1
INCULTURATION OF THE CONCEPT OF GOD IN THE
TRADITIONAL RELIGION OF THE ABAGUSII OF WESTERN
KENYA
BY
NYABWARI BERNARD GECHIKO
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE
AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS OF KENYATTA
UNIVERSITY
NOVEMBER 2010
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DEDICATION
To my dearly loved wife Naomi Nyanchama Gechiko and our sons
Timothy Onkendi Gechiko and Cleopas Nyabwari Gechiko
3
DECLARATION
This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in
any other university.
Signature______________________Date_________________
Nyabwari Bernard Gechiko
This thesis has been submitted with our approval as university
supervisors:-
Signature
_________________________ Date____________________
Prof. Rev. Sr. Anne Nasimiyu-Wasike
Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies
Signature __________________________Date ____________________
Dr. Michael T. Katola.
Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I recognize the valuable assistance many people accorded me during the
preparation of this thesis.
I thank my informants for finding time to
inform this study.
I consider myself vastly privileged to have worked under the
indefatigable and dedicated supervision of Prof. Rev. Sr. Anne Nasimiyu
Wasike whose kind approach and meticulous criticism have been great
incentives in the compilation and completion of this work. Dr. Michael T.
Katola‟s ardent supervision too has been of incomparable academic
stimulation, admiration and motivation.
I acknowledge Dr. Miriam
Nwoye whose rich academic contribution helped to form pillars of this
study.
I am equally thankful to Dr. Zacharia Samita, Dr. Philomena Mwaura,
Dr. Margaret Gechaga, Dr. Josephine Gitome, Ms Lydia Kahindi, Prof.
Mary Getui, Dr. Ruth Muthei, Dr. Francis Wokabi, Dr. Stephen Nyaga, Dr.
Newton Kahumbi, Prof. Watson Omulokoli, Dr. Pacifica Okemwa, Mrs
Pauline Otieno, Prof. J.J Ong‟ong‟a, Dr. Gimode and Pastor James Ouma
for their constant interest in my work. They referred me to relevant
sources that enriched this study. I immensely appreciate their helpful
suggestions and constructive criticisms.
5
This work would never have been a reality without the steadfast love,
support, cooperation and care from my beloved wife Naomi Nyanchama
Gechiko and our sons Timothy Gechiko and Cleopas Gechiko.
To my family members especially my father Samson Nyabwari and
mother Jerusha Bangweso, brothers and sisters; Nevency, Joash, Norah,
Abel, Gideon, Rebecca, Grace, Ruth, Ellen and Elijah, I highly recognize
your love, support and dedication towards my academic achievements.
To my father and mother in-laws; Onkendi and Nyatuka, and my in-laws;
Joyce, Moses, Peter, Douglas, Ogake and Oroni, your love and attitude to
me has been my strength.
I thank Mr A. D. Bojana for proofreading the final copy of this thesis. I
would also like to thank Margaret Mulwa, Fridah Kagemi and the
Librarians from Kenyatta University, Hekima College Library, the
University of Nairobi Library and the University of Eastern Africa Baraton
for allowing me to use their facilities. To my colleagues and friends Eudita
Wamboi, Enock Omayio, Elijah Giteya and Dinah Nyaitondi Ombuna I
acknowledge the support you gave while doing this study. Shem Ngoko,
Zablon Ayiera and Lameck Anyona of Nyamira Conference of SDA
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Church will not go unmentioned for influencing my decision for
furthering my education, and I will do so.
Finally, I am thankful to God for granting me an opportunity of coming to
Kenyatta University for this study.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ……………………………………………………
ii
Declaration…………………………………………………....
iii
Acknowledgements……………………………………………
iv
Abstract………………………………………………………
xiv
Operational Definitions………………………………………
xvi
Abbreviations …………………………………………………
xix
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background to the Study……………………………………….. 1
1.2
Statement of the Problem……………………………………….. 9
1.3
Objectives of the Study………………………………………….. 11
1.4
Research Premises ………………………………………………12
1.5
Significance of the Study………………………………… ………12
1.6
Scope and Limitation
1.7
Literature Review
1.7.1
The African Concept of God
1.7.2
Gusii Traditional Concept of God…………
1.7.3
The Concepts of Inculturation…………………………...……... 23
1.8
Conceptual Framework…………………………………. ………27
………………………………………13
………………………………………………14
………………………………14
……………... 20
8
1.8.1
The Christian God against Culture……………..……… ………29
1.8.2
The Christian God of Culture……………………………………30
1.8.3
The Christian God above Culture ………………………………32
1.8.4
The Christian God and Culture in Paradox…………………… 33
1.8.5
The Christian God the Transformer of Culture……………….. 34
1.9
Methodology …………………………………………………….. 35
1.10
Research Design …………………………………………………. 35
1.11
Geographical Location of the Study …………………………… 35
1.12
Data collection……………………………………………………. 36
1.12.1 Respondent Questionnaire …………………………………........ 36
1.12.2 Oral Interviews ……………………………………………………37
1.12.3 Participant Observation ………………………………………….37
1.13
Sampling Techniques and Sample Size ……………………….. 38
1.13.1 The Youth ………………………………………………………….38
1.13.2 Parents ……………………………………………………………. 38
1.13.3 Church Leaders……………………………………………………39
1.13.4 Cultural Leaders…………………………………………………. 39
1.14
Data Analysis …………………………………………………….. 39
1.15
Problems Related to the Study…………………………….......... 40
CHAPTER TWO
GUSII TRADITIONAL CONCEPT OF GOD
9
2.1
Introduction………………………………………………………. 42
2.2
God in Gusii world view. ……………………………………44
2.2.1
Abagusii Limitations. ………………………………………
2.2.2
God in the Forces of Nature ……………………………………. 47
2.3
The Basis for Gusii Belief in God …………………………..
2.3.1
God as the Creator, Sustainer and Protector of Creation …… 49
2.3.2
God as a Leader of the Universe ……………………………….. 51
2.4
Abagusii Concept of the Nature of God ………………….
2.4.1
The Intrinsic Attributes of God ………………………………… 52
2.4.2
The Extrinsic Attributes of God ……………………………...... 59
2.4.3
Gusii Anthropomorphic, Animal
46
48
52
and Bird Images of God …………………………………............60
2.5
Conclusion …………………………………………………………72
CHAPTER THREE
THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON GUSII TRADITIONAL
CONCEPT OF GOD
3.1
Introduction ……………………………………………………… 75
3.2
History of the Coming and the Establishment of the
Christian Missionaries in Gusii (1909- 1963) ………………….. 77
3.2.1
History of the Catholic Church in Gusii and its
Influence on Gusii Traditional Concept of God …….…….
78
10
3.2 .2 History of the Seventh Day Adventist (SDA) Church
and its Influence on Gusii Traditional
Concept of God …………………………………………………..81
3.2.3
History of the Salvation Army in Gusii and its
Influence on Gusii Traditional Concept of God ……..……. …90
3.2.4
History of the Africa Inland Mission(AIM) in Gusii
and its Influence on Gusii Traditional Concept of God ……... 92
3.2.5
History of the Swedish Lutheran Mission (SLM) in
Gusii and its Influence on Gusii Traditional
Concept of God …………………………………………………… 93
3.2.6
History of the Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada
(PAC) in Gusii and its Influence on Gusii Traditional
Concept of God ……………………………………………………95
3.2.7
History of the Church of God (COG) In Gusii and its
Influence on Gusii Traditional Concept of God …………..
3.2.8
96
History of the Friends African Mission (FAM) in
Gusii and its Influence on Gusii Traditional
Concept of God ………………………………………… ………97
3.3
The Missionary Collective Assessment and influence
on Gusii Traditional Concept of God …………………………99
3.4
The Christian Concept of God and its Influence
on Gusii Traditional Concept of God…………………………..102
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3.5
The Christian Teaching on the Trinity and Influence
on Gusii traditional Concept of God…………………...............105
3.6
The Biblical Names of God and Their Influence
on Gusii References for God ……………………………….
3.7
109
The Christian Teachings on the Attributes of God
And Their Influence on Gusii Traditional
Concept of God ………………………………………….………..111
3.7.1
The Christian Teaching on the Non-Sharable Attributes
of God and Their Influence on Gusii Traditional
Concept of God……………………………………………………112
3.7.2
The Christian Teaching on the Sharable Attributes
of God and Their Influence on Gusii Traditional
Concept of God ……………………………………………………123
3.7.3
The Biblical Images of God and Their
Influence on Gusii References to God …………………………..127
3.8
Similarities between Gusii Traditional Concept of God
and The Christian Concept of God ……………………………. 141
3.9
Differences between Gusii Traditional Concept of God
and the Christian Concept of God ……………………………. 146
3.10
Conclusion …………………………………………………………150
CHAPTER FOUR
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INCULTURATION OF GUSII TRADITIONAL
CONCEPT OF GOD
4.1
Introduction ………………………………………………............ 153
4.2
Meaning and Purpose of Inculturation…………………………154
4.3
Gusii Religiosity as a Seedbed for Inculturation ………........... 157
4.4
Application of the Inculturation of Gusii
Concept of Engoro …… ………………………………… ……... 160
4.4.1 Inculturation of God as a Father …………………………………. 162
4.4.2 Inculturation of God as a Gusii Community Elder …………….. 167
4.4.3 Inculturation of God as a Healer ………………………………… 173
4.4.4 Inculturation of God as a Friend …………………………………. 179
4.4.5 Inculturation of God as a Blacksmith ……………………………. 184
4.4.6 Inculturation of God as a Farmer ………………………………... 188
4.4.7 Inculturation of God as a Shepherd …………………………...… 194
4.4.8 Inculturation of God as an Ox …………………………… ……... 199
4.4.9 Inculturation of God as an Eagle ………………………………… 202
4.5 Conclusion………. ……………………………………………………206
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………..209
5.2 Summary and Conclusions of the Study. …………………………. 209
13
5.3 Recommendations of the Study ……………………………………. 214
5.4 Suggestions for Further Study ……………….………………………217
Bibliography ………………….……………………………………………218
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Appendices
Appendix 1
List of Respondents ………….………………….. 226
Appendix 2
Map I: Nyamira in the Map of Kenyan …........... 229
Appendix 3
Map II: Nyamira District Map: Study Site ……..230
Appendix 4
Questionnaire to Cultural Leaders …………
Appendix 5
Interview for the Youth …………………………. 233
Appendix 6
Interview for Parents
Appendix 7
Interview for Church Leaders
Appendix 8
Focus Group Interviews ………………………… 238
Appendix 9
Official Letters ………………………………..…..240
231
………………………234
………………236
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ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to inculturate the concept of God in the
traditional religion of Abagusii of Western Kenya. Further, the study had
three specific objectives. First, to examine Gusii traditional concept of
God (Engoro) in their religiosity. Second, to investigate the influence of
Christianity on Gusii traditional concept and to provide a balanced,
holistic and integral way of life.
This study employed a descriptive research design. Through purposive
sampling method, data collected constitute the Ekerenyo, Nyamira,
Manga, Rigoma and Borabu zones which form the Nyamira District where
the study was carried out.
interviewed.
A total sample of 52 respondents was
Questionnaires were used to collect data vis-à-vis
participant observation, oral interviews and analysis of documents from
library sources. The overall data were collected, analyzed, interpreted and
discussed using Neibuhr‟s (1951) Christological model of God and
Culture in the God above Culture, God against Culture, God of Culture,
God and Culture in Paradox and God the Transformer of Culture
paradigms. This conceptual framework shows that there are some Gusii
socio-religio-cultural practices which need to be either eliminated,
retained or refined.
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The research findings reveal that Abagusii believe in the existence of God
(Engoro) in their traditional religion. In spite of their traditional concept of
God, Christianity assumed this reality, influenced the people‟s concept of
God and did not see the need to inculturate Gusii traditional concept of
God. This condition has influenced people‟s decline of their inclination to
God and that has predisposed them to socio-moral evils in the society.
Inculturation of Gusii anthropomorphic, animal and bird images of God
makes Abagusii perceive God as real, near and present with them in their
daily lives. The study recommends Christianity should inculturate Gusii
traditional concept of God. The laity, the clergy and the ordinary church
members need to participate in the inculturation process.
OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
Acculturation
Adaptation of new cultural
elements and mannerisms as a result of
being in contact with other cultures.
Adventist
Member of the Seventh day
Adventist Church.
Catholic
Adherent of the Roman
Catholic Church.
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Church
Believers in Jesus Christ who belong to
the Seventh Day Adventist, Catholic
and Pentecostal Assemblies of God
Church.
Church leader
Person in charge of the Seventh Day
Adventist,
Catholic,
The
Salvation
Army, The Africa Inland Mission, The
Swedish
Lutheran
Mission,
The
Pentecostal Assemblies of God, The
Church of God and The Friends Africa
Mission Mission church. They include
pastors, Bishops, catechists, priests, and
religious men and women who are
assigned special duties in the church.
Cultural leader
Guardians of Gusii traditional concepts
of God and educators of Gusii norms,
values and ethics. They include Gusii
clan leaders, Cultural ritual ministers
and elderly men and women.
Denominize
Enslaving to a religious dogma.
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Enculturation
Socialization process where Abagusii
children from birth to about 12 years of
age are taught their people‟s culture.
Euro-American Christianity
Christianity brought to Gusii land by
missionaries from Europe and America.
Gusii
A territory in western Kenya where
Abagusii settle
Inculturation
Integration of positive cultural values
or incarnating Christian values into the
Gusii traditional concept of God.
Social-religio-cultural
Gusii social, religious and cultural
mannerisms
as
retained
by
Gusii
traditionalists.
The church
Believers in Jesus Christ who belong to
Seventh
Day
Adventist,
Catholic,
Salvation Army, Africa InlandMission,
Swedish Lutheran Mission, Pentecostal
Assemblies of God, Church of God and
Friends
Africa
Mission
Mission
denominations
Traditional
Inherent practices of the people
transmitted through the oral religiosity
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Trans-culture
The elements of Jesus fitting in
all human cultures
Young parents
Parents between 25-40 years.
Youth group
Gusii young unmarried people
between 15-19 years.
ABBREVIATIONS
AIC
Africa Inland Church.
AIDS
Acquired Immune Deficient Syndrome.
AIM
Africa Inland Mission.
ATR
African Traditional Religion.
COG
Church of God.
FAM
Friends Africa Mission.
FGM
Female Genital Mutilation.
HIV
Human Immunodeficiency Virus.
Ms
Microsoft.
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NT
New Testament.
OT
Old Testament.
PAC
Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada.
PAG
Pentecostal Assemblies of God.
SDA
Seventh Day Adventist.
SLM
Swedish Lutheran Mission.
SMA
Society for Mission to Africa.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
The Gospel according to Jesus‟ great commission to the disciples in
Matthew 28:19-21 is to be preached to all people in the world in their
socio-religio-cultural
backgrounds.
This
implies
the
relevance
of
inculturation. In Christian evangelization, inculturation is central in
multicultural communities in the world.
Inculturation as Waliggo (1986:12) explains is the honest and serious
attempt to make Christ and His message of salvation understood by
people of every culture, locality and time. It also means the reformulation
of Christian life and doctrine into the very thought-pattern of each people.
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It also entails dialogue and assimilation which will help the people to be
truly Christians and authentically local (John Paul II, 1980:222). Dube
(2002:57) adds that inculturation is the conviction that Christ and His
Good News are ever dynamic and challenging to all times and cultures as
they become better understood and lived by each people.
Further,
Urbukle (1988:511) states that it is a continuous endeavor to make
Christianity truly „feel at home‟ in the cultures of each people.
Missiologists need elaborate incarnation and inculturation orientations
(Lunzbetaks, 1998: 69).
This will help them in the propagation of
Christianity in the midst of cultures, religions, socioeconomic systems and
political institutions. In Africa for instance Mbiti (1969: 23) observes that
there are more than 1000 communities and each with unique socio-religiocultural practices.
The traditional concept of God which this study
addressed varies from one community to another depending on the
indigenous images which are ascribed to God to help the local people
understand the intrinsic and extrinsic attributes of God.
This study
investigated possible ways through which Gusii traditional concept of
God can be inculturated.
Abagusii are a Bantu community found in the western part of Kenya. In
their oral religiosity, they believe in the existence of a Supreme Being
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called Engoro. Their traditional belief in Engoro embraces the spiritual,
moral, economic, political and the social aspects of human life. Ochieng‟
(1974: 58) argues that Abagusii believe that their traditional concept of
God has been there from time immemorial.
Abagusii accept Engoro in their traditional religion as the one who holds
everything in existence and is responsible for any good which happens in
the universe. They also have various organized systems of belief and
worship in relation to the divine and supernatural powers. The belief in
the divine or supernatural powers tends to be a universal concept among
Abagusii. The knowledge of the existence of Engoro as argued by Akama
and Kadenyi (2006:9) and Were (1967:14) was transmitted from one
generation to another through the informal education, songs, dirges,
dances,
religious
performances,
story-telling,
riddles,
idiomatic
expressions and nature.
Gusii traditional religion according to Ochieng‟ (1974:184) has a variety of
ideas in relation to the normal object of religious worship and the idea of
the Supreme Being. Abagusii believe that Engoro controls the world and
the spectacular aspects of nature.
They believe that it is Engoro who
created the universe and all forces operative in it. They also believe that
Engoro is the original progenitor and source of prosperity and life and is
23
the one who controls and governs the destiny of humanity. Ochieng‟
(1974: 67) further argues that Abagusii believe that Engoro is responsible in
sending rain or storm, plenty of food or famine and peace or war.
In Gusii traditional religion, people believe that punishment from Engoro
to those who break the socio-moral laws or values is instantaneous. They
also believe that the socio-moral offense does not only affect the offender
but the whole welfare of Gusii community. In case of reconciliation and
pleading for pardon by the offender, in the traditional days sacrifices were
made and the community members, religious leaders and cultural
guardians of the community welfare were all involved. Various sacrifices
and cleansing rituals were performed depending on the nature of the
moral offence. Christianity censured this traditional belief and is seldom
in practice.
The inception of Euro-American Christianity taught that punishment is in
the future. They also taught that forgiveness and reconciliation between
humanity and God is at individual level and does not involve anybody
besides the law breaker. These differences between Gusii traditional
concept of God and the Christian concept of God pose solemn socio-moral
challenges to the contemporary Gusii community. As noted by Ochieng‟
(1974: 54), few of those who have been faithful to Gusii traditional religion
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point out the gross misconceptions that Euro-American Christianity had
of Abagusii traditional concept of God. Through these misconceptions
Christianity interfered with the traditional moral uprightness of the
people. The Christian teachings about God and how God deals with evil
and evil doers has interfered with the morality of the people. People no
longer fear doing evil because Christianity teaches that God will forgive
the sinners and cleanse them from all unrighteousness. This Christian
teaching has made people to persist in doing evil because they know that
God will forgive and cleanse them anytime they approach him.
The
Christian teaching is different form Gusii traditional teaching. Abagusii
believe that Engoro instantly punishes the evil doers. Gusii traditional
teaching about how Engoro deals with evil upheld the social-moral order
in Gusii traditional community.
Abagusii believe that Engoro has intrinsic attributes. They perceive Engoro
as self-existent, first and last, invisible, incomprehensible, mysterious, and
immutable. These are the non-sharable or non-communicable attributes of
Engoro. They also believe that Engoro has intrinsic attributes like
compassionate, kind, loving, comforting and faithful. These are the
sharable or the communicable attributes of Engoro. Lang (1991: 44),
Gitome (2003:67) and Katola (1995:51) state that it is the notion of the
moral attributes of God that strengthens the African (Abagusii included)
25
traditional ethical sanctions and this in turn upholds the community‟s
solidarity. Abagusii further had the anthropomorphic, animal and bird
images of God. They addressed Engoro as a father (tata), community elder
(omokumi), healer (omogwenia), friend (omosani), blacksmith (omoturi),
farmer (omoremi), shepherd (omorisia) an ox (entang’ana) and an Eagle
(ekeongo). Some of the images of God like as a blacksmith, an eagle and an
ox only exist in the memory of the older generation. They only strengthen
the contemporary images of God developed as people keep interacting
with God in the changing times. The images of God keep changing with
times and with the rise of new technologies. Inculturation of these images
of God makes Abagusii perceive God as closer, care giver, provider,
protector, sustainer, maker, guider, judge, healer, molder and concerned
(Maryer, 1974: 23, 24).
The Euro-American missionaries who first came to Gusii were of Catholic,
Seventh-Day Adventist (SDA), Salvation Army (SA), Africa Inland
Mission(AIM), Swedish Lutheran Mission, (SLM) Pentecostal Assemblies
of Canada (PAC), Church of God (CoG) and Friends Africa Mission (F A
M) denominations. These missionaries commonly thought that Abagusii
had not fully developed their brains and therefore had neither religion nor
a concept of God. They considered everything that Abagusii were doing
as irreligious and in the event of teaching people the new religion they
26
crept in their socio-religio-culture within inculturated concepts of
Christianity.
Abagusii dropped their traditional concept of God. Evil
became tolerable because Christianity taught that punishment from God is
in the future. The people‟s morality declined because the informal
education of young people by the elders on issues of morality was
displaced by the Western formal education which lacked Gusii elements
of religiosity.
Euro-American Christianity which was not holistic was transplanted and
planted among Abagusii by missionaries without modifications.
The
missionaries along with introduction of Christianity sneaked in their
social, economic, moral, political and religious practices which have
negatively influenced Abagusii. They further introduced their way of life,
manner of dressing, art, music, dance, language, foods and eating habits.
They replaced Gusii religio-cultural practices with the Western socioreligio-cultural practices leaving Abagusii in a dilemma and without
originality.
Abagusii value life and believe that Engoro creates and sustains human
life. They remember the long and recently dead relatives through the renaming. They further believe that the dead links the living to Engoro and
have a direct influence on the living. Abagusii in their traditional religion
named
their children according to places of birth, events during birth,
27
natural objects, departed relatives, heroes and heroines as a way of
accepting, appreciating and thanking Engoro who was known as the
creator and sustainer of life. Through the transplantation process, the
missionaries changed this aspect of child naming and accompanied it with
baptism and giving children and even adult‟s foreign names.
The
missionaries changed names of places, trees and mountains making them
lose their Gusii traditional religious and moral implications.
Abagusii value life and give gifts to Engoro who sustains it.
In the
traditional days every morning at sunrise, the mother brought children
especially recently born ones and faced the rising sun (erioba) and uttered
the immortalized words “rioba ndorere” (sky watch over them on my
behalf) (Akama & Kadenyi, 2006:7). Abagusii believe that the sun is
Engoro‟s „big eye‟ which watches over humanity.
Lack of inculturation of Gusii traditional concept of God created a
religious vacuum in the minds of Abagusii. This vacuum has secretly
been filled by Abagusii through visiting surreptitiously the diviners,
medicine persons and the seers. Euro-American Christianity rejected,
criminalized and underrated Abagusii‟s socio-religio-cultural practices.
Shorter (1985: 34) posits that some confessing Christians still furtively visit
the local medicine people and diviners more than they do visit the clergy
for spiritual edification and entreaties.
28
This study investigates Gusii traditional understating of God, the
influence of Christianity on Gusii traditional concept of God and
inculturation of Gusii traditional concept of God.
1. 2 Statement of the Problem
Highlighting on the need of inculturation as the best way of making
Christianity relevant to people‟s socio-religio-culture, Bujo (1976:34-52),
Magesa (1975: 12, 2004:123-125), Ndegwah (2007:14-16) and Ryan
(2002:110) assert that inculturation process refine cultures by challenging
elements which have outlived their usefulness. Schineller (1990: 11-13)
describes inculturation as the incarnation of Christian message in a
particular context. Discussing the role of inculturation in transforming
cultures, Nasimiyu (1985: 121) adds that Christianity has a duty to take all
people‟s cultures seriously by taking Christ as the model who took a
human identity, borne in the human form and grew as a human being on
the face of the earth. She further argues that inculturation and inspiration
of the Gospel aid missiologists in the cross-cultural evangelization.
29
Before the inception of the Christian concept of God taught by the
Christian missionaries in Gusii, Abagusii had an inherent concept of God
(Engoro) which was transmitted from one generation to another through
oral tradition. The belief in Engoro permeated the people‟s day-to-day life.
It was the responsibility of everyone in Gusii community to uphold the
religious, moral, ethical and social sanctions of the community. People
highly valued to embrace the community‟s solidarity and the belief in
Engoro who strengthened the people‟s interpersonal relationships.
Regarding God‟s relationship with humanity, Gusii traditional religion
perceived Engoro in pragmatic terms, that is, one who is more concerned
with practical results than with theories and principles. Because of the
concept of God in pragmatic terms, evil was not tolerable among Abagusii
because they believed it angered Engoro and led to afflictions like
calamities, death or diseases.
The founder of Christianity is Jesus Christ. Before His ascension to heaven
Jesus gave the great commission to the disciples that, “…All authority is
given to me in heaven and in earth. Therefore go and teach all nations,
baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy
Spirit, teaching them to observe all things, whatever I commanded you.
And, behold, I am with you all the days until the end of the world”
(Matthew, 28: 19-20). Jesus intended that the Gospel be preached to all
30
people in the world in their socio-religio-cultural backgrounds. It is on
this claim that the missionaries came to Gusii. In spite of this, the
Christian missionaries who first came to Gusii seemed to have had little
knowledge of the importance of inculturation. They considered Gusii
traditional concept of God as irrelevant and backward. They did not see
anything that could be inculturated in Gusii traditional religion. They
rejected the Gusii traditional anthropomorphic, animal and bird images
of God and did not appreciate the fact that those images made the notion
of God clear in the people‟s minds. They further presented God in
absolute terms, that is, one who is used to give strong emphasis to what is
being said especially in the Bible. As such, the people were left in dilemma
because all that was precious to them became questionable. Along with
the introduction of the new religion, the missionaries planted their socioreligio-cultural practices among the people. This alienated Abagusii who
feared to belong to themselves because of what was said about them,
causing them to doubt their traditional concept of God.
In view of the above, this study investigates how Gusii traditional concept
of God can be used to enrich the Christian concept of God giving it an
integrated balanced and holistic approach.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
31
The purpose of the study was to investigate Gusii traditional concept of
God and establish which elements are compatible with Christianity which
need purification before adaptation and which elements are incompatible.
The objectives of this study were to:
i. Examine Gusii traditional concept of God.
ii. Investigate the influence of Christianity on Gusii traditional
concept of God.
iii. Identify the similarities and differences between the Christian
concept of God and Gusii traditional concept of God.
iv. Inculturate Gusii traditional concept of God as a way of providing
a balanced, holistic and an integral way of life.
1.4 Research Premises
i. Abagusii believe in the existence of Engoro in their traditional
religion.
ii. The Christian missionaries did not see the need to inculturate
Gusii traditional concept of God.
iii. There are similarities and differences between the Christian
teachings on the concept of God and Gusii traditional teachings
on the concept of God.
32
iv. Inculturating Gusii traditional concept of God provides
Abagusii with a balanced, holistic and an integral way of life.
1.5 Significance of the Study
The study is anticipated to help Abagusii develop a healthy and positive
attitude towards their traditional, religious and cultural values especially
Gusii traditional concept of God. Second, it is to awaken the young and
the old to the importance of retaining the traditional religio-moral values
and Gusii traditional concept of God which strengthens the moral and
Christian values as illustrated in the Bible. Third, it will help the church
workers to realize the need to integrate the traditional teachings of Gusii
traditional concept of God in their church programmes as well as the
importance of inculturating some Gusii traditional religio-cultural values
as an effective way of propagating the Gospel. Further, the study will help
policy makers and curriculum developers to include inculturation
theology in religious studies in all institutions of learning. Finally, the
study will contribute to knowledge locally, nationally and internationally
in theology and inculturation.
1.6 Scope and Limitation
The study restricted itself to the inculturation of the concept of God in
Gusii traditional religion with restricted focus to Abagusii of Western
33
Kenya in the five Nyamira Disrict zones. Gusii Traditional concept of God
is so broad that it could not be discussed sufficiently. The study restricted
itself to Abagusii traditional concept of God, the influence of Christianity
on Gusii traditional concept of God and the inculturation of Gusii
traditional concept of God.
The study was done among Abagusii of
Nyamira district who so far has tried to uphold Gusii traditional concept
of God. The study focused the first Christian missionary churches in
Gusii which are Catholic, Seventh-Day Adventist (SDA), Salvation Army
(SA), Africa Inland Mission (AIM), Swedish Lutheran Mission, (SLM)
Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada (PAC), Church of God (CoG) and
Friends Africa Mission (FAM) denominations.
1.7 Literature Review
Scores of authors have written on African traditional religion, culture,
Christianity and the concept of God. None to the best of our knowledge
has written on the inculturation of the concept of God in the traditional
religion of Abagusii of Western Kenya.
The literature was reviewed
under the following themes: African concept of God, Gusii traditional
concept of God and the concept of inculturation.
1.7.1 The African Concept of God
34
Unveiling the concept of God in Africa, Mbiti (1970:23-78) gives the
attributes of the African God as omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient.
These terms he uses show how he was influenced by the Western
Systematic Theology taught by Euro-American theologians. They also
reveal the system of education that Mbiti had gone through. Mbiti
discusses the Concept of God in Africa at the time when explorers and
early missionaries had already portrayed a negative image about Africa to
the incoming missionaries in the Western countries. The words used like
animism, which became of their knowledge of Darwin evolution ideas
would evolve from animism to spirits and evolve further to supreme
beings. The teaching portrayed African people to be at the lowest level
referred to as „animism‟. While Mbiti provides the African attributes of
God as omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient, this study provides
Gusii traditional attributes of Engoro. The study mainly provides Gusii
indigenous concept of God and names of God emerging form the people‟s
day-to-day experiences with Engoro.
To correct the earlier anthropologists‟ misconceptions about the African
traditional religions, Magesa (2004:6-34) wrote that the African traditional
religions which addressed the issues of animism where he advised that
such diminishing terms should be extinct. Magesa here was right in
dismissing the early writers‟ explanations about the African traditional
35
religions. Magesa addresses earlier anthropologists on African religion in
general but this study focuses on the misconceptions of Gusii traditional
concept of God.
Mbiti (1969:9-16) and (1975:67-74) provides an argument which is popular
among African anthropologists that the Africans were monotheists, a
concept that the rest of the world borrowed from Africa. He discusses the
attributes of the African God where he highlights in his introduction that
Africans are notoriously religious and each people had their own religious
systems with a set of beliefs and practices. This study examines Gusii
worldview and identifies Abagusii as monotheists and examines Gusii
anthropomorphic, animal and bird images of God.
It is one thing to admire the way in which Africans have enriched
Christianity from their own cultural and spiritual heritage (Mbiti, 1981:2028). Mbiti asserts that the African religion has a “heritage”. He says it is
our inheritance and so it is unfair to lose it at the expense of others. He
further comments that African heritage is very rich, old and diverse. It
has similarities and differences when one takes a comparative analysis on
two or more African communities. He comments, “Some studies of the
origin and development of humanity suggested that the earliest people
may have lived in East Africa” although he lacks substantiation to
36
conclude that Africa can be the parent continent of origin of all the people
in the world (Mbiti, 1981: 2). In this study, the similarities and differences
in the concept of God between Christianity and Gusii indigenous religion
are identified. It also investigates Gusii oral tradition on how the concept
of God was transmitted from one generation to another.
p‟ Biteck (1970:28) emphasizes that African Religion and Deities have been
Hellenized. He as well discourages the terminologies used to describe the
natural attributes of the African God as omnipresent, immanent,
omnipotent and omniscient to describe the intrinsic attribute terms of the
African God. He further uses terms like strong, wise, old and great to
describe the nature of the African God. He finally asserts that the Greek
metaphysical terms are meaningless in African thinking accusing
missionaries as intellectual smugglers by Hellenizing the African Deities.
In this study, the images of God which describe Engoro as strong, wise,
old and great are discussed.
Describing the Kikuyu concept of God, its continuity into the Christian era
and the question it raises for the Christian idea of revelation, Kibicho
(1972:125-129) confirms the monotheism in the Kikuyu traditional religion
and in the African communities. He argues that the Kikuyu Supreme
Being is related to humanity through prophets, seers, diviners and
37
medicine persons. He further contends that humanity in African had
special reverence to their supreme being in expression of individual
worship, family worship, public worship, socio-political life and
institutions that transmitted the people‟s traditional religion from one
generation to the other.
Referring to the Euro-American missionary
impressions, he insists that the missionaries had a negative evaluation of
the African traditional concept of God as opposed to the African general
positive view to the Christian God. While Kibicho examines God of the
Agikuyu, this study will discuss Gusii God Engoro and how people relate
to God in expression of individual worship, family worship, public
worship and in their socio-political life.
Idowu (1962:89) and Gehmann (1990:241-254) redefines the African
religion to those who did not know it properly especially the Christian
missionaries. He confirms that over the years African traditional religion
has not been understood in the outside world. He tries to continue from
where Mbiti and others left showing that in Africa there was a religion
and not animism and polytheism. He adds that the whole world still has
to be convinced that there is an indigenous religion of Africa and that by
right “it deserves the name of religion” (Idowu 1973: ix). Similarly, he
shows that it is important educating Africans about their religious
heritage. He also gives the structure of the African traditional religion as
38
belief in God, divinities, spirits, ancestors, magic and medicine. Idowu
and Gehmann have given his study a wider African perspective. He
informs the world of the presence of the African God and how the
Christian missionaries assumed its presence. Idowu and Mbiti give the
concept of God a wider African perspective. This study will specify areas
of conflict between the Christian concept of God and Gusii indigenous
concept of God. It refines Gusii concept of God to be companionable with
the Gospel; it enhances the concept of God which does not contradict
Gusii traditional concept of God which has been overcome by events.
Magesa (1975:90-91) and Hastings (1988:21-45) brings into an organic
whole, the moral traditions of African religions forming a rich variety of
case studies from black Africa. He argues convincingly why we should
talk of African religion in the singular rather than African religions in the
plural. He adds that a black African is ultimately linked in the ethos of
culture, religion and morality. He develops a scholarly workbook which
gives a superb criticism to those scholars who do not recognize religion in
Africa. He argues that the religion we see in any given ethnic group in
Africa relates to another group and in fact it has influenced the rest of the
world over the years. It should be termed not as African religions but
African Religion and more than that, a World Religion. He further
challenges both African and non-African students of religion to desist
from undervaluing the African religion. Magesa also argues that the
39
teachings of the Bible should undergo inculturation process to fit the
African socio-religio-culture. While Magesa and Hastings deal with the
general of the concept of God and religion in the black Africa, this study
focuses only on Gusii traditional concept of God.
These scholars have addressed the concept of God in a broad African
view. This study addresses the concept of God in the context of Gusii
traditional religion. It discusses the eternal and moral attributes of Gusii
Supreme Being in their traditional knowledge, exposes religious values
upheld out of their traditional belief in Engoro, appreciates Abagusii‟s
traditional concept of Engoro, confirms Abagusii‟s monotheism, and
suggests how the two religions can accommodate each other through
inculturation. This study fills that gap.
1.7.2 Gusii Traditional Concept of God
Ochieng‟ (1974:12-34) gives an account of the origin and an introduction
about Gusii traditional concept of God.
He unveils the origins and
migrations of Abagusii and other related communities, their settlement
and resettlements from highlands to lowlands, their occupational
activities, organizations and development of their traditional society and
establishment of the British administration. Ochieng‟ covers Abagusii‟s
history up to the year 1914. He only indicates that Abagusii have a
40
Supreme Being Engoro but does not clearly say how they used to relate
with Engoro which this study examines.
Nyarangi (2003:4-7) discusses Abagusii‟s traditional way of life in relation
to their Supreme Being. He illustrates Gusii proverbs and sayings which
were used to refer to the intrinsic and extrinsic attributes of Engoro giving
them the Christian biblical parallels to confirm that Gusii traditional
teachings about God are similar to the Christian teachings. The study
records the oral information from the people who participated in Gusii
indigenous worship of God. It also investigates the other means through
which Gusii traditional concept of God was transmitted from one
generation to another besides the proverbs and sayings which Nyarangi
discusses.
Nyaundi (1997:90-96) argues about Abagusii‟s religious, moral and social
mannerisms before the coming of Euro-American missionaries. He tries
to examine the rationale behind the changes in the religious life of
Abagusii and accuses the Euro-American missionaries for failing to adopt
Gusii way of religious life to Christianity.
He argues that Abagusii
invoked God in every aspect of their living and God instantly identified
himself with them. He further explores through History of Adventism in
Gusii, its challenges and contributions to the livelihood of Abagusii. The
41
study examines the social and moral impact Christianity‟s concept of God
in absolute terms. It elevates the pragmatic Gusii concept of God which
perceives God as one who deals with evil and evildoers instantly.
Describing the ethnography of Gusii, Akama and Maxon (2006:112-113)
discuss the origin and evolution of Abagusii, their socio-political
institutions, their initiation and marriage ceremonies with other cultural
rituals and ceremonies and how Engoro was central in all those
celebrations, land tenure system and how Gusii cultural values were
treasured. These authors attribute every success attainable by Abagusii to
their God whom they considered the sole provider and sustainer of life on
the face of the universe. They further argue that the changes noticeable in
Gusii culture are related to the globalizing effects in the contemporary
society which they describe as “rapid erosion and/ or transformation of
Gusii indigenous culture as the people adopt new ways of life and models
of production that are predominantly based on Western model” (Akama
& Maxon 2006:iv). Akama and Maxon deal with the whole content of
Gusii religion where they briefly discuss the role of Engoro. This study
will identify the images of God, discuss the people‟s relationship with
God and how that solidifies Abagusii in their social, economic and
political living
42
The foregoing scholars, however, do not show the origin of the concept of
God and the religious ceremonies and rituals that invoked God,
performed by Abagusii. This study, therefore, addresses the traditional
Gusii and how they used to relate to Engoro. It also unveils the influences
of the Christian missionaries upon Gusii traditional concept of God and
how the interaction between Abagusii and Euro-American Christianity
has influenced Gusii religio-cultural practices.
1.7.3 The Concept of Inculturation
Focusing on Christianity and Culture, Kraft (1996:213-234) and Mugambi
(1990:34-65) attempts to develop a biblically grounded theological model
that will enable the learner to be more effective in communicating the
Christian message in the multicultural world. Kraft targets the Western
missiologists to develop a cultural diversity although he does not create
awareness of the presence of African religion with their supernatural
beings based on different ethnic and sub-ethnic groups.
He further
proposes to the Western missiologists not to add to the absolutes of God
and judgments within the Western cultural context. He further argues
that the cross-cultural approach to theologizing helps to protect the
missionaries and Africans‟ unconscious ethnocentrism in theological
matters.
While Kraft and Mugambi focuses on the missiologists and
43
inculturation of the Gospel in the entire African context, this study focuses
the Christian evangelists in Gusii background.
It suggests to the
evangelists to present the message regarding the concept of God in a
manner which is companionable with Abagusii. It investigates Gusii
images of God and suggests how the people in the contemporary Gusii
society can be evangelized using Gusii indigenous concept of God without
compromising the authenticity of the Gospel.
Emphasizing on the need for inculturation as the best way of making
Christianity relevant to culture, Bujo (1976:34-52), Magesa (1975:12-19;
2004:123-125), Ndegwah (2007:14-16), Mutiso-Mbinda (1986:239-250) and
Ryan (2002:110) argue that inculturation process refine cultures by
removing elements which have outlived their usefulness. Schineller
(1990:34) describes inculturation as the incarnation of Christian message in
a particular context. The aforementioned scholars suggest inculturation in
a wider African perspective.
This study specifically deals with the
inculturation of Gusii traditional concept of God. It seeks to modify Gusii
indigenous concept of God to fit the contemporary times. Further, it
enhances Gusii concept of God which does not contradict the Christian
concept of God and eliminates any concept of God which defies or
contradicts the human rights.
44
Discussing the role of inculturation in transforming cultures Nasimiyu
(1985:6) argues that Christianity has a duty to take all people‟s cultures
seriously by taking Christ as a model who took a human form, born as a
human being and grew as a human being on the face of the earth. She
further agues that incarnation and inspiration of the gospel aid us in our
cross cultural communication.
Basing her study on the problem of
inculturation after the Vatican II, she exhausts the historical development
of inculturation and unveils the historical root of the term inculturation.
Nasimiyu (ibid: 96) discusses conceptual terms in use like accommodation,
adaptation and indigenization. These terms show the evolution that was
happening within a church‟s theological development of mission. She
makes recommendations on how inculturation of Abaluyia initiation rites
can make Christianity relevant to the Luyia Christians. While Nasimiyu
suggests inculturation of Abaluyia initiation rites, this study suggests
inculturation of Gusii indigenous concept of God.
Illuminating on the theology of inculturation, Shorter (1988:239-248) tries
to elaborate successfully the evolution of the church‟s knowledge of
diversity of culture by employing a classist and modern view.
He
attempts to solve the problem of cultural relativism by emphasizing
religion and relativization of cultural religious beliefs, unveils cultural
beliefs and religious practices, discusses culture as a social phenomenon
45
stratified in various revels and systems and gives the theology of
inculturation under Christology and salvation.
He further gives the
inculturation theme a worldwide view which does not apply to all socioreligio-cultural
backgrounds.
While
shorter
discusses
impact
of
popularization of the church culture which originates in the west, this
study unveils the history of the coming and establishment of the EuroAmerican missionaries and the influence they brought about in Gusii
traditional concept of God. Precisely it examines the coming of Catholic,
Seventh-Day Adventist (SDA), Salvation Army (SA), Africa Inland
Mission (AIM), Swedish Lutheran Mission, (SLM) Pentecostal Assemblies
of Canada (PAC), Church of God (CoG) and Friends Africa Mission (F A
M) missionaries and how they influenced Gusii concept of God.
Sanneh (1989:6-25) and Drago (1980:34-56) asserts that missionaries who
take the gospel message outside their cultures should employ careful
hermeneutical principles in translating the message to fit and become
meaningful to the cultural backgrounds of the gospel recipients.
He
further argues that there is great missionary impact on culture in the sense
that if cultural values are not taken into account, missionaries will fail to
penetrate the gospel to benefit the target people in their socio-religiocultural backgrounds. While Sanneh and Drago warns the missionaries
who takes gospel to outside cultures in a general perspective, this study
46
warns the evangelists in Gusii against copying foreign concept of God and
undermining Gusii traditional concept of God which does not contradict
the scriptures. It emphasizes on interpretation of scriptures in a manner
that fits Abagusii in their local context.
The above authors except Nasimiyu (1985:231) discuss inculturation in a
broad worldview. It is hard to inculturate the entire world for we do not
have common religio-cultural values. This study suggests guidelines to
inculturate Gusii traditional concept of God. It also shows the need to
bridge the gap that resulted when the missionaries tried to undermine
Gusii Traditional concept of God in the process of introducing the
Christian concept of God. It further proposes ways in which the gospel
can be meaningful to Abagusii by not abandoning what is good and of
value in their traditional concept of God by transforming and integrating
into Christianity their best religious values as well as inserting Christian
values into Gusii culture.
As it has been illustrated in the literature review, the above scholars have
not covered inculturation of the concept of God in Abagusii traditional
religion. Therefore, this study has broken the ground in this area. The
following is the conceptual framework that guides this study.
47
1.8 Conceptual Framework
There are several theoretical and conceptual frameworks which have been
written about inculturation, for example Arbuckle (1991:344-356) tries to
elucidate how cultural transformation takes place through foreign cultural
invasion, climate changes or political attack.
The local culture in the
process adopts selected elements in the foreign culture so as to acquire a
more fulfilling cultural practice.
This theory authored by Arbuckle
(1991:43-52) confines itself to culture and is deficient in theological
support.
The most appropriate conceptual framework which serves this study‟s
objectives is the one developed by Richard Neibuhr (1951:69-92). Neibuhr
proposes five theoretical paradigms which are centered on Christ but in
this study‟s application the Africans percieve Christ as God and therefore
we will use Neibuhr‟s five paradigms of Christ against Culture, Christ in
Culture, Christ above Culture, Christ and Culture in Paradox, and Christ
the Transformer of Culture but adapt the Christological model to center it
on God. This is because Africans perceive Christ as God and this model
will be adapted to suit that reality.
We found this study fitting this
Christological model developed by Neibuhr(1951:69-92). This is because
Abagusii perceive Christ as God. Neibuhr focuses at Christ as God who
meets people in their cultures and saves them. Supporting this argument,
48
Nasimiyu (1991: 77- 79) asserts that Christ is God who was born as a
human being, grew as a human being and interacted with cultures of
human beings. Christ rejected some cultural mannerisms, lived and
practiced the people‟s cultures with higher ministry than that of
humanity, was against cultures which dehumanized fellow humanity and
transformed cultures without changing the people‟s identities. Neibuhr‟s
Christological model likewise affects Gusii traditional concept of God.
1.8.1 The Christian God against Culture
According to Tolstoy (1984: 211), the Lordship of The Christian God is not
dependent on the highest of many authorities, but that The Christian God
is the sole authority over the Christian. It thus presents God and Culture
as a radical either-or choice: if we follow Christ, we must reject any loyalty
to misleading cultures. Apparently, the view has the scriptural support. (1
John 2:15). In a similar vein, some would argue that the prince of this
world is the devil, and therefore, that loyalty to worldly authority is
ultimately loyalty to the devil (Arrupe, 1978:34).
According to Niebuhr, historical proponents of this sort of view have
included Tertullian, Tolstoy, and the Mennonites. Tolstoy (1984: 211) went
so far as to claim that the Christians are self-governing and regard the
divine law of love, implanted in the soul of every human being, and
brought before their consciousness by Christ, as the sole guide of one‟s life
49
and other human beings also. On the basis of this radical view, Tolstoy
consistently argues that all state obligations are against the conscience of a
Christian-the oath of allegiance, taxes, legal proceedings, and military
service. The view encourages the separation of Christians from misleading
cultures, either individually, as in Tolstoy's case, or collectively, as in the
effortlessness of monasticism.
Applied to this study, the cultural elements of Abagusii contrary to
Christian teachings like killing or lynching of persons suspected to be
witches, female genital mutilation (FGM), widow inheritance and ghost
marriages are eliminated without any purification.
1.8.2 The Christian God of Culture
Niebuhr maintains that The Christian God is to be understood as the
uppermost aspiration and fulfillment of culture. In this way, it is possible
to affirm both God and Culture and to deny any necessary opposition
between the two. Niebuhr and his supporters on the one hand interpret
culture through Christ, regarding those elements in it as most important
in Christianity. On the other hand, they understand The Christian God
through culture, selecting from the Christian doctrine about Jesus and this
seems to agree with what is best in civilization. The approach inevitably
leads to accommodationism, the attempt to reconcile Christianity with
50
what appear to be the greatest achievements of a culture. Supporting this
view, Benne (1995: 26-44) comments that the early church had its
Hellenizers and Judaizers of the Gospel and Gnostics who reconciled
Christianity with their mystical philosophy.
Contributing to this view, Lewis (1982:115) asserts that the inevitable
result is a theology in humanity‟s image, a danger which will always arise
from the apparently innocent attempt to connect Christianity with some
cultural movement one wishes to endorse, to create what C. S. Lewis
called "Christianity And": “You know-Christianity and the Crisis,
Christianity and the New Psychology, Christianity and the New Order,
Christianity and Faith Healing, Christianity and Psychical Research,
Christianity and Vegetarianism, Christianity and Spelling Reform” (Benne
,1995:23).
The inevitable dilution of Christian orthodoxy and tendency to use a
highly selective Christianity as a means to an independently conceived
political end amounts to a denial that Christianity is anything more than
true by occasional coincidence. This calls to mind the worst excesses of
mainline Protestantism which have, as Benne (1995: 39) says, looked for
the world to set the agenda for the church.
51
Applying this paradigm to this study strengthens the belief that before
Christianity was introduced to Abagusii, God was at work in Gusii
culture guiding Abagusii to the belief of the existence of a Supreme Being.
Abagusii in their traditional religion practice symbiotic relationship
among the living and to the whole environment and practice giving and
the receipt of philanthropy. Abagusii value human life as originating from
God and is sacred. They likewise have a belief in offering first fruits and
animals to God. It is by failure of the Euro- American missionaries to
accept this fact that makes them undervalue Gusii traditional concept of
God.
1.8.3 The Christian God above Culture
According to Niebuhr (1951: 122) what is needed is not blank affirmation
or rejection of culture for the Christian God but a synthesis of the
Christian God and culture. It is pointed out that culture cannot be all bad
because it is founded on the nature created by God, and that although
nature and culture are fallen, they are still subject to God. This view
emphasizes that good works are carried out in culture, yet are only made
possible by grace, so that the kingdom of grace impinges on the kingdom
of the world from above.
52
The greatest exponent of this view, Thomas Aquinas, held that the Church
must be viewed as simultaneously in and beyond the world, leading
people to salvation in heaven yet encouraging all that is best in this
world's culture. From this vision came the great ideas of general education
and protective legislation for all citizens. In his Christian Aristotelianism,
Aquinas held that the church must promote both people's temporal and
eternal goals. He distinguished the natural law and cardinal virtues
(Prudence, Temperance, Justice & Fortitude) available to all humankind
from the divine law, which includes the natural law but adds the superior
motivation of the theological virtues (Faith, Hope & Charity), which are
available only to Christians through grace. We chose not to employ this
paradigm to this study due to time and scope of the study. Applying it
would have employed a comparative analysis of other cultural traditional
religious beliefs outside Abagusii to see how they related to God to
conclude that Jesus is trans-cultural.
1.8.4 The Christian God and Culture in Paradox
The paradox view differs from the preceding one by maintaining that
while both the Christian God and culture claim our loyalty, the tension
between them cannot be reconciled by any lasting synthesis. The most
important version of this view is Luther's doctrine of the two kingdoms or
realms. Sin is universal and remains inside the Christian throughout his
53
earthly life, thereby perverting any attempt to set up a holy society on
earth. There is a stark contrast between two realms: the left-hand realm of
the world governed by law and the right-hand realm of God governed by
grace. These two realms exist side by side in a paradoxical relation, never
to be resolved in this life.
Applied to this study, both Christianity and Gusii traditional religion
teach the value and the dignity of the human person, yet gender biases are
present in both, sometimes the violation of the woman rights which are
human.
This paradigm is used to see the underlying philosophical
presupposition that creates or leads to this paradox.
1.8.5 The Christian God the Transformer of Culture
This last option is similar to the preceding paradox except that it is more
optimistic about the ability of Christians to improve culture. It still affirms
the universality of sin, but maintains that cultures can be converted
(Tutu,1975). One of the fundamental theological reasons for this optimism
is the view that the fall only perverted things which were created good,
that these things remain inherently good and capable of reform, even
though they have been misdirected (Niebuhr 1951: 194).
54
Applied to this study, the paradigm shows how The Christian God who is
understood as God among Abagusii can enrich, transform and give their
concept of God a new insight.
This leads to a creation of Abagusii
Christian community which is truly Christian and truly rooted within
Abagusii religious and cultural heritage.
1.9 Methodology
This study was carried in two phases. The first phase involved field
research while the second one was library study. The libraries that were
used included Kenyatta University, The Hekima College Library, Tangaza
College Library, University of Nairobi Library, Kisii Public Library,
Kamagambo Teachers College Library, University of Eastern Africa
Baraton Library and Nyamira SDA Conference Resource Centre.
1.10 Research Design
The study used a descriptive research design to obtain information
concerning inculturation of the concept of God in the traditional religion
of Abagusii of western Kenya. Purposive sampling method was used to
collect data. This fitted well because the study selected respondents with
the needed information.
In addition, structured and unstructured
55
questionnaires were used as well as focus group discussions from primary
data collections.
1.12 The Geographical Location of the Study
The study was carried out among Abagusii of Nyamira District. Nyamira
District covers Ekerenyo, Nyamira, Manga, Rigoma, and Borabu zones.
The district is in Western region of Kenya. Abagusii are settled on the
Highlands and their major economic activity is subsistence farming. Their
major cash crops are tea, coffee and previously pyrethrum.
Their land
falls in the altitude of 1850 above the seal level and the temperature is
between 130 and 270 C (550 and 800F) (Ms Encarta 2006) most of the year.
Their rich land experiences well distributed rainfall and is ever green with
the source of River Gucha which is the main feeder of Lake Victoria.
Abagusii are bordered by the Luo to the South, to the South East are the
Maasai, and to the North are the Kipsigs communities.
1.12 Data collection
Three instruments of data collection were used to gather information for
the research. These included respondent questionnaire, oral interviews
and participant observation.
1.12.1 Respondent Questionnaire
56
The questionnaires were structured in simple language so that all
respondents would have no difficulties in concept what was required.
Special questionnaires were designed to the standard of information
required from specific respondents. Structured questionnaires were given
to the youth, priests, and young literate parents with the ability of
responding to the questionnaires in writing. The respondents were asked
to complete the questionnaires themselves. Most of the questionnaires
were filled and sent back to the researcher with data which were
integrated with secondary data to form this study.
1.12.2 Oral Interviews
Interviews were held to source information about Gusii traditional
concept of God, Christianity influence on Gusii traditional concept of God
and the inculturation of Gusii traditional concept of God. Oral interviews
were also done with the church leaders who included the youth, the
parents and elderly members from town and local churches. Traditional
religious leaders who were interviewed included Gusii cultural elders and
traditionalists.
1.12.3 Participant Observation
The researcher got involved in the church programmes to observe and
note how religious programmes were conducted and how Gusii
57
traditional concept of God has been inculturated if at all. The researcher
also visited places where traditional Gusii functions took place to note the
influence brought about by interaction with Christianity in regard to Gusii
traditional concept of God.
1.13 Sampling Techniques and Sample Size
The searcher selected respondents through both purposeful and random
sampling techniques. The target groups for this study were the youth,
parents, cultural leaders and church leaders. Churches selected were the
Seventh-Day Adventist (SDA), the Pentecostal Assemblies of God (PAG)
and the Catholic Church which are dominant in the area.
1.13.1 The Youth
Purposive sampling techniques were used to select the youth in Ekerenyo,
Nyamira, Manga, Rigoma and Borabu Zones.
Through in-depth
interview sessions, the researcher got views on the contemporary
presentations of the concept of God. A representative number of five
youth was taken where three were boys and two were girls.
1.13.2 Parents
58
Purposive sampling was used to select parents from the catholic SDA and
PAG churches. Young (25-40 years) and old (41- years) parents were
interviewed. Both groups included men and women. They were visited
in their homes and some at their workplaces. The parents‟ representative
respondents was twenty people.
1.13.3 Church Leaders
The purposive selection of church leaders included the clergy, the church
elders and the laity. Twenty religious leaders from the three dominant
denominations
in
the
region
were
sampled.
These
dominant
denominations are SDA, Catholic and PAG. Ten of the religious leaders
were those who ministered in the local setup and the remaining ten were
from town churches.
1.13.4 Cultural Leaders/ Custodians of Gusii Traditional Religion
The ethics, morals and cultural norms are preserved and propagated by
cultural leaders. These leaders were interviewed to find out if they were
actively involved in their religious roles. Through purposive sampling,
seven cultural leaders who include the clan elder (Abatureti), diviners,
traditional herbalists and the ritual priests were interviewed from
Ekerenyo, Namira, Manga, Rigoma and Borabu Zones.
59
1.14 Data Analysis
The study employed a qualitative method of data analysis. Data analysis
critically looked at the information gathered. The cumulative data from
secondary and primary sources was synthesized and the resultant data
categorized in accordance to the objectives of the study.
The
categorization formed the chapters of this study. The recorded data was
transcribed before compilation.
Analysis and examination of data in comparison with the objectives of the
study was carried out after the analysis of the data. Data was discussed
thematically and coded. The highlights formed chapters according to
themes and codes. Conclusions were drawn and recommendations for the
study were made.
1.15 Problems Related to the Study
We encountered a variety of problems at the start of this study but with
time, the researchers were able to overcome them. First, some of the
questionnaires were not responded to because they were written in
English but the researcher had later to translate them to ekegusii to those
who couldn‟t understand the English and redistributed them. This
delayed the data collection procedure but the researcher finally got the
60
required data. Second, some respondents were so conservative feeling
that revealing some information meant betraying their church policies and
doctrines. This forced the researchers to interview them as a group which
later yielded good results. The researcher took time to inform them the
importance of the study. Finally, some respondents were busy in their
work places which forced the researcher to visit them after their working
hours.
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CHAPTER TWO
GUSII TRADITIONAL CONCEPT OF GOD
2.1 Introduction
The first chapter laid down the tools and methods used in attaining the
objectives the study set out to accomplish. This chapter focuses on Gusii
concept of God (Engoro). The research into Gusii traditional concept of
God revealed how Abagusii were inherently monotheistic in their oral
religiosity. It further revealed that God was feared for instant punishment
of evil deeds. This concept of God in dealing with evil maintained the
socio-moral order among the people. The research further highlighted
how the coming of the Euro-American Christianity contradicted Gusii
Traditional concept of God in dealing with evil. For Christians
punishment for evil is in the future, forgiveness is abundant and an evil
doer may go free having been forgiven in secret. It further revealed how
the Christian tolerance of evil has weakened the moral, ethical, religious
and social fibre of the people.
62
This chapter investigates Gusii traditional concept of God. It affirms the
premise that Abagusii believe in the existence of God (Engoro) in their
traditional religion. The chapter explores three main sections. In the first
place, it discusses Abagusii worldview where it unveils how Abagusii
gained their knowledge of God through their human limitations, the
forces of nature and their relationship with nature. Second, the study
identifies the basis for Gusii belief in God. Abagusii recognize God as the
creator, sustainer, provider and leader of the universe. Finally, the study
investigates Gusii concept of the nature of Engoro, the anthropomorphic
images of Engoro, father (tata), community elder (omokumi), healer
(omogwenia), friend (omosani), blacksmith (omoturi), farmer (omoremi),
shepherd (omorisia) and animal and bird images of Engoro such as an ox
(entang’ana) and an eagle (ekeongo). This chapter shows the sharable and
non-sharable attributes of God. The sharable attributes of God are like
good, merciful, generous, loving, and giving. The non-sharable attributes
of God are for instance that God is holy, powerful, all-knowing,
everywhere, self-existent and never changes.
The chapter shows how some Gusii traditional concept of God are either
refined, retained or eliminated through God the transformer of Culture,
God above Culture, God against Culture, God of Culture and God and
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Culture in Paradox paradigms in Neibuhr‟s Christological model.
Abagusii were inherently religious and their concept of God dominates
their worldview as discussed below.
2.2 God in Gusii Worldview
A worldview is a framework that ties everything together, that allows
people to understand the society, the world and their place in it, and what
could help them to make the critical decisions which shape their future. It
synthesizes the wisdom gathered in the different scientific disciplines,
philosophies and religions. Rather than focusing on small sections of
reality, it provides them with a whole picture. In particular, it helps them
to understand and therefore cope with complexity and change. Such a
conceptual framework may be called a worldview. Understanding
Abagusii worldview helps to understand how people perceived and
related to God in their religiosity.
Abagusii believe in the existence of God called Engoro. This belief as
Ochieng‟ (1974: 183-187) observes is at the centre of Gusii traditional
religion and it dominates all other beliefs. Abagusii according to Osoro
(O.I. 17:07:2009) do not have a clear written explanation of how belief in
God originated but it is in the oral tradition passed down from generation
64
to generation. What is clear is that their belief in God is very ancient in
their oral traditional religion. Abagusii base their knowledge on the belief
and origin of God on three possible explanations discussed below.
First, Abagusii in their myth of creation belief that the first Gusii man
called Mogusii and his wife Nyakomogendi were created by Engoro who
lives in the sky (erioba). Engoro created this first couple and placed them in
Misri, a land they say is in the North of Congo where the first Gusii family
lived until they moved under the direction of Engoro to their current Gusii
land. Since the creation of Mogusii and Nyakomogendi his wife at Misri,
Engoro has been creating and sustaining life of Abagusii. It is for this
reason that Gusii mothers presented to Engoro their young children every
morning facing the rising sun uttering the immortalized phrase “Engoro
ndorere” meaning, Engoro take care of my children on my behalf ( Moraya,
OI. 10:06:2009).
Second, Abagusii belief in God came as a result of their internalized
reflection about the universe. It can be successfully argued that Abagusii‟s
belief in God was created. This presupposes as Parrinder (1963:33) puts it
in reference to the Igbo community of Nigeria that there was a creator of
the universe because the people believe that behind anything that exists,
there is a maker and that maker is God.
65
Third, Abagusii as Guto (O.I. 09:07:2009) observes reflect on the enormity
and continuity of the earth and the heaven in their day-to-day lives. This
indicates to them that the enormity and continuity has someone who
looks after it, keeps it, sustains it and orders it. This made them to
conclude that the creator of the universe is the one who looks after it,
keeps it, sustains and orders it. Without God, they believe the universe
could have fallen apart and could not retain continuity and the order that
it possesses.
2.2.1
Abagusii Limitations.
Abagusii realize that as human beings they have limitations and
weaknesses. Kinaro (O.I, 12:08:2009) observes that people discover that in
their daily lives, activities, power and knowledge, they are limited. They
realize that their powers are limited in phenomena like death, calamity,
thunderstorms, earthquakes, mighty rivers and great forests. These
phenomena are not under control of the people. The presence of these
phenomena makes Abagusii to believe that there is someone greater than
these phenomena. The presence of someone powerful than these natural
phenomena becomes a logical basis on the dependence for the one they
considered more powerful than people and the universe.
66
Abagusii realizing their limitations and powerlessness enable them to rely
on God who is powerful, over the entire universe. It is thought that there
are different powers which are governing the universe and in all these
powers, there is one supreme power who is God. They imagine that just as
in their families are hierarchies of status and power, starting from babies,
children, older brothers, older sisters, parents and grand parents exist,
they also believe that such hierarchy may exist in the universe and at the
apex is God (Nyaribari, O.I.24:06:2009). The forces of nature also make
Abagusii belief in the existence of a supreme being as discussed below.
2.2.2 God in the Forces of Nature
The powers in nature communicate a lot to Abagusii about the existence
of God who created/creates and controls powers which control rain, sun,
moon and stars. Kemuma (O.I. 02:06:2009) observes that the weather,
storms, thunders, lightening, day, night, sky, moon and the stars are all
bodies which are awesome to Abagusii. From the beginning, these
heavenly forces, and bodies were convincing realities that there was God.
People depended on these powers like the light, warmth and rain. They
believed that God lived in the sky from where God was ordering the
heavenly forces and powers for the good of humanity.
67
From the observation of the sky Abagusii are convinced that so many
things happen in and beyond sky which their human eyes are not able to
see. They associate the heaven with the one whom they call Engoro. This is
because the people believe that God is responsible in providing things that
come or operate from the sky like the sun, rain and light which support
their livelihood (Masese, 2006:234).
Abagusii as Nyakerario (O.I. 12:07:2009) puts it, believe in God‟s existence
through such links between heaven and earth. Humanity according to
Akama (2006:61) live on earth and entirely depend on what God provides
from heaven for their survival. The belief in the powers holding the sky
makes Abagusii think of how to relate with God so that they can always
get favour. They develop a strong belief that there exists a visible and the
invisible universe which are both sustained and controlled by God.
Nyaundi (1997:46) asserts that Abagusii believe that they are the centre of
the World and heaven.
2.3 The Basis for Gusii Belief in God
Abagusii believe in the existence of God as Bikondo (O.I. 09:06:2009)
observes is based on both the observable and the non-observable
phenomenon whose origin they believe is in God. This as Akama (2006:2325) indicates includes the creation of all things, sustenance of creation,
68
provision to the creation and dominion over the universe. All these
explains what God does as will be discussed below.
2.3.1 God as the Creator, Sustainer and Protector of Creation
Abagusii according to Okeri (O.I, 12:07:2009) believe that God is the
creator (Omotongi) of the visible and the invisible things in heaven, the
earth and in the waters. They have various names which together describe
God as the sole creator of all that there is. Abagusii believe that God is the
creator of all things in the universe (Oigo, O.I. 12:07:2009). God created
when there was nothing and did not stop creating. God continues creating
new things, shaping and re-shaping what has already been created. They
also believe that God was responsible for making everything without a
helper and without an assistant. After creating the universe as Abagusii
believe, God established the laws of nature which govern the universe and
gave people laws, customs and gifts by means of which they would live in
relation to the creation.
Abagusii have a strong belief that God is the one who sustains, keeps and
upholds all created things in the universe (Obiri, O.I. 13:07:2009). This
shows that God is concerned with the universe by caring and keeping it
together so that there can be harmony in it without it falling apart.
69
God sustains the universe and the entire creation in it. Abagusii in this
aspect refer to God as to the keeper, upholder, protector, preserver,
guardian and caretaker. Because of God‟s concern over the created things
in the world, Abagusii believe that the universe has no end because God
keeps and sustains both the visible and the non-visible creation. They also
believe that people are born and re-born making the human circle to
continue. This concept of life after death is symbolized by the re-naming
of children after the death of a family member or relative. This as Obiri
(O.I. 13:07:2009) observes makes people to believe that in God there is no
end since God is a protector and preserver of life.
God in Gusii traditional religion is known as the sole provider (omorwa) of
basic needs to the created things (Bikondo, O.I. 14:09:2009). They trust in
God‟s providence in their daily needs. The providence reveals God‟s
goodness towards the whole universe. God provides life, sunshine, rain,
water, good health, fertility and food. On basis of their perception of God
as a provider, they refer to God as the giver of all things, healer, helper,
guardian and source. They also know that since God provides for their
needs, they have to pray and believe that their prayer will be answered in
due time.
70
Abagusii believe that God created the forests with the medicinal plants,
animals and the birds in them for their good. They believe that it is God
who sustains the animals in the forests. They also believe that God is the
one who leads them into their traps whenever they needed them for food.
Gusii elders discouraged people from indiscriminate cutting of trees and
they also controlled hunting in the forests. Only mature animals were
hunted so as to preserve the continuity of the life of animals in the forests.
2.3.2 God as a Leader of the Universe
Abagusii believe that God leads and guides over the universe. Because of
their belief that God is the supreme leader, they call God the leader, judge
and distributor. This is the reason why in their prayers they addressed
God with honour (Ochieng‟, 1974:12). The distributors (ababagi) were
persons who were the overseers of the equal sharing of property. Kemoko
(O.I. 14:07:2009) observes that they call God the leader at the same time to
show that in the universe God leads and everyone follows.
God is believed to be a sincere leader in the universe and is also a
righteous judge. Abagusii say as a leader, God judges all things justly,
confers justice to the marginalized and the disadvantaged people in the
society, rescues the oppressed and gives punishment to those who defy
human justice by wrongdoing. Nyaundi (1997:33) argues that God was
71
believed to punish wickedness through sickness (endwari), diseases,
accidents (emebasokano), famine (egeku), drought, storm, war (okonontwa),
calamity or even death. Besides, God is also known to be full of mercy and
pity to those who leave their evil ways.
2.4 Abagusii Concept of the Nature of God
Abagusii in their traditional religion know that God exists and has a
describable nature though no one can exhaust describing the nature of
God. Abagusii agree that nobody has encountered with God, therefore,
nobody can give a comprehensive description of God. Nyabera (O.I,
10:06:2009) argues that through Abagusii‟s religious insights, they have
worked out a pattern of certain concepts concerning God‟s real being to
differentiate God from other created things. God among Abagusii has the
intrinsic and extrinsic attributes as discussed below.
2.4.1 The Intrinsic Attributes of God
Abagusii believe that God has a character which is eternal and not
sharable by humanity. The nature of God is learnt by people through their
day-to-day experiences.
The discussion below reveals the intrinsic
attributes of God as holy, all-powerful, all-knowing, everywhere, selfexistent, and beyond human comprehension.
God is Holy
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Abagusii know God as holy (Omochenu) and pure (otari ‘kemoa) in whom
there is no error or wrong, fault or failure. They refer to God as a leader
without blemish and a non-compromised elder. Nyaundi (1997:12) asserts
that God‟s holiness is beyond humanity‟s holiness. Because of this
Abagusii are careful while making sacrifices to God. As Osindi (O.I,
10:06:2009) observes the people are obliged to conduct themselves with
reverence, fear, respect and honour towards God. They say, that even the
animals which are to be offered as sacrifices to God who is holy are to be
without blemish or spot. God‟s holiness requires sacrifices from clean and
without blemish animals. Oigo (O.I, 12:07:2009) said that men and women
who officiate in the sacrificial ceremonies are to be holy men and women
of high moral integrity. They have to be people who have not been
involved in murder, theft, adultery or anything evil in the community.
God is All-Powerful and All-Knowing
Abagusii believe that God is all-powerful (omonyanguru) and almighty.
Sani (O.I, 14:07:2009) adds that the people say that God can do all things.
They say God is All-Powerful and can do a number of things which none
of Abagusii is able to do. God causes earthquake, he sun to move, rain to
fall, controls the day and the night, creates life and holds the universe
together.
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Masese (2006:21) insists that God‟s power is demonstrated by the way
God causes the sunshine, sunset, thunderstorm, rainfall and other
phenomena which are beyond human comprehension. What Abagusii
cannot do, God can do. On this knowledge nobody dares oppose God‟s
power. Because God created all things which exist, Nyatichi (O.I,
02:06:2009) observes that God is all-powerful than all creation. The people
say that God is not only all-powerful but all-knowing also.
The common belief among Abagusii as Nyakemari (IO: 17:07:2009) opines
is that God knows all things (omomanyi onsi) and that nothing is hidden
from God. They describe God as wise and with high plane of wisdom and
knowledge. They say that there is none on earth who possesses the
wisdom of God.
To emphasize the all-knowing nature of God, Abagusii affirm that God is
all seeing, all-hearing, a watcher of everywhere and discerner of people‟s
hearts. Abagusii believe that there is nothing hidden from God and all are
within the reach and concept of God almighty. Ontiri (O.I. 26:08:2009)
illuminates that God sees and knows the things of the past, present and
future. This aspect of God‟s nature as understood by Abagusii makes
them also say that God has “the big eye, and long ears (Timothy, OI.
74
15:06:2009). Nyambegera (O.I. 21:07:2009) observes that God has allknowing and penetrative wisdom and knowledge at all times and ages.
God is Everywhere
Abagusii believe that God is present and everywhere at the same time in
the entire universe. This concept of God helps them to feel the presence of
God in every place, time and event. It also helps them to feel protected by
God whom they believe attends to their specific needs.
This aspect of God‟s nature is likened to the wind. They say that just like
no one can manage running away from air or wind, so can no one manage
to run away from God. The presence of God everywhere as Barongo (O.I.
17:08:2009) adds helps the people also to pray and offer sacrifices from
anywhere because they know that their prayer can be heard and answered
from wherever they are and whichever time they do it. Kenyatta (1972:54)
similarly argues for the Agikuyu traditional belief is that God is
everywhere at the same time. The belief of the all-presence of God helps to
strengthen the moral order of the community. People know that if you do
evil like stealing, there is no where you can hide or keep the stolen items
75
without the presence of God. God will see him/her and bring punishment
or allow death to happen to that individual.
The all-presence of God does not ignore the sanctity of the shrines and
other religious sites where Abagusii pray and offer their sacrifices. People
worship in shrines but that does not mean that God is more abundant in
the shrines than in other places. People feel more of the powers of God in
thunderstorm with lightning but that also does not mean that God‟s
power and presence in that phenomenon is more than in others.
The other aspect of the concept of God‟s nature among Abagusii is that
God is limitless. They say that God is both very far and very near. The
people believe that there is neither time, nor space that God is not present.
God according to Abagusii knowledge cannot be limited by anybody,
circumstance or event. God‟s influence can be felt anywhere, any place
and any time. God is both far and near to people. This nature of God as
explained by Nyabwari (O.I, 10:06:2009), gives them a chance of
addressing God anytime and as many times as possible because God
cannot be tired with them however much they pray.
God is Self-Existent
76
God is self-existent as Abagusii maintain. God creates but is not created.
Nyanchama (O.I, 12:06:2009) adds that beyond God, no one existed and all
that exist are God‟s creation. God has no origin but everything in the
universe was designed and created by God. God‟s self-existence among
Abagusii is understood by a saying that “God has no father and mother”
(Engoro otari na‘se na ng’ina). This is one of the reasons why Abagusii do
not entertain a discussion on “How did God originate?” They dismiss
such questions as meaningless because they will lead to no answers. They
simply maintain that God is not born and is not made. It is on God‟s selfexistence that all things find basis of their existence in the universe.
Abagusii refer to God as the first and the last cause. God is referred to as
the original source and the beginning of all things existing on earth. They
refer to God as oyorenge’o, oyore’o na oyorachekoba’o (the one who was there,
who is there and who will be there) the beginner and the first and the last
cause. Onchonga‟ (O.I. 15:06:2009) illuminates that God is also considered
“the one who was, the one who is and the one who will be”. The people
also refer to God as to a rock meaning that He was there from the
beginning, is there and will be there from the next second and to an
infinite future.
God is a Spirit who never Changes
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Abagusii refer to Engoro as omoika (the spirit). God is a spirit, invisible,
everlasting and does not change. Based on this knowledge of the nature of
God, Omwando (O.I. 23:07:2009) illuminates that Abagusii call God „the
great spirit‟, „the fathomless spirit‟ and „the breath‟. They describe God in
this manner because of their inability to see God physically but His
influence in their lives and in others. They liken God‟s effects as those of
the blowing wind which causes trees and objects moving towards the
direction of blow.
God according to Abagusii does not change because they say the same
way God was yesterday is the same today and forever more. God‟s time
as Akama (2006) reveals is beyond reckoning. God does not change, does
not grow, does not age, decay or die. That is why they say God is beyond
comprehension as discussed below.
God Is Beyond Human Comprehension
Abagusii in their daily experiences with Engoro conclude that no one is
able to understand God completely. Mogaka (O.I, 23:06:2009) observes
that Abagusii maintain that the nature and personality of God is beyond
human comprehension. They say that if human beings know everything
about God, He will cease to be God and that will be dangerous. Nyaundi
(1997:67) argues that people know very little about God because He is a
78
spirit. The rest of His nature is a great mystery upon which humanity
marvels. God is more than what humanity can struggle to explain.
2.4.2 The Extrinsic Attributes of God
The extrinsic attributes of God are sharable attributes of God with
humanity. By Him sharing some of the attributes with humanity does not
mean that He can be reduced to the level of humanity. Humanity shares
these attributes with God because of the relationship they develop with
Him in their day-to-day life. God is Good, merciful, gentle, kind, loving,
and patient. In this study, we will only discuss God as good and merciful.
God Is Good
The striking description of the nature of God among Abagusii as Nyaanga
(O.I. 15:06:2009) observes is that God is good (Engoro no’muya). God loves
the creation which includes human beings and others. Ochieng‟ (1974)
says that Abagusii are able to describe God‟s nature as good based on
what God has done to them and how they reach God without any
difficulty. They believe that God causes rain to fall on their fields which
give them foods and the sun to shine. Abagusii also declare God as good
79
because God has never withdrawn good things from them. They have
many sayings which depict God as good, whose goodness never ends.
God is believed to be good because Abagusii are provided with life, food,
rainfall, sunshine, animals and protection against all sorts of dangers. It is
also believed that God does all these not for selfish good but also full of
mercy and grace (omonge bwa’mabera no’buya) (Bangueso, O.I. 10:07:2009).
God is Merciful
God is merciful (Engoro no’monyamabera) and kind to all people. It is for
this reason that Abagusii refer God as God of pity, mercy and kindness.
Nyanchama (O.I, 12:06:2009) says that the people know that everything
provided to them is by God‟s pitifulness, mercifulness and kindness
towards them. When one escapes danger and misfortunes, it is said that it
is God‟s mercifulness which did that. Akama (2006:34,35) states that the
people emphasize that it is humanity‟s responsibility to show
mercifulness and kindness to one another just as God shows that to the
entire creation.
2.4.3 Gusii Anthropomorphic, Animal and Bird Images of God
Abagusii believe that most of the things or activities done by God are
similar to some extent to those that human beings are able to do although
80
with human limitations. Investigating the similarities of activities which
God does with those human beings, animals and birds are able to do,
Abagusii perceive God as having human, animal and bird characteristics
(Mbaka, O.I 17:07:2009). These images reveal that Abagusii know God as
an immediate helper who accompanies them in every situation of their
daily lives.
The human images as Nyabwari (O.I, 10:06:2009) indicates do not reduce
God to human level but help people understand some of the human
sharable attributes with God. These images further assist the people to feel
closer to God. They help in approaching God with confidence as they pray
for their daily human needs. This is because they understand God as part
of them and as one who is very close and intimate with the people.
Abagusii is a patriarchal community which gives almost everything a
male interpretation. The human, animal and bird images of God are given
a male interpretation. They refer to God as a father (tata), community
elder (Omokumi),
healer (omogwenia),
friend (omosani),
blacksmith
(omoturi), as a farmer (omoremi), as a shepherd (Omorisia) as an ox
(entang’ana) and eagle (ekeongo), rock (egetare) dove (riruma), counselor
(omosemia), mother (baba), grandfather (sokoro) and as reconciler
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(omogayani). Below is a discussion of the human, animal and bird images
of God which were pointed out by most informants.
God as Father
Abagusii perceive God as a Father (Tata) and themselves as children.
Nyarabi (O.I. 13:01:2009) states that this image provides them with the
concept of a family. It also shows the bond that exists between them and
God. As a parent provides to the children and gives them the care they
need, this image portrays God as the one responsible for protection,
provision and care that humanity so desperately need (Nyaundi,
1997:123).
The image of God as a father shows that all people originate from God.
Nyaribari
(O.I, 24:06:2009) adds that when they offer any prayer,
Abagusii start by referring to God as tata oito meaning our father. They
address God in a similar manner in which children ask anything from
their loved father. They humble themselves in a similar way in which a
child does when stating a list of things he/she needs of to be provided for
by the loving parent. Phrases commonly used in Gusii prayer are like „Oh
Father‟ or “My Father” or “Our Father” (Masese, 2006:124).
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God as a Community Elder
Abagusii perceive God as a community elder (omokumi) and themselves as
the subjects. Nyabera (O.I, 10:06:2009) states that God as omokumi is the
highest authority among Abagusii. This provides them with the concept
of Gusii traditional government which had the council of elders which
was being headed by the Omokumi. Omokumi was the supreme authority
over the entire Gusii community as God is the supreme authority of the
entire human populace.
Abagusii respected and obeyed the authority of omokumi. God as the
Omokumi deserves respect and honour from the people. God among
Abagusii was referred to as omokumi because his authority was final to the
people of all social classes. Nyabwari (O.I, 10:06:2009) adds that as the
Omokumi was the head of the council of clan elders in the entire Gusii
community, God is considered as the leader of the entire universe. The
authority of God as Abagusii believe is never contended contested or
contradicted by anyone.
God as the omokumi in Gusii concept is the agent of moral uprightness.
God punishes the evil doers and commands order in the society. God as
noted earlier is considered the big eye and ear of the community. As the
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Omokumi, God gives justice to those who deserve it and protects the rights
of everyone in Gusii community. As the Omokumi, God is perceived as the
big hand of the community for disciplining those who wronged others.
God as the Omokumi is the agent of peace and tranquility in the
community. His orders are hearkened as an element which helped in
solidifying Gusii interpersonal relationships (Nyabera, O.I, 10:06:2009).
The perception of God as the omokumi makes Abagusii feel closer and
intimate with God. It further makes them to perceive God as nearer and
part of them in their daily experiences. This helped them to maintain their
social moral order and made them to fear doing evil against each other.
God as a Healer
Abagusii perceive God as a healer (omogwenia) of all the diseases. As a
healer, God protects life and cares for the good health of people. Abagusii
healers as Bangueso (O.I, 10:07:2009) states include the medicine persons,
seers, diviners, priests, and prophets. God is the one who appoints these
Gusii traditional healers and himself is the divine healer. Abagusii believe
that Gusii traditional healers receive their healing powers from God and
they refer to them as the mediators of God the divine healer.
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God as a healer intervenes when someone is given physical medicines and
causes both physical and spiritual healing. God as a healer prevents the
people from becoming sick and prevents them from future sicknesses. As
a divine healer, God leads Gusii traditional healers to herbal medicines
which they use in healing the people (Ombui, O.I. 25:06:2009).
Gusii
traditional healers invoked the healing powers from God in their
administration of medicines to the patients. They also perceived their
profession as God-given to whom they were agents.
God as a divine healer provides the natural plants, powders and liquids as
medicines to the people. These natural plants are not limited to specific
areas in Gusii but are abundant everywhere in the land. This as Guto (O.I,
09:07:2009) puts it shows clearly that God is concerned about the good
health of everyone in Gusii community. The image of God as a healer
makes Abagusii feel highly protected by God who is concerned about
their fine health. It further makes them appreciate and care for the natural
vegetation because it is through which God provides medicines to cure
them of any sickness.
God as a Friend
Among Abagusii God is referred to as a constant friend (omosani) and the
greatest of all friends. This image as Momanyi (O.I. 26:06:2009) asserts
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among them shows the great confidence the people have upon God. They
consider God as a friend who is friendly to all people, trustworthy,
faithful, close and ready to help them just as a good friend can be able to
do. Perceiving God as a friend, people approach Him as a friend without
any fear, talk freely as they would wish. They also consider God as a
friend because they know that He is entirely concerned about them.
God as Blacksmith
God in Gusii traditional society is addressed as a blacksmith (omoturi). The
image of God as a blacksmith helps Abagusii to perceive God as one who
is patient. A blacksmith in Gusii community was one who had a high
level of patience, determination and a strong desire to come up with iron
tools or items. The iron tools which the blacksmiths made were produced
through a high heating process. They had a locally invented oven where
the heating process was done (Mogaka O.I, 23:06:2009). Blacksmiths were
industrious, innovative and zealous in their art.
God as a blacksmith is perceived as one who is innovative, active,
industrious and determined.
As a blacksmith, God is perceived as a
molder and a refiner of human character.
Momanyi (O.I. 26:06:2009)
observes that humanity in God‟s management ends up forming a
desirable character which benefits the individual and the entire
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community. When iron is put into the oven with the careful and skillful
attention of a blacksmith, it develops into a desirable tool used for the
good of humanity.
God as a Farmer
Abagusii perceive God as a farmer (Omoremi) and themselves as either
crops or livestock. As a farmer, God is concerned with humanity in their
social, religious, economic and political situations.
Gusii being a
subsistence farming community, farmers are highly concerned about the
wellbeing of their crops and livestock because they basically supported
their livelihood (Kinanga, O.I. 09:07:2009).
The image of God as a farmer is drawn from the people‟s daily
experiences of a Gusii traditional farmer of crops and livestock. A farmer
in Gusii traditional community is a very patient and loving person to
crops and livestock. Farmers as Nyanchama (O.I, 12:06:2009) observes
spent all the time they had on their livestock and crops and sought for all
ways possible to make them realize good results out of their farming
activities. To achieve good results, Gusii farmer must not be discouraged
by the farming challenges and the natural catastrophes which sometimes
affect and despirit the farmers. God as a farmer is highly determined to
enhance a good destination for humanity.
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As a farmer, God knows what Abagusii need at specific times. The image
of God as a farmer portrays God as one who is neither late nor too early to
address the human needs. God provides in due time whatever is of value
to Abagusii just like what a farmer does to the crops and livestock. Asuga
(O.I, 26:06:2009) observes that as a farmer God is a good manager of time
and whatever good happens to the people is influenced or caused by God
who loves and cares for them. They further believe that as a farmer does
to the crop dressing, so God does in allowing elimination through death
those who defy inclination and submission to himself.
The concept of
crop dressing by a farmer shows that God also refines and purifies the
human character by molding them into a desired character which gives
good social-moral results which benefit the individuals and the society
(Mariamu Nyamoki, O.I, 10.05:2009).
Gusii farmers protect their crops and livestock from harmful sources like
the birds, dogs, monkeys, pests and insects. These harmful sources attack
the crops and livestock some when they are young and others when they
are fully grown ready for harvest. God as a farmer protected Abagusii in
history from any of the external attacks from the opponent communities
which surrounded them (Osindi, O.I, 10:06:2009).
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The image of God as a farmer makes the people see God in their daily
experiences. It makes the people to relate to God as one who is near and
closer to them, who cares and protects anything likely to affect their social,
economic, moral and political wellbeing.
God as a Shepherd
Abagusii perceive God as a shepherded (Omorisia) and themselves as
sheep, goats and cattle. It was the duty of a shepherd in Gusii traditional
community to provide care, protection and guidance to the livestock
(Maruko O.I. 12:06:2009).
Like the Pokot community of Kenya as
Ndegwah (2007:31) writes, Gusii shepherds literally slept in the houses
where sheep and goats stayed in order to protect them from being
attacked by wild dogs or from being stolen by thieves from Maasai and
Kipsigis communities who are Gusii neighbouring communities.
As a shepherd, God protects and stays closer to humanity.
God is
concerned about the wellbeing of the people and provides them with the
protection they deserve. Momanyi (O.I. 26:06: 2009) adds that as a good
shepherd, God knows all people by names, socio-economic backgrounds,
their needs and wants. God also as a good shepherd provides human
needs indiscriminately. He meets the needs of the weak, the strong, the
rich, poor with impartiality similarly to a good shepherd. As a good
shepherd provides care to the weak and the young flock, God gives a
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closer and concerned attention to those who are weak in their social,
economic and religious lives without discrimination. The image of God as
a shepherd makes the people perceive God as one who protects, cares,
provides and guides them in their spiritual, social, economic and political
situations.
God as an Ox
An ox (Entang’ana) in Gusii community is considered as an animal of
incomparable strength. An ox in ekegusii language is called entang’ana,
meaning “a leader” (Osindi, O.I, 10:06:2009). An ox leads the flock to
water and graze-fields while other flock follows.
Abagusii perceive God as possessing incomparable strength. Kegwaro
(O.I. 23:06:2009) observes that an ox ploughs, pulls heavy loads, turns the
sugarcane grinders and used as a symbol of strength among Abagusii.
God as an ox pulls Abagusii out of their socio-economic messes.
As an
ox, God leads while humanity follows to the avenues of success and
opportunities. The image of God as an ox helps Abagusii to perceive God
as powerful, able to pull them out of problems and difficult situations,
lead them to greater opportunities and one who never complains while
working for their good.
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This image of God as an ox has been overcome by events. Oxen were
used in pulling ploughs and heavy loads in the traditional days.
Addressing God as an ox in the contemporary society would be unclear to
the people especially the young. God the transformer of culture paradigm
in Neibuhr‟s Christological model eliminate this image of God in Gusii
traditional religion but enhance the attributes of God in the image.
God as an Eagle
God in Gusii traditional religion is perceived as an eagle (ekeongo). An
eagle among Abagusii is known to be the most powerful bird that exists.
It lives and operates from the sky, is swift, careful, has keen eyesight, sees
outstandingly from far, and detects its prey from far. An eagle further
teaches painstakingly its young ones on how to fly high and in long hours
in the sky and how to catch its prey (Nyabwari, O.I, 10:06:2009).
An eagle is a sacred bird which is associated with many rituals and
sacrifices in Gusii traditional religion. Nyaribari (O.I, 24:06:2009) states
that the sacredness of an eagle is not clearly explained by most people in
Gusii community. This is perhaps the reason why they refer to God as an
eagle because no one in Gusii community similarly is able to explain
exhaustively about the Divinity or the Sacredness of God.
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God as an eagle is powerful, lives and operates from the sky where he
causes the rainfall, sunshine, movement of the sun and the moon, and
controls seasons.
As an eagle, God is swift in saving or protecting
humanity in case of any emergence or in any situation that requires the
critical intervention of God.
God as an eagle sees from far everything
done on the face of the universe whether in public or in private. God as
an eagle patiently teaches human beings on how to detect problems in
time, how to be careful with life, how to be dependable and how to relate
to each other (Mogaka, O.I, 23:06:2009). The image of God as an eagle
helps Abagusii to perceive God as one who is able to see them from far,
one who lives and operates from the sky, as one who is a good teacher to
the people and as one who is patient with humanity in teaching them the
important life skills.
2.5 Conclusion
This chapter affirms the premise and the objective that Abagusii believe in
the existence of Engoro (God) in their traditional religion. They base their
knowledge of the existence of God through their inherent reflection of the
universe, their human limitations and the forces of nature. The people
relate well with God‟s creation in the belief that everything which God has
created is for their good.
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The reflection and evaluation of the universe makes Abagusii to conclude
that God is the creator, sustainer, provider and leader of the universe.
They further understand God as possessing the human attributes. They
maintain that God has images which according to their knowledge make
God closer to them as a father, mother and a friend. Describing the nature
of God, Abagusii believe that God has the eternal and moral attributes.
God also bears the human, animal and bird images. In his moral and
eternal attributes they say God is, good, merciful, holy, all-powerful, allknowing everywhere, without limit, self-existent, never changes and
beyond human comprehension. In Gusii Traditional concept of God they
perceive God as a father (tata), community elder (omokumi),
healer
(omogwenia), friend (omosani), blacksmith (omoturi), farmer (omoremi),
shepherd (omorisia) ox (entang’ana) and an eagle (ekeongo). The chapter has
further revealed that some Gusii traditional concept of God have been
overcome by events because the society is dynamic.
In the light of
Neibuhr (1951:69-92) conceptual framework or Christ the transformer of
culture, God against culture and God and culture in paradox, the chapter
has shown how Gusii traditional concepts of God which are challenged by
the changing times are refined so as to make God current and relevant to
the people in the present generation.
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The foregoing chapter clearly shows that Abagusii are monotheistic in
their oral religiosity. However the concept of God was changed by the
Euro-American missionaries who started coming to Gusii in 1913.
Christianity is equally a monotheistic religion which persuaded Abagusii
to accept the missionaries with their religion. Christians belief in one God
found its acceptance in Gusii. The Euro-American missionaries did not
respect Gusii religious concept of God. They considered Gusii traditional
concept of God empty and irreligious. Their religion slowly stated taking
root in Gusii and influenced Gusii traditional concept of God. This will be
discussed at length in Chapter Three.
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CHAPTER THREE
THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON GUSII
TRADITIONAL CONCEPT OF GOD
3.1 Introduction
Chapter Two examined Abagusii religio-cultural beliefs and how these
beliefs are centred in Engoro (God). As Mbiti (1969:6) states, Africans are
notoriously religious, Abagusii have embodied and lived this reality. In
Abagusii worldview, God is known to exist through their daily reflections
on the universe, their human limitations and forces of nature. These
confirmations of the existence of God led them to approach God in
various ways. They believed in the ancestral spirits as intermediaries
between them and God. The belief in Engoro helped Abagusii find
answers to the mysterious happenings in the universe.
This chapter investigates the influence of Christianity on Gusii traditional
concept of God. It also establishes the premise that the Christian
missionaries did not see the need to inculturate Gusii traditional concept
and that they did not take time to learn and accept the reality that there
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were similarities and differences between the Christian concept of God
and that of Gusii traditional religion. The chapter examines history of the
coming and the settlement of the Christian missionaries in Gusii between
1909 and 1963. The Christian missionaries under investigation are the
Catholics, Seventh-Day Adventists, Salvation Army, Africa Inland
Mission, Swedish Lutheran Mission, Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada,
Church of God and Friends Africa Mission. The chapter further explores
the Christian missionary evaluation of Gusii traditional concept of God
and how that influenced their coming and settlement in Gusii with the
hope of teaching Abagusii the concept of a „true God‟.
The chapter also examines the Christian concept of God with a specific
highlight on the trinity. It further highlights on the attributes of God
which reveal how the Christian God is omnipresent, omniscient,
omnipotent, pre-existent, eternal, immutable, infinite, sovereign, holy,
wise and faithful. The chapter at the same time examines the Christian
names of God and how Christianity believes in the human representation
of God through pastors, priests, Bishops through leadership. Finally, it
explores the similarities and differences of Gusii traditional and the
Christian concept of God.
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Using Neibuhr‟s Christological model of God and Culture, the chapter
identifies the Christian concept of God which are not meaningful to
Abagusii to refine, eliminate or retain them through God the transformer
of culture, God above culture, God and culture in paradox and God of
Culture paradigms. This makes God to be perceived as closer and current
with the people in all aspects of their daily lives.
3.2
History of the Coming and Establishment
of Christian Missionaries in Gusii (1909- 1963)
The first Christian missionaries started coming to Gusii in 1909 (Bogonko,
1977:54). This was immediately after Abagusii were overwhelmed and
colonized by the British. These Christian missionaries were mainly from
the Catholic and Protestant denominations. The missionaries as Bogonko
(1977:314) asserts came to Gusii in two major waves. The first wave was
from 1909-1936 and the second wave was from 1936-1963.
The first wave involved the Seventh-Day Adventist (SDA) missionaries
from America (Nyaundi, 1997:23, Getui, 1985:12, Okemwa,1993:34,35) and
the Roman Catholic Mill Hill Missionaries society from England (Baur,
1994:341). These missionaries were categorically scrambling with zeal for
converts and settlement in the area. As a result, most of Abagusii became
SDA and Catholic followers. The second wave was from 1936-1963. This
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wave included missionaries from Salvation Army, Africa Inland Mission
(AIM), Swedish Lutheran Mission (SLM), Pentecostal Assemblies of
Canada, who later changed to be called Pentecostal Assemblies of God
(PAG), Church of God (CoG), and Friends Africa Mission (FAM)
commonly known as the Quakers. Below is a brief historical discussion of
the coming and settlement of these Catholic and protestant missionaries in
Gusii and their influence on Gusii traditional concept of God.
3.2.1 History of the Catholic Church in Gusii and
its Influence on Gusii Traditional Concept of God
The Roman Catholic Mill Hill Missionaries arrived in Gusii from England
in 1911 (Bogonko, 1977:98). Discussing the Catholic foundations in Kenya,
Baur (1994: 258) reveals that the Mill Hill fathers first arrived in Western
Kenya in 1903. In 1906, they moved to Ojola in Luo land and opened a
station in Gusii at a place called Nyabururu near Kisii Town and Asumbi
among the Jo‟luo in 1913. The Catholic Church in Gusii was led by Father
Mathew who became popular with the British colonizers (Bogonko,
1977:90).
Baur (1994:57-58) states that the Mill Hill fathers did not have a clearly
defined method of evangelism in Gusii.
They employed the school
method of evangelism which was started by Fr. Bouma. The missionaries
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could identify one bright and obedient boy from a home or village,
convert him and teach him the catechism for three years. Then he was sent
out as a catechist to evangelize the people. The method was also used by
the Anglicans but not as successful as it was for the Catholics.
Describing the early missionary situation in Gusii, Baur notes:The early situation was different for the Abagusii (Kisii). They
offered the Kings Africans Rifles heroic resistance in 1905 and 1908
and were excessively punished by the British. For some reasons
they also resisted the missionaries (Baur, 1994:259).
Abagusii resisted the British administration but they did not manage to
stop
their
socio-political
influence.
The
people‟s
efforts
were
overwhelmed by the British governors who had weakened Gusii
traditional government by dividing up and colonizing the minds of the
councils of elders. With the British rulers‟ success in taking over the
administration of Abagusii, they recalled the Euro-American missionaries
who had gone back to their countries of origin during World War I. In the
post-war period, Abagusii were as eager to respond to the Christian
message as the Luo and the Luyia communities.
In spite of conflicts and altercations between Catholics and Seventh-Day
Adventist missionaries and early converts to Christianity, the Catholics
were able to open many stations and churches in Gusii (Osindi, O.I,
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10:06:2009).
They built many church sponsored and self-maintained
schools, dispensaries and colleges in Gusii. These institutions made the
Catholic Church to maintain its influence in Gusii. The Catholic Church
has the second largest number of converts to SDA in Gusii (Bogonko,
1977:218).
When the Catholic missionaries came to Gusii, they found Abagusii
already a united and peaceful people and inherently religious in their
belief in Engoro. Based on their misinformed understanding and
superiority complex of their religion, they considered all Gusii traditional
religious practices irreligious and backward.
They considered the
education system the people gave to their children as primordial and
irrelevant. They took Gusii bright boys to their seminaries, taught them
the catechist and separated them completely from Gusii traditional priests
who could have taught them Gusii traditional concept of God (Kiraro, O.I,
13.07:2009). This weakened family bonds between children and their
parents and blocked the transmission of Gusii traditional concept of God
in their oral tradition. They targeted the young generation so that they
could teach them a „new‟ God and the „correct‟ manner of relating to God.
The Catholic missionaries as Osindi (O.I, 10:06:2009) notes were very
harsh to the converts. “They could physically discipline or slap those who
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came to the mass late” (Nyabera, O.I, 10:06:2009). These missionaries
claimed that they were God‟s representatives of the new religion in Gusii.
Their brutality made Abagusii perceive God as hostile and cruel. Most of
Abagusii returned to their former belief in Engoro and Gusii traditional
representatives of Engoro who were tolerant and humane in their dealings
with people.
3.2 .2 History of the Seventh-Day Adventist (SDA) Church
and its Influence on Gusii Traditional Concept of God
The Catholic missionaries were followed by the Seventh-Day Adventist
missionaries (SDA) in Gusii whose influence on Gusii traditional concept
of God was not in any way positive. Below is a history of the Seventh-Day
Adventist church from how it was started in America, how it came to
Kenya, how it entered in Gusii and how it influenced Gusii traditional
concept of God.
The Seventh-Day Adventist Church traces its origin back to the early
1800's to William Miller (1782-1849) of Low Hampton, New York. Miller
had converted from deism to Christianity in 1816 and became a Baptist.
He was an avid reader, dedicated to God's word, and sought to reconcile
apparent biblical difficulties raised by deists. He relied heavily on the
Cruden's Concordance in his studies and developed a focus on the
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imminent return of Jesus. He began preaching at the age of 50 (Jordan,
1988:45).
The time was right. America was hot with discussions on the return of
Christ. As a result, thousands (called Millerites) accepted his idea that
Jesus would return in the year covering 1843-1844. He had arrived at this
date based upon a study of Daniel 8:14 which says, "And he said to me,
for 2,300 evenings and mornings then the holy place will be properly
restored." He interpreted the 2300 evenings and mornings to be years and
counted forward from 457 BC when the commandment to rebuild
Jerusalem was given (Dan. 9:24-25). When his initial predictions failed, he
adjusted his findings to conclude that Jesus would return on March 21,
1844 and then later on October 22, 1844. After these too failed, Miller quit
promoting his ideas on Jesus' return and the "Millerites" broke up.
William Miller died in 1849 still with a hope of seeing the eminent second
return of Jesus Christ. Although disappointed in October 22 1844 when
Jesus failed to come as he calculated, shortly before he died he told those
who attended him on his sick-bed, “I championed the preaching of Jesus
return on October 22 1844, but He did not come, the truth is, the second
coming of my Jesus is a reality. I will see him when he comes”. William
miller died with a living hope meeting Jesus face to face one day (Martin,
1977: 439).
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Mayer (1961:350) states that on the morning following the "Great
Disappointment" of October 22, 1844, Hiram Edson had a vision. He saw
Jesus standing at the altar of heaven and concluded that Miller had been
right about the time, but wrong about the place. In other words, Jesus'
return was not to earth, but a move into the heavenly sanctuary as is
referenced in Heb. 8:1-2.
Joseph Bates (1792-1872), a retired sea captain and a convert to "Millerism"
then began to promote the idea of Jesus moving into the heavenly
sanctuary.
He published a pamphlet which greatly influenced James
White (1821-1881) and Ellen White (1827-1915). It is these three who were
the driving force behind the SDA movement. Ellen G. White (1827-1915)
saw visions from an early age. Such was the case shortly after the Great
Disappointment. Ellen G. White had a vision of a narrow path where an
angel was guiding Adventists.
Subsequent visions resulted in
interpretations of the three angels in Rev. 14:6-11 as being 1843-1844 as the
hour of God's judgment; the fall of Babylon signified by Adventists
leaving various churches, and admonitions against Sunday observance.
The name Seventh-day Adventist adopted by the church in 1860 and its
first General Conference and formation was launched on May 21, 1863.
After its formal organization in 1963, the church started sending its
missionaries to other parts of the world (Mayer 1961:439).
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The Seventh-Day Adventist church was first brought to Kenya by
Carscallen,
Arthur
Asa
Grandville
1879–1964,
a
Canadian-born
missionary, administrator and linguist. He was baptized in North Dakota
in 1899 and attended Union College in 1900 and 1901. In 1902 he was sent
to work as a colporteur in Scotland, Wales, and England. He also assisted
in evangelistic meetings and in 1904 entered Duncombe Hall Training
College (now Newbold College) where he completed his course in
September 1906.
In 1906 he accepted a call to open up Seventh-Day
Adventist Church in Kenya, East Africa, with the arrangement that his
fiancée, Helen Thomson, be sent out the following year. After his
ordination, late in 1906, he sailed for Mombasa with Peter Nyambo, an
African teacher from Nyasaland who had been attending school in
England. Carscallen spent the next thirteen years pioneering in Kenya as
superintendent of the British East Africa Mission (BEAM). Under his
direction a string of mission stations was established along the eastern
shore of Lake Victoria (Jordan, 1988:45).
The Seventh-Day Adventists according to Getui (1985:54), Bogonko
(1977:112) and Nyaundi (1997:32), first arrived in Gusii in 1913 and their
first station was in Nyanchwa near Kisii Town. The other stations prior to
Nyanchwa were in Were in Gendia and Wire Hill among the Luo
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community which were opened in 1906 and 1907 respectively. Before the
World War I these missionaries had opened the SDA stations at Karungu
1912, Rusinga 1912, Kanyadoto 1913 and Kamagambo 1913. All these
stations were in South Kavirondo District which comprise of Rongo,
Migori and Kisumu districts these days.
Bogonko (1977:113) and Nyaundi (1997: 27-28) assert that the outbreak of
World War I prevented missionary work from taking root in Gusii as was
intended. The battle in Kisii Town between the British and the Germans
(esegi ya’ nyamirioro) in 1914 made the missionaries to flee to the Friends
Mission at Kaimosi and Kisumu for refuge. For more than five years
missionary work stopped in Gusii. The missionary work had not taken
root before the World War I and Abagusii had not learnt the new religion
fully enough to work on their own.
The first Adventist Euro-American missionary to Gusii was Iran R.
Evanson who did not come back to Nyanchwa after the World War I. In
1918 another missionary was sent whose name was Leonard Lane. He was
sent to Nyanchwa to start the work which had stalled for five years since
the end of the World War I. Lane was accompanied by Yakobo Olwa and
Barnaba Okumu who both came from the Jo‟luo community who are
Gusii neighbours. Lane left Gusii in 1920 and was replaced by Eric B.
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Beavon a young unmarried missionary who later married in 1921 in
Gendia to Miss Myrna Campell, a daughter of M.M. Campell who was a
director of the British Union for many years (Nyaundi, 1997:23).
Adventism spread very expeditiously in Gusii and its influence was felt in
every part of Gusii. More stations were opened with more local people
becoming pastors and leaders of the local churches as elders, deacons and
others taking the lay leadership positions in the church. The SDA church
has the largest number of converts in Gusii (Moronya, O.I. 01:06:2009).
After the World War I, the SDA and the Catholics returned to Nyanchwa
and Nyabururu stations respectively in 1919. Zealous work started to
radiate to all parts of Gusii from these two stations.
The SDA and
Catholic missionaries began determined campaigns to gain more converts
to their denominations. Both the missionaries and their first converts
developed a spirit of competition and hatred against each other which led
to dividing people along Adventist and Catholic denominational lines
(Bogonko, 1977:221).
The scramble for converts attracted hatred and even physical fights
between the two denominations. These outright conflicts caused Gusii
traditionalist and the government to dislike and therefore disturb the
work of the missionaries. To stop further conflicts, Nyaundi (1997:87)
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adds that the government under the Native Authority of Ordinance
designed to stop the aggression by making and giving orders to churches
to build their schools and church structures at least two miles apart
although this order was later withdrawn.
The missionaries and elderly converts from these two by then conflicting
denominations tried to iron out their altercations in peace negotiations to
no avail because after agreements of maintaining peace, they went out to
attract converts and the enmity could be revived. Hatred was kindled
especially in their methods of evangelism to increase the church
membership. Bogonko (1977:116) writes, “Whereas the Catholics believed
that mass preaching and singing should be done in the church, the
Adventists followed church services with singing on their way home”.
The SDA converts and missionaries employed several evangelization
methods which according to Nyaundi (1997:89) influenced many converts
to their denomination. These methods included singing competitions,
door to door evangelism, camp meetings, public evangelisms, amasaga
(working together) and promotion of herbal medicine (Moronya,
O.I.10:06:2009).
This angered the Catholic converts who in many
occasions attacked them physically and destroyed their church structures
at night. The marching and singing all the way home after the SDA
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church services bothered members of the other denominations and even
the traditionalists.
Other causes of open conflicts were that the SDA members called the
Catholic converts people of Satan because their missionaries allowed them
to continue drinking local beer and smoking. The Catholic missionaries
bitterly responded to the SDA‟s accusations against them publicly in their
masses.
This war of words divided these converts more and Gusii
community‟s unity was at stake. The SDAs called the Catholics their
persecutors and vice versa. With this kind of hatred and rivalry, the
missionaries and early converts did not portray the ideal standards of
Christian living and morality which are clearly illustrated in the Bible they
so claimed to embrace.
The Seventh-Day Adventist missionaries and early converts were forceful
and highly skilled in evangelism.
They conducted many public
evangelistic campaigns, employed door to door evangelism, ordained the
local people as elders and deacons and employed the local people as
pastors on permanent employment.
They opened churches almost in
every village, started schools, dispensaries and colleges in the area. They
targeted the young people by creating a strong youth department in the
church and encouraged the youth to join Adventist schools where they
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could be taught Adventist doctrines and strict observance of Saturday as
the day of worship (Omote, O.I.08:06:2009). These are the reasons why the
SDA church is the dominant denomination in Gusii.
Abagusii believe that Engoro created some animals, plants, insects and
birds as food to the people. It is for this reason that we saw in chapter two
that Abagusii related well with God‟s creation because they are stewards
of God‟s creation. The SDA missionaries introduced strict dietary rules
without proper explanations to the people. They taught the people that
the eating of meat, drinking of tea, coffee and cocoa was evil. They were
not patient in teaching people to understand the health concepts behind
these noble health precautions that excessive eating of flesh and foods rich
in caffeine is a health hazard. Those who asserted on eating or drinking
the „forbidden‟ foods were considered evil and untransformed (Mogaka,
O.I, 23:06:2009). This made people to doubt their former dietary behavior
they inherited from their parents and Engoro who provided them with
these foods from as long as their memory could recall.
Abagusii had specific places where they went to worship God from.
Places like on the hills and under some trees like omotembe, omosasa and
omogumo. These places and trees were considered sacred and God was
believed to stay in or on those trees and places. Most ceremonies, vows,
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reconciliations and covenants were made under these trees and hills.
These trees were never fetched as firewood and nobody aimlessly went to
these sites. The SDA missionaries taught the people that the only place
where God dwells is in the church. They also taught the people that all
birds, animals, hills and valleys are equal and ordinary. Bangueso (O.I,
10:07:2009) observes that the SDA missionaries encouraged people to cut
the sacred trees and built churches on every hill where people were
formerly worshiping Engoro from. This was deliberately done so that
people may divert their understanding of the sanctity of the hills as places
of worship to points of convergence for worship of the Christian God.
This disoriented the people‟s concept of God and sacred places of
worship.
3.2.3 History of the Salvation Army in Gusii and its
Influence on Gusii Traditional Concept of God
The squabbles between the SDA and the Catholics which almost broke
Gusii community apart did not continue for long. The inflow of more
missionaries of other denominational faiths set these original religious
faiths into task lest they lost their members to these more focused and
neutral incoming missionaries.
The coming of the Salvation Army, the
Swedish Lutheran Mission, the Friends African Mission, and the Church
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of God Missions diluted the wrangles which existed between Catholic and
SDA churches (Osindi, O.I, 10:06:2009).
The Salvation Army missionaries came to Gusii in 1936 and obtained a
plot in Kisii Township which they did not develop and it was later
withdrawn from them afterwards. The Salvation Army missionaries did
not have a well-worked out system of missionary approach.
Their
missionary work did not have a dynamic start because of the resistance
from the Catholics and the SDAs who felt challenged by more missionary
inflow to Gusii (Bogonko, 1977:33).
The Salvation Army missionaries
tried to start a centre in Bobasi but the local chief who had been in
constant conflict with the Catholic and SDA missionaries did not want any
more trouble brought by the missionaries and their converts. He could not
give them accommodation and the social support they required. These
missionaries were young and that made Abagusii to disrespect their
missionary work. They later proceeded to South Kavirondo (Kisumu)
leaving a few converts in Gusii (Nyaundi, 1997:67).
The Salvation Army missionaries who came to Gusii were youthful. They
as Osindi (O.I, 10:06:2009) says did not see the need to reach the elderly
people to explain to them the concept of the Christian God. These
missionaries were in hurry and discriminated the people and were heard
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talking ill of the traditional practices of the people. They discriminated the
people‟s food, art, dress, and social life. They condemned Engoro in public
and called those who worshiped Engoro as worshipers of idols. They
taught their followers not to share anything with anyone who worshiped
Engoro because doing so would anger God who would allow misery and
punishment to them.
The Salvation Army missionaries divided the
people who were originally united in their traditional religion. Their
teachings and individual perception of Engoro also weakened the people‟s
interpersonal relationship and inclinations to Engoro whom they had
believed in.
3.2.4 History of the Africa Inland Mission (AIM) in Gusii
and its Influence on Gusii Traditional Concept of God
In 1937, the Africa Inland Mission (AIM) missionaries came to Gusii and
were granted permission to start their evangelism in Bogirango and
Bogetutu at Isecha.
With zeal and determination, these missionaries
started two schools, one at Isecha and another in Masosa as a way of
attracting more converts in places surrounding these schools. The villages
around Isecha were populated with SDAs who challenged the progression
of the AIM in the region. This led to the closure of the AIM school at
Isecha but the one at Masosa was able to persist. The AIM continued in
Gusii but with minimum influence (Bogonko, 1977:231).
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The Africa Inland Mission missionaries openly called Abagusii adherents
of Engoro as animists, savages and irreligious. They made their converts
to doubt Engoro and hate how they had formerly related to Engoro. They
targeted to convert the religious functionaries and persuaded them to
eradicate the religious sites where people used to meet to worship Engoro
(Onchong‟a, O.I. 24:08:2009). They ordered the cutting down of sacred
trees and digging and planting crops at former sites of worship of Engoro.
They subjected people to a religious dilemma since those who had not
been converted to Christianity did not have anywhere to go to pray to
Engoro because their worship sites were already destroyed.
3.2.5 History of the Swedish Lutheran Mission (SLM) in Gusii
and its Influence on Gusii Traditional Concept of God
In 1939, the Swedish Lutheran Mission (SLM) came to Gusii.
These
missionaries were allocated land by the local authority at Bonchari
Location in 1939. They put their station at a place called Itierio and from
there they spread their influence to other parts of Bonchari like Bogitaa
which currently has the largest concentration of the SLM converts.
Extending their scope of influence, they further moved to North
Bogirango and started another station at Matongo.
Bogonko (1977:126) states that the SLM had a greater impact and had the
vigor to penetrate to many centers like Bonchari, Bogetutu and South
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Bogirango but their efforts were undermined by their denominational
competitors the SDAs and the Catholics. To stop their further spread in
Gusii, Bogonko adds that their competitors manipulated a scandal which
ill accused the SLM evangelists that they were murderers “who
slaughtered humans like animals” (Bogonko, 1977:127). This accusation
scared Abagusii from joining this denominational group. With this unfair
disturbance, the SLM kept to their former stations which are Matongo and
Itierio. At these stations they built schools and hospitals which do exist to
this day.
Abagusii believed that God healed through the medicine persons and the
natural herbs.
Before Abagusii gave medicines to the patients, they
invoked Engoro whom they believed healed the sick.
The SLM
missionaries discouraged people from taking local herbs prescribed to
them by the medicine persons. They dismissed the medicine persons as
„witch doctors‟ which was an insult and a demeaning reference in order to
make people not to esteem them (Nyatichi, O.I, 02:06:2009).
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3.2.6 History of the Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada (PAC) in
Gusii and its Influence on Gusii Traditional Concept of God
The Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada (PAC) missionaries came to Gusii
in 1944 and started their mission station on a five acre land in Itibo in
Bogetutu. This was a more influential protestant group
whose dynamic
evangelistic approach threatened the Catholic and SDA converts. These
missionaries started a dispensary at Itibo, which picked up well at its
initial stages but later collapsed because the local SDA and Catholic
converts never visited the dispensary for medical services to enable it to
progress as they did to Tabaka and Kendu Mission Hospitals (Onchari,
1975:23). Despite the opposition PAG missionaries faced from the old and
established churches in Gusii, their missionaries remained focused and
persistent.
From Itibo mission centre they extended outwards to all directions in
Gusii and their impact was felt in almost all parts of Gusii. They planted
dynamic churches at Masakwe, Kenyoro, Eramba in Bogetutu and
Gianchore in North Bogirango. In Bobasi they opened stations at Borangi,
Sameta and Naikuro. In 1946, they further moved to Nyaribari where
they started a station at Irungu. The PAG church is the third largest
church in Gusii (Bogonko, 1977:33).
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Gusii traditional concept of God has anthropomorphic, animal and bird
images of God. The PAG missionaries discouraged people from using
Gusii traditional images of God in reference to God. They insisted on the
use of the biblical images of God like king, lord, husbandman and
vinedresser without considering that some biblical images and names of
God were not understood by the local people. The PAG missionaries
were using the biblical names of God which were very hard for Abagusii
to grasp without translating them to ekegusii language. They used terms
like Elohim, Adonai, El Elyon, El Roi, El Shaddai, El Olam and Yahweh. These
terms made Abagusii to conclude that the Christian God is too hard and
complicated to understand and that made some who were already
converted to Christianity to drop their new religion and resort to their
former belief in Engoro.
3.2.7 History of the Church of God (CoG) In Gusii and
its influence of Gusii Traditional Concept of God
The Church of God (CoG) arrived in Gusii from their headquarters at
Kima in Bunyore North Kavirondo District in 1944. The CoG started their
Mission station at Ibeno in 1944 and tried to spread its influence through
Gusii but did not succeed to get further from Ibeno in Nyaribari. They
managed to get new converts with whom they started new churches in
Tambacha and Ngokoro in Bogetutu (Nyaundi, 1997:121).
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The Church of God did not penetrate to most parts of Gusii because of the
already the SDA, Catholic and PAG churches had already taken root and
resisted new coming denominations. Where they managed to enter and
start churches, they had influences on Gusii traditional concept of God.
For instance, the missionaries of the Church of God restricted their
members from socially interacting with members of other denominations.
They taught their members that whoever mentioned the name Engoro had
to ask for forgiveness from God because Engoro was not God according to
them. They also told the people that God does not have a Gusii name
because God does not only belong to Abagusii community (Guto, O.I,
09:07:2009). They presented God to Abagusii as one who is distant and
withdrawn from the welfare of the people. They also discouraged people
from praying in the morning facing the sun and argued that God is not
found in the sun and that the sun is a natural object which has nothing to
do with God. The missionaries tried to teach the members on basics of
science which even confused Abagusii more.
3.2.8 History of the Friends African Mission (FAM) in Gusii
and its Influence on Gusii Traditional Concept of God
The last but not the least missionary group to Gusii was the Friends
African Mission (FAM) whose headquarters was in Kaimosi in North
Kavirondo District (Western Province of Kenya) since 1902. They were
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allocated land by the local authority at Gianchere and did not make even
the slightest move out of Giachere where they were first allocated. The
FAM church was highly resisted by the SDA and the Catholics. They
were exceedingly segregated because the local people called it the church
of the foreigners (ekanisa ya’bako) because some Luyia people came along
with the missionaries and stayed permanently in the region. They were
given settlement land by Musa Nyandusi who was by then Gusii Senior
Chief (Bogonko, 1977:23-24).
The Friends African Mission church was brought to Gusii by missionaries
who were accompanied by the Luyia coverts to Christianity. The Luyia
people came with their traditional concept of God and wanted to plant it
wholesome among Abagusii. In spite of the land they were given to plant
their churches and settle permanently, they did not respect Gusii
traditional concept of God. Some were heard condemning Gusii religiocultural practices saying that the manner of worship of Abagusii was
backward and irreligious. This created enmity between the local people
and the FAM. It hindered the church‟s further penetration to other parts of
Gusii. They were determined to plant the Luyia inculturated Christianity
but they did not have the local support and that is how they ended up
settling only in Gianchere near Kisii town.
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The success of all Protestant and Catholic missions depended on how
focused and ambitious the early converts and missionaries were in their
missionary strategies (Getui, 1985:13). Their successes also depended on
how much the mission was financially supported. The missionaries to
Gusii in the second wave (protestant missionaries who came to Gusii
between the years 1936-1963) did not have enough financial support so
they did not make much progress and further penetration to other parts of
Gusii. The SDA and Catholic missionaries took advantage of penetration
since they did not have strong denominational faith challengers for almost
fifty years (Osindi & Moronya, O.I. 23:06:2009). The missionaries had a
common assessment of Gusii traditional concept of Engoro as discussed
below.
3.3 The Collective Missionary Assessment and Influence
on Gusii Traditional Concept of God
The Protestant and Catholic missionaries who came to Gusii came from
England at different times. What is unique is that the missionaries in their
diversities of origin and denominational background had some
similarities in their negative perception of Engoro. The Christian
missionaries who first came to Gusii believed that Abagusii did not have a
concept of God. They accused them of worshiping the ancestors and not
the true God. They claimed that the idea of God is a philosophical one
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and beyond the understanding of a black backward people like Abagusii
(Nyaundi, 1997:43). They also did not recognize Gusii anthropomorphic,
animal and bird images. Osindi (O.I, 10:06:2009) observes that the
missionaries taught Abagusii new images of God like the king, lord and
lion which Abagusii had no idea about.
The missionaries came with a misinformed mind about the local people in
their traditional concept of God. The European Explorers misinformed the
Christian missionaries who first came to Gusii. p‟Bitek (1970: 43) writes
from an African perspective that during the eighteenth century men like
Tuunberg J., Sparman K., Levalliant J., Bruce M., Mugongo P. and Park K.
came to Africa primarily to explore and observe.
These explorers‟
presupposed evolutionist and imperialist thinking came with their minds
pre-informed of what to see and discover in Africa. They thought that
Africans had no concept of God and the only thing they might have was
just the basics of monotheism. p‟Bitek noticed that the religious stage was
subdivided into three periods: Fetishism, polytheism and monotheism.
The supposed traditional religion of African peoples that is Fetishism
came at the bottom of the ladder.
As a result, the explorers misinformed the West about African religious
backgrounds and considered Africans irreligious and without a belief in
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God. Some reported that Africans were primitive and underdeveloped.
With this misinformed understanding, the missionaries who first came to
Gusii came to bring new faith and its concept of God to Abagusii.
Nyaundi reveals how the SDA missionaries who came to Gusii negatively
assessed Gusii traditional concept of God. He writes
Beavon recognized the role of the local deity. But like many
missionaries he had a low opinion of Engoro (God of Abagusii).
God of the missionaries and God of the local people were
contrasted sharply Nyaundi (1997: 30).
The Christian missionaries who came to Gusii did not expect monotheism
among the local people. That is why they used barbaric terms to refer to
Abagusii. Such terms as primitive, savage, animism, (belief in spirits)
demeaned Abagusii. The other terms they employed to describe Gusii
religion included dynamism, totemism, fetishism, and naturism (Nyaundi
1997).
These religious terms show clearly how little the missionaries
understood Gusii Traditional concept of God which they subjected to a
great deal of misinterpretation and misunderstanding. Gusii traditional
concept of God was mocked and dismissed as primitive and
underdeveloped without justifiable reasons by the missionaries.
Although the missionaries who came to Gusii were from the Catholic and
different Protestant groups, they had a similar perception of Gusii
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Traditional concept of God. They became determined to teach Abagusii
the new concept of God making them to disown their inherent belief in
Engoro they had embraced over the years. The missionaries did not see
the need to identify the similarities and differences between their concept
of God and that of Abagusii.
3.4.1
The Christian Concept of God and its Influence
on Gusii Traditional Concept of God
Christians have two major sources of their knowledge of God that is, the
evidence from creation and the scriptures. The Christians know God as
the creator and the sustainer of the universe. The reality about God is
assumed in the Christian Holy Book called the Bible. The Bible affirms
God‟s existence in both the Old Testament and the New Testament. Stagg
(1962:98) states that the Bible never speaks of God in an impersonal sense.
Instead, it refers to God in personal terms. It portrays God as one who,
speaks, sees, hears, acts, and loves. God in Christianity is known to have a
will and a personality.
Stagg (1962:87) further reflects that God is
presented in the Bible as a being primarily concerned with people.
Christians believe that God is the eternal father who is the creator, source,
sustainer, and sovereign of all creation. Christianity teaches that God is
just, holy, merciful, gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast
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love and faithfulness. God as Ombui (O.I, 25:06:2009) opines, is worth of
worship, admiration, adoration and service by all creation. The Christians
hold a belief that God is revealed through the physical universe. They
argue that, by observing the universe, one can find a positive indication of
God‟s existence. White (1956:iv) is of the view that creation reveals the
results of the universal mind that devised a master plan and executed it.
It makes more sense to accept the idea of God as a creator of the universe
than to assume that the universe came into existence through other
foreign forces except through God.
God according to Machner (1998:67) is believed to be both immanent and
transcendent. Explaining the immanence and transcendence of God, he
further highlights that God is with and within all things in the universe both the visible and the invisible things. He further asserts that God is
outside space and time, therefore, eternal and unable to be changed by
forces within the universe.
Christianity illuminates that God is holy and separate from sin and is not
corruptible.
God‟s justice is expressed as fairness, righteousness, and
truthfulness in all judgments conferred upon humanity. p‟Bitek (1970:87)
argues that the Christians portray God as omnipotent, omniscient,
omnipresent and immortal. These terms are refined by Neibuhr‟s (1951)
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God the Transformer of Culture paradigm so that God is understood as
all-knowing, everywhere at the same time, lives forever, and all-present.
Abagusii‟s concept of God is inherent and transmitted from one
generation to another through Gusii oral tradition.
They have the
knowledge of God through their reflection of the universe, their human
limitations and the forces of nature. The missionaries introduced the Bible
as the book of faith read and interpreted to the people by trained
theologians.
Reading and understanding the Bible was highly
emphasized by the missionaries as the principal way of knowing the mind
of God. This made the people to believe that to know the mind of God
one has to rely on the theologians. It also disadvantaged those who did
not have a chance of getting the formal education to help them to read and
understand the Bible on their own.
The Christian missionaries used the Greek metaphysical terms to refer to
God. They used the Greek metaphysical expressions not meant to refer to
the Christian God like God is omnipresent, omniscient, omnipotent and
immanent. These terms displaced Gusii terms like giver (omorwa), helper
(omokonyi), powerful (omonyanguru), maker (omoroisia) creator (omotongi)
savior (omoboria) and protector (omorendi) to refer to God with meanings
which help people to know and understand God better. The use of these
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terms, the interpretation of the biblical concepts by only theologians made
Abagusii to perceive God as one who is far and withdrawn from the daily
human reality of life. It also made God to appear as one who can not be
understood by local people who are without the systematic theology
concepts.
3.5
The Christian Teaching on the Trinity and Influence
on Gusii Traditional Concept of God
Christianity maintains that the doctrine of the Trinity is encapsulated in
Matthew 28:19, where Jesus instructs the apostles: "Go therefore and make
disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of
the Son and of the Holy Spirit." Wendell (1991:76) states that the
parallelism of the Father, the Son, and the Spirit is not unique to
Matthew‟s Gospel, but appears elsewhere in the New Testament (2
Corinthians 13:14, Hebrews. 9:14), as well as in the writings of the earliest
Christians.
The Christian doctrine of the Trinity teaches the unity of the Father, the
Son and the Holy Spirit as three persons in Godhead. Cantelon (1980:143)
states that, Christianity points out that God is a Triune God existing as
three persons. Each of the persons is understood to have one identical
essence or nature, not merely natures. Stagg (1962:289) illuminates that
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the belief in the existence of the three God-head has been there since the
4th Century. The concept of the Trinity has had varied explanations,
controversies and heresies in both the Catholic and protestant
denominations but the idea and the sanctity of the Trinity has not been
devalued.
White (1954 a: 234) states that, in the New Testament God the Father has
the special role in the relationship with the Son.
Jesus in the New
Testament is referred to as the son or the heir of God the Father.
According to the Nicene Creed, Jesus is declared or confirmed as the
eternally begotten of the Father indicating that their divine father-son
relationship is not tied to an event, time or history. Christianity refers to
Christ as the word present at God‟s creation and all was created through
the Word who is Jesus the Son. Omwando (O.I, 23:07:2009) indicates that
during creation Jesus the word was not alone creating but was equal with
the personhood of the Trinity.
Monro (1961:132) states that God the eternal Son became incarnate in Jesus
Christ. Through Jesus all things are/were created, the character of God
was/is revealed, the salvation of humanity is/was accomplished, and the
world is/was judged. Forever truly God, became also truly human, Jesus
the Christ. Jesus was conceived of the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin
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Mary. Davison (O.I. 23:03:2009) observes that Jesus lived and experienced
temptation as a human being, but perfectly exemplified the righteousness
and the love of God. By Jesus‟ miracles, God's power was attested. Oira
(O.I, 26:08:2009) adds that Jesus suffered and died voluntarily on the cross
for humanity‟s sins and in their place, was raised from the dead and
ascended to minister in the heavenly sanctuary on humanity‟s behalf.
Christians believe that Jesus will come again in glory for the final
deliverance of the people and the restoration of all things.
Christianity as Lindivas (1973:98) argues holds that God is called the
Father, the Creator and the Provider of all things. God has an eternal
relationship with the son Jesus which implies an exclusive and intimate
familiarity that is of the very nature. God the eternal Father is the Creator,
Source, Sustainer, and Sovereign of all creation. Wilson (1968:133)
highlights that the qualities and powers exhibited in the Son and the Holy
Spirit are also revelations of the Father.
God the eternal Spirit as believed by Christians was active with the Father
and the Son in creation, incarnation, and redemption. Lindivas (1973:241)
further contends that God the Holy Spirit inspired the writers of the
Scriptures, filled Christ's life with power, draws and convicts human
beings and renews and transforms people into the image of God. God the
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Holy Spirit is further believed to be sent by the Father and the Son to be
always with God‟s children, extends spiritual gifts to the church,
empowers it to bear witness to Christ and in harmony with the Scriptures
leads it into all truth.
The Christian missionaries did not believe that Abagusii believed in the
same God that they did. They felt that their religion was superior and
purposed to fulfill the Great commission in Matthew 28:19 that “Go ye
therefore…” They claimed, to observe the New Testament theology of
discipleship and considered themselves as the chosen few to tutor the
black Africans, Abagusii included the concept of the „New‟ God. They
began to teach the new concept of God without clearly defining the
operational terms to the understanding of the local people. For instance,
the concept of the Trinity- God the father, God the son and God the Holy
Spirit, was not clearly elaborated to the understanding of Abagusii. It
remained a question to Abagusii on how God who is the Father can be the
Son and the Holy Spirit at the same time. It was not elaborately explained
to the understanding of Abagusii on how God the Father, the Son and the
Holy Spirit are of equal authority and of identical essence.
Christianity introduced God the father as the judge, God the Son as the
advocate and God the Holy Spirit as the teacher. These theologies were
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not clearly taught to the people so that they could understand how the
Trinity can be the judge, advocate and teacher at the same time. Failure of
the missionaries to teach Abagusii to clearly understand these concepts
has influenced evil among Abagusii because they believe that God the
Father is the judge and God the Son who also addressed in Christianity as
the first born brother is the advocate.
3.6
The Biblical Names of God and Their Influence
on Gusii Reference for God
The Christians have various names for God. These names have original
meanings which describe God.
Many of these words have meanings
which when studied, highlight how Christians know or think about God.
Mbiti (1970:41) has similar view that some Christian names are personal
and refer only to God while others are descriptive in nature since they
describe the character of God.
Christianity borrowed the biblical Jewish, Aramaic, Hebrew, and Greek
references to God. The Christian missionaries especially the PAG and CoG
used the terms in prayers, songs and sermons. They did not translate
them to the ekegusii language in which the people could understand.
Abagusii were influenced and started using them without modifications.
Some of these biblical names which Abagusii were influenced by
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Christianity to use are, Elohim (Strong One, Divine, Genesis 1:1), Adonai
(Lord, Master-to-servant Exodus 4:10, 13), El Elyon (Most High, the
strongest one, Genesis 14:20), El Roi (the Strong One Who Sees, Genesis
16:13), El Shaddai (Almighty God, Genesis 17:1), El Olam (Everlasting God,
Isaiah 40:28) and Yahweh (LORD “I Am,” self-existent Exodus 3:13, 14)
(Mervyn, 1981:121). Most of these names are of Hebrew origin and are
commonly used in the Old Testament.
The biblical references to God have/had specific meaning(s) to the people
of a particular community. Some of these names shown in the foregoing
paragraph are of Jewish, Aramaic and Hebrew origin and some are no
longer in use today. Christianity introduced these references to God
wholesome and it made the people not to understand who clearly God is.
The Christian missionaries however insisted on the use of these names in
addressing God.
Abagusii as Nyabera (O.I, 10:06:2009) adds were
influenced by Christianity which made them to drop or ignore their local
names for God like omochikare (eterna) omorwa (giver), omorendi
(protector), omokoreki (founder), omokonyi (helper), omonguru (strong) and
omoboria (saviour).
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3.7
The Christian Teachings on the Attributes of God and
Their Influence on Gusii Traditional Concept of God
Christianity portrays God as a unique being. The nature and attributes of
this unique God cannot be sufficiently explained in human language.
Bruce (1972:56) contends that any explanation about God is a mere
attempt that gives a glimpse of what Christians know about this God.
Nyanchama (O.I, 12:06:2009) adds that the divine and moral attributes of
God help Christians to know who God is. The attributes of God is what
comes to mind when Christians think about God in reference to what God
has done. The attributes of God are based on what the Bible describes
about God and what is observed in the day-to-day life. The Bible records
various instances which were used by various personalities to highlight
on the character of God.
The Christian missionaries taught Abagusii as noted above that there was
no religion in the world but Christianity which had been able to
successfully define the attributes and nature of God. They emphasized
that anyone who desired to know more about God has to read and
understand the Bible. It was unfortunate that even during that time almost
all Abagusii were illiterate Mbaka (O.I, 17:07:2009). This made them to
rely on the missionaries and a few Gusii converts to Christianity who
were taught how to read the Bible.
To understand the nature and
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attributes of God became difficult for the people because the missionaries
and the first Gusii Bible readers did not explain the cultures in the Bible,
the biblical names of God and the biblical images of God. This situation
influenced others to withdraw from Christianity to Gusii traditional
religion. Below is a discussion of the Christian teachings of the divine and
moral attributes of the Christian God. It further shows how the teachings
on God‟s attributes influenced Abagusii and how the Christian teachings
of the attributes of God are refined by God the Transformer of Culture
and God above Culture paradigms in Neibuhr‟s (1951) Christological
model to fit Gusii context.
3.7.1
The Christian Teaching on the Non-Sharable Attributes of God
and their Influence on Gusii Traditional Concept of God
God has attributes which are exclusively divine and are not found in any
human being or any creature in the universe.
This belief is both in
Christianity and in Gusii traditional religion. The coming of missionaries
did not recognize Gusii concept of the non-sharable attributes of God. In
Christianity God is Holy, Sovereign, Omnipotent, Omnipresent, PreExistent, Eternal, Immutable and Infinite.
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God is Holy and Sovereign
Christianity teaches that the holiness of God distinguishes God from other
created beings. This attribute refers to God‟s majesty and perfect moral
purity. There is absolutely no sin or evil thought in God. Brook (1950:1112) says that God‟s holiness is the definition of that which is pure and
righteous in the entire universe.
God‟s holiness in Christianity is
exemplified in numerous instances in the Bible such as in Moses and the
burning bush (Exodus 3:2). The Christians believe that God rules over the
entire creation. Mervyn (1981:251) emphasizes that this attribute of God
incorporates God‟s all-knowing and all-powerful attributes.
The
sovereignty of God, controls everything that happens in the universe.
God is holy in a transcendent and infinitely perfect manner (Isaiah 1:4;
6:3). The Messiah is called "the Holy One," (Psalms 16:10; Luke 4:34; Acts
3:14) and Holy is the common description given to the third person of the
Trinity, the Holy Spirit. God is the fountain of holiness, innocence, and
the sanctification. Christianity as Osindi (O.I, 10:06:2009) observes does
not clearly show the difference between the holiness of God (obochenu
bwa’Nyasae) and the holiness of humanity (obochenu bwa’mwanyabanto)
which was lost after sin in the Garden of Eden. It does not illuminate how
a holy being can sin.
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The Bible applies the appellation holy in a secondary sense to whatever
pertains especially to God-to heaven, to the temple, its parts, utensils, and
services; today, ministers, priests, prophets, and apostles. The Jews were
called a holy people, because they were separated unto God, to be a
religious and consecrated people. Christians, as a body, are also called
holy, because they are in like manner separated unto Christ. But a holy
person in the ordinary Christian sense is one who exhibits in his conduct
the inward purity, benevolence, and holy devotedness to the Savior, with
whom the heart overflows (White, 1956:123). Mogaka (O.I, 23:06:2009)
adds that the idea of other communities like the Jews being holy and
considered chosen (abachorwa) and commissioned (abanontigwa) by God
makes God to appear as one who segregates his own people. It has also
made others to develop the spiritual pride, an element which Christianity
itself preaches against.
God is Omnipotent and Omniscient
Christians believe that God is all-powerful. Christ‟s miracles are evidence
of God‟s power over the physical universe. The words spoken by Jesus
about the resurrection from the grave all support the Christian argument
about the omnipotence of God. White (1954 b: 131) asserts that the belief
of the power of resurrection, authority over death and power to restore
life all describe the omnipotence of God. Mervyn (1981:211) argues that
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God has power to forgive sins (Matt 9:6), power in heaven and on earth
(Matt 28:18), power over nature
(Luke 8:25), power to give eternal life
(John 17:2), power to heal the sick people and those possessed by demons
( Mark 1:29-34) and power to transform anybody who believes
(Philippians 3:21).
Christianity maintains that the power of God is
revealed in Christ‟s incarnation, life, death and resurrection.
Schaff
(1983:75) indicates that the incarnation, life, death and resurrection of
Jesus is a confirmation to the Christians that God has power to give life,
protect life, take life and restore life of the dead.
Christianity holds a belief that God knows everything throughout
eternity. God has a perfect and eternal knowledge of all things. The
omniscience of God does not come in the same way that knowledge comes
to humanity. Humanity arrives at knowledge by learning. God does not
go through a learning process to acquire knowledge about things. Schaff
(1983:22) adds that the omniscience of God does not come through
reasoning, inference, senses, imaginations, induction, or deduction. God‟s
knowledge is direct, sharp, distinct, true and real. Christianity
acknowledges God as the source of all wisdom and knowledge.
This Christian perception of God is emphasized in John 2:24-25. Mervyn
(1981:12) states that this attribute portrays God as the wisest prophet, who
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knows the past, present and foretells the future of people. The knowledge
of God is far beyond any human or mortal knowledge. God‟s wisdom far
exceeds humanity‟s limitations. The wisdom of God can be classified as
the perfect knowledge. God knows the inward thoughts and memories of
humanity, discerns the human hearts, reads the human hearts and knows
the puzzles in the hearts of people. Christianity further underlines that
God knows all that which is happening in heaven, on earth and in waters.
It is on this basis that Christians argue that in God are hidden all the
treasures of knowledge (Colossians 2:3).
Abagusii perceived God as all powerful and all-seeing who does not
tolerate evil and evil doers. The Christian concept that humanity is free to
chose to do what is desirable in their sight and wait for judgment in the
future from a Holy and Sovereign God has influenced evil in Gusii
community.
The terms omnipotent and omniscient are Greek metaphysical terms
which have no relevance in Gusii understanding. The use of these terms
in reference to the attributes of God makes Abagusii perceive God as
complicated, hard to understand and withdrawn from human reality. The
use of the incomprehensible Greek metaphysical terms in reference to God
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makes Abagusii to insist on their former names for Engoro whom they
describe in comprehensible terms.
God is Omnipresent
Christianity teaches that God is eternal, and therefore not limited by time,
is omnipresent, and not limited by space (Psalm 139:7-10; Proverbs 15:3;
Jeremiah 23:23, 24). He is universally present at all times. Abagusii hold a
similar belief but even so, they believe that this does not mean that God is
dispersed throughout the infinite reaches of space, so that every part of
space has at least a little part of God. In other words, God is not present in
all space. This means that the unlimited God is present at every point of
our space. Perhaps a better way to express God's omnipresence is to say
that all space is immediately present before God (Brook, 1950:341).
Christianity also believes that God is everlasting. God is everywhere
present at each point in the universe. This belief as Brook (1950:125)
maintains does not imply that God is everything but it reveals that God is
everywhere at once and not everything at once. Nyachiro (O.I, 04:08:2009)
opines that this attribute of God helps the Christians to believe that God is
able to help, deliver, love, defend, and meet the people‟s needs and
longings everywhere and at once. This is emphasized in Ephesians 4:10,
Matthew 4:8 and Matthew 28:20 and in other texts in the Bible.
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In spite of the similar belief of Abagusii with Christianity that God is here
and there at the same time, the Christian missionaries influenced Abagusii
to a belief that God‟s presence is more in Christian sacred places like in the
church than in the shrines where they usually interacted with God in their
traditional religion. This influenced them to destroy the shrines and stop
going to the hills to ask God to do according to their requests. The term
omnipresence is a Greek metaphysical term however; the missionaries
insisted on its use. This affected Gusii concept of God‟s attributes as one
who is everywhere at the same time, all-knowing and all-seeing.
The all-presence of God among Abagusii was experienced as protective,
sustaining, upholding, saving, and healing. The belief in the all-presence
of God made Abagusii to offer prayers, sacrifices and offerings to God on
behalf of the sick, the barren and those in distress. When the missionaries
came, they considered sacrifices and offerings to God as pagan and
introduced new concepts of the omnipresence and omniscience of God
without clearly explaining these concepts to the understanding of the local
people. This has resulted to some secretly visiting the traditional healers
and priests for spiritual fulfillment (Bangueso, O.I. 29:08:2009).
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God’s Pre-Existence
Christianity has a belief that God‟s existence was there from the infinite
past. God was there before anything came into being. Bruce (1972:231)
argues that Jesus confirms God‟s pre-existence in the New Testament.
Jesus says in John 16:28 that God‟s origin is outside the world. Jesus‟
word that “I am leaving the world again and going to the father,” shows
that God‟s existence is beyond the domains of the world‟s space.
The teaching of God‟s pre-existence is foundational to the Christian faith
(Hamill, 1982:34). Its teaching is also the basis on which the Christian
doctrines depend. Without the pre-existence Christ‟s incarnation,
resurrection, and atoning work are in question. Since Christ‟s preexistence has been taught since the beginning of the early church and
reaffirmed by the New Testament authors, the acceptance or rejection of
this doctrine affects the whole of Christology and the overall
understanding of Christianity. The traditional teaching is that Christ preexisted before becoming human as Jesus of Nazareth. God the Son, and
the second person of the Trinity, is part of Godhead, pre-existing before
the incarnation. This doctrine of Christ‟s pre-existence explains why the
incarnation is an expression of God‟s love for fallen humanity. Jesus
Christ existed before entering into this world through the incarnation. Our
understanding and acceptance of the pre-existence is important as it
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affects our concept of God, the Trinity, Christology, Creation, and
Salvation. Without the Son‟s pre-existence, there can be no incarnation,
which is the precursor to the Christian doctrine of salvation and God‟s
covenant laid out in the Old Testament scriptures. This is why the preexistence of God is so significant in Christianity (McCready, 1977:72 and
Harring,1981:23).).
Abagusii believed in the pre-existence of God. They believed that God
was never created. They did not have the concept of the pre-existence of
the Son Jesus Christ neither did they have the concept of the Trinity. The
coming of Christianity influenced them to believing in the pre-existence of
God the father, God the son, and God the Holy Spirit. It took a long time
to explain the incarnation of Jesus who is God and the mystery of
salvation through incarnation. This delayed the evangelization process in
Gusii.
The Immutability of God
God in the Bible is portrayed as an eternal God. God is beyond time.
There was never a time that God was not and never will there be a time
when God will be not. In the New Testament, Jesus points out in John
8:58 that “before Abraham was born I AM”. The Greek text clearly uses
the present tense „I am‟ not „I was‟. Bruce (1972:89) points out that Jesus‟
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pre-existence is a demonstration and confirmation that Jesus is ever
present and eternal. The I AM claims the eternity of existence of Jesus
who is also God. Omote (O.I, 21:08:2009) is of the view that God was there
before time, after time and always is.
God in Christianity is not capable or susceptible to change.
personality is immutable.
God‟s
White (1954 a: 12, 13) confirms that God‟s
essence, relationship to humanity, attributes and actions to humanity are
not subject to any change. God can be relied upon by humanity because
God does not change. God‟s promises and assurances are permanent and
would never be changed as is the case with humanity. Jesus and the
Father stand as immutably one and of identical essence.
The attribute of God as eternal is one of those where the conflict between
the Greek and Jewish heritage of philosophical theism is most obvious.
Both Jewish and Christian scriptures point to a God who is everlasting,
acting in human history, and very much capable of making changes in
everything.
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God is Infinite
God knows no boundaries and is without measure.
The Christians
emphasize this attribute of God because they have a conviction that God is
eternal. Gordon (1978:119) asserts that since God is infinite, everything
else about God is also without measure and boundary. This supports the
Christian belief that humanity‟s knowledge about God does not exhaust
who God actually is.
Abagusii also believe that God has no limit, is at all places at the same
time and has no boundaries. He is approached by anyone, anywhere and
at any time. Christianity as Nyatichi (O.I, 02:06:2009) stated introduced
the days of rest and emphasized that these are days when people meet
with the Christian God. This idea the missionaries introduced is good and
biblical but they did not teach the people well so as to understand it in
reference to the authenticity of the scriptures. People thought that God is
only present on Saturdays, Sundays or on Christian celebration seasons
like the Easter and Christmas. Christianity discouraged the people from
going to the hills and valleys to offer sacrifices to God, instead they
introduced the churches which they described as the only places where
people go to approach their God. This affected Abagusii‟s belief that God
is infinite and is approached anywhere, any day and any time. The people
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were left with a notion that God‟s presence can only be limited to
particular places and seasons (Kerosi
O.I, 28:08:2009)
3.7.2
The Christian Teaching on the Sharable Attributes of God
and Their Influence on Gusii Traditional Concept of God
Christians believe that, God shares some extrinsic attributes with
humanity. Humanity can become like God in character as a result of their
inclination and interactions with God. Paul in 2 Corinthians 3:18 says
“But we all, with open face beholding as in a glass the glory of the Lord,
are changed into the same image from glory to glory, even as by the Spirit
of the Lord.” Abagusii also believed that humanity shares with Engoro his
extrinsic attributes. When Christianity came, the first Gusii converts to
Christianity were taught of the Christian God and were easily influenced
because the Christian God seemed to have similar human or extrinsic
attributes as their Engoro. God in the Christian understanding has the
sharable attributes. They believe that Engoro is good, wise, faithful,
patient, loving, trustworthy, just, caring, compassionate, pitiful and
friendly. This section will discuss God as good, wise and faithful.
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God is Good
In our participant observation, we noted that the Christians commonly in
form of greetings say “God is good, all the times… and all the times, God
is good… and that is His nature...” The goodness of God as argued by
Manchner (1998:6-8) endures continually. The goodness of God refers to
the perfection of God‟s nature. In the New Testament John the disciple in
the Gospel relates the goodness of God as to the light which opposes
darkness (John 1:5). Monro (1961:220) shows that, the goodness of God
can be summed up by the act of God sending the begotten son Jesus to die
an eternal death to redeem fallen humanity. The goodness of God is
further revealed in God‟s day-to-day provision for humanity‟s needs.
White (1954 b:70,72) insists that the goodness of God can also be realized
by the act of God continually forgiving people of their sins.
Abagusii also believe that God is good in reference to what God does to
them. Christianity presented God as one who loves both the righteous and
the sinners. Abagusii believed that God has no relationship with evil
doers and for that matter, Mose (O.I. 23:06:2009) says that Engoro punishes
instantly those who do evil against others. The Christian teaching about
the goodness of God made Abagusii assume that God tolerates evil and
evil doers and that has affected the people‟s general morality.
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God Is Wise
Christians as argued by Schaff (1983:311) believe that God has the ability
to devise perfect ends and to achieve these ends by the most perfect
means. They further argue that God makes no mistakes as human beings
do. They also refer to God as a father who truly gives what is best for the
child. The apostle Paul (Romans 11:33) substantiates that, “O the depth of
the riches and wisdom and knowledge of God! How unsearchable are his
judgments and how inscrutable his ways!”
Abagusii also believe that God is wise. They have their ancestors whose
wisdom they say was given by God and it helped them as a community in
times of inter-community wars, calamities, drought, famine and diseases.
It is for this reason that they remembered the long and recent dead of their
community through re-naming, libations and references in prayers.
Christianity discourages Abagusii from remembering and referring to the
wisdom of the ancestors and directs them to references of biblical icons of
wisdom like Solomon. This makes Abagusii to believe that the wisdom of
God is limited to some and not to others and in that respect, they forget
their own people whom God had given wisdom which helped them as a
community in the past (Sani O.I, 14:07:2009).
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God is Faithful
Christians believe in the faithfulness of God. What God has promised in
the Bible and to the people comes to pass. Jesus asserts in the Bible that “I
am the Truth”. This is extremely important to the Christians because it is
from this attribute of God that they anchor their belief in the eternal life as
promised by God. Regarding the faithfulness of God, Davison
(O.I,
23:08:2009) points out that God is faithful to the Bible promises.
Abagusii also believe that God is faithful to all people in the universe. The
missionaries taught that God is faithful to those who are faithful in giving
of tithes and offerings. They presented the teaching in a manner that
made the tithes and offerings to appear as debts humanity owes God and
that made people to fear God as one would fear a human debtor. This
teaching confused Abagusii who believe that God‟s faithfulness is not
based on how much one gives but how faithful one is in his/her daily
endeavors. The principles of returning of tithes and offerings is clearly
taught in the scriptures but the missionaries misrepresented it and made
Abagusii to perceive God as a harsh debtor and themselves as unfaithful
creditors deserving punishment from God because of failing to pay the
required percentage and at the right time (Ombui, O.I, 25:06:2009).
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3.7.3
The Biblical Images of God and Their Influence
on Gusii Traditional References to God
God in the Bible is presented in various anthropomorphic, animal and
bird images. The Bible writers used the images so that the people to
whom the message was originally presented could understand without
any difficulty.
Christianity presented the biblical images to Abagusii
wholesome while others are not relevant to Abagusii in their day-to-day
understanding of the image of God. Some of the images make it difficult
for Abagusii to understand who God is. These anthropomorphic, animal
and bird images of God include God as a father, Lord or King, friend,
potter, husbandman or vinedresser, shepherd, lion and as a dove. Most of
the biblical images of God are male because of the influence of the Jewish
patriarchal systems which are similarly witnessed among Abagusii.
Neibuhr‟s (1951) conceptual framework helps to refine the images of God
which are not in use in the contemporary society through God the
transformer of culture, God above culture and God and culture in paradox
paradigms.
God as a Father
Christians address God as a father and themselves as sons or daughters.
They believe that those who believe in God and are led by the Holy Spirit
are sons and daughters of God (Romans 8:14). Paul in 2 Corinthians 6:18
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says that those who believe in God, as a father are sons and daughters of
God. Christians also believe that God as a father withholds nothing good
from his people (Omote O.I, 21:08:2009). As a father, God protects,
comforts, guides, counsels, disciplines and provides for humanity of their
daily needs. Similarly, Abagusii perceive God as a father who lives with
people, provides, cares, protects and comforts them.
In the Bible as White ((1986b:21,22) states, a father is often synonymous
with ancestor, founder, or originator (Genesis 4:20-21; John 8:56; Romans
4:16). As a father, God is also known to take the roles of a counsellor and
provider in the family (Genesis 45:8). Christians address God as a father
because they believe God is the creator and the great parent of all, the
preserver of the human family and the provider of the family needs
(Matthew 5:45; 6:32).
Christianity influenced Abagusii to believe that it is through Jesus the son
that they can call God by that endearing name, "our Father," (John 20:17;
Romans 8:15-17.). Christianity influenced Abagusii to address God as one
who lives in heaven especially as written in the Lord‟s Prayer in Matthew
6:7. Christianity influenced Abagusii to perceive God as a father who will
punish the evil doers in the future. It also makes God to appear too far
away from the people because God lives in heaven. Christianity further
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influenced Abagusii to believe that God cannot be presented in the image
of a Gusii father because God is remote, indifferent and unavailable. They
finally portrayed a Gusii father as one who is detached, unconcerned and
uninvolved in the daily needs of his family.
God as King and Lord
Christians address God as a King or Lord and themselves as subjects.
God as a King is a leader of heaven and earth. They address God as a
King or Lord because they believe God is powerful, has authority, is a
protector, is impartial, is never contested or contradicted and just. The
name Lord as Monro (1961:141) asserts belongs to God by pre-eminence
and in this sense ought never to be given to any creature. Brown, J and
Parker (1989:45) add that Jesus Christ, as the Messiah the Son of God and
equal with the Father, is often called Lord in the Scriptures.
The address of God as a King or Lord by Christians influenced Abagusii
to address God as Lord and King who before the coming of Christianity
perceived God as Omokumi (Community Elder) who was powerful, had
authority, was never contradicted, just and protected the community from
attacks from their enemies. Abagusii in their traditional heritage did not
have kings and lords but had Omokumi and clan elders (Abagaka Be’mechie)
in their government.
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Addressing God as a King or Lord makes God appear as one who is harsh
and dictatorial. Abagusii are neighbours to the Luo community who had
kings. Abagusii were great enemies of the Luo community because young
men from either community at night crossed the boundaries and stole
livestock and other property belonging to people of the other community.
These are some of the instances which caused war between Abagusii and
their neighbouring communities (Osindi, O.I, 10:06:2009). The Luo kings
are the ones who ordered war against Abagusii on when to start and
when to end. Addressing God as a king makes Abagusii associate God
with the brutal, merciless, dictatorial and uncompromising Luo king. This
made some Gusii elders to resist Christianity in its initial stages in the area
(Moraya, O.I, 10:06:2009).
God as a Friend
Christians address God as a constant friend.
Friendship was highly
valued in the Greco-Roman world (Swedenberg, 1988:41, 42). Friendship
among the Jews as Stagg (1962:90, 91) reveals was of basic pleasure and
one was considered popular if he/she had many friends. In Christianity
and in Gusii traditional religion God is considered a constant friend for
protection, comfort, provision and companionship.
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The Bible as Bacchiochi (1976:67) states provides many references to God
as a friend. Schaff (1983:12) points out that in the Old Testament, it was
understood that a human being could also be a friend of God. He further
argues that in Jewish thought, God could be a friend of human beings. In
Exodus 33:11, “Yahweh would talk to Moses face to face, as a man talks to
his friend.” But it was only Moses who had this special position. With
John‟s Gospel, everyone can be a friend of God (John 3:19), John the
Baptist describes himself as “the friend of the bridegroom,” and Lazarus is
described as a friend of Jesus in John 11:11. It is Jesus‟ friendship that is
betrayed by Judas (John 13:18).
The image of God as a friend in both Christianity and Gusii traditional
religion is slightly different. Christianity presents God as one who selects
people he communes with. The Bible presents specific people whom God
used like Moses, Abraham, Enoch and the prophets. This concept of God
has influenced the ranking of persons in the Christian church which has in
most
cases
increased interpersonal differences (Nyanchama, O.I,
12:06:2009).
Abagusii believe that God as a friend considers all people equal and
makes friendship with anyone who is willing to become his friend.
Christianity presents God as a friend who reasons out with humanity.
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“Come now and let us reason together…” Isaiah 1:18. The idea of God
reasoning with humanity according to Abagusii reduces the authority of
God. Christianity emphasis on this image of God as a friend has
influenced a weakened inclination of Abagusii with God.
God as a Potter
Christianity presented God in the image of a potter. A potter is a maker of
earthenware (Gen 24:14-15; Judges 7:16, 19; Psalms 2:9.). The Ancient
Egyptian paintings represent the potter turning and shaping, on his small
and simple wheel made to revolve rapidly by the foot, the lump of clay,
which he had previously kneaded with his feet (Mackenzie, 1974:54). A
pan of water stands by his side, with which he kept the clay moist. After
the body of the vessel was worked into shape and beauty, the handle was
affixed to it, devices traced upon it and after drying a little it was carefully
taken to the oven and baked.
The potter's control over the clay as argued by (Nichol, et al 1956:29)
illustrates the sovereignty of God, who created humanity of clay forms
and disposes of them as God deems good: "O house of Israel, cannot I do
with you as this potter? saith the Lord. Behold, as the clay is in the
potter's hand, so are ye in my hand, saith the Lord," (Jeremiah 18:1-6.)
"Shall the thing formed say to him that formed it, Why hast thou made me
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thus? Hath not the potter power over the clay, of the same lump to make
one vessel unto honor and another unto dishonor?" (Rom 9:20-21.).
Christianity teaches that humanity is like clay in the hands of a potter.
God chooses how to model humanity into the desired shape. (Jeremiah
19:11) “And shalt say unto them, Thus saith the Lord of hosts; Even so will
I break this people and this city, as one breaketh a potter's vessel, that
cannot be made whole again: and they shall bury them in Tophet, till there
be no place to bury”. Gray (1997:33, 34) insists that the breaking of the
bottle was the symbolical representation of the destruction of the city and
of the state. This seems to refer rather to the final destruction of Jerusalem
by the Romans, than to what was done by the Chaldeans. Jerusalem was
healed after 70 years: but nearly 1800 years have elapsed since Jerusalem
was taken and destroyed by the Romans and it was then so broken, that it
could not be made whole again. (Revelation 2:27) “And he shall rule them
with a rod of iron as the vessels of a potter shall they be broken to shivers:
even as I received of my Father.”
Taking note of the process of jar making is interesting and an effective
way of learning. Its spiritual significance helps every believer to gain more
knowledge and understanding concerning God‟s creative way of shaping
the lives of His precious children. It is so amazing to see a well-mixed
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mass of clay placed on the potter‟s wheels ready to be shaped according to
the potter‟s will. The potter spins the wheels through his/her foot then
gently and skillfully molds the formless clay. The potter‟s physical and
emotional composure cannot be ignored as he/she expectantly waits the
clay to be ready to be used. In just a few minutes, the shapeless clay
gradually rises up showing its promising beauty as the potter‟s amazing
hands form it aesthetically with care and incomparable interest
(Bangueso, O.I.23:08:2009).
To make a bigger vessel, the potter molds the upper part and the lower
part separately and then joins them meticulously. The part that catches
our attention is the progressive procedure in which the potter carefully
taps the vessel with his flat wooden tool to strengthen the joining, to
shape the vessel and make it firm and beautiful. Some extra master‟s
touch is being made to enhance the vessel‟s distinction and peculiarity.
White (1963:65) states every believer is in the hands of God and being
shaped according to His perfect will. As the potter pats the clay for a
purpose, so is the Lord in shaping humanity through chastisement, not to
destroy them, but to teach, discipline and strengthen them. It is also a
wonderful manifestation of God‟s great love for humanity.
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When God is addressed as a potter, Abagusii do not understand the
interpretation of that image because potters were not originally in their
community. The perception Abagusii have about God as a potter is that
God is poor. This is because pots were originally sold to them by the Luo
community potters who exchanged them with a basket or two of the
wimbi/obori (eleusine) or sorghum (amaemba). Abagusii perceived the Luo
potters as traders, poor and homeless.
God as a Husbandman
Christians address God as a husbandman, vinedresser or a farmer, Christ
as the true vine and themselves as the crops or the branches and their
character as the fruits (John 15:1-8). The word vine-dresser as Wagner
(1979:52,53) and O‟Brien (1974:43) states more properly expresses the
sense of the original word than husbandman. It means one who has the
care of a vineyard whose office is to nurture, trim and defend the vine,
and who of course feels a deep interest in its growth and welfare
(Matthew 21:33).
Abagusii similarly before the coming of Christianity perceived God in the
image of a farmer in Gusii background. Abagusii were farmers of both
animals and crops. They perceived God as a good farmer whose interest
and commitment was entirely on the crops or the flock. Christianity
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presented God as a farmer of vines or the vinedresser. This influenced
Abagusii to drop their perception of God as a farmer of millet (wimbi),
sorghum and pumpkins to the perception of God as a vinedresser or
husbandman. Omote (O.I, 21:08:2009) illuminates that the influence is so
much to an extent that even in the Lord‟s Supper, most churches use wine
extracted from the grapevines which are not locally found.
Wine in
Christianity as White (1956:76, 77) states represents the blood of Christ
given for remission of humanity‟s sins.
God as a Lion
Christians address Jesus Christ who is God as "The Lion of the tribe of
Judah" (Revelation 5:5), who came from the tribe of Judah and the lineage
of David, and overcame death, the world, and the devil. It is said that a
lion was the device of the tribe of Judah whence this allusion (Genesis
49:9).
The lion is the king of beasts, the monarch of the forest and thus becomes
an emblem of one of kingly authority and of power (Revelation 4:7) and as
such the appellation is used to refer to Christ. It is because Christ has
power to open the seals as a ruler over the universe and all events are
under his control, as the lion rules in the forest. Jesus is also addressed as
the "Lion of the tribe of Judah," with reference to the prophecy in Genesis
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9:9 "Judah is a lion's whelp: from the prey, my son, thou art gone up: he
stooped down, he couched as a lion, and as an old lion;" and from the fact
that the Messiah was of the tribe of Judah (Genesis 49:10). The use of the
term would connect him in the apprehension of John with the prophecy,
and would suggest the idea of his being a ruler, or having dominion. As
such, therefore, it would be appropriate that the power of breaking these
seals should be committed to him (White, 1954 a: 322,324).
Given these circumstances, it is no surprise that the lion was often used
metaphorically in apocalyptic literature to refer to rulers, particularly
strong or ruthless ones (Ezekiel. 1.10; 10.14; Daniel. 7.4). It was a popular
symbol of royalty, and it is not a surprise that the lion was seen by many
as the king of the predators, or even the king of all beasts. There are texts
in 1 and 2 Kings which refer to God using lions as agents of divine
punishment. There are even texts in which God's just actions are said to be
lion-like: "I will rend and go away, I will carry off and none will rescue"
(Hosea. 5.14). Yet the lion is also an image of injustice or wickedness-the
Psalmist says about evil humans that "like a lion they will tear me apart;
they will drag me away with no one to rescue." (Psalms 19:5).
In the New Testament, even the devil is seen as analogous to the lion, “for
we hear how he preys on people like a lion” (1 Peter. 5.8; 2 Timothy. 4.17).
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By no means, then, is the lion always used as an image of God, a good
king or goodness or majesty as abstract qualities in the Bible.
Presenting God in the image of a lion to Abagusii makes God appear
harsh, fearful, dangerous and unfriendly to human life. Lions are not
friendly animals and do not have any economic value to Abagusii that
God can be likened to. Omote (O.I, 21:08:2009) adds that a lion (endo)
comes only to kill and scatter something which God can never do.
Abagusii would be comfortable if God would be presented as an ox which
is a symbol of strength, leadership and companionship.
God as a Shepherd
Christians address God as a good shepherd. They borrow this image from
the biblical Palestinian shepherd mentioned in Psalms 23:1. A shepherd in
the Palestinian context leads the flock out and in, so that they find pasture
and safety. He also knows where to feed them and in the course of his
grace and providence leads them in the way in which they should go. He
further watches over them and keeps them from being destroyed by
ravenous beasts. If some have strayed, he brings them back. He brings
them to the shade in times of scorching heat. In times of persecution and
affliction, he finds out an asylum for them. Finally, he takes care that they
shall lack no manner of thing that is good. Abagusii also address God as a
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shepherd because a shepherd in Gusii context protects, provides and cares
for the flock.
The Bible has a variety of examples of good shepherds whom the
Christians use to support their address of God in the image of a good
shepherd. For instance, Abel was a keeper of sheep (Genesis 4:2), as were
the greater number of the ancient patriarchs.
When men began to
multiply, and to follow different employments, Jabal son of Lamech was
acknowledged as father, that is, founder of shepherds and nomads
(Genesis 4:20). A large part of the wealth of ancient patriarchs consisted in
flocks and herds, the care of which was shared by their sons, daughters
and servants. Rachel the bride of Jacob was a shepherdess (Genesis 29:6);
his sons, the fathers of the tribes of Israel were shepherds, and so was
David their king (Psalms 78:70-72).
The economic activity is highly
honoured in the Bible (Luke 2:8-20).
The Christian image of God as a shepherd lacked the local concept of a
shepherd.
A Gusii shepherd as Osindi
(O.I, 10:06:2009) illuminates
stayed very close to the flock and even slept in the same room with the
flock to protect them from the attack of the enemies and wild animals.
The biblical shepherd appears only concerned with the closing door when
all the flock has entered into their house but a Gusii shepherd goes
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beyond a door and sleeps in the same room with the flock. This helps
Gusii shepherd to understand the condition of the sheep all the times.
When God is presented in the image of a Gusii shepherd it implies
closeness and concern with humanity than the biblical shepherd.
God as a Dove
The presence and character of God in the Bible is represented in the image
of a dove (Lindavs, 1973:117). The doves were clean birds according to the
Mosaic ritual, and were offered as sacrifice, especially by the poor
(Genesis 15:9; Leviticus 5:7; 12:6-8; Luke 2:24). Several kinds of doves or
pigeons frequented the Holy Land from Lebanon; and the immense flocks
of them sometimes witnessed is illustrated by a passage in Isaiah 60:8.
They are symbols of simplicity, innocence and fidelity (Hosea 7:11;
Matthew 10:16). The dove was the chosen harbinger of God's returning
favour after the flood (Gen 8:1-22), and was honoured as an emblem of the
Holy Spirit (Matthew 3:16).
The dove, among the Jews, was the symbol of purity or harmlessness,
(Matthew 10:16) and of softness, (Psalms 55:7.). The dove as the image of
God portrays an emblem of the innocence, meekness and tenderness of
the Savior. The gift of the Holy Spirit, in this manner, was the public
approbation of Jesus, (John 1:33,) and a sign of his being set apart to the
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office of the Messiah. We are not to suppose that there was any change
wrought in the moral character of Jesus, but only that he was publicly set
apart to his work and solemnly approved by God in the office to which he
was appointed (Lindavs,1973:23).
Doves were never in the traditional days found among Abagusii. They
were brought later as exotic birds by the whites (Sani, O.I, 14:07:2009).
When God‟s presence and character were presented in the image of a
dove, they did not understand what that meant so Abagusii addressed
God as an eagle. Christianity popularized the image of God as a dove
until Abagusii dropped their image of God as an eagle. It is only the
elderly generation in Gusii who refer God as an eagle. The eagles are not
common in Gusii nowadays. God the transformer of Culture conceptual
framework by Neibuhr(1951:69-92) refines the image of God as an eagle to
emphasize on images similar to the eagle which are relevant to the
contemporary society.
3.8
Similarities Between Gusii Traditional Concept of God
and the Christian Concept of God
These two religions are monotheistic in their worldviews. While Abagusii
believe in Engoro (God), Christianity believes in God who is in point of
fact the same God.
According to these two religions, the deity is
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independent, unchangeable, eternal and omnipresent. The deity exists as
a spiritual being having no form or dimensions and is omniscient (allknowing) wise, truthful, faithful, good, loving, merciful, graceful, patient,
holy, at peace, righteous, just, jealous for his own honour, wrathful
towards evil, perfect in every way, beautiful beyond comprehension and
is glorified through the revelation (Osindi, O.I, 10:06:2009)
The attributes of God especially for Christianity are listed in the Bible
although not in a particular order. Each aspect of the character of God is
equal in characterization. For example, in 1st John 1:5 that “God is light”
goes ahead and says that “God is love” in 1st John 4:8, 16. Abagusii
described the character of God likewise referring to situations or
phenomena like in instances of victory and deliverance; they could refer to
Engoro as omobui, omonyanguru, omorwa (conqueror, powerful, giver).
Situations, times, phenomena, seasons and miracles made the two
religions to refer to the eternal and moral attributes of their deity.
Both Gusii traditional religion and Christianity have the divine attributes
of God as non-communicable and communicable attributes or eternal and
moral attributes.
Non-communicable or eternal attributes are those
aspects of the deity which cannot be shared with humanity or any
creature.
Communicable or moral attributes refer to those divine
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attributes which humanity adapt from God from their experiences and
interaction with the deity in their spiritual living. The communicable
attributes humanity possesses are the parameters humanity uses to judge
one‟s adherence to the religious dogma (Bangueso (O.I, 10:07:2009).
The name God in both Gusii traditional religion and Christianity is the
derivation of which is uncertain, we give to that eternal, infinite, perfect
and incomprehensible being. God is referred to as the creator of all things,
who preserves and governs all by almighty power and wisdom, and is the
only proper object of worship and adoration.
In Exodus 3:14, God replies to Moses, when he asks Him His name, I AM
THAT I AM; which means either, I am he who I am, or, I am what I am.
In either case the expression implies the eternal self-existence of God and
his incomprehensible nature.
This also applies to Gusii traditional
understating of the nature of Engoro who could not be described in human
language because no omogusii had seen Engoro face-to-face (Omote, O.I,
21:08:2009).
The Bible assumes and asserts the existence of God, "In the beginning God
created the heavens and the earth;" and is in itself the most illustrious
proof of God‟s existence, as well as our chief instructor. It puts a voice
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into the mute lips of creation; and not only reveals God working in
creation but illustrates God‟s ways in providence, displays the glories of
God‟s character, law and grace, and brings humanity into true and saving
communion with God. It reveals God to humanity as a Spirit, the only
being from everlasting and to everlasting by nature, infinite, perfect,
powerful, wise, omniscient, omnipresent, just, holy, truthful, good and
merciful.
Both religions belief that God is the source, owner and ruler of all things,
foreknows and predetermines all events and is the eternal judge and
arbiter of the destiny of all. These religions have their foundations in the
right knowledge of God and consist in their supremely loving and
faithfully obeying the deity. They emphasize reconciliation with the deity
at individual and community levels.
Christianity and Gusii religion believe that God is everywhere at the same
time. This belief makes both the Christians and Gusii traditional religion
adherents worship God from anywhere any time. Both religions believe
that there is nowhere one can hide away from God (Mogaka, O.I.
23:06:2009).
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Both religions believe that God is transcendent. The Christians believe that
God lives in heaven while Abagusii believed that God lives in the sun and
in the sky. Both religions believed that God is unchangeable. The two
religions hold that God is eternal. God has no beginning or end. God sees
all time equally yet discerns the place of events in time, and acts in specific
points in time. Both religions similarly believe that God does not have
size or shape that can be measured.
Both religions believe that humanity possesses the communicable or
moral attributes of God (Akama, 2006:55).
They believe that God is
spiritual and humanity can emulate God of his attributes to become
spiritual, besides, they both assert that God is a being who is not made of
matter, has no parts or dimensions and cannot be perceived by any of
human bodily senses. God is wise in all circumstances and situations and
with this attribute both religions teach their adherents to emulate the
wisdom of God. This is because they both argue that God generously
gives wisdom without cost to all people.
It is indisputable in both
religions that God is truthful, good, loving, merciful, graceful, peaceful,
righteous, just, jealous, perfect, beautiful and glory-filled.
All these
attributes of God are present in both Gusii traditional religion and in
Christianity.
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Gusii traditional religion and Christianity believe in the anthropomorphic
and animal images of God. Both religions address God as a father, farmer,
shepherd, friend, healer and elder. They develop these images of God out
of their day-to-day interactions with God. These images make the people
feel closer to God who is concerned with the welfare of the people.
3.9
Differences between Gusii Traditional Concept
of God and the Christian Concept of God
Christianity and Gusii traditional religion when studied independently
one is able to note the distinctiveness of each. The differences in these two
religions are managed through the inculturation process which refines,
drops or retains the local cultures to make Christianity meaningful to the
local people. The dissimilarities in the two religions are because of the
experiences and general socio-religio-cultural background of the people
affected by each religion which dictate the local people‟s concept of God.
Mbiti (1969:90,91) argues that the people‟s concept of the deity is
dependent on their historical, geographical, economical, social and
political background.
Gusii traditional religion does not have the concept of the Trinity as in
Christianity. Christianity believes in the existence of the Trinitarian GodGod the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit.
Christianity
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teaches that the Trinity works jointly and are inseparable. This does not
make any relevance to Abagusii traditionalists who believe in one God
(Engoro) without any equal partners.
How the Trinity works and be
termed as one is still an issue which Christianity has not managed to
clarify though the concept of the Trinity does not contradict the Christian
monotheism.
Before the coming of Christianity, all Abagusii had a distinct religion with
Engoro as their God. Their religious teachings and practices were similar
without any omogusii contradicting one other. Their religious teachings
are informally taught, and are passed from one generation to the other
through Gusii oral tradition. Abagusii were united in one religion with
common religious teachings which collectively were applied by the entire
Gusii populace.
On the contrary, Christianity came with diversified
denominational teachings. The Catholic and the Protestant missionaries
believed in the same God but with different understanding and
applications of denominational practices. They used the same Bible but
with different exegetical interpretations. These differences which seemed
to disunite the missionaries posed sobriety challenges to Christianity
because they were not witnessed in Gusii traditional religion (Mose, O.I.
23:06:2009).
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Gusii traditional religion understood God in pragmatic terms while
Christianity understood God in absolute terms. Abagusii believed that
punishment for those who committed evil was instant while Christianity
taught that punishment for evil was in the future. Christianity taught that
anybody who committed evil had a chance of approaching God in secret
prayer and be forgiven without informing the offended or seeking for
public reconciliation and restitution (Ochieng‟, 1974:56).
Abagusii
believed that evil committed by an individual brought sufferings, death
and diseases to the entire community while Christianity taught that evil of
an individual never caused trouble to the entire society but to that
particular individual. These differences as Gusii traditionalists complain,
weakens Gusii moral fibre because it tolerates evil which later impacts on
socio-moral values of the entire Gusii society.
Gusii religion had one name for God (Engoro) while Christianity borrows
the biblical names of Hebrew, Greek and Aramaic origin to refer to the
same God. For instance, Christianity uses the biblical names like Yahweh,
Jehovah, King, Lord, Elohim, and Adonai for God. These are names which
do not have any meaningful interpretation to Abagusii. When God is
referred to as a King, it is not clearly understood because Abagusii in their
socio-religio-political background did not have kings. This also applies to
the usage of terms like Lord, Jehovah and Adonai.
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Gusii traditional religion teaches and believes in the living dead. They
believe that the dead still have relevance and authority over the living.
They believe that those family members and community heroes and
heroines who died while in good relationship with the ancestors, are reborn and continue living to the next generation. Christianity teaches that
once one dies, that person has no influence among the living and therefore
discourages people from referring to them. It instead teaches about saints
and holy persons.
In Gusii traditional religion, persons who served as intermediaries
between the deity and humanity were installed to office with rituals and
sacrifices before doing their designated roles and duties. The ancestors
played a central role in determining who was approved by Engoro to serve
in any religious office. Religious priests were highly respected by the
local people in that nobody contradicted their religious orders because
they believed they represented Engoro. Christianity holds that all people
are equal before God. While Christianity has consecration of priests and
religious men and women, it is not clear how these people receive their
call from God because of accusations that some Christian religious leaders
are not called by God although already consecrated as religious leaders.
The consecration and requirements for religious leaders differ from one
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denomination to the other which was not the case in Gusii traditional
religion.
3.10 Conclusion
This chapter affirms the premise that Christian missionaries who first
came to Africa came with misinformed minds that God was not known to
Africans. On this basis, the Christian missionaries who first came to Gusii
were determined to teach Abagusii a „true God‟.
They considered
Abagusii irreligious and dismissed their traditional concept of Engoro
(God) as non informative and pagan. In the light of God and culture
conceptual framework by Neibuhr(1951:69-92), the chapter has shown
how God and culture, God the transformer of culture and God and culture
in paradox paradigm refines, retains or eliminates either Gusii or
Christian concept of God as they influence each other.
Among the Christian missionaries who first came to Gusii were the
Catholics, The Seventh-Day Adventists, The Salvation Army, The Africa
Inland Mission, The Swedish Lutheran Mission, The Pentecostal
Assemblies of Canada, The Church of God and The Friends Africa
Mission. These missionaries evaluated Gusii Traditional concept of God as
misleading and backward.
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The Christian missionaries started teaching Abagusii about God. They
presented God in what they called the Trinitarian Theology - God the
Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit.
They described the
attributes of God as omnipresent, omniscient, omnipotent, pre-existent,
eternal, immutable, infinite, sovereign, holy, wise and faithful. All these
were not knew concepts to Abagusii except that they used their local
terms which meant the same thing. The missionaries did not see the need
to learn that Abagusii in their traditional religion already had a concept of
God similar to the Christian God. They also did not see the need to know
that Abagusii knew the same God they were teaching them about and
worshiped that same God in their traditional way which was guided by
their daily manner of life.
There are similarities and differences in the concept of God in both
Christianity and in Gusii traditional religion.
These similarities and
differences come as a result of the people‟s socio-religio-cultural
background. These similarities and differences do not reduce God to
humanity level but reveal the unity in diversity.
Chapter four in the light of Neibuhr‟s God and Culture conceptual
framework is going to inculturate Gusii traditional concept of God. This
will help Abagusii to understand God better in their religio-cultural
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background so that they can perceive God as one who is very near to them
in all aspects of their living.
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CHAPTER FOUR
INCULTURATION OF GUSII TRADITIONAL
CONCEPT OF GOD
4.1 Introduction
Chapter three explored how the Euro-American missionaries transplanted
their home developed and inculturated Christianity and planted it
wholesale among Abagusii without first adjusting it to fit the new religiocultural setting. This chapter presents the inculturation of Gusii traditional
concept of God to affirm that inculturation of Gusii traditional concept of
God provides Abagusii with a balanced, holistic and integral way of life. It
also contextualizes theological meaning and purpose of inculturation.
Second, Gusii religiosity as a seed-bed for the inculturation of the concept
of God is given. Finally, the chapter examines the application of the
inculturation of Gusii traditional concept of God as a father (Tata), as a
community elder (Omokumi), as a healer (Omogwenia), as a friend
(omosani), as a blacksmith (omoturi), as a farmer (omoremi), as a shepherd
(Omorisia) as an ox (entang’ana) and as an Eagle (ekeongo). Inculturation of
Gusii traditional concept of God would make the local people feel that
God lives and does everything to them in their daily lives.
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4.2 Meaning and Purpose of Inculturation
Inculturation is a process which presents the Gospel message in a manner
that the Word becomes companionable and agreeable with human and
ecological realities of the people. It is a term best understood in the
context of evangelizing in a cross-cultural setting (Shorter, 1974:87).
Waliggo (1986:12) and Ndegwah (2007:36) add that inculturation means
honest and serious attempt to make Christ and the message of salvation to
be understood by people of every culture, locality and time. Inculturation
deals with the transformation of people into a Christian life and doctrine
in the very thought pattern of the people. It is also a conviction that Christ
and Good News are even dynamic and challenging to all time and
cultures as they become better understood and lived by each people in
their religio-cultural background (Nasimiyu, 1985). Ndegwah (2007:65)
writes that inculturation in Christian missiology refers to the adaptation of
the way the gospel is presented to specific cultures being evangelized.
In the process of inculturation, Christianity wears one cultural dress and
encounters a non-Christian culture, and then incarnates itself in the new
culture (Shorter, 1974:69). In doing this, Christianity challenges, refines
and reforms that culture. While this is going on, Shorter (1974:72) further
argues that two processes are involved which include, the concept of
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Christianity from a foreign culture and accommodating Christianity in the
indigenous culture.
In Philippians 2:1-11, inculturation can be exemplified in the incarnation
of Jesus Christ. Nasimiyu (1985:87), Magesa (1975:123), and Waliggo
(1986:98), use the incarnation of Jesus Christ as synonymous to
inculturation.
Their ideas find basis in the gospel of John (3:16) that
propagates the Good News of salvation to the entire human populace. The
term was popularized by the Encyclical Redemptions Mission of Pope
John Paul II (1990:12). So inculturation is traced to St. Paul‟s speech at the
Aeropagus of Athens (Acts 17: 22-33).
Through the inculturation process, the Gospel is channeled to people in
their cultural plurality and the influence of Christianity in different
cultural backgrounds becomes edified and given deeper interpretation.
Uzukwu (1996: 82) and Nasimiyu (1985:97) argue that inculturation is a
process through which a mutual interaction between the gospel and
people‟s cultures are enriched through sharing the culture of the host and
the hosted. In this way, the affected group feel incorporated and accepted
in their cultural moral values which are dictated by their historical,
geographical, social, religious and economical backlines.
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Starkloff (1994:56) reveals that analysis of cultural systems provides a
basis for examination of the concept of inculturation. He adds that
inculturation has been used to describe the development of mutual
influence sandwiched between Christianity and particular cultures. He
further discusses ideology, religion, common sense and art as four major
cultural systems, which are historically institutionalized systems of
importance. Each of these interacting systems has its own theology, even
if it may not be expressed and functions to support social integration.
Starkloff‟s analysis suggests that inculturation should not be confined to a
compartmentalized sphere, but should affect all systems of social
meaning.
The rationale on which we base our argument is that the inculturation
process is substantiated in both the Old and New Testaments. Citing an
example of inculturation in the Old Testament, Nasimiyu (1985:78) states
that the Jewish people adopted circumcision ritual from the Egyptians is a
symbol of a covenant between God and the descendants of the patriarch
Abraham (Genesis 17:9-14).
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4.3 Gusii Religiosity as a Seedbed for Inculturation
Inculturation of Gusii traditional concept of Engoro (God) is based on a
theological premise and the discussions in chapter 2 that Abagusii were
innately religious in their way of life.
This inherent religiosity is a
fundamental aspect which acts as a seedbed or a preparatory root for the
Gospel. Turner‟s (1977:23) arguments confirm Gusii concept that there
exists an affinity between the Christian and the cultural traditions which
appear in the common reactions between Christian missionaries who
arrived first. He further contends that it is evident in the vast range of
new religious movements from the interaction between the primal
religions and in Christianity.
The religious affinity of Gusii religious concept of God is observed in the
people‟s concept of God. This affinity as Nyamoki (O.I. 25:07:2009) puts it
is articulate in Gusii knowledge and moral values contained in the
indigenous culture which serve as preparatory roots for the Gospel.
Waliggo (1986:25) argues that man and woman of every age have been
able to search for God and often have succeeded finding and worshiping
this Supreme Being. These people as Waliggo (1986:89) further puts it
have formed morality that has been able to find God through worship and
faith. These people have had their cultures which reflect their philosophy
of life, their worldview and their aspirations. The institutions they have
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set up contain much of value of their entire humanity. All these are good
elements which have been real preparatory roots or seedbeds for
inculturation of Gusii traditional concept of God.
The root of Gusii traditional concept of God as we saw in Chapter Two of
this study is in their social, religious and cultural heritage. Orioki (O.I.
30:07:2009) says that in their historical background, God is recognized as
the one who brought them from Misri (Gusii mythical origin). In their
worldview, God is believed to be the creator and sustainer of human life
as well as the source of Christian virtues. This also forms the seedbed of
faith in God or a preparatory root which formed a natural link with the
process of evangelization. The missionary teaching about belief in God
was not a strange concept among Abagusii. Kibicho (1972:241) highlights
that the traditional Gikuyu belief in God (Ngai) formed the basis of the
Christian evangelization among the Agikuyu of Central Kenya. This is
what comparatively happened with Abagusii.
The Old Testament shows how the Jewish cultural heritage believed in the
existence of God before the Christian era. The Jews like Abagusii believed
in God as their creator and sustainer, (cf Genesis 1, 2:22, Ps 104:10-30),
deliverer from their enemies (Exodus 3:1-22) and source of virtues.
Similarly, Gusii cultural heritage serves as the seedbed for the Gospel.
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The role of the Gospel is not to condemn Gusii traditional concept of God
and their cultural heritage but to teach it and fulfill the demands of Gusii
belief in God in the people‟s daily lives. The task of the Christian Church
is to facilitate the Gospel to fulfill Gusii culture through the process of
inculturation.
Shorter (1974: 113) and Nasimiyu (1985:322) argue that
through the Good News, the Church should make the cultural traditions
more genuine and true. Through love, Kerubo (O.I. 23:07:2009) informs us
that these cultures can be raised to new and more glorious religious
traditions.
The success of the inculturation process as argued above finds basis on the
people‟s cultural heritage which is the seedbed of the Gospel.
This
introduces us to the application of the inculturation of Gusii traditional
concept of God.
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4.4 Application of the Inculturation of Gusii Traditional
Concept of Engoro
Belief in the existence of Engoro (God) is inherent in Gusii religio-cultural
heritage. Gusii religiosity is an oral and experiential tradition which
makes Gusii traditional names and concept of God recur throughout
generations. They address God based on the human attributes to God in
their daily experiences. For instance, Abagusii address God as a father, a
community elder, a healer, a friend, a blacksmith, a farmer, a shepherd an
ox and an eagle (Nyakoe, O.I, 04:08:2009). We are going to examine each
one in details in this section. Gusii community is patriarchal and as such
most of the names of Engoro reflect mainly the male gender.
Based on God the Transformer of Culture, God above Culture, God and
Culture in Paradox and God against Culture paradigms, inculturation of
Gusii traditional concept of God will act as a sieve to ignore those cultural
elements which are compatible with the biblical teachings for the purpose
of interaction with Christianity. It further replaces those which are
incompatible with Christianity as well as refining others to maintain the
authenticity of the Bible.
Application of a properly guided inculturation process of Gusii traditional
concept of God will evaluate, identify and analyze the core ingredients of
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Gusii traditional concept of God and the cultural elements which may be
integrated with Christianity. Nasimiyu (1985:43) and Roy (1982:234) add
that integration of these cultural elements of the concept of God will fill
the spiritual vacuum with the related effects of practice of the religious
duality. This is ideally to identify the core indigenous cultural elements
and integrate them with Christianity in order to enrich Christians with
Gusii traditional religion and consequently overcome the religious
duality, vacuum and the resultant problems of dual personality so as to
give Abagusii a wholesome livelihood.
In seeking to apply the inculturation process, the study critically
evaluated Gusii traditional concept of God on the basis of the biblical
theology. This evaluation as Eitel (1986:133) argues, helps to analyze the
diversity of cultural behaviour or religious mannerisms elsewhere in the
globe meaning that not all cultural elements would be swallowed
wholesome.
There are those cultural elements which will either be
transformed or be eliminated.
The forthcoming discussion will inculturate Gusii traditional concept of
God as a Father (Tata), a Friend (Omosani), a Community Elder (Omokumi),
a Shepherd (Omorisia), a Healer (Omogwenia), a Blacksmith (Omoturi), a
Farmer (Omoremi) an Ox (Entang’ana) and an Eagle (Ekeongo).
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4.4.1 Inculturation of God as a Father
Abagusii had/have several names for Engoro in their religio-cultural
heritage. They address Engoro as Father because of the central role the
father plays in the family and in the community. Gusii father provides,
disciplines, guides, protects, instills wisdom, is consulted, blesses and
comforts the family members. Osindi (O.I, 10:06:2009) posits that it is
upon the evidence of what Engoro does to the people which recounts to
the duties and roles of a father to the family which make the people refer
to God as Father (Tata).
A father among Abagusii provides care, security, guidance and protection
to all the family members. The father ensures that the family members are
not attacked by the enemies from outside and nothing harms the family
members. Nyanchama
(O.I, 12:06:2009) observes that anything which
threatens the life of any of the family member is reported to the father
who takes immediate and instant responses. The father also provides
unconditional love to all the family members, disciplines with love and
guides the members with patience. The father among Abagusii imparts
wisdom to all members of the family and is the one consulted by every
member in the family.
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A father can bless the members of the family and can also curse those
who disobey. The father can with love discipline any member of the
family who errs. All the wealth and property owned by the family belongs
to the father and every member of the family is entitled to its use without
any discrimination or favour. The father as Bangueso (O.I, 10:07:2009)
adds, treats all the family members with impartiality and the members
respect the father and no one contradicts the father‟s orders. The father is
generous and does not withhold anything which benefits the family
members and knows what is best for the family members all the time. In
case of any calamity or misfortune against any family member, the father
provides the social, psychological, physical, emotional and spiritual
support.
Finally, the father provides the identity of all the family
members in the sense that all members take the father‟s name as the
surname.
God as a father imparts wisdom to all family members and must be asked
before commencing or doing anything. Kinaro (O.I. 12:08:2009) puts it
that, God as a father does confer blessings to those who do right and
allows punishment in form of diseases, calamities and sometimes death to
those who commit evil. God as a father treats all people with impartiality
and every one has a right of partaking of the riches in Gods‟ possession
without any favour, partiality or segregation.
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Gusii community is a patriarchal society with a culture where men
dominate practically in every sphere of life. Men‟s thinking, their
interpretation, and their definitions are the norms that guide everything in
the community. This is the reason why Abagusii refer to God as father
and not mother in spite of the many motherly characteristics for example
compassionate, kindness, patience, endurance and generosity which are
attributed to Engoro.
Nyatichi (O.I, 02:06:2009) asserts that “even us
women (abakungu or abencheri) have been indoctrinated by men that we
perceive God in male terms only. God can also be addressed as a mother.”
Engoro is not male or female and is beyond human titles. The name cannot
be translated to English to make any comprehensible meaning.
The ekegusii language does not have pronouns like he and she therefore, it
is unsafe to refer to God as a male or female by use of these English
pronouns. Based on Niebuhr‟s (1951) paradigm of God, the transformer
of culture, this element of Abagusii concept of God as a father and not
mother is transformed so that we can have Engoro referred also to as
mother because God is neither male nor female.
Christianity as Lindivas (1973:32) and Wandel (1991:45) argue also
presents God as a father in the doctrine of the Trinity. God in Christianity
is portrayed as the one who provides love and care for entire human
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populace. The love of God for humanity as a father is expressed in John 3:
16 “For God so loved the world that He gave His only-begotten Son, that
whoever believes in Him should not perish but have everlasting life.” The
Christian God as a father guides all humanity into doing good, protects
people, cares for people‟s wellbeing and indiscriminately provides for all
people‟s needs. Presenting God as a father, Christianity affirms that those
who are saved make up a family of believers having God as their father.
Christianity teaches that God as a father is approachable by all people and
can be consulted through individual prayers and through the religious
leaders.
In Christianity, a father is often synonymous with ancestor, founder, or
originator (Genesis 4:20-21; Joshua 8:56; Romans 4:16.). God is the father
of humanity and creator (Deuteronomy 32:6; Isaiah 63:16; 64:8; Luke 3:38).
But as Mackenzie (1974:312) states, humanity has forfeited the rights of
children by their sins, it is only through Christ that humanity can call God
by the name, "Our Father," (John 20:17; Romans 8:15-17).
In patriarchal times as White (1954b:132) reflects, a father was master and
judge in his own household and exercised authority almost unlimited
over his family.
Filial disobedience or disrespect was a high offence.
Under the law, certain acts of children were capital crimes, (Exodus 21:15,
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17; Leviticus 20:9) and the father was required to bring his son to the
public tribunal (Deuteronomy 21:18-21).
Christianity introduced God in the Three God Head - God the Father, God
the Son and God the Holy Spirit, in what is referred to as the Trinitarian
Theology. This concept of God especially as a son does not become clearly
understood by Abagusii who believe that the roles of the father cannot be
shared by the son.
Inculturation of Gusii traditional concept of God
through God the Transformer of Culture paradigm refines Gusii concept
of God and reconciles it with the Christian trinitarian theology on their
concept of God.
The Bible does not show anywhere in both the New and the Old
Testaments that God is male to be referred to as father only. Christianity
as argued by Cooey et al., (1991:65) borrowed the male concept from the
Jewish culture which is patriarchal. This has been the basis for the
contemporary feminist theologians in their discussions on feminism and
patriarchy to suggest that God is genderless. Based on Neibuhr‟s (1951)
paradigm of God above Culture, the argument for God as a mother can be
applicable because God has motherly attributes
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Inculturation of God as a father makes Abagusii feel closer to God as
children are ever close with their father. This instills the fear of God in the
people and also makes them fear doing evil for this upsets God, the
Father. A father does not live far away from his children but constantly
watches over his children. To be gender inclusive God as a father is also
addressed as omoibori (used for either male or female Gusii parent).
4.4.2 Inculturation of God as a Gusii Community Elder
Abagusii address God as Omokumi (Gusii Community Elder) and
themselves as subjects. The omokumi was the highest authority in the
entire Gusii community.
Everybody in the entire Gusii community
obeyed omokumi’s commands irrespective of one‟s social-economic class.
As God is the supreme authority of the entire human populace, Omokumi
was the supreme authority among all Abagusii. Omokumi was the head of
Gusii clan elders called Etureti and Egesaku.
Nyabera (O.I, 10:06:2009) states that clan elders (etureti and egesaku) were
elected by the community but Gusii elder (Omokumi) was not elected by
people but he received his mystical supreme powers over the entire Gusii
community in inexplicable way. This was the reason why they address
God as omokumi because God is not an elected authority. None was
allowed to contest for this position and if there was anyone who
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contradicted or challenged Omokumi‟s authority, he/she person was
heavily fined or severely punished.
The Omokumi was an agent of moral uprightness in Gusii community and
his duties and responsibilities included conferring judgment upon the evil
doers, solemnizing oaths, and facilitating reconciliations among people
who had personal or community differences. He was considered the big
eye and ear of the community. He was responsible for ensuring that
justice was done and no one‟s rights were violated. People considered this
leader as the big hand that disciplines and no one questioned his authority
or confronted him over whatever decisions he arrived at concerning any
case.
His authority commanded the people‟s morality and social order
(Omote, O.I. 21:08:2009).
Through the presence and the authority of Omokumi Gusii community had
a socio-political structure which was glowingly organized, making Gusii
community an island of peace, tranquillity and philanthropy (Mayer,
1949:4-5) and Ray, 1976). The position of Omokumi in the socio-political
organization helped in settling land and other socio-economic disputes
and misunderstandings which came up with time among the people.
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Abagusii did not have a paramount chief who reigned in the whole of the
large Gusii community as witnessed in other Bantu communities
(Bogonko, 1977:36). Ochieng‟ (1974:6) argues that the pre-colonial Gusii
society was stateless, meaning that they did not have a centralized society
with paramount chiefs or kings with fortified retainers, to implement law
and order yet the community through the Omokumi recorded the highest
moral integrity in its social-moral exposition.
The Omokumi in the socio-political structure was overriding in the
rationale that he maintained social order in Gusii socio-religio cultural
tradition. He handled interpersonal and inter-community disputes which
came as a result of the people‟s social interactions. Gusii community
being a patriarchal society, the Omokumi and the four levels of power
structure were occupied by only men. These men were supposed to be
highly reputable. They were men who practised and cuddled impartiality
in their duties to the community. People respected the decisions they
arrived at with fervent spirits because of their religious and social
accreditations. These elders instilled moral values into Gusii society and
introduced religious concepts to the youth in their informal education
process. These religious concepts were further reinforced by the religious
leaders in religious forums (Osindi, O.I. 10:06:2009).
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People who were chosen to the Etureti court were clansmen of honest
impartiality, high morality, sound judgment, free from substance
addiction, good character and wealthy. This court was headed by a senior
elder with support from other elders. This court mainly gave directions
and counsels on cases related to land issues, domestic violence, and other
moral related cases which were forwarded to them by Omogaka
Bwo’mochie (homestead patriarch). These elders were under the headship
of the Omokumi and all of them worked under his directives.
The Egesaku court dealt with appeals that emerged from Etureti court.
They could handle issues that dealt with more than one Egesaku. This
court had powers to revert decisions arrived at by the Etureti court like
demolition and erection of boundaries. Describing the powers possessed
by the Supreme Court, Bogonko (1977: 37) annotates that Omokumi dealt
with inter-clan disputes. The omokumi was the supreme administrative
and judicial power in Gusii community.
He was responsible for the
welfare of Gusii society and for peace or war. He adds that Omokumi had
a staff (enyimbo) of office which was used as an authority for levying debts
from other locations.
The elders of the people are highly respected among Christians. The Old
and New Testaments have a variety of examples of how the elders of the
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people ruled over the people with authority and people respected and
obeyed their commands (Finley, 1982:213 and Schoffeleers, 1990:98). For
instance, the elders of the Hebrew tribes before the settlement of the
Hebrew commonwealth had a government and authority over their own
families and the people of Israel (Lee, 2003:143). Moses and Aaron treated
the elders as representatives of the nation (Exodus 3:16; 4:29; 12:21). When
the law was given, God directed Moses to take the seventy elders, as well
as Aaron, and Nadab and Abihu his sons, as witnesses, (Exodus 24:1, 9).
Even in the New Testament times, we find this number of seventy, or
rather, seventy-two, elders; six from each tribe. In allusion to the Jewish
elders, the ordinary governors and teachers of the Christian Church are
called elders, or presbyters, (Acts 20:17,28; Titus 1:5,7; 1Peter 5:1; 2 John
1:1). The Bible records these as highly recognized people who spoke on
behalf of God (Lee, 2003:3,4).
God in the New Testament (Revelation 4:4; 5:6) is surrounded by twentyfour elders as the righteous judge. These twenty-four elders obey God
whom the Bible refers to as the elder of many years. God is revealed in
the Bible as the one full of knowledge and power who knows the end
from the beginning.
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Abagusii had a negative interpretation of the term king. It was wrong for
God to be introduced as king among Abagusii. Abagusii did not have
kings, chiefs, lords and do not know anything about the Greek alphabets
which Christianity uses to address God as the Alpha and the Omega
which means the beginning and the end. When God is referred to as a
king of kings, or lord of lords and the Alpha and the Omega, Abagusii do
not understand what that means. If God was referred to as the omokumi,
they would understand who God is based on their daily experiences with
God.
Inculturation of God as Omokumi makes Abagusii perceive God as an ever
present God who is never contested, who has authority over everybody,
who confers oaths and judgment to the evil doers.
This as Uzuku
(1996:187) affirms presents God as the big eye for the people, a big ear to
listen to any discussion, conspiracies or deliberations whether good or evil
and a righteous judge. It eliminates the terms referring to God as Lord
and King which does not apply to the local people‟s concept of God
(Maruko, O.I, 12:06:2009).
Based on the paradigm of God, the Transformer of Culture, inculturation
of God as Omokumi who was a man would also be refined so that God is
not understood in male terms. The process of inculturation refines this
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concept so that God is not being viewed to be tyrannical as sometimes was
observed in the Omokumi. The Omokumi was human and was subject to
death. This concept shows that God does not die but has the human
elements or the image of the Omokumi.
The term Omokumi which is not commonly used in Gusii because of the
influence of Christianity is refined through God, the Transformer of
Culture paradigm to become Great (omonene) which is commonly used.
Omonene (Great) is used to refer to both men and women who have power
or who lead the people.
4.4.3 Inculturation of God as a Healer
Abagusii in their traditional religion address Engoro as a Divine Healer
(omogwenia). They believe that God is the provider and protector of
human and animal life. The healers in Gusii community include the
medicine persons, the seers, diviners, priests and prophets. They refer to
these people as mediators of God. They further insist that God heals the
sick through them. God as a healer according to the Banguesso (O.I.
02:07:2009) is concerned with the holistic human health (omogwenia
bwe’keene ore ang’e rioka). God as a healer does not delight in the sufferings
of his people through sicknesses but in their good health.
Abagusii
address God as a healer because of the many calamities and diseases they
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claim God has delivered them from in their traditional heritage (Marita,
O.I, 13:08:2009).
The medicine persons (abanyamekogosi, abanyamete, abanyamerungi) as
Cleopas Gechiko (O.I. 03:08:2009) adds were believed to apply physical
medicine and asked God‟s divine intervention. The medical practitioners
detected the mystical causes of illnesses or calamity and consequently
invoked mystical measures to foretell the probable future recurrences.
This made them to solicit for preventive measures.
Abagusii regard healers, seers and diviners as appointees of God to
prescribe medicines to people in the community. Asuga (O.I, 26:06:2009)
informs us that Abagusii believe that God appoints the persons to combat
the mystical powers which torment humanity through illnesses.
Supporting the divine appointment of the medicine persons, Mbiti
(1969:45) adds that these people have access to the force of nature.
Therefore, the community entrusts them with the duty of removing what
may harm the society. God as a Healer through these functionaries as
Bangweso (O.I. 10:05:2009) and Obiri ( O.I, 13:07:2009) observe goes deep
into the beliefs of Abagusii and this belief which is transmitted from one
generation to the other through the oral tradition.
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Gusii medicine persons used medicines in form of plants (emete), powder
(obosaro) and liquids (eriogo ri’emete). These are natural things provided by
God. Mbiti (1969:87) argues that the application of both the physical and
spiritual sources in the healing process makes the medicine persons both a
doctor and a preacher to the patient and the relatives. The missionaries
dismissed this practice as evil and this made the converted Christians to
practice both Christianity and Gusii traditional religion. Inculturation of
God as a healer (omonyamariogo or omonyamete) makes Abagusii to
perceive God as a physical and a spiritual healer present all the times.
Before the sick people are treated in Gusii traditional society, Bangueso
(O.I, 10:07:2009) posits that it is necessary to establish the causes of the
illnesses so as to help the medicine persons to prevent future occurrences.
Treatment
preceded
prevention.
The
prevention
and
spiritual
understanding measure (ogokireka) as Nyatichi (O.I, 02:06:2009) highlights
lacks in the Western medical practice which consequently leads Abagusii
converts to Christianity to have a dual personality.
The preventive
measure makes the people feel very secure from present and future
ailments by diseases and in constant protection by God through whom the
medicine persons received the healing powers.
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The Bible has a variety of instances which support the indigenous healing.
Farrel (1967:65) indicates that in the Old Testament, God was believed to
be the sole healer who provided both physical and spiritual treatment. In
the book of Exodus 15:22-26, God sweetened the bitter water of Marah
which later became medicinal to the people. God chose the prophets in
the Old Testament as the agents of healing (Isaiah 19:22; Jeremiah 17:14;
Hosea 7:1). David the psalmist confirms that the healing powers are of
God (Psalms 6:2; 41:4; 103:3).
God in the Old Testament appointed special persons who became agents
of divine healing. For instance, God chose Moses to deliver the children of
Israel from the bondage where they were suffering physically, socially
and spiritually (Exodus 15:22- 26:1). Elijah was sent to heal the son of the
widow of Zeraphat (1 Kings 17:8-24). Elisha cured Naaman of leprosy
(2kings 5:1-14) and the Shunamite‟s son (2 Kings 14:18-37). The people
whom God used as agents of healing used simple natural physical
rudiments in healing. They used physical things like water, plants, saliva,
and others as the Bible states (cf 1 Kings17:21; 2 Kings 4:34-35; 2 Kings
5:14). In other instances, God used the powers to heal the sick (Numbers
12:31). The faith of a person to be healed and his/her relatives was a basis
on which the sickness was healed. Without faith of both the patient and
the relatives, healing was not effected.
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The New Testament equally has a variety of experiences where God used
humanity as agents of healing.
God in the New Testament used
medicines from plants and other natural objects to heal people of their
maladies and ailments (Matt 12:10; Mark 3:5,15; Luke 5:17; Luke 6:19;
Luke 7:21,22; John 5:8).
Faith in the New Testament healing is a
fundamental element as also observed in the Old Testament and in Gusii
traditional religion. God in the New Testament is represented in the
person of Jesus Christ who is the main healer (Nichol, et al., 1956:398).
Farrell (1967:8-10) observes that the first three Gospels (Matthew, Mark
and Luke) take up the Old Testament understanding of God as a Healer to
the people through Jesus Christ. He further notes that this fulfillment
signifies the presence of God who heals the people through Jesus Christ.
Jesus in the understanding of the New Testament is called Emmanuel
meaning God with us: God in unconditional presence with the people. As
God with us, Jesus Christ heals with powers emanating from God. Kolic
(1991:32) argues that Jesus‟ mode of healing was based on simple natural
physical applications to the sick people. Jesus on the other healing mode
could speak a word or a sign and the sick person could become healed.
Jesus would sometimes use water as in the case of the pool of Siloam (John
9:7; 9:11).
The words, saliva or touching are some of the healing
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methodologies which Jesus employed. The apostles like Peter and Paul in
the New Testament were given powers by God to heal and perform
miracles for the good and healthful living of the people.
Inculturation of God as a healer makes people feel that it is God who
personally heals them in homes and in hospitals. Mogaka (O.I, 23:06:2009)
adds that inculturation of God as a healer encourages people to offer
special prayers before a patient is administered either herbal medicines or
hospital treatments. It makes them integrate the spiritual healing with the
physical healing process. It also makes the people feel the presence and
the touch of God in the healing process. As Gitonga (2005:56) argues, it
incorporates the divine agents of healing, invocation of divine power and
the prevention of the future recurrences by establishing and combating
the causes of the diseases. It also introduces prayer sessions in hospitals
as a way of invoking the power of God before the administration of
treatments. The priests and pastors are addressed as agents of the divine
healer.
The concept of God as a healer replaces the traditional understanding of
determining the cause of disease by divination with the modern
laboratory tests and through the administration of the prevention tablets
given in hospitals. Because of modern technology, inculturation of God as
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a healer is refined to incorporate contemporary medical practitioners as
agents through which God heals all the sicknesses. It also encourages
people to go to hospitals for medications besides the use of local herbal
medicines (Okeri, O.I, 12:07:2009).
Inculturation of God as a healer refines the Western and Christian view
that for one to administer healing measures for the sick, the same must go
through an informal system of learning and to possess the authentic
medical certificates. The perception that priests, pastors and traditional
healers are agents of God in the divine healing makes the traditional
healers feel part of those people whom God uses in the healing of the sick.
Inculturation of God as a healer makes people see God in every person
used as an agent of God in the healing process.
4.4.4 Inculturation of God as a Friend
Abagusii address God as a Friend (Omosani). Abagusii in their socialcultural heritage are supposed to be very friendly to one another. This
aspect of life is inherently transmitted through their traditional heritage
because they believe that Engoro loves making friendship with those who
are friendly to others. They argue that Engoro is as a constant friend to
everyone irrespective of social class to which one belongs. They further
maintain that Engoro never segregates anybody. People hold a belief that
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those who do not make friendship with one another commit evil and
Engoro would allow suffering and misfortunes to happen to them. The
belief that Engoro is a friend promotes peace and tranquillity among
Abagusii. Engoro is referred to as a friend because people find all the
characteristics of a good friend in Engoro (Moraya, O.I, 10:06:2009).
A friend in Gusii concept is someone whom one can confide in. This is a
friend who cannot reveal the shared insights with anybody. A friend is
one who cannot conspire against another and is ready to offer whatever it
takes to give comfort to the other person (Nyabwari, O.I, 10:06:2009).
Abagusii are traditionally farmers (Ochieng‟ 1974:23, Bogonko, 1977:221
and Akama 2006:213). Their economic lifestyle confirms true friendship
amongst individuals. A true friend in Gusii community is known when
the other person has a problem associated with his/her daily experience
as a farmer. The true friend will share the farm equipment, seeds, assist
the other in work and share farming skills which the other person is
ignorant about. A true friend among Abagusii is one who would support
the other during times of sickness and moments of desperate need for
human help.
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When Abagusii evaluate God based on who is a true friend, they find that
God possesses all the qualifications of a true friend. They conclude that
God as a friend who meets their social, economic, political and spiritual
needs as a true friend can do. They maintain that God is a friend who is
near, caring, protector, provider, kind, compassionate, pitiful, constant
and impartial than human friends (Obiri, O.I, 13:07:2009).
God in Christianity is addressed as a friend (White, 1986 b: 34) because of
the way in which God relate with people in their day-to-day life. For
instance, Abraham is termed as a friend of God „the father of the faithful‟
(James 2:23). The term “a friend” is intimate and conveys a sense of
closeness, trust and sharing. Abraham‟s assessment of God as a friend is
that God as a friend is also great, almighty, ever-present, all-powerful and
all-knowing (Monro, 1961:64).
The children of Israel were God‟s servants and were the offspring of
Abraham who was God‟s friend. God as a friend maintained a good and
friendly relationship with them all the times by being close, kind, faithful,
protector, provider and the caregiver to them all along their history as can
be deduced in the scriptures. The Jews considered God as a friend to only
the people of the descendants of Abraham and unlike the people they
called the Gentiles. This belief seemed to personalize and localize God
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who is universal God to all people. The Jews and the Gentiles belong to
God (Herdie, 1964:48).
Gentiles was a name given by the Hebrews to all those that had not
received the Law of Moses and were considered enemies of the people of
God. Foreigners who embraced Judaism, were called proselytes. Since
the promulgation of the gospel, the true religion has been extended to all
nations (Nichol, et al., 1956:98). In the writings of Paul, the Gentiles are
generally called the Greeks (Romans 1:14, 16; 1Corintians 1:22, 24;
Galatians 3:28.).
Christianity also maintains that God is a true friend who makes friendship
with humanity. Christ granted a similar honour and blessing to his
disciples, (John 15:15). It is a different word, however, in Greek, by which
he addressed Judas (Matthew 26:50), the word “friend” simply means
companion and appears to have been used as a conversational term not
implying friendship. Paul comments about friendship with the world and
friendship with God. James 4:4 “Ye adulterers and adulteresses, know ye
not that the friendship of the world is enmity with God? Whosoever
therefore will be a friend of the world is the enemy of God.” The fact of
being a member of the church makes no difference in this respect, for it is
as easy to be a friend of the world in the church as out of it. The phrase
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"whosoever will” implies purpose, intention and design. It supposes that
the heart is set on it; or that there is a deliberate purpose to seek the
friendship of the world (White, 1986a:91). It refers to that strong desire
which often exists, even among professing Christians, to secure the
friendship of the world; to copy its fashions and vanities; to enjoy its
pleasures; and to share its pastimes and its friendships.
Inculturation of God as a friend makes Abagusii deal with God as one
present always and concerned about their welfare. It also makes Abagusii
to perceive God as near to the people and in a daily and hourly
companionship with the people. Nyanchama (O.I, 12:06:2009) observes
that it also makes people fear making enmity with others because making
enmity with others upsets God who allows disaster and calamities in their
lives.
Christianity teaches that God loves all people; both the sinners and the
righteous equally. Inculturation of God as a friend refines this Christian
teaching that God loves even sinners by letting people know that God
never associates with those who commit evil nor does God make
friendship with them in their evilness (Reid, 2000:74). Inculturation of
God as a friend eliminates the Jewish concept of God as a friend to only
the Jews and not to the Gentiles. Inculturation of God as a friend makes
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people know that God is trans-cultural and a friend to all people who
choose to obey the commandments and statutes. Swedenberg (1988:12,13)
adds that God is a friend to all irrespective of history, culture, genealogy,
colour, race, tribe and tongue. Jesus who is God expressed friendship
with the disciples and all the people both of the Gentile and the Jewish
origin. The disciples were commissioned to propagate the Gospel to both
the Gentile including Abagusii and Jewish communities.
4.4.5 Inculturation of God as a Blacksmith
Abagusii address God as a skilled blacksmith (omoturi ebioma).
They
address God as a blacksmith because of the way the blacksmith is
understood in Gusii context. As God, the blacksmith is very patient in the
process of making metallic tools. Osindi (O.I, 10:06:2009) observes that
coming up with a metallic tool required the highest concentration and
determination. It also required a constant presence of the blacksmith with
maximum attention to the process of coming up with the preferred object
out of the heating process. Blacksmithing involved keeping a constant
temperature on the heated material in a skillfully locally invented oven. A
good blacksmith maintained high heating temperatures to the end of the
process. Based on what God does to the people, they conclude that God is
as a blacksmith.
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Gusii blacksmith were innovative, active and industrious.
They were
skilled in making tools like spears (amatimo), arrows (chinsara), axes, knifes
and pangas (emioro). They made these tools for domestic use and the
surpluses were for sale. Each of these tools was made by persons
specialized in specific tools. These talents were not concentrated in one
clan but in all clans of Gusii populace (Masese, 2006:23).
The metal industry besides sales of the metallic tools to the outside
communities like the Dholuo (abagere), the Kipsigis (abanyamato) and the
Maasai (abamanyi) for subsistence, it also provided farm tools, defense
tools and hunting equipment. Management and maintenance of this
unique industry depict the highest intellectual and creative skills that
Abagusii possessed. Timothy Gechiko (O.I, 15:06:2009) observes that these
hereditary skills were provided by God to the original Gusii persons
because God knew how much this could save Abagusii from their socio,
political and economic challenges.
Bogonko (1977:43) notes that specific centers were designed for making
these tools among the community. He identifies Matierio near Nyamaiya
in Nyamira zone as a centre for Bogirango clan, Marani and Boburia
(Mwambaka) centres in Marani zone near the present Itibo Mission for the
Abagetutu clan.
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Among the Jews and Hebrew communities as revealed in the Bible, the
blacksmiths were people who shaped metals into tools. They worked
them over the coals and shaped them with hammers, working them by
their strong arms. They were very hard working and determined people
because this work needed patience and determination. They were
artificers in brass and iron first mentioned in Genesis 4:22. The art of the
smithery is one of the essential of civilizations and without it, a nation was
peculiarly defenseless in time of war (Judges 5:8; 1Sam 13:19-22; 2Kings
24:14). Workers in silver and in copper were distinguished from each
other (Acts 19:24; 2 Timothy 4:14).
The blacksmiths were highly regarded people Hebrew communities
because they served the nations with war tools. In 1samuel 3:19, the Bible
records that Israel was once after the attack by the Philistines was in the
lowest state of depression and degradation. Gray (1997:45) argues that it is
very likely that in the former wars, the Philistines carried away all the
smiths from Israel, as Porsenna did in the peace which he granted to the
Romans, not permitting any iron to be forged except for the purposes of
agriculture. The Chaldeans did the same to the Jews in the time of
Nebuchadnezzar; they carried away all the artificers, (2 Kings 24:14;
Jeremiah 24:1; 29:2). Nichol et al (1956:123) reveal that the Philistines not
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only prevented the people of Israel from making weapons of war, but
obliged them to depend upon their enemies, even for instruments of
husbandry.
Christians believe that character is formed through an individual‟s
personal interaction with God. As a blacksmith moulds iron after heating
it in the oven, so does God mould the peoples‟ character though
permission of the trials and temptations. The New Testament (Hebrews
10:32; James 1:12; 1Peter 1:7; 1Peter 4:12, 19) shows how God forms the
human character through permission of trials, afflictions and temptations.
White (1956:200) shows that trials, temptations and afflictions are likened
to the blacksmiths‟ oven which purifies iron to makes it into desirable
tools.
Inculturation of God as a Blacksmith makes Abagusii conceptualize that
they are as metal ore in the hands of a blacksmith in readiness of being
shaped into a morally, socially, politically, spiritually and physically
better persons. This makes them know that whatever challenges and trials
they pass through are important for their refinement just like a blacksmith
does to the iron objects though heating in the oven.
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The image of God as a blacksmith is in the memory of the older Gusii
generation.
In the present day, there are no blacksmiths in Gusii.
Introduction of western metal tools replaced those made locally and that
caused extinction of the smithing industry (Mogaka, O.I, 23:06:2009). The
making of war tools like arrows and spears is highly criminalized by the
government and that has also contributed to the loss of the industry.
Inculturation of God as a blacksmith strengthens Gusii concept of God as
a maker and a refiner of human character. They argue that the image of
God as a brick maker is similar to God as a blacksmith. Brick making
industry is present in Gusii in many centers. It is particularly popular in
Nyamira zone, Manga zone and parts of Ekerenyo zone. The same
characteristics discussed above affecting a blacksmith are equivalent of a
Gusii brick maker.
4.4.6 Inculturation of God as a Farmer
The main economic activity of Abagusii is farming. They perceive God as
a good farmer (Omoremi) and themselves as either crops or livestock.
Commenting on the character of God, Ombui (O.I, 25:06:2009) is of the
opinion that God is like a good farmer who is concerned with his or her
livestock or crops.
Abagusii argue that God is concerned about the
wellbeing of humanity as a good farmer is concerned about the wellbeing
of the crops or livestock.
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The image of God as a farmer is derived from the daily experiences of
what a good Gusii farmer is. From time immemorial, the economy of
Abagusii has been the focal point governing all their human aspects of
existence. A farmer in Gusii context is a very patient person. To earn good
yields from the farming activities, a Gusii farmer must not become easily
discouraged by the challenges of the weather and the natural
catastrophes. A good farmer is always determined to achieve the desired
ends. Good crop farming goes with correct timing of the seasons putting
in the right choice of crops and spending all the available time on the
crops. Every good crop farmer is a good manager of time doing the right
thing to the crops at the right time which is later reflected in the crop
production.
Crop dressing (ogochanchima) is common in Gusii crop
farming which involves the removal of unproductive branches (ogocherera)
from the crop (Nyaitondi O.I, 23:08:2009).
A good farmer protects the crops from harmful sources like the birds, and
monkeys which normally attack the crops when they are almost ripening
for harvest. The farmer selects the right choice of crops in the planting
season and prepares the fields well where the seeds would be planted.
Abagusii farming activities include crop farming and livestock husbandry.
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Bogonko (1977:39) notes that Abagusii term cattle as the symbol of wealth
which the patriarchs possessed. He also insists that Gusii men farmers
struggle to acquire as large numbers of cattle as probable for social
identity and power command in the family and the society. Gusii elders
argue that the poor, orphaned and marginalized persons struggle in their
day-to-day life in gathering their subsistence income which they could
exchange for at least a cow which is a reputable asset, a symbol of wealth
and a crown to an individual‟s hard work.
The people practiced subsistence crop farming besides others mentioned
above. The main crop, obori (Eleusine) which Bogonko (1977:40) says was
first planted with a mild mixture of amaemba (sorghum). Small pink and
yellow coloured maize as Moenga, O.I, 23:08:2009) illuminates was
planted in very small quantities around the Eleusine plantation. This kind
of maize was never harvested while dry but was leisurely taken from the
shamba while almost fading leaves and was roasted and eaten especially
by boys (abaisia abarabera) and young men (abamura, chinge’ereru) at graze
fields while tending livestock.
Nyaanga (O.I, 15:06:2009) reveals that
maize was not originally a subsistence crop as witnessed in the present
days.
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Good farming was emphasized and embraced by every human person in
Gusii community.
Farming responsibilities and roles were defined
accordingly to every sex within each age bracket. No age bracket had
reasons for idling. Gusii community being a patriarchal society assigned
prestigious duties to men.
Women were allocated subordinate duties
which kept them nearer the home, kitchen and children. While duties
assigned to boys related to those of their fathers, girl (chinyaroka)‟s duties
correlated to those of their mothers. Nyabera (O.I, 10:06:2009) states that
the rationale behind gender duty correlation was that the patriarchs were
preparing prospective husbands (abasacha) and wives (abarugi) who will
propagate Gusii socio-religio-cultural identities. For instance, Bogonko
(1977:41) argues that men were involved in fieldwork like clearing the
bushes of the virgin land, while the women did the digging, planting,
attending and dressing (okoburugera) the crops.
Women (abencheri,
abakungu) teamed up in what was called amasaga, ebisangio, ebibosano (all
meaning united work) to make work easier and pleasurable. As work
continued, women sang specific work songs whose contents accredited
God and ancestors for blessing and providing Gusii‟s mesmerizing land
which yielded them the bounteous harvest.
Men were also actively involved in the shamba (farm) work although not
as actively involved as women. This is argued out by Akama (2006:231)
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that it is because men were involved in more other activities outside the
farm and the home like searching for pastures for the livestock, fencing
the cow‟s kraals, protecting the livestock from the enemies and social
issues which prompted the amity of the family.
Masese (2006:132)
supports these arguments by confirming that men as well attended to
farm issues whenever it was needful.
In John 15:1-3, God is presented as a vine-dresser or a husbandman and
the Christians as the vine branches. The word vine-dresser more properly
expresses the sense of the original word than husbandman. It means one
who has the care of a vineyard; whose office it is to nurture, trim and
defend the vine, and who of course feels a deep interest in its growth and
welfare (Matthew 21:33). The figure means that God gave Jesus Christ to
be the source of blessings to humanity that all grace descends through
Jesus Christ and that God takes care of all the branches of this vine, that is,
of all who are by faith united to the Lord Jesus Christ. In Jesus and all his
church he feels the deepest interest and it is an object of great solicitude
that the church should receive these blessings and bear much fruit.
When Jesus says “I „m the true vine”, the reference is made to Jeremiah
2:21. The word true, here is used in the sense of real and genuine (Nichol,
et al., 1956:452). He gives what is symbolically represented by a vine. The
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point of the comparison or the meaning of the figure is this: A vine yields
proper juice and nourishment to all the branches, whether they are large
or small. All the nourishment of each branch and tendril passes through
the main stalk, or the vine, that springs from the ground. So Jesus is the
source of all real strength and grace to the disciples. He is their leader and
teacher and imparts to them as they need, grace and strength to bear the
fruits of holiness.
Inculturation of God as a farmer presents God in a true Gusii image of a
farmer of Eleusine (obori), cows, goats, sheep, tea, and sorghum (amaemba).
When God is presented in the image of a vinedresser or a husbandman of
vines, Abagusii seem not to clearly understand who truly God is in this
image because Abagusii are never farmers of vines and have no idea of
who the vinedresser or husbandman is (Kegwaro, O.I, 23:06:2009).
The Christian or biblical concept of God as a farmer is similar to Gusii
concept of God as a farmer; therefore, the biblical concept of God as a
farmer strengthens Gusii traditional concept of God as a farmer.
Inculturation of God as a farmer makes Abagusii perceive God as one
who does not become easily disparaged with humanity‟s feebleness, one
who is patient and very much determined to realize good results in
humanity. It further presents God as one who is aware of what people
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need and at what time, one who eliminates whatever is unnecessary in
humanity‟s character through the daily challenges and one who protects
the people. It finally presents God as a loving farmer who maintains
contact with the people.
4.4.7 Inculturation of God as a Shepherd
Abagusii refer to God as a good shepherd (omorisia) and themselves as the
flock (riicho). Keeping of sheep, goats and cows is a common activity
among Abagusii. There are those who in the traditional days specialized
in keeping of large numbers of sheep, goats and cows. Some of Gusii
shepherds literally slept in the same house where the sheep and goats
stayed to give them protection against attack from wild dogs. God among
Abagusii is referred to as a good shepherd because of sharing human
characteristics with Gusii good shepherds. God as a good shepherd
protects people‟s lives from any harm and danger (Maruko, O.I,
12:06:2009).
A good shepherd in Gusii community looks for good pasture for the flock
before he takes the flock to the pastures. He feeds the flock
indiscriminately, preserves the foods for the future and gathers the flock,
ascertains they are all present and drives them home (Nyaribari
O.I,
24:06:2009). The good shepherd as Ndegwah (2007:231) adds from the
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Pokot pastoralist community in Kenya‟s perspective, walks with the flock,
feeds the flock, cares for the weak, protects the flock and knows each of
the flock by their individual names.
The shepherd among Abagusii was responsible for each member of the
flock entrusted to him, he needed courage and endurance. He also
exercised tender care towards the feeble flock, carried the lambs in his
arms and searched for the lost sheep, bringing it back from the rocky hills
and valleys into green pastures and still waters (Sani, O.I, 14:07:2009).
God in the Bible takes the name of the Shepherd of Israel (Psalms 80:1
Jeremiah 31:10) and kings, both in Scripture and ancient writers are
distinguished by the title of shepherds of the people (Hardie, 1964:12).
The prophets are against the "shepherds of Israel," that is, the kings, who
attended to their personal needs themselves and neglected their people;
who distress, ill-treat, seduce and lead them astray (Ezekiel 34:10). Christ
as the Messiah is often called a shepherd (Zechariah 13:7) and also takes
on himself the title of "the Good Shepherd," who gives his life for his
sheep (John 10:11,14,15). Paul calls Jesus the great Shepherd of the sheep
(Heb 13:20) and Peter gives him the appellation of the Prince of Shepherds
(1Peter 5:4).
His ministers are the pastors or shepherds of the flock,
(Jeremiah 3:15; 23:3; Ephesians 4:11.).
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In John 10:1-16, our Savior says the good shepherd lays down his life for
his sheep; that he knows them, and they know him; that they hear his
voice, and follow him; that he goes before them; that no one shall force
them out of his hands, and that he calls them by their names. These,
however, being all incidents taken from the customs of the country, are by
no means so striking to us as they must have been to those who heard our
Lord, and who every day witnessed such methods of conducting this
domesticated animal (Nichol, et al., 1956:213).
Monro (1961:23) posits that modern travellers in the East meet with many
pleasing confirmation of the truth of Scripture in respect to these
particulars; they see the shepherd walking before his flock, any one of
which will instantly run to him when called by its own name.
The
hireling, or bad shepherd, forsakes the sheep, and the thief enters not by
the door of the sheepfold, but climbs in through another way. The Bible
applies many of the excellences of the faithful shepherd in illustration of
the Savior's care of his flock.
The biblical concept of God as a shepherd enhances and enriches Gusii
traditional concept of God. Inculturation of God as a shepherd makes the
people to perceive God as a Gusii shepherd who commits his/her total life
and time for the flock. While the Biblical shepherd leads and the sheep
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follow as Monro (1961:12) asserts, Gusii traditional shepherd drives the
sheep to go a head and the shepherd follows them. God the transformer of
culture paradigm puts emphasis on the concept that both Gusii sheep and
the biblical sheep hear the voice of their shepherd and the shepherd
knows all the sheep by individual names. God is addressed as a shepherd
who leads and humanity follows. God as a shepherd also protects the
sheep from behind so that the enemies will not snatch any flock from
behind (Kaoka, O.I. 18:08:2009).
Christians of the Seventh-Day Adventists Church (SDA) address their
church elder as Omoririsa (shepherd). The role of the SDA elder (omorisia)
as argued by White (1954 a:132) is guiding, leading, teaching, instructing
and preaching to the people when they are in church. Mogaka, O.I,
23:06:2009) observes that the functions of the church elder as a shepherd
are limited because they are many elders within one congregation who
sometimes contradict each other based on the human weaknesses and the
diversity of talents and abilities. The office of a church elder in the SDA
church is viable within one year and is filled by re-election through the
nomination committee appointed by the church members. Moraya (O.I,
10:06:2009) reveals that those who serve as abarisia (Plural of omorisia) in
the SDA church as elders are consecrated through the laying on of hands
by the ordained SDA pastors. They bear the name omorisia as long as they
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are in regular standing in the SDA Church.
Vane (O.I. 25:08:2009)
highlights the equals of the omorisia in the SDA church in the Catholic
Church and PAG are the catechist (omokatekista) and omoriai (leader)
respectively. These religious leaders in the Catholic and PAG churches
share characteristics of omorisia in the SDA church.
Inculturation of God as a shepherd (Omorisia) refines this interpretation to
show that God unlike the SDA elder is an ever present shepherd,
comforter, provider, protector, divine guider, compassionate and
immortal shepherd. Inculturation of God as a shepherd (Omorisia) refines
the SDA concept of a shepherd to show that God as omorisia is not
ordained by being laid hands on by religious functionaries and God‟s time
of office is not limited to time and talent. It also shows that God as a
shepherd is not elected or removed from authority by people as
sometimes observed in the churches. It further portrays God as a leader
without defects because God will never be of regular standing as a
Shepherd of the people. It finally shows that God as a divine shepherd
does not only lead the SDA congregation but all the people in the entire
universe.
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4.4.8 Inculturation of God as an Ox
Abagusii were cattle keepers as discussed earlier in this study. An ox
(entag’ana) was a highly preferred animal among Abagusii. It was of
greater economic value than any of the livestock a farmer had. An ox was
found virtually in every home and was highly favoured than any of the
livestock. Gusii older generation address Engoro as an ox (Entang’ana)
because of the central roles the ox played in Gusii economy. As Gusii term
entang’ana (ox) implies, God is the leader of Abagusii people (Mogaka, O.I,
23:06:2009).
An ox as Guto (O.I, 09:07:2009) puts it pulls the plough, pulls heavy loads,
turns the sugarcane grinders and is the one which leads and others follow
to the site for drinking water. God as the ox as is perceived among the
older Gusii informants, is of incomparable strength, is a powerful God,
does not complain over hard work, pulls humanity out of the socioeconomic disorders and accompanies humanity in every engagement of
life.
An ox in the Bible as argued by Nichol, et al (1956:142) is the male of the
beef kind when grown, synonymous with the bull. It is a clean animal, by
the Levitical law, much used for food, (1King 19:21) and constituting no
small part of the wealth of the Hebrews in their pastoral life (Genesis
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24:35; Job 1:14; 42:12). Oxen were used in agriculture for pulling a plough
(1Kings 19:19) and for treading out the grain during which they were not
to be muzzled, (1Corinthians 9:9,) but well fed (Isaiah 30:24).
The testing of a new yoke of oxen is still a business of great importance in
the Middle East (Luke 14:19). A passage in Campbell's travels in South
Africa
well
illustrates
the
proverbial
expression,
as
a
bullock
unaccustomed to the yoke, (Jeremiah 31:18). “I had frequent opportunities
of witnessing the conduct of oxen when for the first time put into the yoke
to assist in dragging the wagons. On observing an ox that had been in
yoke beginning to get weak, or his hoofs to be worn down by treading on
the sharp gravel, a fresh ox was put to the yoke in his place” (Nichol, et al
1956:143).
An ox in the Jewish and Hebrew culture which was later adapted to
Christianity is a symbol of strength (Moltiman 1999: 26). For instance, the
oxen of Bashan, pasturing in a fertile region and with but few keepers,
became strong and fierce. They would compass about an intruder and
trample him/her under foot and cause injuries or kill. They are symbols
of powerful, fierce and numerous foes (Psalms 22:12; 68:30; Isaiah 34:7).
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The Christian concept of God as powerful is similar to Abagusii
traditional perception of God as strong in their image of God as an ox.
Inculturation of God as an ox makes Abagusii of the older generation
perceive God as a powerful God. It makes them reflect the strength of an
ox which ploughs the whole day without getting tired. It also make
Abagusii perceive God as one who does not complain of all work God
done to human beings. Inculturation of God as an ox further makes the
people perceive God as the one who pulls them out of their economic
situations and as the one who accompanies them in any of the life‟s
engagements.
The reference to God as an ox is in the memory of only the older
generation who are more or less vulnerable to natural death. The image of
God as an ox has been overcome by events. In the conventional days an
ox was viewed as powerful while in the contemporary society there are
inventions which are stronger than Gusii ox. The image of God as an ox
only strengthens Gusii concept of God as strong, powerful, proficient and
capable. Each generation based on this concept of God through God the
transformer of culture paradigm refines the image of an ox to a more
inclusive biblical image unsurpassed at that time but retain the traditional
concept of God. The present generation as was found out in this study
understands God as strong as a Caterpillar (ekerini). The Caterpillar
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empowers the crane to lift the heavy loads into a lorry or to an elevated
site.
4.4.9 Inculturation of God as an Eagle
Abagusii older generation refer to Engoro as an eagle (ekeongo). Moraya
(O.I, 10:06:2009) observes that an eagle was a sacred bird which was never
eaten by the people and anyone who first found it dead, the same person
was cleansed through rituals and sacrifices by Gusii elders. As an eagle,
God is as a powerful bird, lives and operates from or in the sky, swift,
careful, sees from afar and detects situations and circumstances from afar.
Abagusii understand the eagle as the most powerful bird of all the birds
existing in the universe. It is known as the bird which flies highest and
rapidly compared to all other birds. The eagle is the bird which is known
to live longest because it renews itself by shedding off its feathers after
some years of its existence. This bird is the most careful bird in teaching its
young ones how to fly high and spend many hours in the sky than all
other birds. The eagle is the keenest bird with distinctive eyesight to see
objects from very high above the ground. It gets the scents and smells of
its prey from very far. It is finally considered a sacred bird which is never
eaten or tamed by anyone. Even the children were warned from
disturbing their nests or young ones (Osindi, O.I, 10:06:2009).
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The Bible observes the eagle (Job 39:27-30) as a large and very powerful
bird, hence called the „King‟ of birds of the prey. There are several species
of eagles described by naturalists, and it is probable that this word in the
Bible comprehends more than one of these. The noble eastern species,
called by Bruce J. "the golden eagle," measures eight feet four inches from
wing to wing; and from the tip of his tail to the point of his beak, when
dead, four feet seven inches (Mackenzie,1974:23).
The Bible notes that of all known birds, the eagle flies not only the highest
(Proverbs 23:5; Jeremiah 49:16; Obadiah 1:40) but also with the greatest
rapidity (2 Samuel 1:23; Job 9:26; Lamentations 4:19). Among the evils
threatened to the Israelites in case of their disobedience, the prophet
names one in the following terms: "The Lord shall bring a nation against
thee from far, from the end of the earth, as swift as the eagle flieth"
(Deuteronomy 28:49).
The march of Nebuchadnezzar against Jerusalem, is predicted in similar
terms: "Behold, he shall come up as clouds, and his chariots as a
whirlwind: his horses are swifter than eagles," (Jeremiah 4:13; 48:40; 49:22;
Hosea 8:1). This bird was a national emblem on Persian and Roman
standards, as it now is on United States' coins (Smith, 1973:76).
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The eagle, it is said, lives to a great age and like other birds of prey, sheds
its feathers in the beginning of spring, after which its old age assumes the
appearance of youthood.
To this, David the psalmist alludes, when
gratefully reviewing the mercies of Jehovah: "Who satisfieth thy mouth
with good things, so that thy youth is renewed like eagles," (Psalms 103:5;
Isaiah 40:31). The careful pains of the eagle in teaching its young to fly,
beautifully illustrate God's providential care over Israel (Exodus 19:4;
Deuteronomy 32:11,12).
The eagle is remarkable for its keen sight and scent. Its flesh, like that of
all birds of prey, was unclean to the Jews; and is never eaten by any body,
unless in cases of necessity, (Matthew 24:28; Luke 17:37). It is observed
from the above views that both Christianity and Gusii concept of an eagle
are similar. Inculturation of God as an Eagle (Ekeongo) makes people feel
that God sees them from afar. This makes people fear doing evil which
orders the social, moral and religious practices of the people. In case of
any one committing evil, the same will know that God sees him or her
from very far. It also makes the people know that God moves at a very
high speed to help them once combated with calamity.
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Based on God and Culture in paradox paradigm, inculturation of God as
an eagle purifies the idea of an eagle shedding its feathers to appear
young with a teaching that God renews his relationship with humanity
each day by forgiving people of their trespasses and sins.
The older generation among Abagusii are the ones who refer to God as an
eagle. Inculturation of God as an eagle enhances among Abagusii that
God has the ability of seeing any activity happening in the universe from
far. It strengthens the actuality that God has ears, eyes and the ability of
monitoring whatever goes on amongst humanity. The eagles are birds
which are no longer present in Gusii so when God is addressed as an
eagle, Abagusii of the younger generation fail to understand who God
really is but they accept the interpretation provided by the elderly people
about the character of God observed in the eagle. God the transformer of
culture paradigm refines the image of God as an eagle to biblical images
which portray God as one who is all-seeing. The young people perceive
God as either a telescope, or microscope. These instruments as an eagle
have the aptitude of seeing incredibly small things which are either far or
near.
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4.5 Conclusion
This chapter has inculturated Gusii traditional concept of God using God
the transformer of culture, God above culture and God and culture in
paradox paradigms of God and Culture conceptual framework developed
by Neibuhr (1951:32). Investigating the relevance of inculturation to Gusii
religio-culture, the chapter has affirmed the premise that inculturation of
Gusii traditional concept of God provides Abagusii with a balanced,
holistic integral way of life. It has integrated Gusii and biblical religiocultural elements with the elimination of elements which are anti-life and
discriminative from Gusii traditional culture. It has also given a new
interpretation to traditional religio-cultural symbols so that there is
mutual enhancement of Gusii traditional religio-cultural and the biblical
concept of God.
In this chapter, it evident that inculturation of Gusii traditional concept of
God which make Abagusii perceive God on their daily interpretations of
who God is through what they see, hear, feel, experience and interact
with. Their interpretation of God‟s images is guided by patriarchy and
their daily experiences as a people. When God is addressed by use of
biblical Jewish images as, Lord, King, Lion, Vine-dresser, Husbandman,
Potter and Palestinian farmer or a Palestinian shepherd, Abagusii do not
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understand who God is clearly. Inculturation of Gusii traditional concept
of God solves this problem.
Inculturation is a theological concept which remains faithful to biblical
teachings, while seeking to interpret the biblical concepts in local cultural
settings. It is as a channel through which Abagusii understand and
interpret God as one who is closer to them, who sees them, touches, hears
and walks with them, eats with them and practically does everything with
them. Inculturation as a process with life in itself translates the Gospel
message in a manner in which the local people interpret the message
based on their local understating.
Gusii religiosity forms a basis of
inculturation of Gusii traditional concept of God.
Abagusii had many names for Engoro. They addressed God as a father
(tata), a community leader (omokumi), a healer (omogwenia), a friend
(omosani), a blacksmith (omoturi), a farmer (omoremi), a shepherd (omorisia),
an ox (entang’ana) and an eagle (ekeongo). Most of these terms portray
masculinity because Abagusii are a patriarchal community with a culture
where everything about Engoro is defined and interpreted in masculine
terms yet Engoro (God) is not male or female.
On basis of God the
transformer of culture, God and Culture in paradox and God above
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Culture paradigms, the masculine interpretation of God is redefined in
order to make God an all inclusive and genderless.
Chapter five summarizes the main findings in this study and links the
inculturation of Gusii traditional concept of Engoro with Gusii traditional
concept of God and their response to Christianity.
228
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter summarizes the entire study. First, it presents a synopsis of
the main findings. Second, it presents recommendations arising from the
study. Finally, it proposes areas for further research in the concept of God.
5.2 Summary and Conclusions of the Study
This study sought to examine the inculturation of the concept of God in
the traditional religion of Abagusii of Western Kenya. It reveals that
failure of Christianity to inculturate Gusii traditional concept of God
creates a religious vacuum among Abagusii. It has also examined Gusii
traditional concept of God before the advent of Christianity and the
influences it had on Gusii traditional concept of God. The study has
further evaluated the Christian teachings on Gusii traditional concept of
God with general concepts of inculturation and how inculturation of Gusii
traditional concept of God enables Abagusii converts to perceive the
Christian God not as the same Engoro they have worshiped from time
immemorial.
229
An inquiry was made for a requisite conceptual framework for the study.
God and Culture conceptual framework was employed with God above
Culture, God of Culture, God the Transformer of Culture, God against
Culture and God and Culture in Paradox paradigms. This conceptual
framework has been used to refine, retain or eliminate some elements of
Gusii traditional concept of God to create harmony with the biblical
hermeneutics. The study has highlighted Abagusii traditional concept of
God.
Data for the study were mainly obtained through the oral interviews,
questionnaires, participant observation and secondary sources.
The
obtained data were categorized and thematized based on the objectives of
the study for purpose of analysis and interpretation. The following is a
discussion of the summary of the study objectives.
The first objective of the study was to investigate Gusii traditional concept
of God. It was found that in their worldview, Abagusii had a belief in the
existence of Engoro (God). The existence of God came as a result of the
people‟s reflection of the universe, their limitations and the focus on the
harmony in nature. It was established that Abagusii believe that Engoro is
the creator, sustainer of creation, provider of creation, and a ruler of the
universe.
They also believe that God has human images like they
230
perceive God as a father, a friend, a judge, a healer and a diviner. It was
further realized that Abagusii describe the nature of Engoro as good,
merciful, holy, all powerful, all knowing, everywhere, has no limit, is selfexistent, is first and last, is a spirit, never changes and is beyond human
comprehension.
Abagusii believe in the spiritual realm and Engoro as the controller of the
spirits. They believe in the nature spirits which they categorize as the
nature spirits of the sky and the nature spirits of the earth. The study has
shown their belief in the human spirits who are relatives who died long
time ago who were heroes and great people in Gusii community who the
study revealed were closer to Engoro and linked them to Engoro.
The study affirms the first premise that Abagusii believe in the existence
of God in their traditional religion. It reveals that Gusii belief in God is
inherent and is transmitted from one generation to the other through
Gusii oral tradition. In the light of Neibuhr (1951:69-92) God, the
transformer of culture, God against culture and God and culture in
paradox paradigms, some Gusii traditional concept of God have been
removed, refined or dropped. It was therefore concluded that Abagusii
had an inherent traditional concept of God passed on from one generation
to another through their oral tradition. The researcher further concluded
231
that intrinsic and extrinsic attributes of Engoro portray him as near and
concerned with the welfare of Abagusii. The researcher finally concluded
that Gusii traditional anthropomorphic, animal and bird images of God
make people to feel the consistence, commitment and closeness of Engoro
to the people.
The second objective was to examine Christianity influence on Gusii
traditional concept of God. The study investigated a brief history of the
coming of the Catholic and the protestant missionaries 1909-1963 to Gusii.
The study unveiled two waves (1909-1936 and 1936-1963) of the coming of
the missionaries in Gusii. It discussed the Christian denominations which
Christianized Abagusii. These as the study show were The Seventh-Day
Adventist, The Catholic, The Salvation Army, The Africa Inland Mission,
The Swedish Lutheran Mission, The Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada or
the Pentecostal Assemblies of God, The Church of God, and The Friends
African Mission (the Quakers).
The study has shown the Christian concept of God and the Christian
Trinitarian theology which argues for God the father, God the son and
God the Holy Spirit. It has also discussed the Christian concept of the
attribute of God. The Christians as shown in the study insist that God is
omnipresent, omniscient, omnipotent, pre-existent, eternal, immutable,
232
infinite, sovereign, holy, wise and faithful. The study has further shown
that Christians have names for God which are borrowed from the Jewish
and Hebrew backgrounds which are later dismissed in the following
objective as not applicable in Gusii traditional concept of God through
God above Culture paradigm. The study affirms the second premise that
the Christian missionaries did not see the need to inculturate Gusii
traditional concept of God. It has further revealed that there are
similarities and differences between the Christian teachings on the
concept of God and Gusii traditional teachings on the concept of God. The
researcher was able to conclude that the Christian missionaries did not see
the need to appreciate the fact that Abagusii in their traditional religion
believed in the same God they introduced to them. The researcher further
concluded that the influence of Christianity on Gusii traditional concept of
God made Abagusii to drop their traditional concept of God which
tolerated evil and declined the people‟s religiosity.
The fourth objective of the study was to inculturate Gusii traditional concept
of God. The study deduced that the inculturation is a process which is
biblical and relevant. The importance of inculturation of Abagusii concept
of God as shown in this study helps Abagusii to receive Gospel and
perceive God‟s images in their own ethnic community, culture, tongue,
art, language, syntax and form.
233
The study affirms the third premise that inculturation of Gusii Traditional
concept of God makes Abagusii understand God based on the images of
their day-to-day experiences. It will further help to stop the religious
duality experienced from the converted Christians. The study shows that
Abagusii, being a patriarchal society, the images of God are given a male
interpretation. God and Culture conceptual framework has been used to
refine or eliminate those aspects of Gusii traditional concept of God which
are incompatible with the scriptures and the human rights. It was
therefore concluded that inculturation Gusii traditional concept of God
provides Abagusii with a balanced, holistic and an integral way of life.
5.3 Recommendations of the Study
The study recommends that the Ministry of Education restructure the
curriculum so that we can have emphasis made on the Christian religious
studies covering the African traditional religion studies.
It is
recommended that the Religious Studies subject should be a compulsory
subject in schools so that the youth can know their traditional concept of
God and appreciate the African indigenous religion. The Western
educational system as was deduced during the study has greatly
contributed to the loss of Gusii religio-culture.
Parents and elderly
persons have no access to the youth to get a chance of inculcating Gusii
234
religio-culture. The Western systems of education do not have allocations
in its curriculum lessons which inform the learners on their cultures and
traditions. In other levels of the Kenyan education system religion is given
an optional slot, a condition which threatens the future of the traditional
religio-cultural values. For revival of Gusii traditional concept of God, the
curriculum and policy developers need to incorporate the African
traditional religious heritage lessons in the school syllabus. Children
should be taught the value of interacting with the elderly persons in the
society for the informal education.
Second, the study recommends that parents should be reminded to play
their roles in teaching their children on their traditional concept of God.
During school holidays, parents should create some time for their children
in teaching them the concept of God. The young parents in Gusii should
use the elderly people in the community to teach them and their children
on the traditional concept of God. It is further recommended that children
who do not have parents should be taught by their relatives and the
community in general on Gusii traditional concept of God.
Third, the study recommends to the Protestant and Catholic churches in
Gusii to appreciate the inculturation of Gusii traditional concept of God.
There is need for the revival of Gusii traditional religious practices which
235
do not contravene the biblical teachings. This will be effective when the
ministers of the Gospel will re-interpret the scriptures to fit Gusii context
without compromising the biblical doctrines. Let the clergy employ the
biblical hermeneutics which will affect the local people positively so that
Abagusii may be and part and parcel of the Gospel.
Fourth, the study recommends inculturation is an ongoing process and all
church leaders should have a proper training in it. The churches should
have local persons as the clergy who will be men and women who
understand the traditional concept of God and how they can be
inculturated. The local clergy needs to have adequate training on African
traditional concept of God and biblical interpretation to fit the local
people. It was realized in this study that most clergies in the Catholic,
Protestant churches have theological trainings from the Western countries
with theological content deficient of inculturation and African ethnotheologies.
These clergies need re-training on the concepts of
inculturation and appreciation of the African ethno-theologies.
Finally, a recommendation to the world church is that let the Western
Christianity respect the religious diversity and the traditional concept of
God. They should also promote the process of inculturation of the
traditional concept of God so that the local people can also feel the
236
presence of God among them by having their ethnic images of God
inculturated.
5.4 Suggestions for Further Research
This study investigated the inculturation of the concept of God in the
traditional religion of Abagusii.
Therefore, further research on
inculturation should be based on other different communities to enhance
the generalizations of the harmonized findings on the inculturation of the
concept of God.
Future study should include the inculturation of Gusii traditional religion on
the individual family and public worship. This will examine reasons why
Abagusii professing Christians practice a religious duality - secretly visiting
the traditional herbalists, diviners and fortune tellers.
237
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file://kenya%/26.nyamira.map.htm
file://F:/kenymap.htm
245
Appendix 1
LIST OF INFORMANTS
Name
Age
Date
Location
Asuga, R.
65
26:06:2009
Bosamaro
Bangueso, J.
65
10:07:2009
Kiabonyoru
Barongo, S.
81
17:08:2009
Nyangoge
Bikondo, J.
67
09:06:2009
Manga
Cleopas N.
45
10:06:2009
Kiabonyoru
Cleopas, G.
55
03:08:2009
Nyankongo
Davison, K
38
23:08:2009
Kiabonyoru
Guto, J.
45
09.07:2009
Bogisanga
Kaoka, J.
64
18:08:2009
Kiabonyoru
Kegwaro, H.
50
23:06:2009
Bosamaro
Kemoko, N.
64
14:07:2009
Bogisanga
Kemuma. R.
25
02.06:2009
Rigoma
Kerosi, C.
45
28:08:2009
Bogichora
Kerubo, F.
65
23:07:2009
Bomanyanya
Kinanga, C.
70
09.07:2009
Manga
Kinaro, J.
40
12:08:2009
Bomanyanya
Kiraro G.
75
13.07:2009
Bogisanga
Mariamu, M.
55
10.05:2009
Kiabonyoru
Marita, J.
65
13:08:2009
Amakura
246
Maruko, S.
59
12:06:2009
Kiabonyoru
Mbaka, K.
22
17:07:2009
Nyangoge
Moenga, M.
37
29:08:2009
Bogichora
Mogaka, J.
50
23.06:2009
Kiabonyoru
Momanyi, A.
30
26:06:2009
Kiabonyoru
Moraya, H.
78
10:06:2009
Kenyenya
Mose, M.
67
23.06:2009
Manga
Nyaanga, N.
47
15:06:2009
Bosamaro
Nyabera, M.
75
10.06:2009
Kiabonyoru
Nyabwari, S.
76
10:06:2009
Kiabonyoru
Nyachiro, J.
40
04:08:2009
Amakura
Nyaitondi, D.
36
23:08:2009
Mosocho
Nyakemari, O
25
17:07:2009
Nyamusi
Nyakerario, M.
40
12.07:2009
Kiabonyoru
Nyakoe, J.
59
04:08:2009
Bogisanga
Nyambegera, A
56
21:07:2009
Nyamusi
Nyamoki, G.
24
25:07:2009
Kiabonyoru
Nyanchama, N.
32
12:06:2009
Kiabonyoru
Nyarabi, K.
45
13:07:2009
Manga
Nyaribari, J.
55
24.06:2009
Kiabonyoru
Nyatichi, J.
45
02:06:2009
Manga
Obiri, J.
78
13:07:2009
Bogisanga
247
Oigo, D.
74
12:07:2009
Manga
Oira, E.
34
28:08:2009
Amakura
Okeri, N.
60
12:07:2009
Manga
Ombui , O.
40
25:06:2009
Bosamaro
Omote, Z.
55
21:08:2009
Bomanyanya
Omwando, J.
68
23:07:2009
Amakura
Ontiri, H.
24
26:08:2009
Nyamusi
Orioki, N.
55
30:07:2009
Bomanyanya
Osindi, H.
80
10:06:2009
Kiabonyoru
Osoro, E.
56
17.07:2009
Kiabonyoru
Sani, O.
45
14:07:2009
Kiabonyoru
Timothy, G.
23
15:06:2009
Nyankongo
Vane, B.
42
25:08:2009
Keragia
248
Appendix 2
Map I: Location of Nyamira in the Map of Kenya
Nyamira
Source: file://F:/Kenymap.htm
249
Appendix 3
Map II: NYAMIRA DISTRICT MAP: SITE OF THE STUDY
file://Kenya%/26.nyamira.map.htm
250
Appendix 4
Questionnaire for Cultural Leaders
Name ………………………………………. Age……………………………
1. What cultural duties are you offering to the community?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
2. Who is Engoro in Gusii traditional religion?
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
3. What makes Abagusii believe in the existence of Engoro?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
4. What is the basis for Gusii belief in Engoro?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
5. What are the non-sharable attributes of God with humanity?
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
6. What are the sharable attributes of God with humanity?
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
7. a) Did Abagusii have the human, animal and bird images of God
Yes [...]
No
[...]
If yes which are some of these images in the categories below?
i) Human
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
251
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
ii) Animal
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………..
iii) Bird
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
b) What are the characteristics of the above (i, ii, iii) images which
makes Abagusii to relate them to Engoro?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
8. How did Gusii Religiosity become a seedbed for inculturation of
the concept of God?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
9. What will be the implication of inculturating Gusii traditional
images of God in question 7 above in the contemporary society?
252
Appendix 5
Interview for the Youth
Name ………………………………………..
Age……………………..
Religious Affiliation …………………………..
1. Do you know Gusii traditional name for God?
Yes [...]
No
[...]
If yes, from which source?
Grandparents [...]
Parents
[...]
Teacher
[...]
Church
[...]
Others
[...] specify ……………………………
2. What are some of the attributes of Engoro which are similar to the
Christian God?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………
3. Which are some of Gusii traditional images of God which are
similar to the Christian God?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………..
4. i) Do you think it is important to inculturate Gusii traditional
concept of God?
Yes
[...]
No
[...]
ii) If yes, how will it help the young people in the contemporary
society?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………
5. What can the youth learn about God through nature and
revelation?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
253
Appendix 6
Questionnaire for Parents
Name ………………………………………..
Age……………………..
Religious Affiliation …………………………..
1. How did Engoro relate with evil doers in Gusii traditional society?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………
2. How did Abagusii relate with nature in their traditional heritage?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………
3. How did the belief in Engoro preserve morality in Gusii traditional
society?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………
4. Why do Abagusii address Engoro as:i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
A Parent
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
………………………
A Friend
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
………………………
A Shepherd
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
Judge
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
………………………
254
v)
A Farmer
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
……………………….
5. How did Christianity interfere with Gusii traditional concept of
God?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………
6. How can the inculturation of Gusii traditional concept of God help
to restore the lost morality in Gusii community in the 21st Century?
255
Appendix 7
Questionnaire for Church Leaders
Name ………………………………………..
Age……………………..
Religious Affiliation ………………………..
1. For how many years have you been a church leader
1-5 Years
[...]
5-10 Years
[...]
10-15 Years
[...]
15-20 Years
[...]
20 Years and Above [...]
2. What is the nature of your church leadership?
ClergyLeadership [...]
Lay Leadership
[...]
3. What factors led to the establishment of Christianity in Gusii?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………
4. In your opinion, what assessment did the missionaries have on
Gusii traditional concept of God?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………..
5. What influence did the Christian teaching of the Trinity have on
Gusii traditional concept of God?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………
6. a) Which are some of the Biblical names used by Christianity to
address to God?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………
b) How did the names in (a) above influence Gusii traditional
names which were used to address to God?
………………………………………………………………………………
256
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
7. What is the Christian teaching on the attributes of God and how
did these teachings influence Gusii traditional concept of the
attributes of God?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
8. What are the Biblical images of God and how did they influence
Gusii traditional images of God?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………..
9. Which are some of the images of God that need to be inculturated?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
10. a) Is it important to inculturate Gusii traditional concept of God?
Yes
[...]
No
[...]
If yes, in your own opinion what will be the implications of the
inculturation of Gusii traditional concept of God in the church in
the 21st Century?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………..
257
Appendix 8
Focus Group Interviews
1. Who is Engoro in Gusii traditional religion?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………
2. What is the basis for Gusii belief in Engoro?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
3. God has intrinsic and extrinsic attributes. Discuss:i)
The intrinsic attributes of God
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
ii)
The extrinsic attributes of God
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
iii)
The images of God
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
4. How did the coming and the establishment of the Christian
missionaries in Gusii interfere with Gusii traditional concept of
God?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
5. What are similarities and differences of the concept of God in both
Christianity and Gusii traditional religion?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
258
6. What is the purpose of inculturating Gusii traditional concept of
God?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
259
Appendix 9
Official Letters
260
261
262
263