributed in Bhutan, China, India and Myanmar. In China, they are
distributed in NW Yunnan and SE Xizang. In Mt. Gaoligong, Yunnan, Forrest’s Pika
occupies mixed broadleaf and conifer forests and shrubs between 2500 and 3500 m
a.s.l. (Li et al., 2005). Vegetation consists of Fagaceae, Ericaceae and Tsuga, with
undergrowth Poaceae and Rhododendron spp. (Li et al., 2005). Population density is
unknown, however, Li et al. (2005) was able to capture 164 Forrest’s Pika between
1995 and 1999 in Mt. Gaoligong, E slope Nujiang Sectioin. There were no further
information regarding its behavior, life history and distribution in other countries.
Threats: Unknown, information regarding its distribution and abundances are limited.
Remarks: Previously included in O. pusilla, O. roylei, and O. thibetanai (Hoffmann &
Smith, 2005).
Red List: Formerly LC/nt, Forrest’s Pika might already met VU A2c+3c as suggested
by Smith et al. (2008). I concluded that its status to be NT as its status is uncertain.
Suggested to change to VU A2c+3c if no additional information regarding its
distribution and abundances in the near future.
Ochotona gaoligongensis (Wang, Gong and Duan 1988). Gaoligong Pika.
Endemic species of China, distributed in Mt. Gaoligong (especially on the eastern
slope of section Nujiang) above 3000 m a.s.l. of Yunnan (Li et al., 2005). Gaoligong
Pika shares the same habitat with Forrest’s Pika. Apart from its type locality, Li et al.,
(2005) was able to capture 165 individual between 1995 and 1999 in E Slope Nujiang
Section of Mt. Gaoligong. Little information is available for this species.
Threats:
Unknown. However, its distribution is extremely restrictedly in Mt.
Gaoligong.
Remarks: O. gaoligongensis might be synonymous or sister species of O. forresti
(Hoffmann & Smith, 2005).
Red List: NT, might qualified for VU B1ab(i,ii,iv) if no additional information.
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Ochotona gloveri (Thomas, 1922). Glover’s Pika.
Endemic species of China, distributed in Sichuan, Qinghai, Yunnan and Xizhang. A
rock-dwelling pika occupies rocks and crevices in subalpine and alpine shrub and
grassland above 3700 m a.s.l. (Wang, 2003; Smth et al., 2008). Its distribution in
Sichuan could be as low as 1700 m a.s.l. (Smith et al., 2008). Information regarding
its abundances and life history are missing.
Threats: Unknown. Its current situation is poorly understood.
Remarks: Previously included in O. erythrotis and O. rutila (Hoffmann & Smith,
2005).
Red List: DD, unclear distribution and status since the last review by Smith et al.
(1990), formerly LR/lc.
Ochotona himalayana (Feng, 1973). Himalayan Pika.
Himalayan Pika is a rock-dwelling pika (Yu et al., 2000) endemic to China, distributed
in Xinjiang, particularly in the Tibetan Plateau and in the Pamir Plateau (Zhou et al.,
2002b) between 2400 and 4200 m a.s.l. (Smith et al., 2008). Deliver three to four
offspring per liter (Smith et al., 2008). Little information is available to understand its
distribution, abundances and biology.
Threats: Unknown.
Remarks: Previously considered synonym of O. royle, however, it is now confirmed
that Himalayan Pika is genetically distinct (Yu et al., 2000).
Red List: DD, distribution and abundances are unable to account.
Ochotona hoffmanni (Formosov et al., 1996). Hoffmann’s Pika.
A newly described species distributed in Mongolia. This species was previously
included as subspecies of O. alpina (Hoffmann & Smith, 2005).
No further
information is available to understand almost every aspect of this species.
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Red List: EN B1ab(iii);D2 due to its restricted distribution and the missing of much
information (Smith pers. comm).
Ochotona huangensis (Matschie, 1908). Tsing-Ling Pika.
Endemic species of China, distributed in Chongqing (Ji et al., 2004; Hau & Hu, 2002),
Sichuan (Lu & Hu, 2003), Henan (Lu & Li, 1996). Tsing-Ling Pika occupies forests
and shrubs in mountains (Smith et al., 2008). Very little information is available
regarding the distribution, abundances and biology of this species.
Threats: Unknown.
Remarks: Previously considered as subspecies of O. thibetana, however it is
morphologically (Yu & Zheng, 1992; Lu & Li, 1996) and phylogenetically (Yu et al.,
2000) distinct.
Red List: EN A2d, formerly EN A2d ver 2.3 as subspecies O. thibetana huangensis.
Distribution, abundances and biological description are still poorly understood.
Ochotona hyperborea (Pallas, 1811). Northern Pika.
Distribution: NE China in Heilongjian, Jilin and Inner Mongolia; Japan, exclusively in
Hokkaido as subspecies O. h. yesoensis; Mongolia, Gorkhi-Terelj; and Russia in
mountains surrounding Lake Baikal and Magadem.
Habitat: A rock-dwelling pika inhabits rocky areas surrounded by alpine meadow in
dwarf forests between 1500 and 2000m (Gliwicz et al., 2005; 2006). Northern Pika
lives in pairs and caches bulk hay-pile during late summer for winter consumption
(Gliwicz et al., 2006). They defense large territory (e.g. 900m2 in E Siberia) (Gliwicz
et al., 2005). Both males and females are highly vocal for multipurpose such as
communications, territory advertising and warning of predators (Gliwicz et al., 2005;
Smith et al., 2008).
Life History: Fairly unknown. They reproduce in summer with litter size around two
and up to four young; however only one infant will survive (Smith et al., 2008).
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Threats: Non-threatened species. However, Northern Pika is sparsely distributed in
mountains with low reproductive rate, therefore vulnerable to human impact. The
impact of global warming lead to the lost of suitable habitat to other montane pika
(see Ili’s Pika) might affect Northern Pika as well.
Remarks:
1) Previously included in O. alpina. However O. hyperborean is distinct in morphology
and vocalization (Hoffmann & Smith, 2005).
2) The situation of Northern Pika in Russia is fairly well studied. Gliwicz et al. (2005;
2006) provided information regarding their spatial behavior and food gathering
strategy. Their findings suggested that Northern Pika tends to cache plants with high
secondary compound for winter consumption. Status of Northern Pika in Mongolia
(Tinnin et al., 2008) and in China (Niu et al., 2001) was only understood for its
distribution. The habitat of Japanese Pika (O. h. yesoensis) in Oketo, Hokkaido, Pika,
was recently surveyed in order to suggest for conservation planning (Toshio, 2006).
Red List: LC, however their regional distribution and status in Japan (as subspecies
O. h. yesoensis) and in China requires further investigations.
Ochotona iliensis (Li & Ma, 1986). Ili Pika.
Distribution: Endemic species of China, distribute exclusively in the mountain
ranges of N Tian Shan (Mt. Poluokenu, Mt. Yilianhabierduo, Mt. Tiangeer) and S Tian
Shan (Mt. Tieersiketaniao, Mt. Keketiegaitaniao) (Li, 2004). Populations of Ili Pika are
fragmentally distributed and its current population estimation could be as low as 1300
m a.s.l. (Li, 2004).
Habitat: A rock-dwelling pika occupies cliffs between 2800 and 4100 m a.s.l. (Li,
2004). They consume nearby vegetations such as Dracocephali hetrophylli, Trollius
lilacinus, Poa angustifolia, Phodiola coccinea, Polygonum viviparum etc. and caches
hay-pile for winter consumption. Ili Pika lives individually or in pairs and observed no
vocalization and no social interactions. Natural predators include Ermine (Mustela
erminea), Beech Marten (Martes foina) and raptors.
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Life History: In natural environment, Ili Pika reproduces one time per breeding
season and delivers one to two young (Li, 2004; Smith et al., 2008). Offspring
reaches sexually maturity within a year (Li, 2004).
Threats: Extremely endangered. A recent expedition by Li & Smith (2005) in 2002/3
was unable to have direct sighting of Ili Pika. They concluded that population of Ili
Pika declined sharply over the past decade from 2900 to 1300 in an area no more
than 20,000km2. Possible population decline might due to 1) Plague disease, 2)
Expansion of human population and pastoral activities in higher altitudes; and 3)
Global climate change which force Ili Pika to retreat higher elevation for suitable
habitat.
Remarks:
1) Low population density and fragmented distribution of Ili Pika could led to low gene
flow.
2) An ex situ study conducted by Li et al. (1994) was able to demonstrate that Ili Pika
is suitable to be kept in artificial environment with high adaptability to lower elevation
and types of vegetations, this opens up possibilities for artificial breeding program for
rescue.
Red List: EN A2abc+C2a(i), as concluded by Li & Smith (2005).
Ochotona koslowi (Büchner, 1894), Kozlov’s Pika.
Distribution: Endemic species of China, distributed in Xizang. According to Li et al.
(2000) Kozlov’s Pika is distributed in C, W Mt. Kunlun, S Mt. Kongka and Aerjin
Mountain Nature Reserve (Aqikekule Lake, Tuzi Lake and Yueya River).
Habitat: A steppe-dwelling pika occupies flat plans and valleys between 4200 and
4800 m a.s.l. Inhabits alpine grassland and consumes surrounding vegetation such
as falcate crazyweed (Oxytropis falcate), rock jasmine (Androsace acrolasia) and
creeping false tamarisk (Myricaria prostrata) (Smith et al., 2008). Ili Pika constructs
shallow burrows between 30 and 40 cm with tunnels no longer than 2 m (Li et al.,
2000). They live in family groups in high density (between 44 and 152 burrows per
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ha) (Li et al., 2000). There is no further information regarding their social interactions
and vocalization despite that they live as a community.
Life History: Breeding season is unknown but includes June and July. Litter size
between 4 and 6. (Li et al., 2000)
Threats: Extremely endangered. Kozlovi’s Pika was rediscovered in 1984 after it was
described nearly a century ago. A recent expedition led by Li et al., (2000) in Aerjin
Mountain Nature Reserve concluded that it has a very restricted and fragmented
distribution (800 km between subpopulation). In addition, its population dynamics
remains uncertain.
Remarks: Possible sister species with O. ladacensis (Yu et al., 2000)
Red List: EN B1ab(i,ii,iii), current distribution and status in two of the three
distributed locations (i.e. C, W Mt. Kunlun and S Mt. Kongka) are unknown.
Ochotona ladacensis (Günther, 1986). Ladak Pika.
Distribution: China, India (Kashmir) and Pakistan. In China, they are distributed in
Xinjiang Autonomous Region (Huang et al., 2007), especially in Kulan Mountains (Li
et al., 2006a) and Tibetan Plateau (Yang et al., 2005).
Habitat: A burrowing pika inhabits tundra between 4200 and 4500 m a.s.l. (Smith et
al., 2008; Yang et al., 2005). Vegetation in the Tibetan Plateau consist of Ajania
tibetica, Artemisia rhodantha,Ceratoides compacta, etc. which coverage of less than
10% (Yang et al., 2005). Ladak Pika lives in family with observed social interactions
and vocalizations (Smith et al., 2008).
Threats: Unknown.
Remarks:
1) Possible sister species with O. koslowi (Yu et al., 2000)
2) Little information available regarding its distribution, habitat and biology. The lack
of relevant information might due to its high elevation distribution. No records of
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potential threats, however, habitat lost due to global warming might affect its
distribution and abundances.
Red list: DD. Previously considered as LC, however due to the scarcity of
information especially in India (Kashmir) and Pakistan, DD would be more
appropriate.
Ochotona macrotis (Günther, 1875). Large-eared Pika.
Distribution: W China in Sichuan, Qinghai, Xinjiang and countries nearby sharing
the mountain ranges of Mt. Qilian, Mt. Pamir, Hindu Kush and Himalaya. C Nepal, in
Rasuwa district.
Habitat: Inhabits rocks and crevices in alpine grassland between 3500 and 5000 m
a.s.l. (Smith et al., 2008; Zhou et al., 2002, Aptimi et al., 2003). It is sympatric with O.
roylei which tends to utilize habitats in higher elevation, up to 6400 m a.s.l. (Smith et
al., 2008). Behavior of hay-pile caching and vocalization might be atypical for Largeeared Pika (Smith et al., 2008).
Life History: Breeding season from June to August (Jiang et al., 2001a). Deliver two
to three young per liter (Smith et al., 2008).
Threats: Together with O. curzoniae, Large-eared Pika is considered as pest in
Sanjiangyuan Reserve, Qinghai (Zhou et al., 2002). However unlike O. curzoniae,
effects of pest control are unknown. Large-eared Pika tends to have small group size
and distribute sparely in high elevation.
Remarks: Previously included in O. roylei.
Red List: DD. With the current information it is inadequate to describe its
abundances and habitat utilization within its geographical range.
Ochotona muliensis (Pen and Feng, 1962). Muli Pika.
Endemic species of China distributed in W Sichuan, Muli region (Niu et al., 2001)
around 3600 m a.s.l. Muli Pika is only known from its type locality, no record since
then. Previously considered as subspecies of O. gloveri, however, distinct in
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!
morphology (Niu et al., 2001) and occupies steppe rather than rocks (Smith et al.,
1990).
Remarks: Extremely rare and restricted in distribution. Apart from its type locality, no
further information regarding its distribution and abundances are available.
Red List: DD, distribution and abundances are still fairly unknown. Suggested VU
B1ab(i,ii,iv) if relevant information are still missing.
Ochotona nigritia (Gong et a.l, 2000). Pianma Black Pika.
A newly described species distributed in Mt. Gaoligong, S Yunnan, China. Type
locality, which consist of three adults figin Pianma, Luishui County (Gong et al.,
2000). In addition, five individuals were discovered in the S slope of Mt. Gaoligong
Nujiang section between Luishui and Gongshan County (Li et al., 2005). It occupies
shrubland which consist of stunted vegetations such as Sinarundinaria spp. and
Rhododendron spp. between 3000 and 3500 m (Li et al., 2005). It is still unclear
whether Pianma Black Pika is rock-dwelling or steppe-dwelling.
Red List: DD due to the lack of many relevant information.
Ochotona nubrica (Thomas, 1922). Nubra Pika.
Nubra Pika is distributed in China and Nepal across the Tibetan Plateau. It occupies
alpine desert between 3000 and 4500 m a.s.l. and lives in family groups (Smith et al.,
2008). Nubra Pika has been assigned to O. pusilla, O. roylei and O. thibetana from
different time period. Therefore its distribution and abundances is unable to account
independently.
Red List: DD due to no updated information is available for assessing its category.
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Ochotona pallasi (Gray, 1867). Pallas’s Pika.
Distribution: N China, in Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang (Hou et al., 1996; Zhou,
1995); C Kazakhstan (Yun, 2000); Mongolia (Wesche et al., 2007; Wesche & Retzer,
2005; Retzer & Reudenbach, 2005; Retzer, 2007); and Altai Republic, Russia
(Ricankova, 2006). The species name is often referred as O. pricei in Russian
literature (Hoffmann & Smith, 2005). Possible distribution in Mt. Altai, Altai Republic,
Russia (Ricankova, et al., 2006).
Habitat: Semi-arid land in plateaus between 2000 and 2800 m a.s.l. (Retzer, 2007).
In Mongolia, the annual precipitation can be as low as 150 m with temperature
between -18 and 20°C (Wesche et al., 2007). Palla’s Pika consumes vegetation
such as Stipa spp., Allium spp. and Agropyron cristantum (Retzer, 2007). They
burrow holes with multiple entrances (>400 per ha) (Hou et al., 1996; Smith et al.,
2008) which enhances the nutrient flow in the soil as well (Wesche et al., 2007).
Life History: The lifespan of Palla’s Pika could reach four years which is relatively
long in terms of Pika. They are polygynous with distinct vocalization for guarding and
mating purposes, except O. p. pricei. Reproduce as many as 12 offspring within a
given breeding season where gestation last slightly more than three weeks (Smith et
al., 2008).
Threats: Potentially considered as pest in Mongolia due to high population and
grazing competition with livestock (Retzer, 2007). Studies suggested that its negative
impact to vegetations is less likely; rather foraging range of livestock and
precipitations are more important factors (Retzer, 2007; Retzer & Reudenbach,
2005). O. p. hamica and O. p. sunidica are threatened subspecies with no further
information regarding their status for the past 20 years.
Remarks: Many of the Palla’s Pika study were related to livestock-pika interactions
in Mongolia. No further information for subspecies O. p. hamica, and O. p. sunidica
despite that they are threatened species.
Red List: LC, suggested further investigation for subspecies O. p. hamica and O. p.
sunidic. No information is available to account its current distribution and status.
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Ochotona pusilla (Pallas, 1769). Steppe Pika.
An ancient pika distributed in Russia and Kazakhstan (Niu, 2004; Hoffmann & Smith
2005). Distribution of Steppe Pika is fairly unclear with only one indirect record from
Kazakhstan (Katzner, 2006) in recent decades. It occupies arid or desert steppe with
burrowing behavior (Smith et al., 1990). Adult Steppe Pika could reproduce three to
five litters per season where litter size could be as many as thirteen (Smith et al.,
1990).
Threats: Unknown, exceptionally rare.
Remarks: Previously included in O. nubrica, O. forresti, and O. thibetana (Hoffmann
& Smith, 2005). O. pusilla is genetically distinct and is an ancient species (Niu et al.,
2004).
Red List: DD, formerly VU A1cd, C2a ver 2.3 (1994). Little information is available to
understand its current distribution and abundances.
Ochotona roylei (Pallas, 1769). Steppe Pika.
Distribution: Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau, crossing the borders of China (Li
et al., 2005; Dang et al., 1995; Yang et al., 2005; Wang, 2003), India (Dhyani & Kala,
2005; Ballaabh et al., 2007; Kala, 2004; Silori, 2004; Bagchi & Mishra, 2006) and
Nepal (Khana, 2007; Jackson 1996).
Habitat: A rock-dwelling pika inhabits between 3400 and 4500 m a.s.l. (Kala, 2004;
Li et al., 1996) and even up to 5200 m a.s.l. in the Tibetan Plateau (Dang et al.,
1995). Observed close contact with human population (Silori, 2004) and might inhabit
in rock wall huts (Smith et al., 2008). Natural habitats included alpine meadow, mixed
Fargesia spp. and Rhododendrons spp. forest and spruce forest (Yang, 2005;
Khanal, 2007; Li et al., 2005). Caching behavior was observed in Napal
with
possible symbiotic relationship with Scaly Brested Wren Babbler (Pnoepyge
albiventer) (Shrestha et al., 1999).
Life History: Deliver one to two young per litter (Smith et al., 2008).
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Threats: Non-threatened species. However, it consumes certain medicinal plants in
the Himalayas might trigger control measurements by collectors (Dhyani & Kala,
2005; Ballaabh et al., 2007).
Red List: LC
Ochotona rufescens (Gray, 1842). Afghan Pika.
Afghan Pika is distributed in central Asia in the Middle East. Recent study could only
confirm that it is distributed in Iran (Shah Abbasi and Razavi Khorasan Province)
(Azarkar et al., 2006; Obuch & Kri!tín, 2004). Inhabit plateaus and stabilized stand
dunes in deserts (Azarkar et al., 2006). Natural predator includes Little Owl (Athene
noctua) (Obuch & Kri!tín, 2004). Current information is insufficient to understand its
distribution and abundances.
Red List: DD previously LR/lc ver 2.3 (1994), due to insufficient information in recent
decades and previous report already indicated that its distribution is patchy (Smith et
al., 1990).
Ochotona rutila (Severtzov, 1873). Turkestan Red Pika.
A rock-dwelling pika distributed in central Asia from Tajikistan to China (Hoffmann &
Smith, 2005). In China, it is distributed in Xinjiang (Huang et al., 2007) and Qinghai
(Liu et al., 2002; Liu et al., 2003). Distribution in other countries is unknown.
Turkestan Red Pika occupies rocks and talus between 2000 and 4000 m a.s.l. (Liu et
al., 2003). They caches vegetation within talus, live in small groups and generally
silent compared to other pika (Smith et al., 2008). As for reproduction, their litter size
is two and could reproduce up to four offspring per season (Smith et al., 2008).
Remarks: An allospecies of O. erythrotis and often-included in O. rutila (Hoffmann &
Smith, 2005).
Red List: DD, previously, LR/lc (1994). Information regarding its biology is adequate
to describe this species, however, its distribution and abundances are unclear.
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Ochotona thibetana (Milne-Edwards, 1871). Moupin Pika.
Distribution: W China in Sichuan, Shannxi, Hubei, Chingqing, Yunna and Xizang
(Liu, 2005; Dang, 1995; Yang et al., 2006b, Han & Hu, 2002; Li et al., 2003; Smith et
al., 2008). Possible distribution in W Arunachal Pradesh, India (Mishra et al., 2006).
Habitat: Forests, alpine meadow and alpine shurbland between 2500 and 5000 m
a.s.l. (Liu, 2005, Gong, et al., 2006, Dang, 1995). Types of vegetation correspond to
elevation can be summarized as: 1) Alpine meadow (4000-5000 m a.s.l.) in Tibetan
Plateau (Liu, 2005; Dang, 1995), 2) forest and shrubland (2500-4000 m a.s.l.), in Mt.
Gaoligong and Mt. Haizi of Sichuan and Shaanxi (Li et al., 2005; Li et al., 2007; Gong
et al., 2006). Consumes vegetations such as Kobresia spp. (Xie et al., 2003) and
Bamboo shoots (Fargesia ginlingensis) (Gong et al., 2006). Colonize vegetations as
family groups with burrowing and caching behavior (Smith et al., 2008).
Life History: Breeding season last from May to August each year (Jiang et al.,
2001a). Litter size is between two and five (Smith et al., 2008).
Threats: Together with O. curzoniae, Moupin Pika is considered as pest in China. In
overgrazed grassland these species tends to have higher population density which in
turn accelerate the degradation of grassland. Poisoning scheme has been applied for
more than half a century in order to control Pika and other small mammal alike (Liu et
al., 2005). Situation in India is unknown.
Red List: LC
Ochotona thomasi (Argyropulo, 1948). Thomas’s Pika.
Endemic species of China distributed in Gansu, Qinghai and Sichuan between 3000
and 5000 m a.s.l. (Teng, 2002; Xia et al., 2003; Liu, et al., 2007; Sheng et al., 2006).
Inhabits in alpine shrubland and consume vegetations such as Kobresia spp. and
Polygonum spp. (Xia et al., 2003). While many information are missing, it is believed
that its biology is close to O. cansus (Hoffmann & Smith, 2005). The population of
Thomas’s Pika could reach 16 individuals per ha (Teng, 2002).
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Threats: Unknown, however, believed to be affected by control scheme targeted at
other pikas (e.g O. curzoniae) and rodents (e.g. Myospalax baileyi) in the region
(Zhou et al., 2002a).
Remarks: Sympatric with O. cansus (Hoffmann & Smith, 2008).
Red List: LC, potential threats by control scheme targeted at other pikas and
rodents.
Ochotona turuchanensis (Naumov, 1934). Turuchan Pika.
Turuchan Pika is distributed in Transbaikalia, S Russia and in the Great Khingan
Range, N China (Lissovsky et al., 2007). The taxon turuchanensis was originally
included in O. hyperborea as subspecies (Smith et al., 1990). Full species status was
given as it is unique in ecology, morphology and vocalizations (Lissovsky et al.,
2007). While there are many missing information due to its recent species status,
Turuchan Pika is sympatric with O. hyperborea (Hoffmann & Smith, 2005).
Red List: LC, full species status was given in recent years (Hoffmann & Smith,
2005). It is believed that they are abundant on the Putorana plateau, Russia (Smith
pers. comm.).
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DISCUSSION
The species status of Asian Lagomorphs was discussed in the previous
section. In the following paragraphs, I extended my discussion in order to understand
the current knowledge of Asian Lagomorph study. I discussed the studied locations,
types of common threats and challenges of Asian Lagomorphs study. In addition, I
provided my suggestions for future research.
Studied Locations
The studied locations from literatures were unevenly distributed (fig. 1). China
and its immediate borders received more data than other regions such as SE C Asia,
and N Russia. The imbalances of studied locations were due to three main reasons:
1) Sources of literatures. Information from both Chinese and English literatures was
extracted for this study and their total volumes were comparable (82/83,
Chinese/English). However, Chinese literatures were more dedicated to researches
within China where English literatures were widespread in many countries. Therefore,
more information were available in China due to the over lapping of literatures from
two languages (fig. 1).
2) Species richness. Within Asia, there were altogether 46 identified Lagomorphs
and they were not evenly distributed in the region. Many species were distributed in
SW, C China, Nepal, India, Pakistan and Russia (table 1). Therefore the studied
locations (fig. 1) were much more concentrated in these countries.
3) Inaccessibility. Regions and terrains that were either difficult to gain access due
to hostile climatic conditions (e.g. deserts, summits and tundra) or uncertain political
situations (e.g. N Korea, Myammar, Kashmir, Afghanistan) were major reasons
resulting fewer information that could be collected in these regions.
Based on the studied locations, a general distribution pattern of Lagomorphs was
illustrated in fig. 2. Species of Lepus spp. and Ochotona spp. were widespread and
often overlapped in some areas such as in the Himalayas, Tibetan plateaus and
grasslands in Mongolia. On the contrary, species of Nesolagus spp. and Pentalagous
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spp. were distributed in rather confined and isolated areas. The missing of
Carpolagus spp. in maps was due to the fact that there were no reports on their
situation since Bell et al. (1990).
Fig. 3 illustrated the distribution of Lagomorphs in terms of their Red List
Category. Half of the reviewed species were either classified as threaten species (i.e.
CR, EN or VU) or classified as Data Deficient (DD) that require further investigations
in order to understand their present situation. The rest of the 23 species were
considered as largely abundant for the moment with minor concerns of population
declination.
Types of common threats
Of all types of threats mentioned from the previous section, unsustainable
hunting and pastoralism were the most common threats to many Asian Lagomorphs.
Both threats were repeatedly mentioned in many literatures, however, the intensity of
impact and their specific mechanisms were still poorly understood. Details of
common threats were described below:
1) Hunting is the major threat to Lepus spp. and Nesolagus spp. in Asia. Both legal
and illegal hunting were repeatedly mentioned in many literatures (e.g. Won & Smith,
1999; Zhou & Ma, 2002; Can et al., 2001). However, effects of hunting pressure were
unable to account due to the lack of relevant information such as harvest rate, types
of management and law enforcement.
2) Pastoralism is one of the major threats to Ochotona spp. in grassland habitat. In
Tibetan plateau, China, poisoning scheme has been applied for more than 50 years
in order to control populations of small mammals like pikas from forage competition
with Livestock (Lai & Smith, 2005). The effects of such poisoning scheme were rather
complex as it affects many species in different magnitudes (e.g. O. alpina, O.
curzoniae, O. dauurica and O. gloveri). In addition, secondary poisoning was
reported in predators (Zhou et al., 2002b) affecting even more species within the
ecosystem. Pika and livestock interactions were still poorly understood in many
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grassland habitats and require further investigation in order to reduce the
dependences of chemical control.
In addition to the above-mentioned threats, there is an emerging possibility
that global warming would affect the survival of Lagomorphs in high altitudes. This
was observed from the situation in Ili pika (O. iliensis) where climate change forces
the species to retreat to higher altitudes for suitable habitat; this in turn reduces their
geographical range and isolating population into groups. The effects of climate
change to Lagomorphs; especially pikas which they are sensitive to temperature
change (Morrison & Hik, 2008) were not clearly understood. Further investigations in
population dynamics is necessary in order to understand if climate change would
devastate the survival of Lagomorphs.
Challenges of Asian Lagomorphs study
The dynamic change of taxonomy is one of the challenges in understanding
the species distribution of Lagomorphs from literatures. This is because the
difficulties in tracing distribution when compared with the latest taxonomy. One of the
much clearer examples for explanation was the distribution of Cape Hare (L.
capensis). Cape Hare was originally described as a widespread species in Africa and
in Asia (Flux & Angermann, 1990). However it is now considered as an African
species (Hoffmann & Smith, 2005). Therefore the distributions of “Cape Hare” in
Central Asia and China from past literatures were no longer valid and their species
names were unable to be justified. Similar situation was also observed especially
within Ochotona spp. where the taxonomic statuses of many species were repeatedly
changed over the years; therefore the geographical range of respective species in
this study would be easily over or under estimated by large (e.g. O. alpina, O.
dauurica, O. gloveri, etc. see text). One of the possible solutions for better tracing of
past distribution was to publish distribution maps more frequently for those with
complicated taxonomic situations.
In addition to the challenges from taxonomy, the medium of language is a
major challenge for Asian Lagomorphs study as well. English is not the native
language for most of the Asian countries, therefore many information were unable to
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reach the international scientific communities. The inclusion of Chinese literatures in
this study was able to proof that the contribution from native languages could be
significant. Literatures written in Russian, Korean, Japanese and Arabic were
suggested for further investigations in order to obtain more information from
respective countries.
Suggestions for future research
Information of species distribution, abundances, and biological information
(e.g. habitat, life history, behavior etc.) are three major elements for understanding
the situation of Lagomorphs in the field (Hackländer et al., 2008). Species distribution
and abundances are particularly important for assessing Red List category and
criteria for conservation means. From all reviewed literatures, information of species
distribution was significantly higher than species abundances and biological
information. Therefore it is clear that future research should be focused especially in
the population dynamics and the biology of the surveyed species. Studies in National
Parks or other protected areas are particularly important and relatively easy to start
with, due to their special values for conservation and protection purposes in well
defined areas. In addition to the subject of research focus, final results are
encouraged to be presented in English so that more rapid exchange of information
could be possible as well.
CONCLUSION
In this study, I reviewed 46 Lagomorphs that were reportedly presented in
Asia. Their respective situation including distribution, habitats, life history and threats
were discussed based on literature review from Chinese and English. In addition,
their Red List category and criteria were assigned based on the latest guideline
version 3.1 from the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN). From my assessment, there were 13 species evaluated as
threatened species (i.e. Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable), 10
species with insufficient information (i.e. Data Deficient) and 22 species with minor
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conservation concerns (i.e. LC). Due to the reconstruction of taxonomy, Cape hare
(Lepus capensis) is no longer an Asian species. Future research should aware of
such taxonomical change.
Apart from discussing the current status of individual species, I extended my
discussion to account for the current knowledge and opportunities of Asian
Lagomorphs study as well. The overall distributions of studied locations were
illustrated in respect to their species, genus, Red List categories and medium of
language. From this study, it is clear that the distribution of Lepus spp. and Ochotona
spp. were widespread and overlapping in many areas, especially in the Himalayas,
Tibetan Plateau and grasslands in Mongolia where Nesolagus spp., Pentalagous
spp. and Carpolagus spp. were distributed in rather confined and isolated areas. All
species of Nesolagus spp. (2), Pentalagous spp. (1) and Carpolagus spp. (1) were
threatened species, where nine species and subspecies of Ochotona spp. and three
species of Lepus spp. were considered threatened as well. Hunting and pastoralism
were the most common threats to many Lagomorphs; however, the magnitudes of
impact and mechanisms were poorly understood. In addition, effects of global
warming might be a potential threat to species inhabits in high altitude (e.g. Ochotona
iliensis, O. gaoligonensis, O. koslowi, O. ladacensis, etc.). The dynamic change in
taxonomy and the medium of language used in publications were major challenges
for understanding the situation of Lagomorphs from literatures. I suggest more
frequent literature review for taxonomic uncertain species and cross-referencing
literatures in different languages (e.g. Russian, Japanese, Arabic, and Chinese etc.).
The three major elements for understanding the situations of Lagomorphs in the field
are species distribution, abundances and its biological information. Species
distribution and abundances were basic information for Red List category and criteria
assessment. From this study, information of species abundances and biological
information were relatively fewer than species distribution suggesting that more effort
is needed in gathering information from these aspects. Situations of Lagomorphs in
National Parks and protected areas were particularly important and relatively easy for
surveying due to their special conservation values in well defined areas. Therefore it
is encouraged to conduct regular surveys in National Parks and publishing results in
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English for more rapid exchange of information within the international scientific
communities.
fig. 1 The overall distribution of studied locations extracted from literatures. There were altogether 165
literatures with 444 study sites in many parts of Asia.
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fig. 2 An overview of genus distribution of Lagomorphs from reviewed literatures. Lepus spp. and
Ochotona spp. are widespread in many countries where Nesolagus spp., and Pentalagus spp. are
distributed in isolated or confined areas. Carprolagus spp., was not in the map due to no updates was
found after Bell et al., (1990)
fig. 3 The relative locations of Lagomorphs in regards to their respective Red List category.
Carprolagus hispidus was not in the map due to no updates were found after Bell et al., (1990). The
Red list category and criteria of C. hispidus is EN A4c.
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&#!
!
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&$!
!
APPENDIX
Appendix I
List of Lagomorph by countries. (Modified from Alves & Hackländer, 2008)
Afghanistan
L. tolai
O. thomasi
L. tibetanus
L. yarkandensis
L. tolai
O. alpina
Cambodia
O. macrotis
O. argentata
L. peguensis
O. rufescens
O. cansus
O.rutila
O. curzoniae
India
O. dauurica
C. hispidus
Bangladesh
O. erythrotis
L. nigricolis
C. hispidus
O. forresti
L. oiostolus
L. nigricolis
O. gaoligongensis
O. curzoniae
O. gloveri
O. forresti
Bhutan
O. himalayana
O. ladacensis
O. rutila
O. huangensis
O. macrotis
O. hyperborea
O. nubrica
Burma
O. iliensis
O. roylei
L. peguensis
O. koslowi
O. rutila
O. rutila
O. ladacensis
O. macrotis
Indonesia
China
O. muliensis
N. netscheri
L. comus
O. nigritia
L. coreanus
O. nubrica
Iran
L. hainanus
O. palasi
L. tolai
L. mandshuricus
O. pusilla
O. rufescens
L. oiostolus
O. roylei
L. sinensis
O. rutila
Japan
L. tibetanus
O. thibetana
L. brachyurus
&%!
!
L. timidus ainu
O. hyperborea
Nepal
Thailand
P. furnessi
C. hispidus
L. peguensis
L. oiostolus
Kazakhstan
O. curzoniae
Uzbekistan
L. tolai
O. macrotis
O. rutila
O. alpina
O. roylei
O. macrotis
Pakistan
Vietnam
O. palasi
L. nigricolis
L. peguensis
O. pusilla
L. tibetanus
L. sinensis
O. rutila
O. ladacensis
N. timminsi
O. roylei
Korea
O. rufescens
L. coreanus
L. mandshuricus
Russia
O. hyperborea
L. mandshuricus
O. alpina
Kyrgyzstan
O. dauurica
O. macrotis
O. hoffmanni
O. rutila
O. hyperborea
O. palasi
Laos
O. pusilla
L. peguensis
O. turuchanensis
Mongolia
Sri Lanka
L. tolai
L. nigricolis
O. alpina
O. hoffmanni
Tajikistan
O. hyperborea
O. macrotis
O. palasi
O. rutila
&&!
!
Appendix II
IUCN Red List Category & Criteria
Current
Year
Suggested
Status
Status
(ver 2.3)
(ver 3.1)
Remarks
Leporidae
Caprolagus hispidus
EN A1c+2c,
1996
EN A4c
The last sighting was 21 years ago
B1+2abcde,
possibly
and counting.
C1
B1ab(i,ii,iii,i
v,v);C1
Lepus brachyurus
LR/lc
1996
LC
Their
population
in
the
remote
islands of Japan is uncertain.
Lepus capensis
LR/lc
1996
n/a
The taxonomy of L. capensis has
been reconstructed. Distribution in
Asia might be distinct or should be
integrated to other species.
Lepus comus
LR/lc
1996
LC
Suggested by Smith et al. (2008).
Rather confined distribution in the
Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau. Situation
in Myanmar is unknown.
Lepus coreanus
LR/lc
1996
LC
The effects of hunting pressure and
habitat destruction require further
investigations.
Lepus hainanus
Lepus mandshuricus
VU A1ac
LR/lc
1996
1996
VU
Suggested by Smith et al. (2008).
A2cd+3cd;
Little
B1ab(iii)
understand its situation in the field.
LC
Reported sharp decline in Jilin of
information
is
available
to
China (Zhou & Ma, 2002). Current
distribution in Russia and Korea are
uncertain.
&'!
!
Lepus nigricollis
LR/lc
1996
LC
Little
information
is
available
regarding its abundances and habitat
in recent decades.
Lepus oiostolus
LR/lc
1996
LC
Hunting and overgrazing by livestock
are potential threats.
Lepus peguensis
LC
1996
LC
Its habitat and its biology are poorly
understood. Suggested to assign DD
if
no
additional
information
is
available in the near future.
Lepus sinensis
LR/lc
1996
LC
Hunting and habitat lost due to land
conversion are potential threats
Lepus tibetanus
--
--
LC
Unrest taxonomic debate might lead
to difficulties in accessing its Red List
category.
Lepus timidus
LR/lc
1996
LC
Overally
stable.
However
close
monitory is essential for its already
declining population in China and
Japan.
Lepus tolai
--
Lepus yarkandensis
LR/nt
-1996
LC
Status of its abundances is unclear.
VU A1cd
Suggested
by
(2008).This
species
restricted
distribution,
Smith
has
et
al.
a
very
possible
genetic drift and unknown effects of
petroleum
infrastructures
in
the
basin.
Nesolagus netscheri
CR
1996
CR
Only two sighting record were filed
B1+2abcde,
B1ab(i,ii,iii,i
for
C2a
v,v); C2a
information
the
past
understanding
20
were
its
years.
Little
available
for
situation
and
status.
&(!
!
Nesolagus timminsi
DD
2002
EN
Two main reasons: 1) >7 years of no
B1ab(i,ii,iii,i
record; 2) previous description of
v,v)
intensive hunting activities in the
region. Conservation effort should
focus entirely to surveying in the
field.
Pentalagus furnessi
EN A2b,
1996
B1+2bce, C1
EN
Logging activities and the expansion
B1b(ii,iii,v)+
of Indian Mongoose (Herpestes
2ab(ii,iii,iv)
javanicus) are major threats to the
survival of Amami Rabbit. Population
continuously dropping.
Ochotonidae
Ochotona alpina
LR/lc
1996
LC
Generally considered as pest due to
competition
with
livestock
for
vegetation (Liu, 2005).
Ochotona argentata
CR A2cd
1996
CR
Extremely
restricted
(2x1.5km
at
B1ab(i,ii)+
ridge-top area) in Mt. Helan, Ningxia,
2a
N China (Smith et al., 2008). The
abundances and the biology of Silver
Pika are poorly understood.
Ochotona cansus
LR/lc
1996
LC
Their population density is inversely
proportional to livestock density (Liu
et
al.,
1999).
livestock
would
Overgrazing
devastate
by
their
population.
Ochotona curzoniae
LR/lc
1996
LC
Their current status in Nepal and
India is unknown. Their unusual high
population in China might due to
complex
intervention
reasons
through
of
human
poisoning
scheme.
&)!
!
Ochotona dauurica
LR/lc
1996
LC
Precipitation
is
the
curial
factor
affecting its abundances.
Ochotona erythrotis
LR/lc
1996
LC
Its biology and habitat selection are
still poorly understood.
Ochotona forresti
LR/nt
1996
NT
Current
status
is
uncertain.
Suggested to adopt Smith et al.,
(2008) VU A2c+3c if no additional
information regarding its distribution
and abundances in the near future.
Ochotona gaoligongensis
DD
1996
NT
Might qualified for VU B1ab(i,ii,iv) if
no additional information regarding
its distribution and abundances are
available.
Its
biology
is
poorly
understood as well.
Ochotona gloveri
LR/lc
1996
DD
Unclear distribution and status since
the last review by Smith et al. (1990).
Ochotona himalayana
LR/lc
1996
DD
Distribution
and
abundances
are
unable to account.
Ochotona hoffmanni
Ochotona huangensis
VU D2
EN A2d
1996
1996
EN
A poorly understood species with
B1ab(iii);
restricted distribution (Smith pres.
D2
comm.).
EN A2d
Distribution,
abundances
and
(= O. thibetana
biological description are still poorly
huangensis)
understood.
Ochotona hyperborea
LR/lc
1996
LC
Their regional distribution and status
in Japan (as subspecies O. h.
yesoensis),
Korea
and
China
requires further investigations.
Ochotona iliensis
VU D1+2
1996
EN A2abc;
Concluded by Li & Smith (2005).
C2a(i),
Current
population
estimation
is
'*!
!
1300 in no more than 20,000 km
Ochotona koslowi
EN B1+2abd
1996
2
EN
Current distribution and status in two
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
of the three distributed locations (i.e.
C, W Mt. Kunlun and S Mt. Kongka)
are unknown.
Ochotona ladacensis
LR/lc
1996
DD
Scarcity of information especially in
India (Kashmir) and Pakistan
Ochotona macrotis
LR/lc
1996
DD
With the current information it is
inadequate
to
describe
its
abundances and habitat utilization
within its geographical range.
Ochotona muliensis
DD
1996
DD
Distribution and abundances are still
fairly unknown.
Ochotona nigritia
NE
--
DD
Newly described species. Insufficient
information to account its distribution
and abundances.
Ochotona nubrica
LR/lc
1996
DD
This species has been assigned to
O. pusilla, O. roylei and O. thibetana
from different time period; therefore
current
status
requires
further
investigations.
Ochotona pallasi
LR/lc
1996
LC
O. p. hamica
CR A1a+2d
1996
CR A2ad
O. p. sunidica
EN A2d
1996
EN A2d
Suggested further investigation for
the
endangered
status
subspecies.
No
available
account
to
information
its
of
is
current
distribution and status.
Ochotona pusilla
VU A1cd,
C2a
1996
DD
Little
information
is
available
to
understand its current distribution
and
abundances.
Previously
included in O. nubrica, O. forresti,
and O. thibetana
'!!
!
Ochotona roylei
LR/lc
1996
LC
It consumes certain medicinal plants
in the Himalayas that might trigger
control measurements by collectors
Ochotona rufescens
LR/lc
1996
DD
Insufficient
information
in
recent
decades and previous report already
indicated
that
its
distribution
is
patchy (Smith et al., 1990).
Ochotona rutila
LR/lc
1996
DD
The distribution and abundances
does not reflect from our current
knowledge although its biology is
understood.
Ochotona thibetana
LR/lc
1996
LC
Considered
as
pest
in
China,
unknown situation in India.
Ochotona thomasi
LR/nt
1996
LC
Potential threats by control scheme
targeted at other pikas and rodents
in the same region.
Ochotona turuchanensis
--
--
LC
Full species status was given in
recent years (Hoffmann & Smith,
2005). It is believed that they are
abundant on the Putorana, Russia
(Smith, pers. comm.).
'"!
!
Appendix III
An overview of distribution of Lagomorphs from reviewed literatures.
'#!
!