Culture, Ethnicity, and Place in a Changing America

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Group/Year
One Race, White, non
One Race, Black
Hispanic
Asian/Pacific Islander
Totals
1940
116,353,000
(88.5%)
12,866,000
(9.8%)
1,861,000
(1.4%)
255,000
(<1%)
131,669,000
1970
169,653,000
(83.4%)
22,539,000
(9.8%)
9,073,000
(4.5%)
1,526,000
(<1%)
203,210,000
2000 SF1
211,460,000
(75.1%)
34,650,000
(12.3%)
35,308,000
(12.5%)
10,641,000
(3.7%)
281,421,000
2010–2014
5-Year
Estimates
231,850,000
(73.8%)
39,565,000
(12.6%)
53,070,000
(16.9%)
16,246,000
(5.2%)
340,731,000
(100%)
(100%)
(100%)
(100%)
Margin of error for
2010–2014 5-Year
Estimates (+/-)
51.2
23.0
1.5
25.2
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Source Nation by
Rank, 2000
U.S. Total
Mexico
China
Philippines
India
Vietnam
Cuba
Korea
Canada
El Salvador
Germany
Dominican
Republic
United Kingdom
Jamaica
Colombia
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Foreign-Born
Population,
2000
31,107,889
9,177,487
1,518,652
1,369,070
1,022,552
988,174
872,716
864,125
820,771
817,336
706,704
Foreign-Born
Population
2010–2014
5-year
Estimates
41,056,445
11,636,547
2,338,405
1,865,271
1,988,733
1,273,982
1,128,324
1,082,307
812,073
1,255,177
595,502
Margin of Error
for 2010-2014
5-Year Estimates
+/-102,782
+/-53,025
+/-12,355
+/-12,285
+/-16,296
+/-11,525
+/-9,454
+/-9,866
+/-7,919
+/-13,436
+/-4,337
11
12
13
14
687,677
677,751
553,827
509,872
942,123
683,726
697,215
680,215
+/-9,331
+/-6,342
+/-8,654
+/-9,326
Rank
2000
Rank
2000
Rank
2010–2014
5-Year
Estimates
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
4
3
5
7
8
10
6
14
11
12
13
14
9
12
11
13
CHANGING U.S. IMMIGRATION LAW
Immigration Policy between Two World Wars
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