CONTEXTS OF DIASPORA CITIZENSHIP
Transnational networks, social participation and social identification of Somalis in Finland and in
the U.S.
SUMMARY
The project Contexts of Diaspora Citizenship is a transatlantic, comparative set of interconnected substudies analyzing: 1) social participation, 2) transnational practices and networks, and 3) forms of social,
ethnic, national and transnational identifications of Somalis living in Finland and in the U.S. Comparative
approach between Finland and the U.S. will create new information and provide a contribution to
discussions concerning the future of increasingly multicultural Finland and its immigration, citizenship and
integration policies.
For practical consequences, by making a multi-sited comparative research between U.S. and Finland, the
project builds understanding of what are the particular and essential outcomes of the Finnish society for
life-courses and living conditions of the Somali communities. The project collects four significant sets of
empirical data: 1) Legislation and official documents concerning citizenship and integration policies in
Finland and in the U.S. (a comparative analysis), 2) collection of national welfare indicators and
demographic statistics concerning Somali minorities in the U.S. and Finland (a comparative analysis), 3)
expert interviews concerning citizenship and integration policies in Finland and in the U.S. (a comparative
analysis), and 4) interviews conducted with Somali immigrants living in Finland and in Minnesota (a
comparative analysis).
The project exceeds from 2012 to 2016 and is carried out through fieldwork both in Finland and Minnesota,
U.S. The expected results of the project are: impacts that exceed from empirically and socio-politically
relevant knowledge about diaspora citizenship to new conceptual approaches, where the culturalistic
perspective in analyzing diaspora and transnational citizenship is widened towards political theory and
comparative, contextualizing analysis. The project also develops the always challenging methods of
international comparative studies and methodological cosmopolitanism. The project produces and develops
knowledge for improving diaspora people’s equality as citizens and for understanding the new demands to
be noted concerning the transnational dimensions and political logics of especially immigrants’ citizenship.
1. BACKGROUND
Somalis form a significant part of world’s diaspora population. Currently over one million Somalis live
outside the country. Current headlines highlighting the ongoing political and humanitarian crises in Somalia
allude that the mobility of Somalis will increase even further. These problematic conditions also imply that
the Somali diaspora will and must stay in the focus of transnational migration research with new
perspectives and openings. In European studies, Somali immigrant minorities have this far been researched
mostly as religious and cultural minorities, and as targets of skin-color based racism. Although Somali
studies in different countries have also touched upon the Somalis’ from a variety of different aspects from
their wellbeing (employment, education, health etc.), transnational political engagement, family networks
and organizations to national identification and gender roles (e.g. Collet 2007; Fangen 2007; Tiilikainen &
Koehn 2011; Kleist 2008; Al-Sharmani 2010), the aspect of citizenship needs to be further explored. In this
project we turn the perspective on Somali immigrants as diaspora citizens – also within the political
meaning of the term – as well as their special citizenship and civil opportunities in transnational contexts.
The project Contexts of Diaspora Citizenship is a transatlantic, comparative set of interconnected substudies analyzing: 1) social participation, 2) transnational practices and networks, and 3) forms of social,
ethnic, national and transnational identifications of Somalis living in Finland and in the U.S. We start from
the sociological premise that people’s and groups’ societal positions, in terms of societal membership and
citizenship, are not just taken or negotiated but also allowed or denied in many formal and informal
practices, and that in different contexts minority people have different opportunities to be parts of their
social landscapes (Harinen 2003; Harinen et al. 2005; 2009). The term “diaspora citizenship” in this project
refers to minority people’s societal membership positions from a perspective of life-courses and the lived
and experienced everyday life, with its local, national and transnational relations.
Although Somalis have been subjects of versatile studies (Tiilikainen 2003; Hautaniemi 2004; AlitolppaNiitamo 2004; Jasinskaja-Lahti et al. 2002; Fennelly 2008; Mattessich 2000), also in Finland, any comparative
research between Finland and the U.S. has not been done this far. The apparent challenges of Somali
integration in both of these countries signify a need for an up-to-date research and a comparative approach.
In Finland, the increased criticism against immigration seems to focus on Muslims, people of color and
humanitarian migration - i.e., to Somalis, who form the most general reference of the national immigration
discourse (Souto 2011). In the U.S., Somalis face a double challenge when the mounting anti-immigration
sentiments intertwine with the already heated debate about the co-existence and collisions of Islam and the
West. Public discourses both in the U.S. and in Finland have also recently associated Somalis with
international terrorism, which is a new and consequential turn.
This project relies on scientific and social significance. Comparative approach between Finland and the U.S.
will create new information and provide a contribution to the discussion concerning the future of
increasingly multicultural Finland and its immigration, citizenship and integration policies. By making a
multi-sited comparative research between U.S. and Finland, the project analyses especially what
are the particular and essential outcomes of the Finnish society for life-courses and living
conditions of the Somali communities. The scientific significance of the project lies in the empirical and
contextual comparison of transnational identity experiences and transnational citizenship. Until now, the
question of transnational citizenship has been approached mainly from a theoretical perspective (Verkuyten
2005, 5; Mac an Ghaill 1999, 55–57). Besides, in the Finnish tradition of social sciences, discussion around
migration has very much leaned on concepts and perspectives of the so called British culturalism (Souto
2011), and thus an important question to answer here is: What kind of new understanding American
migration research perspectives can bring to this discussion? As the Americans have a longer tradition than
the Europeans in studying immigration especially from an intergenerational perspective, this contextual
notion deserves to be perceived.
The project provides a topical contribution in developing theoretical approaches, practices and methods of
comparative immigration research. In this work, the project aims to work closely with researchers of
recently funded Academy of Finland projects The Governance of Transnational Islam. The Case of Finland, Ireland
and Canada (2010-2013) and Security, Governance and Identities in flux. The role of diaspora in development in the horn
of Africa (2008-2011). Furthermore, the project takes a critical stance towards methodological nationalism,
the tendency of social sciences to conceptualize social phenomena only within the boundaries of the nationstate. By paying attention on transnational processes and comparative perspectives, the project develops
analytical tools and concepts that are not colored by the self-evidence of a world or world-view ordered into
nation-states. (Wimmer & Glick Schiller 2002; Beck & Beck-Gernsheim 2009.) Thus, we aim at drawing the
lines for both political and cultural logics of transnationalism and transnational citizenship (Harinen et al.
2007).
2. THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL OBJECTIVES
Empirically, the project Contexts of Diaspora Citizenship compares the interplay of social participation,
transnational practices and social identification of Somalis living in two different continents and contexts, in
Finland and in the U.S., more specifically, in the state of Minnesota. Conceptually, different parts and substudies of the project are linked together through the notions of transnational citizenship and citizenship as status
and practice.
Citizenship is the central instrument for studying social participation. The formal citizenship status has
generally been considered to enhance the feeling of security and to create experiences of inclusion and
acceptance. Naturalization has not, however, managed to solve the problems of everyday racism or lack of
employment opportunities (Ronkainen et al. 2007), as well as lack of possibilities to take part in political
decision making. For that end, this project considers both the importance of naturalization for the
integration of Somalis in Finland and in the U.S., as well as the role of citizenship as practice. In this project,
citizenship as practice refers broadly defined to Somalis’ identification with their citizenships, and their
social, political and economic participation in Finnish and American societies (Oldfield 1990; Lister 2003;
Isin & Wood 1999).
The vast majority of the Somalis arrived to Finland and to the U.S in the early 1990s escaping the civil war.
In Finland, around 11000 people speak Somali as their first language. Somali is thus the fourth largest
minority language after Russia, Estonian and English. Most of the Somalis in Finland have Finnish
citizenship. The role of Somalis in the Finnish society is constantly increasing; in 2009 the two largest
groups of asylum seekers came from Somalia and Iraq (Statistics Finland 2010; Finnish Immigration Service
2010). Still, in spite of their long-lasting duration in the country, their integration has not succeeded as
anticipated. Out of all the immigrant groups in Finland, Somalis are the most common target for racist
crimes and discrimination (Niemi et al. 2009, 275–279). Somalis are also overrepresented in the
unemployment and criminal statistics and their level of education and language skills are seen as insufficient
(Ministry of Labor 2007; Niemi et al. 2009, 254; Paananen & Pohjanpää 2003). Somalis live often detached
from the mainstream society. They have founded many organizations, but apart from a few members of
municipal councils, their political role has remained very small.
In the U.S., the state of Minnesota hosts the largest Somali community. According to the official statistics,
around 40 000 Somalis live in the Twin Cities formed by Minneapolis and Saint Paul. According to the
Somali community the number of Somalis in the Twin Cities exceeds 80 000. Although the need for lowskilled workers is relatively high in Minnesota, Somalis still suffer from unemployment. Around 80 % of
Minnesota’s Somali population lives under the official poverty line (Minnesota State Demographic Center
2008). Problems with integration and employment have been caused among others by language problems,
low education and the fact that educational degrees obtained in Somalia are not valid in the U.S. In addition,
religious practices and traditions have caused problems and misconceptions especially after the events of
9/11 (Fennelly 2005; Mattessich 2000). Despite of these problems, Minnesota’s Somali community has also
experienced success stories: the number of Somalis with a university degree is on a steady rise (unlike in
Finland), Somalis own and operate hundreds of businesses in the Twin Cities, Somali organizations are very
active, and although Somali politicians have not yet made it to the political elite, their political activity on
state and local levels is significant.
These similarities and differences between social participation of Somalis in Finland and in the U.S. raise
questions that have previously remained untreated. The comparative approach planned here provides an
opportunity to scrutinize the successes and failures of immigration and integration in two contexts that
differ significantly in terms of their migration history and immigration policies. The Finnish integration
model (the so called Kotouttamislaki/Integration Act, 2011) is based on the assumption that social
participation, employment and embodiment of the Finnish language and culture are more efficient if
minority groups feel that their cultures are accepted in Finland. The Finnish legislation has thus tried to
support the preservation of the Somali language and culture. In the U.S., cultural questions have not played
a role in the official immigration policies. For example, language learning is still strongly focused on English
at the cost of the first language and bilingualism. In the U.S., questions of integration and preservation of
cultures and languages are mainly a responsibility of the third sector. It is also important to notice
differences in the naturalization process in the U.S. and in Finland. In Finland, broad scope of civil rights
and social security are connected to the formal permit of residence, whereas in the U.S. these rights follow
naturalization. For that end, we compare how the different integration and citizenship policies and
practices reflect to Somali immigrants’ life-courses, social participation, social identification and
transnational practices.
Research of transnationalism and transnational citizenship (Portes et al. 1999; Ong 1998; Faist 2000;
Grillo 2001; Vertovec 2009) highlights the plethora of those social relations that people hold across state
borders and that organize their lives. “Transnational” can refer to socio-cultural, political and economic
bonds that are held transnationally by individuals, networks and organizations. (Portes et al. 1999.) In our
project, we will consider both political and socio-cultural transnationalism (Forsander 2001, 50). Political
transnationalism refers to border-crossing political activities, rights and organizations, whereas socio-cultural
transnationalism refers to maintenance of cultural, religious or social communities and transmitting of
ethnic and cultural consciousness.
Somali communities both in Finland in the U.S. offer an opportunity to analyze these different aspects of
transnationalism. In the most abstract sense transnationalism can refer to a virtual community, such as
Muxlim, in which Somali youth around the globe can meet and exchange views. More concretely, it can
refer to Somalis who live in Finland and send money to Somalia in order to fund the development of their
home country. Another interesting aspect of transnationalism are those Finnish citizens with Somali origin
who, disregard of the state of war, have returned to Somalia and are entitled to the diplomatic protection of
Finland, and those Somali boys from Minnesota who have run away to join Al-shabaabs fight for Islamic
Somalia. Somali diaspora creates thus a manifold and interesting global context in which local, national and
transnational forms of interaction and participation create a network for Somalis’ mutual interaction and
their integration to their new and old homes.
The third important research aspect of citizenship in this project is the social, and especially ethnic, national
and transnational, identification (e.g. Barth 1969; Liebkind 1989; Verkuyten 2005) of Somalis in diaspora.
We translate transnationalism as transborderness, transplaceness, transnationality and transregionality (cf. Hautaniemi
2004; Martikainen et al. 2006; Hirsiaho et al. 2005). The research is thus connected to the discussion of
(multinational) hyphenated identities, multi-sited identities and liminal in-between-identities (e.g. Turner
1977; Bhabha 1994; Werbner & Modood 2000; Ronkainen 2011), and to the role they play in transnational
and social participation. Because people hold border-crossing social, economic and political networks, their
practices, identifications and ethnicity is formed in relation to several social and cultural orders (Huttunen
2005, 131).
The social identification of Somalis is also connected to differences between gender and generation as well
as to the different pace of acculturation (Portes 1997). This creates many additional challenges. Those
immigrants, who arrived in 1990s, are often attached to connotations and culture of the home country,
whereas identifications of the so called second generation are more diverse. In Minnesota, especially young
Somali boys and men have been in trouble after losing the touch to the culture and language of their
parents, and not feeling as accepted members of the American culture either. Although the second
generation of Somalis is often doing (e.g., economically) better than the first one, Somalis are still
stigmatized in many ways both in Finland and in the U.S. Due to cultural differences, Islam and ethnicity,
they often do not feel accepted as citizens, although they would possess the formal citizenship. In Finland,
the public debate around Somalis has recently focused on questions of anchor children, reunification of
families and adopted children. Also differences and confrontations between various Somali clans have
created additional problems. For example in Minnesota fights between different Somali gangs of youngsters
have increased significantly during the past couple of years. In our research we wish to address all these
problems and to analyze their possible connections to transnational networks and their culmination in social
participation and interpretations of citizenship.
Research task and the research questions:
Conceptually, and with justifications described above, the research tasks of the project are divided into three
broad themes: 1) social participation, 2) social identification, and 3) transnationalism. The specific questions
related to each theme are introduced below. Each data set of the project will be used as comprehensively as
possible for each theme. Because the mobile and migrating people of the world tend to be young or young
adults, the research project considers also the age aspect throughout the research.
Social participation and questions presented to the research data: How Somalis experience their social
participation and their membership in two different societies, and what kinds of meanings they attach to
citizenship. Are there difference between Finland and Minnesota? How the integration policies and the
attitudes of the authorities towards Somalis differ in Finland and in Minnesota, what are the pain spots and
how they could be developed? How do these policies and attitudes affect to Somalis’ transnational practices
and social identifications?
Social identification and questions presented to the research data: How Somalis identify with their
citizenships and nationalities and how do they experience their ethnicity? Are there differences between
Finland and Minnesota? How the feelings of belonging are linked to transnational and social citizenship,
participation, loyalty and feelings of solidarity, as well as to concrete practices?
Transnationalism and questions presented to the research data: What are the transnational networks of
Somalis living in Finland and in Minnesota, and what kind of role do they play in their social participation
and social identification?
3. RESEARCH METHODS AND MATERIALS, ETHICAL ISSUES
This project collects four significant sets of empirical data
Legislation and official documents concerning citizenship and integration policies in Finland
and in the U.S. (a comparative analysis).
Collection of national welfare indicators and demographic statistics concerning Somalis in the
U.S. and Finland (a comparative analysis). Indicators consist of statistics concerning education, socioeconomic status, crimes, citizenship statuses, housing, employment, etc. of Somalis in Finland and in both
the U.S. and Minnesota. This information forms the basis for context and collection of other research data
(expert interviews and interviews with Somalis). Project also aims to develop an indicator model for welfare
and life-course of Somalis to be used more widely and in other research as well. This also is a strict answer
to the criticism of methodological nationalism, as the welfare indicators tend to be very national(istic) and
“western”.
Expert interviews concerning citizenship and integration policies in Finland and in the U.S. The
interviews focus on experiences and perspectives of Somali integration and they are conducted with relevant
authorities of the Finnish state and the Minnesotan state and representatives of organizations working with
Somali immigrants and integration. In Finland interviewees consists mainly of experts of Ministry of the
Interior's migration department and especially the Finnish Immigration Service. Complementing data are
collected by interviewing the Ombudsman for Minorities and selected experts from Police, the Finnish
Border Guard, Ministry of Education and Culture, Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, Ministry of the
Environment (housing), Ministry for Foreign Affairs (visas and development policy) and Ministry of
Employment and the Economy. Interviewed NGO’s include Finnish Somalia Network, Somali League,
Finnish Refugee Council, Refugee Advice Centre, Finnish League for Human Rights, Service Centre for
Development Cooperation (KEPA) and the Finnish Red Cross. Interviews will focus on individual experts
on various fields. The goal is to get a comprehensive view on the issues relating to the integration of Somali
immigrants and its special contextual characters. In the U.S., expert interviews will take into
account the experts of federal bureaus related to immigration (Citizenship and Immigration Services,
Immigration and Custom Enforcement and Office of Refugee Resettlement), and the state departments in
charge of immigration in Minnesota. Also selected experts from those departments in charge of enforcing
the immigration laws, such as the immigration unit of the state police and custom and border control will be
interviewed. From the third sector, this project will interview organizations working with immigration and
integration, such as Minnesota Immigrant Freedom Network and American Civil Liberties Union, as well as
Somali organizations, such as Confederation of Somali Community and Somali Cultural Institute.
Interviews conducted with Somali immigrants living in Finland and in Minnesota (a comparative
analysis). About 30 Somalis are interviewed in both locations. Somalis are selected from different
demographic groups based on a snowball method with help of previous contacts and local Somali
organizations. “Somali” in this project refers to a person with a Somali background living in Finland or
Minnesota disregard of his or her citizenship status and immigration background. Because the question of
integration is linked to differences between generations and the different pace of acculturation, we will
interview both new-comer immigrants and members of the so called second generation. In addition to
generation, clans play significant role in identifications of Somalis and that is why the clan background is
considered in this project as far as possible. Interviews are conducted and analyzed on the basis of a lifecourse and theme interview. The themes of interviews are a) experiences of immigration and integration, b)
experiences of social participation (employment, education, living, organizations, everyday interaction,
culture), c) experiences of social identification, d) experiences of political and cultural transnationalism,
transnational networks and their significance (including organizations, online communities, money
transfers/remittances, remigration, family reunification etc.). We consider the data collected through theme
interviews to be the most appropriate to answer the research questions. This is true especially with the
interviews conducted with the Somalis, because questions of identification and experiences of social and
transnational participation can be best dealt with using qualitative methods. For example ethnographic
research would require a different perspective and a longer research span. Based on our previous
experiences, we can also state that broad quantitative questionnaires with officials and decision makers tend
to suffer from lack of responses and remain shallow, and are thus not a suitable method for this kind of
research. (See Ronkainen et al. 2008.)
The data collections are carried out by the researchers of this project. The collected data will be stored in
the “intranets” of the Finnish research organizations (University of Eastern Finland and Mikkeli University
of Applied Sciences), and only the project researchers have access to them (in spite of the document
material that is public). Later, a possibility to restore the data in the Finnish Social Science Data Archive
(http://www.fsd.uta.fi/) will be discussed. In this case, the data could with some restrictions, and with the
permission of the informants, be available also to other researchers.
Critical analyses of different diaspora contexts include a demand of an antiracist ethos (Souto 2011). The
main sociopolitical aim of the project is to help in developing societal conditions that can take into account
Somalis as active and equal citizens, both locally and transnationally. The empirical cases of this project
implicate also special reflexivity and sensitivity toward discourses of racism, cultural differences and
immigration policies. Inviting young people as informants for certain parts of this project implies also
sensitivity and sense of responsibility, and if the informants are younger than 15, they come along only with
the permission of their custodies. Protecting and not harming the informants are guidelines that are
followed
in
each
stage
of
the
project,
including
result
reporting.
(www.aaanet/org/committees/ethics/ethcode.)
4. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE RESEARCH, TIMETABLE, BUDGET AND DISTRIBUTION
OF WORK
The project will be conducted in 1.9.2012–30.4.2016 according to the following preliminary schedule:
Fall 2012-Fall 2013: Research group meets in Finland to plan the project. Conduction of the document
analysis and collection of the national welfare indicators and demographic statistics in Finland and in
Minnesota.
Fall 2013-Fall 2014: Planning and conduction of the authority interviews (including a trip of the whole
group to Minnesota to plan this part of the project and get to know the local conditions). Jussi Ronkainen
includes to this meeting a research visit of three months to the University of Minnesota’s Department of
Education and to The Advocates for Human Rights institute. Anne-Mari Souto will conduct the interviews
in Finland and Marko Kananen in Minnesota. Comparing the document analysis and planning the frame for
theme interviews will be done by the whole research group. Analysis of the authority data, conducting of an
international publication and participation in few selected national and international seminars.
Fall 2014-Fall 2015: Planning of the interviews conducted with Somali immigrants (including a meeting
in the U.S. with the whole group). Anne-Mari Souto and Päivi Harinen include to this research period
research visits of three months to the University of Minnesota’s Department of Education and to The
Advocates for Human Rights institute. Anne-Mari Souto will conduct interviews in Finland and Marko
Kananen in the U.S. Analysis of the data, writing of an international article based on the results of the
interview data and participation in few selected national and international seminars will be done by the
whole research group. NGOs participating in the project will help finding the interviewees.
Fall 2015-Spring 2016: Combining analysis bringing together different data sets. The research group
meets in Finland to plan the book based on the results. Writing of the book, which will be targeted for a
broad Finnish audience (authorities and practitioners) and, if possible, it will be translated into English with
co-operation of the University of Minnesota and The Advocates for Human Rights. On the basis of the
book and the results of the project, researchers will take part in public discourse and organize a seminar for
the academic community, politicians, official authorities, practitioners and media. Organizing a similar
seminar in Minnesota is also open for planning. NGOs participating in the project will take part in the
organization of the seminar and they will employ/pilot the results of the project to their own work.
Additionally, researchers will conduct a combining international publication and introduce the results in
national and international seminars.
5. EXPECTED RESULTS
1) Empirical, conceptual and methodological contribution: The project is expected to have impacts that exceed from
empirically and socio-politically relevant knowledge about diaspora citizenship to new conceptual
approaches, where the culturalistic perspective in analyzing diaspora and transnational citizenship is
widened towards political theory and comparative, contextualizing analysis. The project thus develops the
always challenging methods of international comparative studies and “methodological cosmopolitanism”
(Laine 2011).
2) Practical use of findings: The project produces and develops knowledge for improving diaspora people’s
equality as citizens and for understanding the new demands to be noted concerning the transnational
dimensions of immigrants’ citizenship.
3) Research collaboration: Research group meetings, working periods in Minnesota and active interaction with
the project partners (who will also work as an advisory group for this project) will guarantee the
collaborative and open nature of this project.
4) Publications and delivering the results: Individual and common articles in international and national scientific
journals in Finland and in the U.S. A book that collects together all the results of this project is written both
in Finnish and in English for academics, teachers, practitioners and officials of relevant fields. The
researchers introduce their research in national and international seminars. A seminar for officials and
decision makers is organized in 2016.
6. KEY LITERATURE
Alitolppa-Niitamo, Anne (2004) Ice-breakers. Somali speaking youth in metropolitan Helsinki with a focus on the context of
formal education. Population Research Institute, Helsinki.
Al-Sharmani, Mulki (2010) Transnational family networks in the Somali diaspora in Egypt: women's roles and
differentiated experiences, Gender, Place & Culture 17 (4), 499-518.
Barth, Fredrik (1969) Introduction. In F. Barth (ed.) Ethnic groups and boundaries: The organization of Cultural
Difference. Universitätsförlaget, Oslo 9-38.
Beck Ulrich & Beck-Gernsheim, Elisabeth (2009) Global generations and the trap of methodological nationalism
for a cosmopolitan turn in the sociology of youth and generation. European Sociological review 25 (1), 25-36.
Bhabha, Homi K. (1994) The Location of Culture. Routledge, London.
Collet, Bruce A. (2007) Islam, national identity and public secondary education: perspectives from the Somali
diaspora in Toronto, Canada. Race, Ethnicity and Education 10 (2), 131-153.
Faist, Thomas (2000) Transnationalisation in International Migration: Implications for the Study of Citizenship
and Culture. Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol. 23, No 2, 189-222.
Fangen, Katrine (2007) Citizenship among young adult Somalis in Norway, Young 15 (4), 413-434
Fennelly, Katherine (2005) Latinos, Asians, Africans in the Northstar State: New Immigrant Communities in
Minnesota. Teoksessa E. M. Gozdziak & S. F. Martin (toim.) Beyond the Gateway: Immigrants in a Changing
America. Lexington Books, Lanham.
Fennelly, Katherine (2008) Prejudice toward immigrants in the Midwest. The changing geography of African immigration.
Russell Sage Press, New York.
Finnish
Immigration
Service
(2010)
http://www.migri.fi/download.asp?id=Turvapaikanhakijat+2009;1480;{A22DBE83-CA96-4187-993EBBADCD7BC6C9} (28.09.2011)
Forsander, Annika (2001) Etnisten ryhmien kohtaaminen (Meeting ethnic groups). In A. Forsander, E. Ekholm,
P. Hautaniemi, A. Abdullah, A. Alitolppa-Niitamo, E. Kyntäjä (eds.) Monietnisyys, yhteiskunta ja työ
(Multiethnicity, society and work). Palmenia, Helsinki, 31-56.
Grillo, Ralph D. (2001) Transnational Migration and Multiculturalism in Europe. Transnational Communities
Programme, working papers. http://www.transcomm.ox.ac.uk/working_papers.htm. (28.09.2011)
Harinen, Päivi (2003) (ed.) Contesting Memberships. Nationality and Culture in Young People’s Everyday Life. The Finnish
Youth Research Network, Helsinki.
Harinen, Päivi & Suurpää, Leena & Hoikkala, Tommi & Hautaniemi, Petri & Perho, Sini & Keskisalo, AnneMari & Kuure, Tapio & Künnapuu, Krista (2005) Membership Contests - Encountering Immigrant Youth
in Finland. Journal of Youth Studies, 8 (3), 281-296.
Harinen, Päivi & Pitkänen, Pirkko & Ronkainen, Jussi & Sagne, Silvain (2007) Multiple Citizenship as a
Challenge for Finnish Citizenship Policy Today. In D. Kalekin-Fishman & P. Pitkänen (eds.) Multiple
Citizenship as a Challenge to European Nation-States. Sense Publishers, Rotterdam.
Harinen, Päivi, Honkasalo, Veronika, Souto, Anne-Mari & Suurpää, Leena (2009) (eds.) Open up the Doors!
Multicultural Youth, Leisure and Participation in Civil Society. The Finnish Youth Research Network, Helsinki.
Hautaniemi, Petri (2004) Pojat! Somalipoikien kiistanalainen nuoruus Suomessa (Boys! Somali boys’ disbuted youth in
Finland). The Finnish Youth Research Network 41, Helsinki.
Hirsiaho, Anu, Korpela, Mari & Rantalaiho, Liisa, (2005) Kohtaamisia rajoilla (Meetings at borders). SKS, Tampere.
Huttunen, Laura (2005) Etnisyys. Luokittelusysteemejä ja elettyä yhteisöllisyyttä (Ethnicity. Classification systems
and lived communality). In A. Rastas, L. Huttunen & O. Löytty (eds.) Suomalainen vieraskirja. Kuinka
käsitellä monikulttuurisuutta (A Finnish guestbook. How to handle multiculturalism). Vastapaino, Tampere,
117-160.
Isin, Engin F. & Wood, Patricia K. (1999) Citizenship & Identity. SAGE, London.
Jaakkola, Magdalena (2005) Suomalaisten suhtautuminen maahanmuuttajiin vuosina 1987-2003 (Attitudes of Finns
towards migrants between 1987-2003). Ministry of Labor, Finland 286, Helsinki.
Jasinskaja-Lahti, Inga, Liebkind, Karmela & Vesala, Tiina (2002) Rasismi ja syrjintä Suomessa: maahanmuuttajien
kokemuksia. Gaudeamus, Helsinki.
Kleist, Nauja (2008) Mobilising 'The Diaspora': Somali Transnational Political Engagement. Journal of Ethnic and
Migration Studies 34 (2), 307 – 323
Kotouttamislaki/ Finnish Integration Act (1386/2010) Laki maahanmuuttajien kotouttamisesta ja
turvapaikanhakijoiden vastaanotosta.
Laine, Sofia (2011) What methodological cosmopolitanism? In P. Harinen, P. Ahponen & Haverinen, V-S. (eds.)
Methodological nationalism, transnational reality? In publicing process.
Liebkind, Karmela (1989) Me ja muukalaiset – ryhmärajat ihmisten suhteissa (We and Aliens – group borders and
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