General Article
Natural Product Radiance, Vol. 7(4), 2008, pp.374-387
Potential antifungal plants for controlling building fungi
Rajesh K Verma*, Leena Chaurasia and Sadhana Katiyar
Building Pests and Mycology Laboratory
Environmental Science and Technology Division
Central Building Research Institute (CBRI), CSIR
Roorkee - 247 667, Uttarakhand, India
* Correspondent author, E- mail: [email protected]; Phone: 91-1332-283347
Received 19 March 2007; Accepted 10 October 2007
Abstract
The synthetic fungicides such as Pentachlorophenol, Tributyltin oxide, Zinc carboxylate,
etc. have been removed from markets due to their harmful effects on the environment, residue
problem and carcinogenic nature. However, the fungicides derived from plant products are safer
alternatives for fungi control because they are richest source of bioactive phytochemicals such as
alkaloids, terpenoides, polyacetylenes, unsaturated isobutylamides and phenolics. Plant products,
traditionally used as biocides in indigenous culture are being re-evaluated for safer means of fungi
control as compared to the synthetic. The present paper is an attempt to summarize antifungal
potency of various plants along with their part (s) used, type of extracts and test fungi. In view of
antifungal properties of some of these plants against some fungi found on buildings, it is hoped
that detailed studies may yield many more effective natural fungicides for controlling various types
of building fungi. Some fungi found commonly on buildings have also been discussed in this paper
for ready reference and further studies on their possible control by plant extracts.
Keywords: Antifungal potency, Building fungi, Essential oil, Medicinal plants.
IPC code; Int. cl.8 — A01H 15/00, A61K 36/00, A61P 31/10
Introduction
The number of fungi recorded in
India is about 27,000 species, which is
perhaps the largest biotic community after
insects 1 . Fungi are heterotrophic,
obtaining nutrition in diverse ways from
decaying animals and plants and other
organic matter such as foodstuff, artifacts,
clothes, etc.2.
Every living being on earth is
harmed or benefited directly or indirectly
by fungi. Fungi can attack building,
timbers, stored goods, clothing, animals
and even their own bodies, through allergy
and diseases. They also attack objects,
specimens, books and paintings in
controlled environment. Building fungi
can cause damage to the structures,
decorations and are also responsible for
the indoor air quality2, 3.
374
Building Fungi
Singh (1993), Singh and BechAndersen (1992), Bech-Anderson et al
(1993)4-7 and others8-13 have reported
following fungi on buildings:
Dry rot: The dry rot refers to
the decay of timber caused by Serpula
lacrymans. The fungi mostly attack soft
wood and causes extensive damage. The
fungus has the ability to grow through
plaster, brickwork and masonry and even
to extend over a distance of several meters
from its food sources to attack sound
timber using specialized hyphal strand
(rhizomorphs). The fruiting body of S.
lacrymans was collected near Narkanda,
India4-7.
Wet rot: Wet rot may be caused
by several Basidiomycetes of which the
most important are: Coniophora
puteana, C. marmorata, Phellinus
contigiuus, Donkioporia expansa,
Pleurotus ostreatus, Asterostroma
spp., Paxillus panuoides and Poria
fungi including Amyloporia xantha,
Poria placenta, Antrodia serialis and
A. sinuosa. Wet rot is also called as
white rot as it destroys both cellulose and
lignin, leaving the colour of wood largely
unaltered but producing a soft spongy
texture8.
Soft rot: Soft rot can be
regarded as a superficial form of wet rot.
It is more usually found in timber in
contact with the ground9. The 69 species
of fungi causing soft rot have been
identified, most destructive being
Chaetomium globosum10.
Moulds: The great majority of
moulds, which are found in building,
belong to the class Hypomycetes of the
subdivision Deuteromycotina. Common
species are: Cladosporium spp.,
Penicillium spp., Aspergillus spp.,
Trichoderma viride, T. harziamum,
Alternaria spp., Aureobasidium spp.,
Camposporium spp., Curvularia
spp., Helminthosporium spp.,
Nigrospora spp., Pithomyces spp.,
Pseudotorula spp., Acremonium
indicum, Chateomium globosum,
Drechslera spp., Emericella
nidulans, Epicoccum nigrum,
Fusarium oxysporum, Macrophomina
phaseolina, Memnoniella echinata,
Natural Product Radiance
General Article
Mycelia sterilia, Paecilomyces
variotii, Rhizopus nigricans and
Stachybotrys atra11, 12.
Stain fungi: Many stain fungi
commonly found in building belong to
the class Hypomycetes of the sub division
Deutromycotina (e.g. Aureobasidium
pullulans and Sclerophoma pithyophila).
Staining of sapwood occurs on freshly
felled wood with high moisture content.
Blue stain in oak is caused by fungi such
as Ceratocystis spp., Scylalidium spp.
and Gliocladium spp. and Green stain
in oak is usually caused by
Chlorociboria aeruginascens2.
In addition to above reports
further classification of fungi according
to sites of their occurrence is also
available. Some of them are discussed
below:
Plaster fungi—The plaster
fungi are likely to be found on damp
brickwork and plaster in buildings.
Common examples are: Coprinus spp.,
Peziza spp. and Pyronema domesticum2.
Stone fungi—Many stone fungi
commonly found in buildings are:
Botrytis spp., Mucor spp., Penicillium
spp. and Trichoderma spp.2.
Paint fungi — The discoloration
of paints in buildings is caused by a
number of fungi, viz. Alternaria
alternata, Aspergillus spp.,
Aureobasidium
pullulans,
Penicillium spp., Cladosporium
herbarum, Fusarium oxysporum,
Paecilomyces variotii, Trichoderma
viride, Ulocladium atrum and
Phoma violacea2.
Fungi on glass, metal and
sealants — A number of fungi can cause
discoloration and disfigurement of glass,
metal adhesives and sealants.
Cladosporium resinae is commonly
found on metal surfaces. Aspergillus
niger, Aureobasidium pullulans,
Chaetomium globosum, Geotrichum
spp., Penicillium luteum, Trichoderma
viride and Streptomyces rubrireticuli
are found in the kitchens and bathrooms2.
The building fungi may cause
asthma, cough, phlegm, wheeze, extrinsic
allergy, mucous membrane irritation,
headache, chest tightness, immune
suppression, cancer and leukaemia on
building occupants13-21. Hence, it is very
essential to control them in eco-friendly
manner.
The treatment of decay in
buildings by the active ingredients of
Pentachlorophenol (PCP), Tributyltin
oxide (TBTO), Zinc carboxylate and Boron
esters of fungicides has now been restricted
due to their toxicity against mammals and
human beings2. Due to the increasing
public awareness of the pollutive residual
carcinogenic and phytotoxic effects of
synthetic fungicides, the importance of
indigenous products in fungi management
are now gaining popularity22, 23. In the
present communication an attempt is
made to summarize various research
reports published during last 22 years,
i. e. from 1985 to 2007 on plants having
antifungal
properties
against
phytopathogenic fungi.
The botanical and common
names, family, part (s) used, test medium
and antifungal potency (zone of inhibition/
inhibition of mycelium growth/minimum
inhibitory concentration) of 114 plants
have been presented in Table 1.
Table 1 : Selected plants with reported antifungal activity
Botanical and
Common names
Family
Plant
part (s)
Test medium
Test fungi
Antifungal
potency
Ageratum conyzoides
Linn. (Goat weed)
Asteraceae
Shoots
Water extract
Aspergillus niger, Pestalotiopsis 22.3b, 12.3 and
theae and Rhizoctonia solani 42 %
Essential oil
Didymella bryoniae
Ref.
No.
24
100b %
25
Ailanthus excelsa Roxb.
Simaroubaceae
Stem and
Bark
Dichloro methane
Candida albicans and
and methanol extract Saccharomyces cerevisiae
500c and
1000 µg/ml
26
Albizia lebbeck Benth.
(Siris tree)
Mimosaceae
Pod
Dichloro methane
Candida albicans and
and methanol extract Saccharomyces cerevisiae
500c and
1000 µg/ml
26
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375
General Article
Botanical and
Common names
Family
Plant
part (s)
Test medium
Test fungi
Antifungal
potency
Ref.
No.
Allium sativum Linn.
(Garlic)
Alliaceae
Bulb
Cyclohexane extract
Aspergillus niger, A. flavus
and Fusarium oxysporum
38a, 35 and
38mm
27
Ancistrocladus tectorius
Merrill
Ancistrocladaceae
Roots, Bark, Methanol extract
Whole plant
and Leaves
Candida albicans
7a, 10, 10 and
7 mm
28
Bark
Methanol extract
Candida albicans
7a mm
28
Root and
Whole plant
Methanol extract
Candida albicans
13a and 7mm
28
Root
Dichloro methane
Candida albicans and
and methanol extract Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1000c and
500 µg/ml
26
Apama corymbosa Kuntze Aristolochiaceae
Apama tomentosa Engl.
-do-
Aristolochia indica Linn. Aristolochiaceae
(Indian Birthwort)
Artemisia annua Linn.
(Annual mugwort)
Asteraceae
Whole plant
Dichloro methane
Candida albicans
and methanol extract
500c µg/ml
26
Azadirachta indica
A. Juss. (Neem)
Meliaceae
Leaves and
Seed
Essential oil
Aspergillus flavus
500c and
1000 ppm
29
Balanites aegyptiaca
(Linn.) Delile
syn. B. roxburghii Planch.
(Angori)
Simaroubaceae
Fruit
Dichloro methane
and
methanol extract
Candida albicans and
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1000c and
500 µg/ml
26
Caesalpinia
cristata Linn.
syn. C. bonducella Flem.
(Fever nut)
Caesalpiniaceae
Fruit
Dichloro methane
Candida albicans
and methanol extract
1000c µg/ml
26
Whole plant
Hot water extract
Rhizoctonia solani
61.4b %
30
Root and
Bark
Hot water extract
Rhizoctonia solani
43.6b %
30
Dichloro methane
Candida albicans and
and methanol extract Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1000c and
500 µg/ml
26
Cyclohexane extract
Aspergillus niger,
Fusarium oxysporum
35a and 30 mm
27
Ethanol extract
Aspergillus niger and
Candida albicans
15c and
17.5 mg/ml
31
Capsanthin and
capsaicin (1mg/ml)
Aspergillus flavus
76b and 52%
32
Caesalpinia pulcherrima -do(Linn.) Sw. (Peacock flower)
Calotropis gigantea
(Ait.) R. Br. (Milk weed)
Capsicum annuum
Linn. (Chilli)
376
Ascelpiadaceae
Solanaceae
Fruit
Natural Product Radiance
General Article
Botanical and
Common names
Family
Plant
part (s)
Test medium
Test fungi
Antifungal
potency
Ref.
No.
Carya ovata K. Koch
(Shagbark hikory)
Juglandaceae
Bark
Acetone: hexane:
water bark extract
Lenzites trabea
97.9b %
33
Cassia fistula Linn.
(Golden shower tree)
Caesalpiniaceae
Fruit
Dichloro methane
Candida albicans
and methanol extract Saccharomyces cerevisiae
and Aspergillus niger
1000c, 500 and
1000 µg/ml
26
Celosia argentea Linn.
(Silver cocks comb)
Amaranthaceae
Whole plant
Methanol extract
Candida albicans
11a mm
28
Centaurea attica Nyman
Asteraceae
Whole plant
4- Acetoxymalacitanolide
Alternaria alternata,
Aspergillus versicolor,
A. flavus, A. niger, A. ochraceus,
Penicillium ochrochloron,
P. funiculosum, Trichoderma
viride and Cladosporium
cladosporioides
1c, 0.06,1, 0.5,
1, 1, 1, 1 and
1µg/ml
34
Centaurea thessala
Haussk.
-do-
Whole plant
8α- Hydroxy 4Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus
epi- sonchucarpolide versicolor, A. flavus, A. niger,
A. ochraceus, Penicillium
ochrochloron, P. funiculosum
Trichoderma viride and
Cladosporium cladosporioides
0.125c, 0.5,
0.25, 0.25,
0.25, 0.25,
0.25, 1 and
0.5 µg/ml
34
Ceratonia siliqua
Linn. (John's bread)
Caesalpiniaceae
Pod
Dichloro methane
and methanol
extract
Candida albicans and
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1000c and
500 µg/ml
26
Chenopodium botrys
Linn. (Jerusalem oak)
Chenopodiaceae
Aerial part
Essential oil
Aspergillus niger and
Candida albicans
0.1c and 0.2%
35
Cinnamomum
camphora (Linn.)
Nees & Eberm.
(Camphor tree)
Lauraceae
Leaves
Essential oil
Candida albicans,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Torulopsis utilis and
Schizosaccharomyces pombe
37.3a, 40.0,
34.0 and
47.7mm
36
Cinnamomum
malabatrum
(Burm.f.) Blume
syn. C. iners auct.
non Reinw. ex Blume
(Wild cinnamon)
-do-
Leaves
Methanol
extract
Candida albicans
8a mm
28
Cinnamomum
zeylanicum Breyn.
(Cinnamon)
-do-
Leaves
Essential oil
Candida albicans,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Torulopsis utilis and
Schizosaccharomyces pombe
38.7a, 53.0,
42.3 and
43.0 mm
36
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377
General Article
Botanical and
Common names
Family
Plant
part (s)
Test medium
Cissampelos pareira
(Velvet leaf)
Menispermaceae
Whole plant
Citrus aurantifolia
(Christm.) Swingle (Lime)
Rutaceae
Citrus limon (Linn.)
Burm.f. (Lemon)
Citrus paradisi Macf.
(Grape fruit)
Test fungi
Antifungal
potency
Ref.
No.
Dichloro methane
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
and methanol extract and Aspergillus niger
1000c and
500 µg/ml
26
Whole plant
Essential oil
Aspergillus niger
100c ppm
37
-do-
Whole plant
Essential oil
Aspergillus niger
200c ppm
37
-do-
Whole plant
Essential oil
Aspergillus niger
200c ppm
37
Seed and Pulp Ethanol extract
Candida albicans, C. krusei,
C. tropicalis, C. parapsilosis,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae and
Kluyveromyces maxianus
8.25c , 8.25,
16.5, 16.5, 8.25
and 16.5 %
38
Citrus reticulata
Blanco (Mandarin)
-do-
Whole plant
Essential oil
Aspergillus niger
100c ppm
37
Colutea nepalensis
Sims syn. C. arborescens
Linn. (Bladder senna)
Fabaceae
Leaves
Ethanol extract
Aspergillus niger and
Candida albicans
12.5c mg/ml
31
Commelina communis
Linn. (Common day flower)
Commelinaceae
Whole plant
Methanol extract
Candida albicans
9a mm
28
Coriandrum sativum
Linn. (Coriander)
Apiaceae
Fruit
Essential oil
Candida albicans,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Torulopsis utilis and
Schizosaccharomyces pombe
28.7a, 32.0,
37.0 and
33.0 mm
36
Cuminum cyminum
Linn. (Cumin)
-do-
Fruit
Ethanol extract
Aspergillus niger and
Candida albicans
15c mg/ml
31
Cymbopogon citratus Stapf
(Lemon grass)
Poaceae
Whole plant
Essential oil
Torulopsis utilis
47.0a mm
36
Cymbopogon martini
(Roxb.) Wats. (Palmarosa)
-do-
Whole plant
Essential oil
Candida albicans,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Torulopsis utilis and
Schizosaccharomyces pombe
29.7a, 21.0,
23.3 and
23.0 mm
36
Cynara scolymus Linn.
(Artichoke)
Asteraceae
Leaves
2 mg Chloroform/
Candida lusitaniae,
ethanol/ ethyl acetate C. albicans, Saccharomyces
extract
cerevisiae, S. carlsbergensis,
Aspergillus niger, Penicillium
axalicum, Mucor mucedo and
Cladosporium cucumerinum
378
2 a /7/3,
39
11/12/11,
3/9/4, 9/11/6,
11/13/6, 8/10/5,
2/8/2 and
6/9/2 mm
Natural Product Radiance
General Article
Botanical and
Common names
Family
Plant
part (s)
Test medium
Test fungi
Antifungal
potency
Ref.
No.
Cynara scolymus Linn.
(Artichoke)
Asteraceae
Flower
3 mg Chloroform/
Ethanol/ Ethyl
acetate extract
Candida albicans, C. lusitaniae,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, S.
carlsbergensis, Aspergillus niger,
Penicillium axalicum, Mucor
mucedo and Cladosporium
cucumerinum
2a/5/0, 2/4/2,
4/5/4, 5/6/0,
5/10/2, 9/9/3,
4/8/4 and
4/10/2 mm
39
Stem
6 mg Chloroform/
Candida albicans, C. lusitaniae,
ethanol/ ethyl acetate Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
extract
S. carlsbergensis, Aspergillus
niger, Penicillium axalicum,
Mucor mucedo and
Cladosporium cucumerinu
5a/5/2, 4/5/2,
6/7/4, 6/7/5,
6/8/6, 7/9/4,
4/6/3 and
7/8/3 mm
39
Methanol extract
Aspergillus niger,
A. fumigatus and A. flavus
2.50c mg/ml
40
Datura metel Linn.
(White Thornapple)
Solanaceae
Whole plant
Dianthus caryophyllus
Linn. (Clove pink)
Caryophyllaceae
Fruit and seed Ethanol extract
Aspergillus niger and
Candida albicans
25c and
20 mg/ml
31
Dillenia suffruticosa
Martelli
Dilleniaceae
Leaves
Methanol extract
Candida albicans
7a mm
28
Dorema ammoniacum
D. Don (Ammoniacum)
Apiaceae
Whole plant
Dichloro methane
Candida albicans, Aspergillus
and methanol extract niger and Saccharomyces
cerevisiae
1000c and
500 µg/ml
26
Doronicum hookeri
Hook.f.
Asteraceae
Root
Dichloro methane
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
and methanol extract and Candida albicans
1000c and
500 µg/ml
26
Whole plant
Dichloro methane
Aspergillus niger
and methanol extract
500c and
1000 µg/ml
26
Dracaena cinnabari
Liliaceae
Balf. f. (Dragon’s blood tree)
Eclipta prostrata
Linn. (Eclipta)
Asteraceae
Whole plant
Methanol extract
Candida albicans
8a mm
28
Elettaria cardamomum
Maton (Cardamom)
Zingiberaceae
Fruit
Essential oil
Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Candida albicans and
Torulopsis utilis
31.7, 7.3a and
18.7 mm
36
Eleusine indica
Gaertn. (Indian goosegrass)
Poaceae
Whole plant
Methanol extract
Candida albicans
7a mm
28
Erica arborea Linn.
(Tree heath)
Ericaceae
Leaves
Ethanol extract
Aspergillus niger and
Candida albicans
2.5c mg/ml
31
Eucalyptus globulus
Labill. (Eucalyptus)
Myrtaceae
Leaves
Cold water extract
Rhizoctonia solani
58.7b %
30
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379
General Article
Botanical and
Common names
Family
Plant
part (s)
Test medium
Test fungi
Antifungal
potency
Ref.
No.
Euphorbia hirta
Linn. (Garden spurge)
Euphorbiaceae
Whole plant
Methanol extract
Candida albicans
8a mm
28
Gloriosa superba
Linn. (Glory lily)
Liliaceae
Root
Dichloro methane
Candida albicans and
and methanol extract Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1000c and
500 µg/ml
26
Hedyotis congesta
Wall. & G. Don
Rubiaceae
Bark and
Leaves
Methanol extract
Candida albicans
7a mm
28
Helichrysum italicum
(Roth) G. Don
(Everlasting plant)
Asteraceae
Whole plant
Terpene, terpenoid
fraction and oil
Candida albicans
8c, 5 and
5 µl/ml
41
Helichrysum nitens
Oliv. & Hiern
-do-
Aerial part
Dimethyl chrysin,
Cladosporium
Trimethyl galangin, cucumerinum
5,6,7,8-tetramethoxy
flavone, Baicalein
trimethyl ether, 3,5,6,
7,8-pentamethoxy
flavone and 3,5,6,
7-tetramethoxy flavone
1c, 1, 2, 5,
5 and 5 µg/ml
42
Hyptis suaveolens
Poit. (Pignut)
Lamiaceae
Whole plant
Methanol extract
7a mm
28
Jatropha gossypifolia
Linn. (Bellyache bush)
Euphorbiaceae
Leaves
Dichloro methane
Candida albicans
and methanol extract
1000c and
500 µg/ml
26
Juniperus oxycedrus
Linn. (Juniper)
Cupressaceae
Fruit
Ethanol extract
5c µg/ml
31
Khaya senegalensis
A. Juss. (African mahagony)
Meliaceae
Fruit
Seneganolide A,
Botrytis cinerea
2-acetoxy seneganolide
A and Methyl 6-hydro
xy angolensate
60.83b, 68.33
and 65.33%
43
Leaves
Methanol extract
Candida albicans
16a mm
28
Aerial part
β-Caryophyllene,
Geranyl acetate,
Terpinyl acetate,
Bornyl acetate and
D-limonene
Aspergillus niger,
Fusarium solani and
Candida albicans
35a, 59 and
33 mm
44
Leaves
Dichloro methane
Aspergillus niger, Candida
and methanol extract albicans and Saccharomyces
cerevisiae
500c and
1000 µg/ml
26
Knema glaucescens
Myristicaceae
Jack syn. K. malayana Warb.
Lantana camara Linn.
(Lantana)
380
Verbenaceae
Candida albicans
Aspergillus niger and
Candida albicans
Natural Product Radiance
General Article
Botanical and
Common names
Family
Plant
part (s)
Test medium
Test fungi
Antifungal
potency
Ref.
No.
Laurus nobilis Linn.
(Sweet Bay)
Lauraceae
Leaves
Ethanol extract
Aspergillus niger
and Candida albicans
5c mg/ml
31
Lawsonia inermis
Linn. (Henna)
Lythraceae
Leaves
Cold water extract
Rhizoctonia solani
49b %
30
Lithospermum
erythrorhizon Siebold
& Zucc. (Red-root
lithospermum)
Boraginaceae
Dried root
Propionylshikonin,
Acetylshikonin,
Shikonin and βhydroxyisovalerylshikonin
Cladosporium
herbarum
15.1a, 13.4,
15.9 and
17.6 mm
45
Lycopodium cernuum
Linn. (Creeping club)
Lycopodiaceae
Whole plant
Methanol extract
Candida albicans
7a mm
28
Melaleuca
leucadendron Linn.
syn. M. lancifolia
Turcz. (Tea tree)
Myrtaceae
Leaves
Essential oil
Candida albicans,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Torulopsis utilis and
Schizosaccharomyces pombe
11.3a, 12.7,
47.0 and
20.3 mm
36
Melissa officinalis
Linn. (Lemon balm)
Lamiaceae
Fruit and
Leaves
Ethanol extract
Aspergillus niger
and Candida albicans
12.5c and
25 mg/ml
31
Mentha piperita
Linn. emend.
Huds. (Peppermint)
Lamiaceae
Whole plant
Essential oil
Candida albicans,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Torulopsis utilis and
Schizosaccharomyces pombe
16.0a, 13.0,
13.3 and
17.0 mm
36
Seed
Ethanol extract
Aspergillus niger and
Candida albicans
5c mg/ml
31
Leaves
Essential oil
Aspergillus flavus
1000c ppm
29
Leaves
Dichloro methane
and Methanol
extract
Candida albicans
500c µg/ml
26
Morinda citrifolia
Linn. syn. M. lucida Benth.
(Brimstone tree)
Rubiaceae
Murraya paniculata
Rutaceae
(Linn.) Jack syn. M. exotica
(Kamini)
Nardostachys
jatamansi DC.
(Indian Nard)
Valerianaceae
Rhizome
Dichloro methane
Candida albicans
and methanol extract
500c and
1000 µg/ml
26
Neonauclea pallida
Merr.
Rubiaceae
Bark
Methanol extract
Candida albicans
7a mm
28
Ocimum sanctum
Linn. (Holy Basil)
Lamiaceae
Leaves
Hot water extract
Rhizoctonia solani
46b %
30
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381
General Article
Botanical and
Common names
Family
Plant
part (s)
Test medium
Test fungi
Antifungal
potency
Ref.
No.
Oxalis corniculata
Linn. (Indian sorrel)
Oxalidaceae
Shoots
Water extract
Aspergillus niger and
Pestalotiopsis theae
31.0b and
10.7 %
24
Parthenium
hysterophorus Linn.
(Carrot grass)
Asteraceae
Leaves
Hot water extract
Rhizoctonia solani
53.7b %
30
Peperomia pellucida
H.B. & K. (Shiny bush)
Piperaceae
Whole plant
Methanol extract
Candida albicans
7a mm
28
Peristrophe bivalvis
Merrill syn. P. tinctoria
Nees
Acanthaceae
Whole plant
Methanol extract
Candida albicans
8a mm
28
Perilla frutescens
(Linn.) Britt. (Perilla)
Lamiaceae
Leaves
Essential oil
Gaeumonnomyces
graminis var. tritici
and Rhizoctonia
cerealis
150c µg/ml
46
Phyllanthus debilis
Willd. (Niruri)
Euphorbiaceae
Shoots
Water extract
Pestalotiopsis theae
16.8b %
24
Phyllanthus
maderaspatensis Linn.
-do-
Aerial part
Dichloro methane
and methanol
extract
Candida albicans
1000c and
500 µg/ml
26
Pinus strobes Linn.
(White pine)
Pinaceae
Bark
Acetone: Hexane:
Water extract
Lenzites trabea
99.87b %
33
Piper betle Linn. (Betel)
Piperaceae
Leaves
Cold water extract
Rhizoctonia solani
27.6b %
30
Piper nigrum Linn.
(Black pepper)
-do-
Seed
Ethanol extract
Aspergillus niger and
Candida albicans
12.5c mg/ml
31
Piper porphyrophyllum
N.E. Br.
-do-
Whole plant
Methanol extract
Candida albicans
7a mm
28
Piper stylosum Miq.
-do-
Whole plant
Methanol extract
Candida albicans
8a mm
28
Polyalthia lateriflora
Kurz
Annonaceae
Leaves
Methanol extract
Candida albicans
10a mm
28
Pongamia pinnata
Pierre syn. P. glabra Vent.
Fabaceae
Leaves
Hot water extract
Rhizoctonia solani
50.4b %
30
Prosopis juliflora DC.
(Algaroba)
Mimosaceae
Leaves
Hot water extract
Rhizoctonia solani
77.4b %
30
382
Natural Product Radiance
General Article
Botanical and
Common names
Family
Plant
part (s)
Test medium
Putranjiva roxburghii
Wall.
Euphorbiaceae
Leaves
Quercus rubra Linn.
(Red oak)
Fagaceae
Ratibida mexicana
(S. Watson) Sharp
Antifungal
potency
Ref.
No.
Dichloro methane
Candida albicans and
and methanol extract Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1000c and
500 µg/ml
26
Bark
Acetone, hexane and Lenzites trabea
Water bark extract
99.0b %
33
Asteraceae
Root
Isoallolantolactone
and Elema-1,3,11trien-8,12-olide
Pythium, Fusarium
and Helminthosporium
125c, 200
34
and <=50 µg/ml
Randia spinosa Poir.
syn. R. dumetorum Poir.
Rubiaceae
Fruit
Dichloro methane
and Methanol
extract
Candida albicans
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
and Aspergillus niger
500c, 1000
26
and 1000 µg/ml
Rhus coriaria Linn.
(Sicilian sumac)
Anacardiaceae
Leaves
Ethanol extract
Aspergillus niger and
Candida albicans
15c µg/ml
Rosmarinus officinalis
Linn. (Rosemary)
Lamiaceae
Whole plant
Essential oil
Candida albicans, Saccharomyces 6.7a, 12.3, 9.7
cerevisiae, Torulopsis utilis and
and 16.3 mm
Schizosaccharomyces pombe
Ruta graveolens Linn.
(Sadap)
Rutaceae
Leaves
Dichloro methane
and methanol
extract
Candida albicans and
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1000c and
500 µg/ml
26
Salicornia brachiata
Roxb.
Chenopodiaceae
Whole plant
Aqueous
methanolic extract
Aspergillus niger
3-5a mm
47
Salvia officinalis
Linn. (Sage)
Lamiaceae
Whole plant
Essential oil
Candida albicans,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Torulopsis utilis and
Schizosaccharomyces pombe
11.0a, 9.0,
12.7 and
15.7 mm
36
Scorodocarpus
borneensis Becc.
(Wood garlic)
Olacaceae
Fruit
2,4,5,7Tetrathiaoctane, 4,
4-dioxide, 5-Thioxo2,4,6-Trithiaheptane
2,2-dioxide and
O-ethyl S-Methylthiomethyl
thiosulfite
Candida albicans,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Mucor racemosus and
Aspergillus niger
50c / 50 / >
48
100, 50 /
50/>100,
50 / 25 / >
100 and 50/
50 / >100 µg/ml
Sesbania sesban
Merrill syn. S. aegyptiaca
Pers.
Fabaceae
Leaves
Dichloro methane
Candida albicans and
and methanol extract Saccharomyces cerevisiae
500c and
1000 µg/ml
26
Solanum indicum
Linn. (Indian nightshade)
Solanaceae
Fruit
Dichloro methane
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
and methanol extract and Aspergillus niger
1000c and
500 µg/ml
26
Vol 7(4) July-August 2008
Test fungi
31
36
383
General Article
Botanical and
Common names
Family
Plant
part (s)
Test medium
Test fungi
Antifungal
potency
Ref.
No.
Solanum surattense
Burm.f. syn.
S. xanthocarpum Schrad.
& Wendl. (Yellow-fruit
nightshade)
Solanaceae
Whole plant
Methanolic extract
Aspergillus fumigatus,
A. flavus and A. niger
1.25c and
2.25 µg/ml
40
Solanum torvum Sw.
-do
Leaves
Methanol extract
Candida albicans
9a mm
28
Sonerila
begoniifolia Blume
Melastomataceae
Leaves
Methanol extract
Candida albicans
9a mm
28
Sphaeranthus
indicus Linn.
Asteraceae
Aerial part
Dichloro methane
and methanol
extract
Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Candida albicans and
Aspergillus niger
1000c and
500 µg/ml
26
Syzygium aromaticum
(Linn.) Merrill & Perry
syn. Eugenia caryophyllata
Thunb. (Clove)
Myrtaceae
Leaves
Essential oil
Candida albicans,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Torulopsis utilis and
Schizosaccharomyces pombe
40.3a, 49.7,
39.0 and
34.3 mm
36
Tagetes minuta Linn.
(Dwarf marigold)
Asteraceae
Leaves
Ocimene and
Ocimenone rich
chemotype
Sclerotium cepivorum,
Colletotrichum cocodes
and Alternaria solani
5000c and
3000ppm
49
Tagetes multifida DC.
syn. T. filifolia Lag.
(Marigold)
-do-
Leaves
(E) – Enethole
rich chemotype
Sclerotium cepivorum,
Colletotrichum cocodes
and Alternaria solani
2000c ppm
49
Tecoma stans (Linn.)
H. B. & K. (Yellow bells)
Bignoniaceae
Root
Dichloro methane
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
and methanol extract and Candida albicans
1000c and
500 µg/ml
26
Tephrosia purpurea
(Linn.) Pers.
(Wild Indigo)
Fabaceae
Root
Dichloro methane
and methanol
extract
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
and Aspergillus niger
1000c and
500 µg/ml
26
Thespesia populnea
Soland. ex Correa
(Indian Tulip tree)
Malvaceae
Leaves
Dichloro methane
and methanol
extract
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
and Candida albicans
1000c and
500 µg/ml
26
Thevetia peruviana
(Pers.) Merrill
(Yellow oleander)
Apocynaceae
Leaves
Hot water extract
Rhizoctonia solani
85.4b %
30
Thymus vulgaris
Linn. (Thyme)
Lamiaceae
Whole plant
Essential oil
Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Candida albicans, Torulopsis
utilis and Schizosaccharomyces
pombe
60.7a, 80.0,
67.3 and
69.0 mm
36
384
Natural Product Radiance
General Article
Botanical and
Common names
Family
Plant
part (s)
Test medium
Test fungi
Antifungal
potency
Ref.
No.
Trevesia burckii Boerl.
Araliaceae
Leaves
Methanol extract
Candida albicans
7a mm
28
a
Zanthoxylum
chiloperone Mart.
ex Engl.
Rutaceae
Stem bark
Canthin-6-one
Aspergillus niger,
A. terreus, Candida tropicalis,
C. glabrata, Cryptococcus
neoformans, Geotrichum
candidum, Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, Trichosporon
beigelii and T. cutaneum
12.8 mm
50
Zingiber cassumunar
Roxb. (Cassumunar Ginger)
Zingiberaceae
Rhizome
Zerumbone
Rhizoctonia solani
1000c ppm
51
Zingiber officinale
Rosc. (Ginger)
-do-
Wet/ Dry
Rhizome
Cyclohexane extract
Aspergillus niger, A. flavus
and Fusarium oxysporum
10a/33, 12/18
and 13/15 mm
27
Rhizome
[10]-Gingerol and
[6] gingerdiol
Aspergillus niger
1c mg/ml
52
a
Zone of inhibition;
b
Inhibition of mycelium growth (%) against test fungi;
White wood-rotting fungus
Mould growth on wall
Aspergillus spp.
Vol 7(4) July-August 2008
c
Minimum inhibition concentration
Poria incrassata on wood
Wood dry rot cuboidal cracking
Penicillium crysogenum
Trichoderma spp.
Coniophora spp. on rotting wood
Black mould on basement
Fruiting body of Serpula lacrymans
385
General Article
Conclusion
in the forests of Himalayas, The International
Research Group on Wood Preservation,
Working group 1a: Biological Problems
(Flora), 1993, Document no. IRG/WP/9310002.
17. Rylander R, Persson K, Goto H, Yuasa K and
Tanaka S, Airborne β-1,3 glucan may be
related to symptoms in sick buildings, Indoor
Environ, 1992, 1, 263-267.
Biol, 1954, 41(2), 336-347.
20. Sharma RP, Immunotoxic effect of mycotoxins,
In: Mycotoxins and Phytoalexins, by RP
Sharma and DK Salunkhe (Eds), CRC Press,
Boca Raton FL , 1991, pp.81-99.
The data given in Table 1 reveals
that extracts, essential oils and
compounds/components of plant species
18. Gerberick GF, Sorenson WG and Lewis DM,
possess significant antifungal activity.
8.
Bech-Andersen
J,
The
dry
rot
fungus
and
other
The effects of T-2 toxin on alveolar
Concerted efforts are needed to make safer
fungi in houses, Hussvamp laboratoriet aps,
macrophage function in vitro, Environ
potent biocides. Hopefully, further studies
Denmark, 1991/1992, p.19.
Res, 1984, 33, 246-260.
on these plants will yield biodegradable,
renewable, cheaper and target specific 9. Duncan CG and Eslyn WE, Wood decaying 19. Pier AC and McLoughlin ME, Mycotoxic
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suppression of immunity In: Trichothecenes
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Mycologia,
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and Other Mycotoxins, by J Lacey and
inhabitants. Some preliminary work has
John Wiley (Eds), Chichester, UK, 1985,
been started in our laboratory on these 10. Savory JG, Breakdown of timber by
pp. 507-519.
lines with encouraging results.
Ascomycetes and fungi imperfecti, Ann Appl
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