LiteratureReviewand
AnalysisofPublicAttitudes
TowardsIndigenousWomen
inAlberta
FinalReport
Dr.J.LaurenJohnsonandDr.ElaineGreidanus
Acknowledgements
TheauthorsacknowledgethesupportoftheGovernmentofAlberta,AlbertaIndigenous
Relationsforthefundingforthisproject.Wearealsogratefulforthesupportofthe
UniversityofLethbridge,thethoughtfulandgenerousreviewofournarrativeinterimtexts
byRosalieBisaillon,aswellastheresearchassistanceofDr.KeriFlesakerandIrene
Spelliscy,whosetirelesseffortandinsightfulanalysiswerefoundationaltothisreport.
Introduction
Narrativesshapethewayweviewtheworldandourselveswithinit,aswell
asourunderstandingofothers.AccordingtophilosopherSarahE.Worth:“[t]heway
wetellstories,howweunderstandthestoriesthatotherstellus,thewayweuse
storiestorecallmemory,andtherolethatstorytellingandstory-creationplayin
developingatheoryofpersonalidentityareallintegraltothewayweorderand
makesenseofourexperienceintheworld”(2004;Sec.2,Para1).Meanwhile,
narrativeresearchersClandininandConnellystatethatnarrativecanbeseenasa
wayofunderstandingexperience:“[p]eoplelivestories,andinthetellingofthese
stories,reaffirmthem,modifythem,andcreatenewones…[s]torieslivedandtold
educatetheselfandothers”(2000;p.xxvi).Accordingtotheseperspectives,
narrativesareconstructionsthatweactivelycreateandthatsimultaneouslyactto
constructourworldview.Assuch,narrativesserveapowerfulpurpose:wecreate
themtocommunicateourexperiences,andtheyinturnbecomethelensthrough
whichweseetheworld.
Giventhepowerofnarrativetoorganizeinformationabouttheworldaround
usandprovideaspecificlensforourworldview,itbecomesusefultocritically
analyzethenarrativesthatshapeourcollectiveperspectives.Inthisreport,the
authorsturntothenarrativesthatshapeourperspectivesaboutaparticulargroup
ofpeople:IndigenouswomeninAlberta.Manynarrativescurrentlyexistregarding
Indigenouspeopleinthisprovinceandtherestofthecountry.Inordertofindthem,
oneneedlooknofurtherthanexistingliteratureintheformofstatistics,reports,
andnewsstoriesrelatedtothisgroupofpeople.
Statisticallyspeaking,IndigenouspeopleinCanadaaredisproportionately
over-representedinnearlyallriskgroupsassociatedwithsocialandeconomic
problems(Chansonneuve,2005),whichincludes“homelessness,poverty,
addictions,violence,chronicillnessanddiseasesthatincludetuberculosis,
HIV/AIDSanddiabetes”(p.5).Accordingtothe2006CanadianCensus,First
Nations(FN)peoplemakeup2.2%ofthepopulation.ThisCensusdescribes
Canada’sFNpeopleasyoung(i.e.,themedianageofFNpeopleis25comparedtoa
non-FNmedianageof40),andcomparedtothenon-FNpopulation,thosewhoselfidentifyasFNtendtobelesseducated,morefrequentlyunemployed,andearn
substantiallylessmoney(Gionet,2009).Nearly1/3ofCanadianIndigenouspeople
haveadisability,andthediabetesrateinFN,Métis,andInuit(FNMI)communitiesis
amongthehighestintheworld(Chansonneuve,2005).Thesenegativehealthand
economicoutcomesoccuralongsidesomeoftheloweststandardsoflivinginthe
country,asoneStatisticsCanadaauthorputit:“thebest-offFirstNations
communitiescompareonlywiththeworst-offareasofnon-AboriginalCanada”
(Armstrong,1999,p.17).
Thesestatisticalassociationsplayapowerfulroleinshapingourcollective
understandingaboutIndigenouspeopleinthiscountry.However,thenarratives
thatcanbeconstructedfromthisinformationdonottelltheonlystory.Inaneffort
toidentifysomeoftheprevailingnarrativesaboutIndigenouswomeninAlberta,
theauthorshaveengagedinacriticalreviewandanalysisofexistingliterature
aboutthispopulation.Thepurposeofthisistoidentifyexistingpopularnarratives
intheliteratureonAboriginalwomeninAlbertaanddeterminewhatalternative
narrativesmaybeproposedtoshiftexistingpublicperceptionsaboutthem.Forthe
purposesofthisreview,wehavedefinedtheliteraturetoincludeprintpublications
ofascholarlynature,newsandmagazinearticles,andbooksthataresearchable
throughpublicandcommonlyusedacademicdatabases.Thoughwebelievethatthe
portrayalofIndigenouswomenandrelatedthemesorissuesinnon-printmedia
(i.e.,films,television,music,etc.)mayshedadditionallightontheprevalent
narrativesaboutthisgroupofpeople,wehaveconcludedthatanon-printmedia
reviewisbeyondthescopeofthecurrentreviewandmaybeappropriateforfuture
consideration.
Inordertoengageinaliteraturereviewtodeterminewhatpopularnarratives
mayexistinprintmediaaboutIndigenouswomen,adefinitionofnarrativeis
necessary.S.E.Worthdefinesnarrativesas“representationsofatleasttwoevents,
withaunifiedsubjectandaretrievabletemporalorder,thatgenerallyhavean
explanatorygapthatneedstobefilledinbythereader”(2008,p.47).Assuch,a
narrativemayconsistofinformationsuchasayoungwomangoingtoworkinthe
sexindustryonenightandthesamewomanbeingfoundmurderedaweeklater.As
readers,wearelefttointerpretthereasonforhermurderduetotheexplanatory
gapthatexists,whichmaybecomefertilegroundforunfairandstereotypical
perceptionstoemerge(i.e.,thatthewomanputherselfinharm’swayduetoher
high-risklifestyle).
Thenarrativesthatexistintheliteratureandtheperceptionsthatemerge
fromthemmaybeconsideredaconstructionofthetruthaboutIndigenouswomen.
ClandininandConnelly(2000)definea“grandnarrative”asastoryscriptedby
someauthority–suchasascholarlyexpert,themedia,ortheapparentconsensusof
amajorityofpeople–thatbecomes“sopervasive,sotakenforgranted,astheonly
validstory”(p.xxv)thatitbecomesasociallyconstructedtruth.However,these
grandnarrativesmayonlytellonesideofthestory,andassuchmaynotbe
accurate.Forthisreason,ourcriticalanalysisoftheliteraturewillnotonlylookfor
whatistoldintheliteratureaboutIndigenouswomeninAlberta,butalsowhat
remainshidden.
Methods
OuranalyticmethodologyfollowsaresearchprocesssimilartoJohnson’s
(2013)qualitativeinquirythatblendedtogetherelementsofdiscourseand
narrativeanalysis.Webeganbygatheringaneclecticarrayofsourcematerialsthat
comprisebothscholarlyliterature(i.e.,scholarlypapers,publishedstudies,etc.)and
popularor“grey”literature(i.e.,news,reports,books,etc.).Thisliteraturewas
gatheredthroughacademicdatabasesandonlinesearchengines,andwaslimitedto
publicationsreleasedsincetheReportoftheRoyalCommissiononAboriginal
Peoples(November,1996)inordertolimitthescopeofthereviewtorecent
literature.Inoureffortstoscourtheexistingliteratureforrelevantmaterial,and
giventhevarietyoflanguageusedtodescribeourtargettopic,weusedsearch
termsincludingbutnotlimitedto:“Aboriginal”,“Native”,“FirstNation”,
“Indigenous”,“Blackfoot”,“Cree”,“Métis”,etc.,incombinationwiththeterms
“woman/women”and“female/females”,andlimitedourscopetotheprovinceof
Alberta.
Ourinitialsearchcriteriawerebroadinordertogatherliteraturefroma
varietyofacademicdatabases,representingadiversityofacademicdisciplinesfrom
nursingtolawtothesocialsciences,aswellasliteraturefromfederal,provincial,
regional,andspecialtynewssources.Ourinitiallistofsourcesspanned
approximately90pagesofreferences,anditwasthisinitialsourcelistthatwe
narroweddownintonarrativethreads,thenrepresentativessampleswithinthose
threads,andfinallywedevelopedapproximately45pagesofannotated
bibliographyentries.Oncethisprocessofnarrowingdownoursourceswas
complete,wedevelopedtheinterimtextsbasedonournarrativeanalysisofthe
gatheredmaterials.Throughcollaborationbetweentworesearchassistantsandthe
authors,weweresatisfiedthattheliteraturewereviewedrepresentedtheavailable
literatureasawhole.
Upongatheringthematerials,weengagedinthenextstepoftheanalytic
process,whichistodeveloptheinterimtexts.AccordingtoClandininandConnelly’s
NarrativeInquiry,thenarrativeinquiryprocessinvolvesreadingandre-readingthe
sourcetextsinordertodevelopanuancedunderstandingofthem,codingthefield
textsfornarrativeelementsincludingcharacter,place,context,tone,andgapsinthe
account,creatinginterimsummarytextsthatrepresenttheresearcher’s
interpretivemovementfromfieldtextstotheresearchtextbasedonthecodedfield
textsandsummaries,andfinally,writingtheresearchtext.Uponcompletingtheindepthreadingandcodingofthesourcetexts,wedevelopedinterimtextsto
representourinitialanalyticalprocessingofthesourcematerials.
Theseinterpretivenarratives,whichwerebasedonourreadingandanalysis
ofthesourcematerials,weresharedbetweentwoco-authorsandaresearch
assistantaswellasanunaffiliatedreaderwhoisalsoanIndigenouswoman,toelicit
feedbackandensuretheverisimilitudeandtrustworthinessofthetexts(Loh,2013).
Thisfeedbackwasthenincorporatedintothefinalresearchtexts,whichare
includedinthisfinalreport.
Inadditiontotheresearchtexts,thisreportprovidesdiscussionofour
narrativefindingsinthecontextofexistingliterature.Ourliteraturereviewwas
limitedbyconsiderationsofera(post-1996)andplace(Alberta),thoughwedidon
occasionstraybeyondtheprovincialborderstoincludeliteraturepertainingto
WesternCanadaand,morerarely,Canadaasawhole.Nevertheless,ouranalysis
representsnarrativesaboutIndigenouswomenthataregenerallylimitedintime
andspace,andourdiscussionallowsustostepbackfromtheselimitationsand
considerthesenarrativesinabroaderliteraturecontext.Finally,weendthisreport
withsomebriefconcludingremarks.
AWordonLanguage
Whenspeakingaboutaparticulargroupofpeople,theuseofterminologyin
referencetothisgroupmaybeasensitiveissue.Thisisespeciallytruewhenthe
particulargroupofpeopleinquestionhasasignificanthistoryofoppressionand
disenfranchisement,whenlanguagehasbeenusedasatoolbypowerfuloppressors
tocategorize,exclude,anddehumanizethem,andwhenthisgroupconsistsof
peoplewhoareculturally,linguistically,andgeographicallyvariedand
heterogeneous.Itmaybeimpossibletoknowhowtorefertosuchagroupofpeople
whenthemostappropriateapproachwouldbetorespecttheterminologyeach
personchoosesforhimorherself.However,forthepurposesofthisreport,one
cannotspeakofthecommonexperiencesofCanada’sIndigenouspeoplewithout
settlingonsomewaytorefertothisdiversegroupasanadmittedlysimplistic
whole.Assuch,itisnecessarytosettleonparticularlanguagechoicestoinformthis
report.
Forthepurposesofthisreport,theauthorsusetheterm“Indigenous”to
refertopeoplefromFirstNations,Métis,andInuit(FNMI)communities,andthe
term“FirstNations”torefertoCanada’soriginalinhabitantswhoareneitherMétis
norInuit.However,theauthorsacknowledgethatthesetermsarenotuniversally
acceptedandmaybeproblematicforsomepeople.Theauthorsalsoacknowledge
thatreferringtothisgroupofpeoplewithonetermmaybereductionistic.As
Kirmayer,Tait,andSimpsonnote,“IndigenouspeopleinCanadacomefromvery
diversebackgrounds,withgreaterculturalandlinguisticdifferencesbetweensome
groupsthanthosethatdistinguishdifferentEuropeancultures”(2009;p.5).Given
this,itmaybeasmeaningfultodiscusstheexperienceof“Indigenous”peoplesin
Canadaasitwouldbetodiscusstheexperienceof“Europeans”asawhole:though
theremaybecommonexperiencesbetweenthem,itisimportanttoacknowledge
thattherearealsosignificantcultural,geographical,andlinguisticdifferences
withinthegrouping.Assuch,thoughtheauthors’choicetousethesetermsis
functionalforthepurposesofdiscussingcertaincommonexperiencesamongst
Indigenouspeople,thereaderiscautionedtoavoidinterpretingthechosen
terminologyasreferencingaunified,homogenousgroupofpeople.
ResearchTexts
Inthissection,wepresenttheresearchtextsthatarethenarrative
representationsofouranalysisoftheexistingliteratureonIndigenouswomenin
Alberta.Ouranalysisresultedinanumberofnarrativethreadsthatgenerallybroke
downintotwocategories:storiesthataretoldbyothersaboutIndigenouswomen,
andstoriesthatIndigenouswomentellaboutthemselves.Thefollowingnarratives,
whicharepresentedinquantitativeordersuchthatthefirstnarrativeencompassed
thegreaternumberofstorieswereviewed,representthesetwodifferent
perspectivesaboutIndigenouswomen.Thesenarrativesarewrittensoasto
representthevoice,tone,plot,andothernarrativecharacteristicsoftheliterature
uponwhichtheyarebased,andarewrittenfromtheperspectiveandinthevoiceof
thecorrespondingsources.Assuch,werecommendreadingthesenarrativeswith
thisinmindandavoidinterpretingthemasrepresentingthevoiceoftheauthors.
Followingthepresentationoftheresearchtextsisadiscussiononthesediverse
perspectives.
TheNarrativeofIndigenousWomenasToldbyOthers
IndigenouswomeninAlbertaarevulnerabletoviolenceanddiscrimination1.
Theyfacemyriadchallenges,suchasdomesticviolence,sexualizedviolence,
murder,homelessness,addiction,andpoverty2.Theyarevictimizedathomeand
victimizedonthestreet.Theyarepronetodiscriminationthroughthelaw3,
legislation4,andpoliticalactors5.Forthisreason,theyneedalotofhelpfromothers,
suchasIndigenousmen,non-Indigenouspeople,andeverylevelofgovernment,to
fixtheproblemstheyarefacing,astheyaretoovulnerableandmarginalizedwithin
oursocietytodoitontheirown.
Tocomplicatetheissue,Indigenouswomenoccupydangerousplaces.They
liveonthestreets6andinshelters7,andliveonreserveswhereviolenceisrampant8.
Theirenvironmentsaremarredbyviolence,addiction,mentalhealthproblems,
poverty,andcriminalbehaviour.Theyseemunabletoescapethecycleofpoverty
andaddictionthatkeepsthemtrappedinsubstandardlivingconditions,andthat
leavesthemcontinuouslypronetovictimization.
1FNWCES(2015)
2NWAC(2010)
3Hutchison(1999)
4Iseke&Desmoulins(2011)
5BroadcastNews(2006)
6Bohn(2003)
7ACWS(2013)
8Armstrong(2011)
Despiteneedinghelpfromotherstoaddresstheirongoingissues,Indigenous
womenhavefewallies.LocalpoliceandRCMPforcesdonotrespondsufficientlyto
casesofmissinggirlsandwomenanddonotadequatelyinvestigatemurders9.
Womenarerapedbylawenforcementintheirreservecommunitiesandconvicted
30yearslater10.Lawenforcementfatallyshootsthemintheirhomes11insteadof
protectingandservingthem,thoughitseemsasthoughsomeofthoseproblems
couldhavebeenavoidedifthevictimsweremorecompliant.Inturn,thejustice
systemprotectsthelawenforcementofficials,clearingthemofcriminalbehaviour12.
Ontheotherhand,thejusticesystemisnotasforgivingforIndigenouswomen
themselves.Whenfacingtheirowncriminaltrials,Indigenouswomenarepunished
severelyfortheircrimes13.Theyarenotsupportedbytheirgovernments14,andthey
arenotsupportedbytheirownBands15,leavingthemtofendforthemselves.
Luckily,Indigenouswomenareactivistswhoadvocateforthemselvesand
theircommunities.Theyadvocateforgenderequalityinlandsettlements16,turn
publicsentimentagainsttheexploitationofnaturalresources17,launchnational
inquiries18,andreceivehistoricapologiesforpastwrongs19.Theyhavetakentheir
9Cuthand(2002);Harding(2005)
10PrinceGeorgeCitizen(2000)
11MeltingTallow(1998)
12Curren(1998)
13Goyette(1998)
14Benzie&Brennan(2013)
15Thorne(2007)
16Archibald&Crnkovich(1999)
17Denker(2016)
18NWAC(2014)
19CardstonTempleCityStar(2015);Arrowsmith(2008)
fightstoBandandCouncil20,provinciallegislativegrounds,thefederal
government21,andinternationalaudiencessuchasAmnestyInternational22andthe
UnitedNations23.Eventhoughtheyhavealotofissuestofightagainstandcoulduse
allthehelptheycanget,theyareprettyactiveandsuccessfulaboutfightingfor
themselves.
ThoughmanyIndigenouswomenlivehigh-risklifestylesofaddiction,
violence,andcriminality,ahandfulofthemhaveovercometheobstaclesoftheir
stationandachievedincrediblethings.Theyarebeautypageantwinners24,
celebrities25,artists26,athletes27,andcelebratedvolunteers28.Othershavegoneon
tograduateuniversityandsucceedinaprofession,whichiscauseforcelebration
becausethegraduationratesaregenerallysolow29.Thoughitistruethatmany
don’ttakeadequatecareoftheirownchildren30,theyhavedemonstratedthatthey
arecommittedtocaringfortheircommunitiesandtakeprideingivingback31.
Thoughtheirfailureasmothersbeginswhenbabiesarestillinthewomb,as
evidencedbytheepidemicofFASDamongIndigenouswomen32,somewomenstep
20Huntley(1999);GlobeandMail(1999)
21Barnsley(2001)
22Sinnema(2005)
23TorontoStar(2004)
24Boesveld(2015)
25UrbanNative(n.d.)
26AGA(2016)
27CanadaNewsWire(2001)
28Balfour(2001)
29CBCNews(2006)
30Jobb(2015)
31AboriginalNurse(2014)
32CanadianPress(2013)
upandtakecareoftheircommunitiesandtheirpeopleasfostermothers33,
advocates34,politicians35,andhealthcareworkers36.Thoughitisanuphillbattlefor
IndigenouswomentosucceedinthemodernAlbertancontext,anumberof
Indigenouswomenarefightingthatbattle,andsomeofthemarewinningit.
TheNarrativeofIndigenousWomenasToldbytheWomenThemselves
WeIndigenouswomenareresilientpeople37.Wehavecomefromsolittle
andhaveachievedsomuch38.Weleanoneachotherforsupport39andwhenwe
bandtogetherwecanachievegreatthings40.Ourcommunitiesarecloseand
vibrant41,witharichhistory42anduniqueculture43.Wehavebeenonthislandsince
thebeginningoftime44,survivingnearlyunendurablehardshipssuchasthe
genocidal45useofresidentialschoolstobreakusfromourculture,spirituality,and
familyties,anddiscriminatorysocialpracticesthathavedrivenourchildrenfrom
ourhomesinwaves46.Despitelosingourland,alandthathasbeenthesourceofour
spirituality,andoursystemsofgovernance,oursocialorder,andourfamilies,to
33Gignac(2009)
34Jacobs(2008)
35Cryderman(2006)
36Bourque-Bearskin(2013)
37NWAC(2016)
38Morin(2016)
39Scope(2009)
40Benzie&Brennan(2013)
41Gladue(2003)
42Bly(2002)
43Brandon(2013)
44Simard(2012)
45Pember(2015)
46CanadianPress(2011)
colonizersandtotheongoingimpactofcolonialpractices47,wehavepersisted.We
haveenduredeverykindofviolence,fromstrangersandfromfamily,from
governmentsandpolice,andyetwecontinueon.Weareimmeasurablystrong.
Wedonotwanttodwellinthepast.Weseektorightpastinjustices48,andto
rememberourlosses49,justasanygrievingpeoplewould.Weseeksolaceineach
otherandinourculturesandceremoniesinthehopeofhealingfromourpasts50.
Yet,wealsowanttomoveforward.Weseektofightforourcivilandtreatyrights51,
andtomakethingsbetterforfuturegenerations.Wewanttoprotectourlandand
ourpeople,andproviderolemodelsforourchildrentolookupto52.Weprotectour
culturefiercelybecauseitwasnearlystolenfromus53.Weprotectourfamilies
fiercelybecausetheywerestolenfromus54.Wefightforourcommunitiesandour
peoplebecausenobodyelsewill.
Weknowhowwelooktooutsiders.Weknowwhatthestatisticssay.
However,thereissomuchthatisleftunsaid,somanyofourstoriesthatremain
untold.Behindthestatistics,thereisagreatdealofcontextandhistorythatremains
undisclosed55.ForeverystatisticaboutthenumberofIndigenouschildrenincare,
47Anderson(2000)
48Bellefontaine(2015)
49Scope(2009)
50LindsayJacksonetal(2015)
51Hanes(2007)
52Adams(1998)
53NanaimoDailyNews(2006)
54Curren(1998)
55Tait(2009)
thereisahiddencontextofintergenerationaltrauma56andalackofsupportfor
parentsthatsaysatleastasmuchaboutthefailureofthegovernmentasitdoes
aboutthefailureofthechild’sparents.WhenanIndigenouswomanislaudedasthe
firsttoachieveaparticularachievement,itsaysatleastasmuchaboutthe
discriminatorysystemshe’soperatinginasitdoesabouthersuccesswithinit.
Weseekreconciliationbytellingourstories,seekingwitnessand
understandingfromthosewhohearthem.Ourstoriesmakeushumanandreal57,
andremindothersthatbehindthestatisticsarepeoplewhohaveenduredmany
hardshipsandstillfighton.Wearesurvivors;weleaveourfamiliesandourfamilial
communitiestoseekeducationsandcareersinplacesthatarenotalways
welcoming,andthenwereturnandgivebackwhateverwecan58.Therearesofew
ofuswhoarerecognizedfortheachievementswehavehad,sowehavetorecognize
themourselves59.Foreverywomanwhoisinternationallyacclaimedforherbeauty
andpoise,lieswithinanactivistreadytostandonhermediaplatformtofightfor
herpeople60.
Weareproudofouraccomplishments,andwewanttorecognizeeachother
forthem.Weareproudofoursurvivorship,becauseitisahardfoughtbattlethat
hasnotyetbeenwon.Wewanttoupliftourcommunities,haveourrightsprotected,
56Roy(2014)
57ThisisBella’sStory(n.d.)
58Bell(2011)
59Friesen(2001)
60Boesveld(2015)
andfeelsafeinourhomes.Wefightforwhatotherscanenjoywithoutfightingforit.
Wewantreconciliation,andwewantourstoriestostandastruth.
Discussion
Itbecameapparentfairlyearlyonintheanalyticprocessthatverydifferent
perspectivesaboutIndigenouswomenexistintheliterature.Giventhisdiversity,
werealizedthatinterpretingthesevariousstorythreadsintounifiednarrativesmay
bedifficulttodo,andmaybeanunjustsimplificationoftheavailableinformation.
EarlyanalysesoftheliteraturerevealedstorythreadsthatportrayedIndigenous
womenasvictimsandcriminals,activistsandartists,strongandvulnerable,and
vocalandsilent,amongotherdescriptors.Theliteraturewasrifewithexamplesand
counterexamples,sowetooktheanalyticapproachofsplittingtheinformationinto
narrativethreadsandcontrastingthembyhighlightingthedifferencesbetween
theirtone,narrators,plotlines,andendpoints.Fromthere,wedevelopedthe
interimtexts,whichwerethenrevisedintotheresearchtexts,asincludedinthe
previoussection.Throughoutthisprocess,anumberofpointsofconsideration
cametomindthatmaybemeaningfultodiscusshere.
Thestorythreadsthatalignedbestwiththecategoryofstoriesthataretold
aboutIndigenouswomentendedtodifferfromthestoriesthataretoldby
Indigenouswomenaboutthemselvesinimportantways.Forinstance,thestories
aboutIndigenouswomentendedtofocusonIndigenouswomenasagroupor
populationwhilestoriesaboutthemselvesweremorelikelytodescribeIndigenous
womenasindividualsorasmembersofspecificcommunities.Inaddition,the
storiestoldaboutthembyotherstendedtofocusonriskfactorsandnegative
outcomeswhileIndigenouswomenweremorelikelytotellstoriesabout
themselvesthatreflectedtheaccomplishmentsandhumanityofparticularwomen.
Assuch,giventhecontrastofwholepopulation/negativeoutcomesversus
individuals/positiveoutcomes,theimpressionthatonegetsinreadingtheliterature
isthatIndigenouswomenasawholeareahigh-riskpopulationproneto
victimization,violence,addiction,illness,criminalbehaviour,andpoverty,butthat
thereareaminorityofthesewomenwhoareexceptionstotherule.
OneexampleofthisishowthetopicofmissingandmurderedIndigenous
women(MMIW)isportrayedfromthetwodifferentperspectives.Storiestoldby
othersaboutMMIWtendedtobetoldbyjournalists,theRCMP,andpoliticians,and
tendedtoportraythemissingandmurderedwomenasaddictsandsextrade
workerswhoareexploitedbyopportunisticstrangers,withanunspoken
implicationbeingthatifthewomendidnotchoosetoleadsuchhigh-risklifestyles
therewouldbefeweropportunitiesforstrangerstoviolateandmurderthem.On
theotherhand,storiesaboutMMIWbyIndigenouswomentendedtobesharedby
familymembersofvictimsandtendedtoportraymissingandmurderedwomenas
familymembers(i.e.,sisters,mothers,etc.),survivorsoftrauma(i.e.,childhood
sexualassault,residentialschools,etc.),andaccomplishedwomen(i.e.,graduates,
gainfullyemployed,etc.).Ifaddictionplayedaroleintheirlivesitwastypically
portrayedassomethingthatthewomenhadbeenstrugglingwithorfighting
against,demonstratingthattheyhadbeenactivelytryingtogetawayfromit.As
such,inonenarrative’sportrayalthewomenareafacelessgroupwhomakepoor
lifechoicesthatleadstotheirowndemise,whileintheothertheyarerelatable
peoplewhoaresurvivorsandfighterswhoarelovedandmissed,andthechoices
thatledtotheirdemisewerethechoicesoftheirmurderers.
Inaddition,storiesaboutIndigenouswomenastoldbyotherstendedto
focusonimmediatefactsandinformationwithlittletonodiscussionaboutcontext
andhistory,whereaswhenIndigenouswomentellthesestoriesthereisgreater
focusonthesefactors.Oneexampleofthisisthetreatmentofdomesticviolence,
wherestoriestoldbyothersaboutthedomesticviolencethatIndigenouswomen
facetendedtodescribethehighratesofdomesticviolence,thehighproportionof
Indigenouswomenwhousewomen’sshelters,andthehighpercentageofsolved
MMIWcasesthatwereattributedtoIndigenousmaleperpetrators.Theunderlying
implicationinthefocusoncurrentstatisticswithlittletonodiscussionofthesociohistoricalcontextofdomesticviolenceisthatdomesticviolenceisaproblem
specifictoIndigenouspeopleandfamilies,andassuchthesolutiontothisproblem
oughttofocusonIndigenouscommunities,families,andindividuals.
Ontheotherhand,storiestoldbyIndigenouswomenaboutthemselves
tendedtoincludecontextualinformation,includingtheroleofsocio-political,
economic,andhistoricalfactors.Assuch,thehistoricalrolesofIndigenousmenand
womenandtherelativeequalityofgenderroleswithintraditionalIndigenous
societiespriortothearrivalofEuropeansprovidesimportantcontexttocurrent
genderrelations.Throughtheprocessofcolonization,19th-centuryEuro-Christian
genderrolespermeatedIndigenoussocietiesandirrevocablyalteredthesocial
orderintraditionalsocieties(Anderson,2012).Betweentheseinfluencesand
others,suchastheimpositionofnationalpoliciessuchastheIndianAct,Indigenous
womenwerestrippedoftraditionalsourcesofindependenceandempowerment
(i.e.,participationinBandpolitics,maritalproperty,Bandmembership,etc.),while
menwereinfusedwithentitlementsthatdisruptedthetraditionalbalanceofpower
betweenthegenders.Thispowerimbalanceworkedinconcertwithothersociohistoricalfactorsincludingoveralllossesthroughcolonizationofindependencefor
allIndigenouspeoples,traditionalwork,resourcewealth,spiritualresources,and
culture,aswellashazardouslivingconditionsandovercrowdingassociatedwith
community-widepoverty(Waldram,Herring&Young,2006),toproducemodern
domesticsituationsthataremorelikelytoleadtoviolence.
Inthenarrativeaccountofdomesticviolencethatisdevoidofcontextual
information,Indigenousmenareportrayedasuncontrolledviolentoffendersand
Indigenouswomenarevictimswho,inmanyinstances,choosetoputthemselves
andtheirchildreninharm’swaybystayingwithviolentmen.Assuch,inthis
accountthesolutionmaybeseenasoneinwhichinterventionsareaimedat
reducingviolenceamongstIndigenousmenwhileIndigenouswomenareprotected
fromviolencethroughremovalfromtheirfamilyand/orcommunity.Intheother
narrativethatdoesincludecontextualinformation,Indigenousmenandwomenare
portrayedasbeinginverydifficultdomesticsituationswhereviolencewouldbe
morelikelytooccurinanyfamily,andassuchimpliedsolutionsmayrequirelargerscaleinterventionsofapoliticalandeconomicnatureinadditiontoensuringthe
immediatesafetyofindividualsthroughfamily-levelinterventionsthatdonot
recreateproblematiccolonialistrelations(i.e.,unnecessaryorunwantedremoval
fromfamily/community).
AnotherdifferencebetweenthenarrativesaboutIndigenouswomen
comparedtonarrativesaboutthemselveswasthefocusonindividualchoiceand
responsibilitythatwasreflectedintheformeraccount.Thisfocusalignswitha
liberalperspectiveofpoliticalchangewhereinstrategiesforchangefocuson
changingtheindividuals’choicesthroughsmaller-scaleindividualandcommunity
intervention.Meanwhile,thelatteraccounttendedtofocusonthewholesystem
withinwhichindividualsoperate,aligningwitharadicalperspectiveofpolitical
changethatimplicateslarger-scaleinterventionsaimedatchangingtheentire
economic,social,andpoliticalsystemratherthantheindividualswithinit.
Oneexampleofthisdifferenceinperspectivesisapparentinportrayalsof
thetopicoffetalalcoholspectrumdisorder(FASD)amongstIndigenouschildren.
StoriestoldaboutIndigenouswomentendtofocusontheirindividualchoiceto
drinkduringpregnancy,thuscontributingtohighratesofFASDamongsttheir
children,whichinturnleadstosocial,economic,andbehaviouralproblemswithin
theircommunities(e.g.,CanadianPress,2013).Inthisway,Indigenouswomenare
individuallyresponsibleformakingpoorchoicesthatleadtosignificantnegative
consequencesfortheirentirecommunitiesandsocietyasawhole.Assuch,
proposedinterventionsfocusoneducatingpregnantwomenontheimpactsof
drinkingduringpregnancyandprovidingsupporttohelpthemchoosesobriety,
suchasprovidingaccesstotreatmentforalcoholaddiction.
Ontheotherhand,storiestoldbyIndigenouswomenfocuslessonindividual
choicesandinsteadlevycriticismsagainstmainstreamnarrativesofFASDasan
epidemicproblemspecifictoIndigenouswomenbypointingtonebulousdiagnostic
criteriathatmaycontributetobiaseddiagnoses,uncertainresearchonthecausal
linkbetweenspecificdrinkingbehaviourandincidenceofFASD,thegeneral
ignoranceofthefactthatnon-Indigenouswomenaremorelikelytodrinkduring
pregnancythanIndigenouswomen,andthesignificantbutunacknowledgedimpact
ofsocio-economicfactorsontheexpressionofFASDsymptomsinchildren(Tait,
2009).Duetothesemanycriticisms,theyarguethattheremaybeanoverdiagnosisofFASDamongstIndigenouschildren,andthusthesupposedepidemicof
FASDamongstIndigenouschildrenmay,infact,representthesocialconstructionof
afalsecrisis.Giventhis,suggestedinterventionstoaddressthisepidemictakea
moreradicalapproachthatimplicatesthesysteminwhichFASDoccursratherthan
individuals(i.e.,alteringthediagnosticcriteriatopreventbiaseddiagnoses,
changingnationalpolicyandconversationaroundFASDtomoreaccuratelyreflect
theracialdiversityofthewomenwhodrinkduringpregnancy,acknowledgingthe
uncertainresearchonthespecificcausesofFASD,andfocusingonnon-racialized
interventionsforalcoholabuseandaddictionforpregnantwomen).
Finally,anotherobservationthatoccurredasweanalyzedtheliteraturewas
thedifferencebetweenwhatwasleftoutofthetwodifferentaccounts.Instories
toldbyothersaboutIndigenouswomen,therewasatendencytofocuson
victimhood,whichisaperspectivethattendstominimizethewomen’sstrengths
suchasresilienceandsurvivalskills.Meanwhile,thestoriesthewomentoldabout
themselvessometimescelebratedtheaccomplishmentsofindividualswhohad
achievedcertain“firsts”,suchaswomenwhowerethefirsttobecomeaprovincial
politicianorthefirsttobecomealawyerorwinacertainaward.Thiscelebrationof
“firsts”tendstocelebratetheachievementsofindividualswithinasystemthatis
biasedagainstthem,whichisevidencedbythelengthoftimeittooktoobtainsuch
achievements.Thesecelebrations,thoughworthy,maymasktheneedforamore
radicaloverhaulofasystemthattendstodiscount,exclude,anddisenfranchise
Indigenouswomenwithonlyfewandhistoricallyrecentexceptions.
ReconcilingDifferentPerspectives
Itistimeforreconciliation.Albertaknowsthisasshesitsdownforteawith
Iskwew61,whocanfeeltheapprehensioninthemeeting.Thegreenleavesofthe
wildmintsteepinthepotofhotwateronthetable,infusingtheairbetweenthem
withfragrantsteam.Asthewaterturnsaruddygreen-brown,Albertareachesfor
thepotandservesherselfandthenhercompanion.Thetwowomenlookattheirtea
astheywonderwhoshouldspeakfirst.
Iskwewtakesadeepbreathandinthesilencebetweenthemdecidesto
speakfirst,thoughsheknowsthatsomuchhasalreadybeensaid.Shewelcomes
Albertaandremindsherwhytheyaremeetingtoday:becausetheybothunderstand
thattheyneedtoengageintheimportantanddifficultworkofmovingforward.
Theirsharedhistoryisfullofsomanyscarsanddifficultmemories,andsomany
conversationshavetakenplacebeforewithoutleadingtomeaningfulchanges,and
yettheybothremainhopefultodaythatsomethingnewwilltakeshape.Atthevery
least,theybothknowthatsomethinghastochange.
Albertaunderstandshercompanionistiredofspeakingwithoutbeingheard.
SheisattentiveasIskwewspeaks,concentratingonherwordsandthemeaning
61IskwewistheCreewordfor“woman”andisusedinthisnarrativeforillustrative
purposes.TheauthorsacknowledgethattheCreeareoneoftheFirstNationspeople
ofAlbertaandourchoiceofthelanguageofanyothergroupofFirstNationspeople
wouldhavebeenasmeaningfulinthisvignette.
behindthem.Shetriestounderstandhermessage,triestolookoutsidethelens
throughwhichshehasalwaysseenIskwewandseeherthewayIskwewdescribes
herself.Fromthisdifferentperspective,Albertaissurprisedhowdifferenttheir
sharedhistorylooks.ShehearsIskwew’sstoriesofhardshipandsurvival,andher
visionforafuturethatismuchbrighterthanthepast.Shespeaksintermsofthe
landsheknows,strengthandresilience,familiesandcommunities,andacontextof
social,economic,political,andhistoricalfactorsthatareastangibleinherlifeasthe
breathinherlungs.IskwewspeaksofAlberta’sneedtoknowherhistoryinorderto
knowwhosheisnow,anditisthismessageinparticularthatstrikesAlberta.Of
course,sherealizes,onecannotknowwhoIamwithoutknowingwhereIcomefrom
andwhatmylifehasbeen.ShebeginstoseeIskwewinanewlight,toseehernotjust
assheappearsfromAlberta’sownlimitedperspective,butasshereallyis:this
perfectlyhumanwomanattheheartofacomplexwebofrelations,richinculture
andhistoryandfuturepotential,strongfromsurvivalandnecessity,whoisreadyto
walkthroughahealingpathtoreconcilethepainsofherpastandstrideintoher
future.
AlbertathanksIskwewforsharing,andtakesamomenttosipherteaand
reflect.Afterathoughtfulpause,sheacknowledgesshehadnotseenIskwewfrom
herownperspectivebefore,andthatshelearnedsomethingimportantabouther
today.AlbertaisamuchyoungerwomanthanIskwew,andAlbertadescribesthe
waysheseestheworldthroughtheeyesofayoungperson,withanintrepid
forward-thinkingsenseofadventurebornefromearlyyearsspentforgingapath
throughharshconditions.Shetakesprideinherresourcefulness,independence,and
howwellshehassucceededdespiteheryoungage.Sheacknowledgesthatshe
neverunderstoodwhyIskwewcouldn’tjustdoasshehasdone,tomakethechoice
topullherselfupandgettoworkcreatingthelifeshewantsforherself.Shehad
wonderedwhyIskwewkepttalkingaboutthepastwhenlifeisaboutthefuture.
Iskwewbeginstoexplain,butAlbertastopsherbecauseshewantsIskwewto
hearthatsheknows.Albertaknowsnowthatcontextshedslightoneverything,and
thatIskwew’sapparentchoicetofocusonthepastwasreallyherinsistencethat
whathadhappenedinthepastisstillaliveinhertoday.Withsomediscomfort,
Albertaevencomestoacknowledgethatthecontextaroundherownlifestory
demonstratesthathersuccesseswerenotentirelyhermaking.Shepausesandlooks
down,takesaslowbreath,thenagainmeetsIskwew’seyebeforeacknowledging
thathercurrentwealthcamenotonlyfromhardworkbutalsofromtheftand
exploitation.Itishardtosaythispart,andIskwewunderstandsthecourageittakes
tosaythisoutloud.Albertadoesnotwanttoseeherselfinthatway,anddoesnot
wanttothinkthatthehardworkanddifficultiesshehasenduredaremeaningless.
IskwewacknowledgeswhatAlbertahasdoneandbeenthrough,andremindsher
thatunderstandingthefullcontextofhersituationdoesnoteraseitsmeaningor
negatewhosheis.Albertaagrees,andnotesthatitmustbepossibletoacknowledge
andunderstandeachother’scomplexlivedtruthswhilestilltakingprideinwho
theyareandwhattheyhaveaccomplished.Iskwewagreesthatthisisprobablytrue.
“Sowheredowegofromhere?”Iskwewwondersaloud.Bothsheand
Albertasinkintosilenceastheycontemplatewhatneedstohappennext.Alberta
eventuallychimesinthattheycanreviewtheirpastconversationsanddevelopan
plantoactonthesuggestionstheyhavecomeupwithinthepast,suchaseducating
eachotherabouttheirsharedhistory,workingaspartnersonfutureendeavours,
andensuringthatbothAlbertaandIskwewcanenjoythekindofindependenceand
resourcesthatonlyAlbertahadenjoyedinthepast.Iskwewagrees,andnotesthe
importanceoftheirconversationtoday,suggestingthatincludingcontextual
informationinallfutureconversationsandengaginginongoingdialoguewillalsobe
key.Albertathinksthisisagoodplan.
Thewomenfallsilentagainastheyfinishtheirtea.Theybothunderstand
thattheirsharedhistoryislongandmarredwithconflictandmisunderstanding,
andthattheirplanswillverylikelyspreadfarintothefuturebeforetheycanfully
realizetheirgoals.Theinjuriesthatoccurredoversuchalongtimewillnodoubt
takealongtimetoheal.Nevertheless,bothwomenendtheirmeetingfeeling
hopeful.Theyhavestartedtheirjourneydownthehealingpath,andthoughitmay
takealongtimetotraversetheytakecomfortinknowingtheyarewalkingit
together.
Conclusion
Narrativesshapethewayweseeandinteractwiththeworld.Thosenarratives
maybethestorieswetellaboutourselvestomakesenseofourownhistoriesand
experiences,andtheymaybethestoriesweconstructaboutothers.Inthecourseof
preparingthisreport,wehavesiftedthroughmanystoriesaboutIndigenous
womenanddevisedinterpretivetextstorepresenttwodisparatewaysof
representingthem.Themajorityoftheliteraturethatwereviewedwasmoreclosely
alignedwiththefirstaccount,thestoriesthataretoldbyothersaboutIndigenous
women,representingagrandnarrativeofIndigenouswomeninAlbertathatboth
shapesourunderstandingofwhotheyareandalsoprovidesthelensthroughwhich
toseethem.
Thepurposeofthisreportwastoreviewrecentprintmediatodetermine
whattheprevailingnarrativessayaboutIndigenouswomeninthisprovince,andto
identifywhethertherearealternativenarrativesthatmayhelpshiftthe
perspectivesthataresuggestedbythemainstreamnarratives.Inoureffortstodo
so,wehavedeterminedthatthegrandnarrativeaboutIndigenouswomen,as
interpretedfromthestoriesthataretoldbyothersaboutthem,onlyprovidesone
perspectivethatisgreatlylimitedinscopeanddepth.Inorderformeaningful
reconciliationtotakeplacebetweentheIndigenousandnon-Indigenouspeopleof
thisprovince,wemustnotprivilegeoneperspectiveovertheotherbycontinuingto
providedisproportionatelymoreinformationtothepublicthroughtheperspective
ofthegrandnarrative.Instead,inordertobeginthisprocesswewillneedtoallow
thedifferentsidestoinformeachother,andthiswillrequireustobeginattending
tothealternativeperspectivesthatareavailabletous,thestoriesthatIndigenous
womentellaboutthemselves.
Tothisend,werecommendfollowinganumberofstrategiesthatmayhelp
shiftthebalanceofinformationsothatalterativenarrativesareaffordedmore
spaceinthefieldofliterature.Werecommendincludingrelevanthistorical,social,
political,andeconomiccontextwhenpresentinginformationinfuturereportsto
ensurethatthisinformationisnotmisattributedtoindividual,racialized,gendered
stereotypesaboutIndigenouswomen.Further,werecommendpublishingmore
informationthatdescribesindividualIndigenouswomeninordertoprovidemore
humanizingstoriesaboutapopulationthatisnotoftenrepresentedinrelatable
ways.Whenagroupofpeopleisspokenaboutingeneric,homogenous,generalized
ways,andtherearefewexamplestoenrichthisdiscussionwithmoreintimate
portraitsofindividuals,itispossibletoreducethecomplexhumannessofthe
subjectstoadehumanizedmass.
Werecommendprovidingspaceintheliteratureforcritiquesofnarratives
thataretakenforgrantedastruth,andforpolicytoreflectnotonlymainstream
researchbutalsoresearchthatprovidesacriticalperspectivesoastodampenthe
overpoweringstrengthofthegrandnarrativeinpolicydecision-making.Finally,we
recommendpromotingliteratureandfundingresearchthatfocusesonthestrengths
ofIndigenouswomen,suchastheirresilience,survivorship,historicandcurrent
rolesintheircommunities,andotherpositivefeatures,andtoreframenegative
informationinapositivecontext(i.e.,reframingdiscussionsofviolencetofocusless
onvictimhoodandmoreonsurvival).
ItisourhopethattheportrayalofIndigenouswomenintheliteraturewill
becomemorerepresentativeoftheirtruthbypresentingadiverserangeof
informationfromadiverserangeofperspectives.WehopethatIndigenouswomen
willhavemoreofavoiceintheliteratureandwillhaveagreaterplatformfrom
whichtospeakforthemselves,astheyaretheonlyoneswhocantelltheirown
stories.Finally,wearehopefulthatAlbertawilllistentothosestoriesandworkwith
theIndigenouswomenofthisprovincetoenactrealchangesinhowIndigenous
womenarerepresentedandhowtheyrelatewithothersinthisprovince.Inso
doing,webelievethatallAlbertansstandtobenefitfromthegreaterunderstanding
andcloserpartnershipsthatmayresultfromthismutualactionanddialogue.
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