THE GYMNOSPERMS
Chhaya Biswas C B.M. Johri
Springer-Verlag
Narosa Publishing House
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
vii
ix
1. Introduction
Antiquity and Fossil History 1
Geographical Distribution 4
Cycadales and Ginkgoales 4
Pinaceae 6
Taxodiaceae 6
Cupressaceae 7
Podocarpaceae 7
Araucariaceae 7
Cephalotaxaceae 7
Taxales 8
Ephedrales 8
Welwitschiales 8
Gnetales 8
Characteristic Features 8
Gymnosperms and Pteridophytes
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
2. Seed Development
1-11
9
10
12-19
Microsporangium 12
Microsporogenesis 12
Male Gametophyte 13
Ovule 14
Megasporogenesis 14
Megaspore Wall 15
Female Gametophyte 16
Archegonia 16
Pollination and Fertilization 17
Pollination 17
Fertilization 18
Embryo 19
Seed 19
Seed-Coat 19
Temporal Considerations 19
3. Classification
20-23
xii
Contents
4. Progymnospermopsida
24-26
Phylogenetic Considerations of Archaeopteris
25
5. Gymnospermopsida
27
Gymnospermopsida—Cycadophytes
(Chapters 6-8)
6. Pteridospermales
28-35
Lyginopteridaceae 29
Lyginopteris oldhamia (Calymmatotheca hoeninghausij
Habit 29
Root 30
Stem 30
Leaf 30
Sporangia 33
Seed 33
Phylogenetic Considerations 34
7. Cycadeoidales
36-43
Cycadeoidaceae 38
Cycadeoidea 38
Stem 38
Leaves 38
Reproduction 39
Phylogenetic Considerations
8. Cycadales
Fossil Cycads
29
42
44-81
44
Nilssonia 46
Baenia 47
Androstrobus manis
Living Cycads 47
Root 47
Stem 48
Leaf 49
Reproduction 50
Spermatozoid 51
Ovule 52
Pollen Tube
52
Embryo 54
Chromosome Number
Cycadaceae 56
Cycas 56
41
55
Contents
xiii
Morphology 56
Anatomy 59
Root 59
Stem 59
Leaf 61
Reproduction 63
Male Cone 63
Microsporangium 66
Microsporogenesis 66
Male Gametophyte 67
Megasporophyll 68
Ovule 68
Megasporogenesis 71
Female Gametophyte 71
Archegonium 71
Pollination 73
Fertilization 77
Embryogeny 77
Differentiation of Embryo 79
Seed 79
Chromosome Number 80
Temporal Consideration 80
Phylogenetic Considerations 81
Gymnospermopsida—Gymnosperms of Uncertain
Relationship (Chapters 9-12)
9. Caytoniales
82-85
Caytoniaceae—Caytonia 82
Leaf 82
Pollen-bearing Organs 82
Ovule-bearing Organs 84
Phylogenetic Considerations 85
10. Glossopteridales
86-93
Glossopteridaceae—Glossopteris 86
Root 86
Leaf 88
Male Fructifications 88
Ovulate Structures 89
Phylogenetic Considerations 92
11. Pentoxylales
Pentoxylon
Habit
94
94
94-97
xiv
Contents
Stem 94
Leaf 95
Microsporangiate Organs 96
Ovulate Cone 96
Phylogenetic Considerations 97
12. Ginkgoales
98-126
Fossil Taxa 98
Ginkgoaceae 100
Ginkgo 100
Morphology 100
Anatomy 104
Root 104
Stem 104
Leaf 105
Reproduction 105
Male Cone 105
Microsporangium 105
Microsporogenesis 107
Male Gametophyte 107
Ovule 107
Megasporogenesis 108
Female Gametophyte 109
Pollination 117
Post-Pollination Development of Male Gametophyte 117
Fertilization 121
Embryogeny 122
Differentiation of Embryo 122
Seed 124
Germination 125
Chromosome Number 125
Temporal Considerations 125
Phylogenetic Considerations 125
Gymnospermopsida—Coniferophytes
(Chapters 13-16)
13. Cordaitales
Corda&taceae-Cordaites 127
Habit 127
Root 127
Stem 128
Leaf 131
Fructifications 131
Cordaianthus concinus 133
Cordaianthus pseudofluitans 133
Phylogenetic Considerations 134
127-136
Contents
14. Voltziales
137-143
Morphology 137
Anatomy 138
Reproductive Organs 139
Lebachiaceae 139
Voltziaceae 139
Ullmania 142
Glyptolepis 142
Voltziopsis 142
Phylogenetic Considerations
142
15. Coniferales
144-146
15.1 Pinaceae
146-188
Pinus 146
Morphology 146
Anatomy 150
Root 150
Stem: Shoot Apex 150
Compression Wood 156
Dwarf Shoot 156
Leaf 156
Reproduction 157
Male Cone 157
Microsporangium 158
Pre-meiotic Changes 158
Meiotic Changes 160
Post-meiotic Changes 160
Microsporogenesis 163
Male Gametophyte 166
Female Cone 166
Ovule 166
Megasporogenesis 168
Female Gametophyte (First period of growth) 168
Pollination 168
Post-pollination Development of Male Gametophyte 170
Female Gametophyte (Second period of growth) 171
Fertilization 175
Embryogeny 178
Proembryo 178
Differentiation of Embryo 178
Seed 181
Germination 184
Chromosome Number 185
Temporal Considerations 186
15.2 Taxodiaceae
Cryptomeria japonica
xv
\
188-202
189
xvi
Contents
Morphology 189
Anatomy 189
Stem 189
Leaf 191
Reproduction 191
Male Cone 191
Microsporangium 192
Microsporogenesis 192
Male Gametophyte 192
Female Cone 194
Ovule 194
Megasporogenesis 197
Female Gametophyte 197
Fertilization 199
Embryogeny 199
Diferentiation of Embryo 201
Seed 201
Germination 201
Chromosome Number 201
Temporal Considerations 202
...---
15.3 Cupressaceae
Biota orientalis 203
Morphology 203
Reproduction 205
Male Cone 205
Microsporangium 205
Microsporogenesis 205
Male Gametophyte 206
Female Cone 207
Ovule 207
Megasporogenesis 207
Female Gametophyte 207
Archegonial Complex 209
Pollination 212
Post-pollination Development of Male Gametophyte 212
Fertilization 213
Embryogeny 215
Differentiation of Embryo 217
Seed 218
Germination 218
Chromosome Number 219
Temporal Considerations 221
15.4 Podocarpaceae
Podocarpus
Morphology
222
222
202-221
(
221-251
Contents
xvii
Anatomy 222
Root 222
Stem. Shoot Apex 222
Leaf 224
Reproduction 227
Male Cone 227
Microsporangium 227
Microsporogenesis 231
Male Gametophyte 233
Female Cone 234
Ovule 234
Megasporogenesis 236
Female Gametophyte 236
Pollination 237
Post-Pollination Development of Male Gametophyte 239
Fertilization 242
Embryogeny 242
Differentiation of Embryo 245
Seed 248
Germination 250
Chromosome Number 250
Temporal Considerations 251
15.5 Araucariaceae
Araucaria 252
Morphology 252
Anatomy 254
Stem 254
Leaf 254
Reproduction 257
Male Cone 257
Microsporogenesis 257
Male Gametophyte 257
Female Cone 259
Megasporogenesis 259
Female Gametophyte 260
Pollination 262
Embryogeny 262
Chromosome Number 265
15.6 Cephalotaxaceae
Cephalotaxus 265
Morphology 267
Anatomy 268
Leaf 268
Reproduction 270
Male Cone 270
251-265
v
265-290
xviii
Contents
Microsporangium 270
Microsporogenesis 271
Male Gametophyte 272
Female Cone 273
Ovule 274
Megasporogenesis 278
Female Gametophyte 278
Pollination 282
Post-pollination Development of Male Gametophyte
-
-•
282
Fertilization 283
Embryogeny 284
Seed 287
Germination 289
Chromosome Number 289
Temporal Considerations 289
15.7 Phylogenetic Considerations of Coniferales
16. Taxales
290-291
292-310
Taxaceae 292
Taxus 292
Morphology 292
Anatomy 293
Stem 293
Leaf 294
Reproduction 295
Male Cone 295
Microsporangium 295
Microsporogenesis 295
Ovule 296
Megasporogenesis 298
Pollination 302
Post-pollination Development of Male Gametophyte 302
Fertilization 303
Embryogeny 304
Seed 308
Germination 308
Chromosome Number 308
Temporal Considerations 309
Phylogenetic Considerations 309
17. Gnetopsida
311
18. Ephedrales
312-342
Ephedraceae 312
Ephedra 312
Contents
xix
Morphology 312
Anatomy 313
Root 313
Stem 314
Reproduction 321
Male Strobilus 321
Microsporangium 321
Microsporogenesis 325
Male Gametophyte 327
Female Strobilus 327
Ovule 327
Female Gametophyte 330
Pollination 335
Fertilization 336
Embryogeny 337
Seed 338
Chromosome Number 341
Temporal Considerations 341
19. Welwitscniales
Welwitschiaceae 343
Welwitschia 343
Morphology 343
Anatomy 346
Root 346
Stem 347
Leaf 349
Reproduction 352
Cone Bracts 352
Male Strobilus 354
Microsporangium 355
Male Gametophyte 355
Female Strobilus 356
Megasporogenesis 356
Female Gametophyte 356
Pollination 359
Post-pollination Development of Male Gametophyte 360
Fertilization 360
Embryogeny 360
Seed 364
Germination 364
Chromosome Number 365
20. Gnetales
Gnetaceae 366
Gnetum 366
343-365
;
366-404
xx
Contents
Morphology 366
Anatomy 366
Root 366
Stem 367
Leaf 375
Reproduction 378
Male Strobilus 378
Microsporangium 378
Microsporogenesis 381
Male Gametophyte 383
Female Strobilus 384
Ovule 384
Megasporogenesis 389
Female Gametophyte 389
Pollination 391
Fertilization 393
Embryogeny 396
Seed 400
Germination 402
Chromosome Number 402
Temporal Consideration 403
21. Phylogenetic Considerations: Ephedra,
Welwitschia and Gnetum
405-407
22. In Vitro Experimental Studies
408-439
Vegetative Tissues and Organs 408
Microspore and Male Gametophyte 411
Female Gametophyte 413
Embryo 423
Conifer Biotechnolgy 433
Somatic Embryogenesis 433
Genetic Transformation 436
Protoplast Culture 436
Micropropagation 437
23. Economic Importance
General Aspects
Woods 441
440
Araucariaceae 442
Cupressaceae 442
Pinaceae 443
Podocarpaceae 444
Taxodiaceae 445
Taxaceae 445
Ginkgoaceae 445
440-456
Contents
xxi
Paper and Board 445
Resins 446
Hard Resins 447
Copal 447
Kauri Copal 447
Manila Copal 447
Amber 448
Sandarc 448
Oleoresins 449
Turpentine 449
Canada Balsam 450 Venice Turpentine 450
Tannins 451
Essential Oils 451
Fatty Oils 451
Food Supplements 452
Pharmaceuticals 454
24. Concluding Remarks
457-459
Seasonal Changes in Secondary Growth 457
Population and Wood Requirement 457
Pollution 458
Symbiosis 458
Reproductive Biology 458
Pollen Biology 459
Life History 459
References
Plant Index
460-489
491-494