Logoeducation in Irish Pre-Schools
The Implications of Meaning for Early Education
Student: Anne Rushe
Preceptor: Dr. Stephen J. Costello
Date: August 2013
Acknowledgements
Firstly, I wish to thank Dr. Stephen Costello, Director of the Viktor Frankl Institute of
Ireland, for his patience and understanding throughout the process of completing this
thesis and also for his invaluable guidance and support. I also extend my gratitude to Dr.
Costello’s first and second year students for giving me their time and very helpful
comments / suggestions regarding this thesis.
Secondly, I also wish to thank my family and friends for their faith in me and for picking
me up when I doubted myself. I especially want to thank Joe Geraghty, whose patience,
loyalty and love have no equal, for continuing to be my rock and the voice of reason
whenever I faltered.
Thirdly, and finally, I thank my parents who are sadly deceased since 2000 and who
missed out on my life-changing epiphany which led me to discover and explore the world
of psychology and logotherapy. I dedicate this thesis to Vera and Donal Rushe, who
were my first logotherapists.
i
Table of Contents
1.
Abstract .................................................................................................................... i
2.
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1
3.
Logotherapy ............................................................................................................ 4
4.
Franklian Views on Children and Education ........................................................ 17
5.
Child Development and Theories of Education .................................................... 23
6.
Children - Meaning and Logotherapy ................................................................... 42
7.
Education in Ireland .............................................................................................. 49
8.
Philosophy for Children ........................................................................................ 70
9.
Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 81
10.
References ............................................................................................................. 85
ii
1.
Abstract
“Education should not be the filling of a pail, but the lighting of a fire.”
W.B. Yeats
The premise of this thesis is to establish and identify grounds for the viability of
making Franklian logotherapy available to Irish schoolchildren at the youngest age
possible. Developmentally children at four years of age are capable of understanding the
concepts of living responsibly and authentically.
By introducing the principles of
logotherapy, through philosophical discussions, children can be encouraged to examine
their existence and reach a better understanding of the meaning to be gleaned from it.
This does not entail a drastic change in the educational system but rather an addition to it,
more analogous to a complimentary supplement.
This is achievable by combining
logotherapy with philosophy for children (P4C)1, which has proven itself in other
countries as a valuable tool in guiding children and in improving their development (e.g
cognitive, emotional, psychological, etc).
1
Philosophy for Children - developed by philosopher Matthew Lipman in the 1970s (see chapter 8 for
more detail).
i
2.
Introduction
“Do not train a child to learn by force or harshness; but direct them to it by what
amuses their minds, so that you may be better able to discover with accuracy the
peculiar bent of the genius of each.”
Plato
The aim of this thesis is to examine and evaluate the implications of making the
core principles of Dr. Viktor Frankl’s logotherapy available to Irish children (starting
with pre-school children, from about four years of age). This thesis will assess the
possible outcome of such an endeavour, in particular whether this would result in
individuals who grow up with a belief in themselves from an early age, who take
responsibility for their own thoughts and feelings, and who recognise and embrace the
freedom that comes with it.
It will be necessary to take a look at Viktor Frankl’s principles of logotherapy and
thereafter Franklian views and recommendations regarding children and education.
Taking into account the results of existing studies conducted on how young people view
their world, this thesis will attempt to evaluate how education, through the introduction of
logotherapeutic methods (“logoeducation”2), could be taught to children who, among
other things, naturally value honesty and rationality and who live in the present and not
the past. By exploring how logoeducation can be utilised to help children discover
meaning through the education they receive, especially during the important formative
years and by examining the present education system in Ireland, it should be possible to
2
Defined as “a model of teaching and learning based on the establishment of meaning as part of the
curricula experience” (Rice & Young, 1998 – George E. Rice, Professor, Educational Leadership &
Counselling & Mitchell Young, Professor, Educational Leadership & Counselling, both of Northeast
Louisiana University).
1
establish where, how and when logoeducation could be integrated in order for it to be
effectively put to use.
An assessment of some child development and education theories will also give
an idea of how feasible it would be to aim to introduce logoeducation to children as
young as pre-school age. The aim here is to examine the existing evidence that four year
olds are capable of thinking about others and that they can pose existential questions
relating to what is relevant to them. Even young children wonder about the meaning of
life.
Bearing all of this in mind, it would appear that the young people in Ireland are
lacking meaning. They are living in existential and educational vacuums3 with no idea of
what it is they are living for or towards. As Viktor Frankl said man should not ask what
he may expect from life, but should rather understand that life expects something from
him (see Frankl, 1959, p. 85). How can this be addressed in our society today? Ours is a
culture of taking and expecting, not of giving and making, and this is the example being
set for future generations. With unemployment figures reaching staggering heights,
leading to what Frankl termed “unemployment neurosis”4, what is it that will give people
a reason to get up in the morning, a reason to live? This thesis will set out the reasons
why the answer is to be found in logotherapy.
3
Feelings of “inner emptiness” or of “total and ultimate meaninglessness” which “manifest mainly in a
state of boredom” (Frankl, 1959, pp 110-111).
4
A type of depression resulting from unemployment - “being jobless was equated with being useless, and
being useless was equated with having a meaningless life” (Frankl, 1959, p. 142).
2
This leaves the burning question of precisely how can the integration of
logoeducation be achieved in Ireland? Engaging in the training of educators and parents
in logotherapy’s main tenets could be examined as an important jumping-off point in the
development of logoeducation.
Through adults, children would then be receiving
valuable meaningful examples both at school and at home.
The integration of logoeducation, including P4C, into the educational system will
not be an easy enterprise. There are many hurdles to such an endeavour, especially in a
culture where problems with education have become a major talking point. Secondary
school education in Ireland is being examined with a view to ridding the system of junior
certificate examinations5 and possibly leaving certificate examinations, due to the
disappointing results being churned out year after year. A new perspective is required in
order to facilitate students who are not reaching the expected levels of excellence.
Throughout the ensuing chapters, as previously mentioned, an in-depth appraisal
will be undertaken of Franklian logotherapy as applied to students; theories of child
development and education; current methods of education; and philosophy for children;
culminating in an assessment of suggested methods of applying logoeducation in Ireland.
5
The Junior Certificate examination is to be discontinued from 2015 – to be replaced with continual
assessment and end of term examination (see Irish Independent – www.independent.ie, 20.10 2012).
3
3.
Logotherapy
According to Viktor Frankl, his therapy – logotherapy - stems from his belief that
what is of utmost importance to man is his search for meaning in life. “Logos” is the
Greek word for “spirit” and “meaning”, therefore Frankl’s logotherapy is a meaningcentred therapy. Frankl called logotherapy “education towards responsibility”, that is the
responsibility for living one’s life authentically6 (Frankl, 1955, p. 14). Frankl quotes
Nietzsche “He who has a why to live for can bear almost any how” (see Frankl, 1959, p.
109). In other words, for any person who has meaning in their lives, life is worth living.
Frankl states that for man to question the meaning of his life is “the truest expression of
the state of being human, the mark of the most human nature in man”, for it is
unimaginable that any other creature examine its existence in this manner (Frankl, 1955,
p. 44). Therefore, the very thing that makes us human is something many of us cannot or
will not realise. In the immortal words of Socrates, “the unexamined life is not worth
living” (Socrates (469-399 BC), cited in Plato, dialogues, the Apology). This means that
man should not live passively but actively.
Logotherapy has, as its basis, three main assumptions:
1.
Freedom of will - life has meaning under all circumstances - even in times of
extreme suffering meaning may be found.
2.
Will to meaning - people have a will to meaning – all humans are beings towards
meaning.
6
Frankl defines this as “man’s desire for a life that is as meaningful as possible” (Frankl, 1959, p. 106).
4
3.
Meaning in life - people have freedom under all circumstances to activate the
will to meaning and to find meaning – not freedom from but freedom to.
Frankl says that meaning may be found in any situation. The will to meaning is
inherent in every person and every one has within them the ability to realise this meaning.
For Frankl, meaning is discovered in the following three different ways:
(1)
by creating a work or doing a deed – through creativity or the satisfaction one
experiences from a job well done;
(2)
by experiencing something or encountering someone – through love of and being
in love, e.g. the love of nature or of another person; and
(3)
by the attitude we take toward unavoidable suffering -
not accepting but
deciding how to face a crisis, by choosing one’s attitude (see Frankl, 1959, p.
115).
Supporting this, Frankl states that “a man who is enjoying supreme artistic
pleasure or happiness of love never doubts for a moment that his life is meaningful”
(Frankl, 1955, p. 55) and that “suffering ceases to be suffering at the moment it finds a
meaning, such as the meaning of a sacrifice” (Frankl, 1959, p. 117). Frankl, in his
writings, regularly cites a case of a doctor who came to him seeking help following the
death of his wife and who was severely depressed as a result. Frankl helped this man find
meaning in his suffering, thereby making it bearable, for as Frankl states, “despair is
suffering without meaning” (Frankl, 1948, p. 133) (this may also be written as “D = S –
M”). This is the essence of self-transcendence, with man as a being towards something
5
or someone other than himself, with self-actualisation7 as its side-effect, for it is through
living one’s life for another that this ensues. By experiencing “goodness, truth and
beauty” by encountering something in nature or culture, by creating something with one’s
own mind and body, or by experiencing the uniqueness of another human being, by
loving someone, a person’s life is abundant with meaning (see Frankl, 1959, p. 115).
Frankl also states that “everything can be taken from a man but one thing: the last of the
human freedoms – to choose one's attitude in any given set of circumstances, to choose
one’s own way” (Frankl, 1959, p. 75). Frankl recalls those prisoners of war with whom
he was incarcerated in the concentration camps, who went to the gas chambers with their
heads held high, for even in the face of death they did not relinquish their hold on life
with despair or loss of dignity (see Frankl, 1959).
Frankl studied man’s suffering, mental illness and disease from the perspective of
what keeps a person mentally healthy, openly disagreeing with Freud's theory that man's
pursuit was to find pleasure (what he referred to as the “will to pleasure”) or Adler's
theory that man's pursuit was to attain superiority over others (“the will to power”), but
rather man’s ultimate aim is to find meaning in his existence (“the will to meaning”).
Frankl did not agree that being human is reducible to mere instincts or drives, but that
“Human existence remains an Urphänomen, i.e., un unanalyzable, irreducible
phenomenon” (Frankl, 1948, p. 36). Frankl believed that the “will to pleasure” (Freud)
and the “will to power” (Adler) were false or pseudo-aims and that the will to meaning is
what is true to man, this is what truly matters. He also states that “Whenever the pulling
7
Defined by Frankl as, “The more one forgets himself – by giving himself to a cause to serve or another
person to love – the more human he is and the more he actualises himself” (Frankl, 1959, p. 115).
6
force exerted by meanings and reasons is obscured, the pushing force of drives and
instincts is hypothesized” (Frankl, 1948, p. 132). He believed that the “noös”8 - the
spiritual dimension (not in a religious sense but the spirit of man, his essence), is what
distinguishes us from other animals, who also possess the biological and psychological
dimensions, and it is from this spiritual dimension9 that the “defiant power of the human
spirit” may be utilised in times of peril and hopelessness. This is the inner power that
comes into play when one is faced with great adversity, which enables man to survive, to
rail against and survive overwhelming odds. What man also has, that no other animal
possesses, is a sense of humour, which Frankl refers to as “another of the soul’s weapons
in the fight for self-preservation” (Frankl, 1959, pp 54).
Man uses humour as a
mechanism of coping with sadness and fear, in times of despair it is often therapeutic to
find something to lift the mood of the moment, even if one can find little that is funny.
Frankl further states that “the attempt to develop a sense of humour and to see things in a
humorous light is some kind of a trick learned while mastering the art of living” (Frankl,
1959, p. 55). Trying to make light of a situation reduces its ferocity, somewhat lessening
its impact upon the senses and thereby making it a bit more bearable.
Finding purpose and meaning in one’s life has become a purpose in and of itself
to modern society. Alex Pattakos PhD10 posits that this trend is relative to a shift in
consciousness, enabling people to hone in on what it is they believe truly matters in their
lives (see Pattakos, 2010). The fast pace which life is lived at today leaves little time to
8
Greek word, meaning “mind”.
This is Frankl’s tri-dimensional ontology, that man consists of body (soma), mind (psyche) and spirit
(noös).
10
Therapist and Founder of the Center for Meaning, Santa Fe, New Mexico, USA.
9
7
actually live, merely existing is not living. Pattakos posits that life and meaning is being
missed, with so much insignificance filling our days (see Pattakos, 2010). He warns that
“If we don’t stop long enough to search out our own existence, meaning will recede to an
impossible dream” (Pattakos, 2010, p. 96). In the same vein, Frankl determined that
there exists in society a “collective neurosis”, consisting of “the planless, day-to-day
attitude”, “fanaticism”, “fatalistic attitude” and “collective thinking”, all of which
“symptoms can be traced back to man’s fear of responsibility and his escape from
freedom” (Frankl, 1955, pp 14-16). He states that modern man has “become weary of all
that is spiritual” and that this “weariness is perhaps the essence of that nihilism which has
so often been mentioned” (Frankl, 1955, p. 16). In Frankl’s opinion, “even the tragic and
negative aspects of life, such as unavoidable suffering, can be turned into a human
achievement by the attitude which a man adopts towards his predicament” (Frankl, 1969,
p. ix). In Man’s Search for Meaning, Frankl further states that “people have enough to
live by but nothing to live for; they have the means but no meaning” (Frankl, 1959, p.
142). As supported by Pattakos in 2010, these attitudes remain unaltered since Frankl
penned these statements in the 1950s. Different threats exist but the reaction to them is
identical. The events of 9/11 and the London bombings brought the world to a new level
of fear. Instead of reading about atrocities from the third-world or countries under the
rule of some despot, evil visited an affluent society which was unaware of the
approaching danger, extinguishing the lives of people going about their daily routines,
not as part of a war but a sudden inexplicable act of mass murder. The world watched in
horror and this act of hatred changed it, not by instilling meaning in life but rather by
suffusing it with fear and paranoia. Now, more than ever, Frankl’s words strike home –
8
“If we present a man with a concept of man which is not true, we may well corrupt him.
When we present man as an automaton of reflexes, as a mind-machine, as a bundle of
instincts, heredity and environment, we feed the nihilism to which modern man is, any
case, prone”, what he calls “corruption” (Frankl, 1955, p. 19). To help man “realise his
latent values”, Frankl quotes Goethe – “If we take people as they are, we make them
worse. If we treat them as if they were what they ought to be, we help them to become
what they are capable of becoming” (Frankl, 1955, p. 27). Man has the ability to change,
that is to change his attitude and it is this change that is lacking in today’s society, people
are afraid to take a stand / responsibility, it is easier to accept things as they are and to let
it be, effectively giving in to nihilism. Change is frightening and difficult, no one is
prepared to fight for what they believe in because there is very little left to believe in.
This is why, in this age of worldwide existential crisis, it is vitally important that man
is assisted in discovering meaning by examining meaning potentialities (through
identifying the values of creativity, love and attitudinal change), by applying the
techniques of logotherapy, which are as follows:

Dereflection;

Paradoxical intention; and

Socratic dialogue.
In circumstances where a person is overly self-absorbed or obsessively pursues a
goal, referred to by Frankl as “hyper-intention” and “hyper-reflection”, dereflection is the
method used to counteract symptoms of anxiety and compulsions. By redirecting or
9
“dereflecting” attention away from the self (as referred to as self-distancing), the person
can resolve this by engaging in thinking about others rather than themselves.
Dereflection has proved successful in treating impotency resulting from anxiety relating
to performance, by encouraging the person to focus more on their partner and less on
themselves or their own satisfaction. Consciously seeking pleasure and happiness does
not work, it must ensue, the more one strives for it or obsesses about it, the further away
and the more elusive it becomes (see Costello, The Ethics of Happiness, 2010).
Paradoxical intention has proven efficacy in the treatment of irrational fears or
phobias, anxieties and obsessive-compulsive behaviours. This therapy requires that the
person is directed to wish for the thing to happen that he or she fears the most, by
reversing their problematic reaction. For those who suffer from anxiety or phobias, their
fears can be paralysing, and may result in fear of the fear or anticipatory anxiety resulting
in panic attacks. By turning this around and by applying hyperbole and, when possible,
humour – thus effectively making the object of their fear seem funny or ridiculous - they
remove this fear from their intention and relieve the anxiety associated with it. For
instance, if a person suffers from excessive anxiety when communicating with others
resulting in profuse perspiration or stammering, their treatment would be that they intend
to sweat or stammer as much as possible, enabling them to take control of their anxiety,
to defy their fear. This calls for a change of attitude towards the problem.
Socratic dialogue, named for and echoing a technique utilised by Socrates, involves
using the person’s own words as a method of self-discovery and illumination, through a
10
series of questions aimed at directing the patient towards realising the hidden meaning
behind their words. By listening intently, using active listening, to what a person says
and specific words they use, identifying ‘logo-hooks’11, the therapist can point out
specific patterns of words or word solutions to the client, and enable the person to
discover new meaning in them for themselves. This process allows a client to recognise
that the answer / meaning they seek actually lies within them – that meaning cannot be
given, it must be discovered it must ensue. In relation to its use as an educational tool,
Fabry perfectly defines Socratic dialogue as follows: “The Socratic dialogue takes its
name from the Socratic concept of the teacher. The teacher’s job was not to pour
information into students but to make students conscious of what they already know deep
within” (as cited by Frankl, 2004, p. xxxv). This is effectively stating that the way to
help man is to give him the tools to help himself, to equip and guide him towards
recognising his own power inherent in the very being of man, to construct rather than
instruct. This is reminiscent of the old adage, that to give a man a fish, he eats for a day,
whereas teach him to fish and he will eat every day. Helping people to help themselves
will have more favourable results in the long-term, while at the same passing back to
them the responsibility for their own existence.
Frankl posits that “it is not the function of logotherapy to give answers. Its actual
function is rather that of a catalyst” (Frankl, 1969, p. 45). Logotherapy sets one upon a
journey of self-discovery, enabling the seeker to look at their life through a kind of lens
which enhances one’s ability to see clearly what is valuable in life, thereby losing the
blinkers put in place by society and the expectations of others. When one realises that
11
Term used by Elisabeth Lukas, Logotherapist.
11
they are free and responsible for their own lives, that no one else has the power to
influence them and that it is solely their choice to make, a profound change can occur.
By taking responsibility for one’s own actions and decisions, by attending to what their
conscience12 is telling them, meaning will ensue, as living one’s life vicariously through
others will never give one purpose (see Frankl, 1969).
Frankl says that people today, including children, are “spared tension” (Frankl, 1969,
p. 44). This sparing of tension results in a “loss of meaning” which he describes as “the
existential vacuum13, or the frustration of the will to meaning” (Frankl, 1969, p. 45).
Existential frustration brings about a feeling of meaningless, the symptoms of which are
anxiety, irresponsibility, boredom or apathy, lack of motivation or lack of interest in
doing anything and unhappiness, resulting in addiction, aggression and depression.
Frankl goes on to state that “people who are spared tension are likely to create it, either in
a healthy or in an unhealthy way” (Frankl, 1969, p. 46). The healthy way would be to
involve themselves in sports or activities which demand meaning. The unhealthy way,
sadly, is to become involved in antisocial behaviour, which is an even bigger problem in
today’s society bearing in mind that Frankl wrote this in 1969. Frankl discusses the
successful use of logotherapy in the rehabilitation of young offenders and quotes “Louis
S. Barber” who “holds that logotherapy is “particularly applicable to the treatment of
juvenile delinquents”” in whom “almost always the “lack of meaning and purpose in their
lives” appeared to be present” (see Frankl, 1948, p. 104). Frankl further quotes Dr.
Barber as stating that the “program “builds responsibility within each of the boys. It is
12
Defined as “the intuitive capacity of man to find out the meaning of a situation” (Frankl, 1969, p. 63).
Defined as “the loss of meaning” (Frankl, 1969, p. 45) and “a feeling of aimlessness and emptiness”
(Frankl, 1969, p. 64).
13
12
logoeducation in practice.” That “a logotherapeutic approach offers great possibilities to
the field of rehabilitation” is evidenced by a mean increase in the will to meaning from
86.13 to 103.46 (within four months, at that) among the juvenile delinquents who were
subject to Dr. Barber’s treatment” (see Frankl, 1948, pp 104-105). This would lend
greater credence to the importance of incorporating logoeducation into the pre-school
setting thereby instilling in children the means for self-discovery and finding meaning at
an early age, aiming at reducing the possibility of becoming existentially frustrated
adolescents.
Addiction is one of the forms of unhealthy behaviour stemming from the existential
vacuum, providing temporary gratification or anaesthetisation in order to avoid reality.
Addressing addiction, Frankl states, “if man really is just seeking pleasure and happiness
by gratifying his needs in order to get rid of the tensions created by them, why worry?
Why not build up perpetual and perfect tranquillity by simply taking drugs?” (Frankl,
1948, p. 105). Frankl also posits that “a sound amount of tension, such as that tension
which is aroused by a meaning to fulfil, is inherent in being human and is indispensable
for mental well-being” (Frankl, 1869, p. 48). We are, after all, beings who are designed
to perform under pressure and the fight or flight response is a normal and healthy reaction
in certain circumstances. It is when one remains in this state that problems such as
anxiety arise, with the nervous system going into overdrive to try and alleviate the stress
it is under, leading to sickness in body and mind thereby blocking access to the healthy
noetic dimension. Engaging in logotherapy leads one back to the healthy state by guiding
the person towards discovering meaning potentials in his/her life.
13
In 2006, Florence Ernzen (logotherapist) and Ruby Lewis (educator and trainer)
published an article entitled “Adventure Healing: Trauma, Resiliency, and the Search for
Meaning”, which centred around their work with adolescents who had experienced severe
traumas in their lives, such as family deaths, abuse and homelessness. Ernzen and Lewis
state that they employed the fundamental principles of logotherapy to help these young
people understand “the effects of trauma, opportunities to accelerate healing, and
discovery of inner resources” (see Ernzen and Lewis, 2006). Traumas, such as those
mentioned above, impair cognitive processing, resulting in poor problem solving, low
self-esteem and hopelessness (see Ernzen and Lewis, 2006). Ernzen and Lewis combined
“gentleness, resiliency, and strength-building (natural to logotherapy)… with the action,
fun, and cooperation (of adventure education)14” (see Ernzen and Lewis, 2006). They
state that as logotherapy does not include a sensory element, they believed that
combining it with adventure education would enhance its effects through activities. The
activities were group based, for example each participant was asked to write a value on a
card and as the cards were collected each individual make a commitment to try and bring
that value to the group. The group were asked to list stresses and to then discuss and
evaluate each one, identifying ways in which to relieve stress and then discussing these as
to how healthy or harmful they may be. Other activities included team challenges, in
which all had to cooperate to succeed, the ‘mountain range’ exercise (logotherapy) was
used to help the participants identify those people in their lives who gave them inspiration
and using the values already listed by them, to associate these values with the people they
selected. The mountain range exercise was also used for the adolescents to identify their
14
Adventure education is also referred to as experiential education.
14
own inner values by employing self-distancing, helping them to step outside of
themselves in order to look properly at who they are.
All of the activities were
challenging but none were unattainable, as they state that “it was essential that they be
able to reach their goals” (see Ernzen and Lewis, 2006). The results were very positive
and the students themselves took much from their experience, leaving behind positive
comments when they were finished. These young people learned for the first time that
they had values within themselves and that they can contribute just as much as anyone
else to society. Through the innovative exercises (incorporating methods of logotherapy)
adopted by Ernzen and Lewis, the participants learned that their lives were meaningful
(see Ernzen and Lewis, 2006).
A further study (in 2009) was undertaken by a group of nursing professionals in
Korea entitled, “The Effect of Logotherapy on the Suffering, Finding Meaning, and
Spiritual Well-being of Adolescents with Terminal Cancer” “to evaluate the effects of a
logotherapy education program” (see Kang et al, 2009). Their main premise was to
provide evidence that using logotherapy as an educational tool in dealing with
adolescents with terminal cancer would reduce distress and improve quality of life (see
Kang et al, 2009). For these young people who are experiencing the trauma of a terminal
illness combined with the usual teenage angst, their suffering is intensified, and it is
difficult for them to find any hope or meaning in their lives (see Kang et al, 2009).
Therefore, they propose that it is important these young people are encouraged and
helped with their search for meaning and they go on to state that “Logotherapy…, is a
psychological, therapeutic treatment comprising a spiritual approach to the root of the
15
problem, which helps people appreciate their responsibility for existence, gain liberty out
of emotional distress, and find the meaning and purpose of their life” (see Kang et al,
2009). Frankl’s tri-dimensional method of realising values - creative, experiential and
attitudinal, was adopted in the following manner: a short video was played called
“Finding Treasures in my life” which is based on the theory of logotherapy and which
was purposely made for adolescent cancer patients; this was followed by a ‘laughing
song’ (specifically created for this study) which was learned by the participants; then
some short questions were posed based on the movie, which “investigated the meaning in
life and which the participants wrote their reaction in a personal notebook” (see Kang et
al, 2009). The results showed that “a logotherapy education program for adolescents
with terminal cancer was found to be successful in reducing suffering and finding the
meaning in life” and that there was an improvement in quality of life (see Kang et al,
2009). These young people were taught through logotherapeutic methods that life has
meaning in all circumstances, even in cases of extreme suffering for people facing
uncertain futures.
Chapter 4 will now examine Frankl views concerning children and education. Whilst
Frankl did not write extensively or explicitly on children, nor is there any indication that
he worked with children in his clinic, clearly he felt strongly that education should
proceed along very definite lines, with responsibilness being taught in schools. He places
the onus for this firmly on the shoulders of the educators (and the children themselves).
16
4.
Franklian Views on Children and Education
“Education is like flying a plane in a cross-wind. In order to arrive at the destination
point, the pilot must overestimate the landing spot.”
Frankl
The definition of the word “education” stems from the Latin word educere,
meaning “to lead out” or “to draw out”. The purpose of education therefore should be to
educe what is already there in children, to draw out, to evoke and elicit their potential.
This would strongly support the use of Socratic dialogue or maieutic15 dialogue in the
classroom, encouraging students to give birth to ideas.
Frankl stated that “today
education cannot afford to proceed along the lines of tradition, but must elicit the ability
to make independent and authentic decisions” (Frankl, 1969, p. 64). He advocates that
“the main manifestations of existential frustration – boredom and apathy – have become a
challenge to education” (Frankl, 1969, p. 85). Existential frustration or the frustration of
the will to meaning can lead to neurosis, what Frankl calls “noögenic neurosis” (Frankl,
1955, p. 11). Noögenic neuroses result from existential16 problems, having their origin in
the noölogical17 rather than the psychological dimension, the uniquely human dimension.
Frankl posits that existential frustration “is neither pathological nor pathogenic” and that
“man’s concern, even his despair, over the worthwhileness of life is an existential
distress but by no means a mental disease” (Frankl, 1955, p. 108). Logotherapy aids man
in his quest for meaning, with the ultimate goal being to have that person fulfil his
meaning, by making him “aware of what he actually longs for in the depth of his being”
(Frankl, 1955, p. 108). Meaning cannot be given, it must be found, “by one’s own
15
Greek word for “midwifery”.
Frankl defines this as “the specifically human mode of being” (Frankl, 1955, p. 106).
17
From the Greek word noös meaning “mind” and “spirit” (Frankl, 1955, p. 106).
16
17
conscience18” (Frankl, 1945, p. 114). Conscience is a uniquely human phenomenon, not
found in animals, which steers us towards meaning. Conscience is like an internal moral
compass, which gives us guilt and regret, but it is also what prompts man to compassion
and forgiveness, although Frankl also states that conscience can sometimes be wrong and
lead one astray (Frankl, 1948, p. 118). Understanding that his conscience is subject to
error, man can thereby recognise that perhaps another’s conscience may be correct, thus
leading to tolerance and humility (Frankl, 1969, p. 66). In this age of meaninglessness,
Frankl states that “education, instead of confining itself to transmitting traditions and
knowledge, must see its principal assignment in refining the individual’s conscience – his
only capacity still to find meanings despite the wane of traditions and values” (Frankl,
1948, p. 119). Each new generation has at its disposal, the ability to create new traditions
and values if those existing traditions and value have become outdated and extinct. It is
vital that in the educational sphere, children are encouraged to be the new leaders of
tomorrow and not people who follow the same paths as those gone before.
The
engagement of logoeducation and philosophy in classrooms will bring forth individuals
who think for themselves whilst at the same time recognising the value of others’ views,
moving towards a more tolerant, free-thinking, actively living society.
Frankl further refers to the lack of direction in education, what he calls “the
obsession to avoid being authoritarian, to avoid even being directive”, and posits that
“Education avoids confronting young people with ideals and values. They are shunned”
(Frankl, 1969, p. 46). He posited that this “obsession not to confront young people with
18
Frankl defines “conscience” as “a means to discover meanings” and that “conscience is the true
interpreter of life” (Frankl, 1948, pp 114-15).
18
ideals and values might well be a reaction formation19” (Frankl, 1969, p. 47). Education
should not just be about the transfer of knowledge, it should also teach children how to
realise values, such as creative, experiential and attitudinal values, by engaging in the
logotherapeutic methods for discovering meaning already outlined in chapter 3. Frankl
believed that responsibleness should be instilled in all, that freedom or meaning without
responsibleness “threatens to degenerate into mere abritrariness” (Frankl, 1969, p. 49).
Frankl defined logotherapy as “education to responsibility” (Frankl, 1948, p. 120).
Therefore, it stands to reason that teaching responsibility to children should be through
the medium of logotherapy. Frankl posits that “education must equip man with the
means to find meaning” (Frankl, 1969, p. 85).
As logotherapy is meaning-centred
therapy, it follows that logoeducation is meaning-centred education. Frankl states that for
young people trapped in the existential vacuum, they will eventually realise that there are
many opportunities for them to realise meaning in their lives, what they need to do is
“widen their horizons and to notice that there was much meaning to be fulfilled around
them that would entail and engender a sense of coresponsibility” (Frankl, 1948, p. 121).
According to Frankl, this is evidenced by the amount of charity work some young people
become involved in, in order to raise funds for those less fortunate, for example by
fasting for famine or giving their free time to helping their community etc (see Frankl,
1948, p. 121). Amber Epsing20 writes that “According to Frankl, the way to alleviate the
existential vacuum among students is to re-establish the dynamic noetic tension by
discovering meanings. The direct pursuit of (academic) success will generally fail to
19
Frankl explains that a defence mechanism is a means of coping with that which one does not wish to face
by engaging in a meaningless distraction, such as that provided by alcohol or drugs etc, he calls it “An
attempt to escape the confrontation with an existential vacuum” (Frankl, 1969, p. 97).
20
Amber Epsing - Assistant Professor, Educational Psychology, TCU College of Education, Texas, U.S.A.
19
relieve existential vacuum because the student does not need success. What he or she
needs is a reason to be successful – a sense of purpose, a noble goal, a meaning that is
worth contemplating or working for” (see Epsing, 2012, p. 3). To reiterate, this calls for
education in attaining values, by guiding young people towards realising the good, the
true and the beautiful in their lives, by encouraging them, through the use of Socratic
dialogue in the classrooms, to engage in meaningful activities, be they creative or
experiential or attitudinal.
Students could be encouraged to debate these issues
themselves, by choosing a topic and then they all return at a later time to discuss it in
depth.
The occurrence of existential vacuum among students is as a result of
reductionism which negates to include the human or noetic dimension allowing
individuals to identify and make choices by concentrating only on scientific content (see
Epsing, 2012). Once more, this is urging towards a striving to produce individuals who
will become actively involved in their world.
Frankl believed that education needs to be meaning-orientated and that “it is
essential for educators to model meaningful living” by providing positive examples to
their students. To reiterate an important point, Frankl says that the “foremost task of
education, instead of being satisfied with transmitting traditions and knowledge, is to
refine that capacity which allow man to find unique meanings” (Frankl, 1969, p. 64).
Education has to move away from traditional methods and change tact, it must “elicit the
ability to make independent and authentic decisions” (Frankl, 1969, p. 64). To achieve
this, teachers will also need to be steered towards adopting new attitudes, which it is
strongly suggested can be realised via the requirement that all teachers attend
20
instructional seminars on logoeducation as part of their continued professional
development.
Concurring with Frankl’s view, Rice and Young say that education must not be
solely pedagogical or presented in a reductionistic way, with teachers disseminating
knowledge and expecting students to repeat that knowledge (see Rice & Young, 1998).
Frankl wondered how children could possibly care about their education when all they
are being taught is reductionistic meaninglessness – “Reductionism can only undermine
and erode the natural enthusiasm of youth” (Frankl, 1969, p. 87). He further states that
“A reductionist approach to man tends to reify him, that is to say, to deal with a human
being as if he were a mere res, a thing” (Frankl, 1969, p. 85). Frankl also states that “the
reductionists do not recognize a qualitative difference between the two types of
behaviour” (i.e. the behaviour of animals and humans) and that “they deny that a
uniquely human phenomenon exists at all” (Frankl, 1948, p. 115). Education should not
be by way of conditioning and meaning cannot be given to students, but example can be
shown by the teachers, “the personal example of his own dedication and devotion to the
cause of research, truth, and science” (Frankl, 1969, p. 87), by sharing with them their
attitudes towards their career, by making their approach to their education a choice rather
than a chore. Most importantly, teachers should be role models, and their beliefs and
values should serve as encouragement to their students who will want to emulate their
behaviour (see Frankl, 1969, p. 87). Frankl seems to be saying that teaching should be a
mentoring process rather than a mere instructional one. Ideally, teachers should be
logotherapists, ensuring that they also live meaningfully.
For logotherapy to be
21
successfully integrated into education, the teachers themselves will need to learn to live
authentically in order to be the role models Frankl envisaged. Therefore, the integration
of logoeducation into the schools will have to commence with the teaching body. It
stands to reason that many of those engaged in teaching are experiencing their own
existential frustrations and battling their own personal demons. Therefore, how can they
lead children to discover meaning when they are unable to do so for themselves.
Having outlined Frankl’s views of education, the following chapter outlines and
considers a selection of child development theories, with the intention of examining the
possibility of engaging four year old children in logotherapy.
22
5.
Child Development and Theories of Education
“What nutrition and reproduction are to physiological life, education is to social life.”
Dewey
There are many child development theories which span a number of years. By
way of introduction to some of these, according to Jennifer Grisham-Brown (2012),
“child development theories generally guide teaching practices of children from birth to
eight years of age” (see Grisham-Brown, 2012). She states that teachers who follow
behaviourist theory generally engage in more “teacher-directed instructional practices,
including didactic instruction with emphasis on acquisition of basic skills” (see GrishamBrown, 2012). On the other hand, there are teachers who practice the constructivist
method (see below), with the emphasis on “child-choice, guided discovery, and
cooperative learning … they emphasize critical thinking, problem solving, and intrinsic
motivation” (see Grisham-Brown, 2012).
The most influential developmental and
educational theories are outlined in more detail throughout the pages of this chapter,
commencing with Jean Piaget, upon whose work many subsequent theories were
founded.
Jean Piaget21
According to William Crain, psychologist22, in Jean Piaget’s theory of
development with respect to children between the ages of two and six years of age,
referred to as the “preoperational stage” of development, “children are frequently
21
22
Jean Piaget, Swiss Developmental Psychologist and Philosopher (1896-1980).
Professor of Psychology, City College of New York, USA.
23
egocentric, considering everything from their own single viewpoint” (Crain, 2005, p.
127). Piaget determined that children under the age of seven “think in a qualitatively
different way about dreams, morals and many other topics” (Crain, 2005, p. 113). At this
stage, children fail to “consider more than one perspective in their interactions with
others” (Crain, 2005, p. 127). Therefore, Piaget’s theory of this age group is that they
think only in one dimension, disregarding anything outside of their own small world.
Piaget found that children up to the age of ten years “believed the rules were fixed and
unchangeable” and that “rules came from some prestigious authority”, what Piaget
referred to as “moral heteronomy, a blind obedience to rules imposed by adults” (Crain,
2005, p. 129). Piaget believed that “heteronomy is a form of egocentric thought” and to
overcome this “children may need to engage in a good deal of genuinely cooperative play
with peers, in which they actually change rules....... before they can discuss the relativity
of rules on a conscious plane” (Crain, 2005, p. 129). During this stage, children also
engage in animism, believing that all things, whether animate or inanimate, are similar to
themselves. For the purpose of education, Piaget felt that “true learning is not something
handed down by the teacher, but something that comes from the child”, and “the teacher
should not try to impose knowledge on the child, but he or she should find materials that
will interest and challenge the child and then permit the child the solve problems on his
or her own” (see Crain, 2005, pp 137-138). He also believed that “learning should be a
process of active discovery and should be geared to the child’s stage” (see Crain, 2005, p.
139). During this stage, socialisation is extremely important, for example in a discussion
group setting, where children learn to “consider two or more perspectives in their
dealings with others” (see Crain, 2005, p. 139).
According to Kendra Cherry,
24
psychologist and educator, researchers do not agree with Piaget’s theories regarding the
age at which children develop certain abilities and in fact it has been found that younger
children are more developed than Piaget thought (see Cherry, 2012). Recent theory of
mind research (see Wellman et al below) has found that four and five year old children
have a rather sophisticated understanding of their own mental processes as well as those
of other people (see Cherry, 2012). For example, children of this age have some ability
to take the perspective of another person, meaning they are far less egocentric than Piaget
believed (see Cherry, 2012). This is the basis on which it is proposed that logoeducation
be introduced to four year olds and moving along to the theories of Heinz Wener, this is
supported by his belief that preschool children are eager to learn.
Heinz Werner
An academic compatriot of Piaget, developmental psychologist, Heinz Werner
(1890-1964), believed that many children think visually, in pictures, that they possess
“eidetic imagery, or what we commonly call photographic memory”, and that their recall
of events is often vividly detailed (see Crain, 2005, p. 95). Werner believed that children
behaved similarly to indigenous peoples, possessing a greater affinity with nature and “a
strong unity with the rest of the world”, using what he called “physiognomic perception”
– perceiving the “dynamic, emotional and expressive qualities” of stimuli, similar to
Piaget’s animism discussed previously, and not “geometric-technical perception” where
objects are perceived in terms of “shape, length, hue, width and other objective
measurable properties” (Crain, 2005, p. 96). According to Werner, unlike children adults
engage in geometric-technical perception seeing the world in a “more impersonal, matter-
25
of-fact manner” (Crain, 2005, p. 96). Werner believed that children developed their
language through feelings and symbols, what they see elicits associations, such as ‘dog’
and ‘woof’ or ‘sheep’ and ‘baa’ and that they engage in “melodic” language, especially
when they use rhyming and poetry (see Crain, 2005, p. 108). In support of this, Crain
states that children in preschool “are eager to hear and tell stories, and they engage in a
good deal of make-believe play, using dolls, sticks, and other objects to symbolise the
people and things in their dramas. They also love to draw, which involves further
symbols, and when they become absorbed in drawing they often make up songs and
stories (Crain, 2003)” (see Crain 2005, p. 108). Crain further states that “early academic
instruction is crowding out these rich early experiences”, that children are being taught
literacy “in an abstract, mechanistic manner”, thus leaving little time for children to enjoy
what they are learning “see Crain, 2005, p. 108). The findings above clearly support the
proposal that logoeducation and philosophy are ideally suited for young children, giving
them an outlet for their rich imagination and creativity (see chapter 7 of this thesis on
Philosophy for Children). Taking into consideration Wellman’s Theory of Mind, there is
a huge change in children at four years of age and this is outlined below.
H.M. Wellman et al - Theory of Mind
Subsequent to Piaget’s theory, it has been found that children develop their own
theories to aid them in understanding and explaining what they encounter in their lives.
Theory of mind (Wellman et al, 200123) concerns “an understanding of others’ thinking”
23
Wellman, H.M., Cross, D. & Watson, J. (2001) A meta-analysis of theory of mind development: The
truth about false belief – cited by Strassen Berger, 2008.
26
and realising that others are not thinking the same thing as us (see Strassen Berger24,
2008, p. 239). According to Wellman et al, this develops suddenly at four years of age,
with a “sudden leap of understanding” occurring (see Strassen Berger, 2008, p. 239). As
in Piaget’s theory, social interaction with peers “lead children to understand that their
own thinking is not shared by everyone” (see Strassen Berger, 2008, p. 239). Through
research carried out in this area, it was discovered that “brain maturation was the primary
factor in the acquisition of theory of mind but that language development and social
interaction were also influential” (see Strassen Berger, 2008, p. 239).
Therefore, these
findings lend credence to the idea of engaging four year olds in philosophical discussion
groups with their peers.
This is further evidenced in a developmental study conducted in 2005 by Kelemen
and others25, when three to five year olds were studied for the purpose of establishing
what types of questions most concerned them (see Strassen Berger, 2008, p. 237). With
the parents acting as collaborators, it was discovered that 47% of the questions concerned
human behaviour, 31% on biology and the remaining 22% related to objects, non-living
natural things and other. Therefore, it would seem that children are more curious about
the living than the inanimate. The parents in this study related that the children’s
questions were focused mainly on “human behaviour – especially the parents’ behaviour
towards the child” (see Strassen Berger, 2008, p. 237). This would give credibility to the
fact that young children are aware of the importance of their relationships with their
parents and others and not so egocentric as Piaget theorized. These findings and similar
24
Kathleen Strassen Berger PhD, Developmental Psychologist.
Kelemen, D., Callanan, MA., Casler, K & Perez-Granados, D.R. (2005) Why things happen: Teleological
explanation in parent-child conversation – cited by Strassen Berger, 2008.
25
27
observations are upheld by the constructivist theory of education, which is in direct
opposition to the traditional reductionistic methods of teaching, and two of its founders,
Jerome Bruner and Constance Kamii, are now outlined and examined.
Jerome Bruner26 - Constructivist Theory
Jerome Bruner stated that “any subject can be taught to anybody at any age in
some form that is both interesting and honest”, he was speaking in the context of a
positive assessment of the human capacity for learning and deliberately pointing to the
need to link psychology with pedagogy (Bruner, 1972, cited by Stanford Uni 2012).
Bruner, influenced by Piaget’s theories about cognitive development, believed that
children are “active problem-solvers and are capable of exploring “difficult subjects””
(see www.lifecircles.com).
He believed that education should be structured or
categorised and that “understanding the fundamental structure of a subject makes it more
comprehensible” (see www.lifecircles.com).
Bruner stressed “four characteristics of
effective instruction:
(i)
personalised: instruction should relate to learners’ predisposition, and facilitate
interest toward learning.
(ii)
Content Structure: content should be structured so it can be most easily grasped
by the learner.
(iii)
Sequencing: sequencing is an important aspect for presentation of material.
(iv)
Reinforcement: rewards and punishment should be selected and paced
appropriately” (see www.lifecircles.com).
26
Jerome Bruner (1915-present), Psychologist.
28
The foregoing represent the essence of constructivist teaching, giving a short concise
method for teaching. Unlike the reductionistic method of teaching, Bruner does not place
the emphasis on the teacher steering learning, but rather on the encouragement of the
abilities already present in the children, by giving them an education that is stimulating
and interesting, rather than debilitating to those who are unable to grasp the subject
matter or keep up with their peers (see www.lifecircles.com). Constructivist teaching is
based on enquiry, with teachers presenting puzzles, questions and problems to the
students for solving and is the most closely linked method to what Frankl outlined as his
ideal for education, not the reductionistic method so widely used up to now, which sets
unrealistic goals for children by teaching them subjects they are not ready to learn and by
forcing them to adhere to strict guidelines for learning. Obviously it can be argued that
this method works as ours is not a nation of dullards, but nevertheless the fact is that
future constructivistic classrooms may produce the same amount of intellectuals, of
which there are more well-rounded individuals who actually enjoyed their school years
and discovered meaning along the way.
Constance Kamii27 - Constructivist Theory
Constance Kamii, Developmentalist, stated that children should be given the
freedom to work things out by themselves and that “teachers need to provide experiences
that children will find so interesting and meaningful that they will work on them for their
own sake” (see Crain, 2005, p. 139). This supports Bruner above and Frankl’s notion
that teachers should act as guides for the students.
Kamii points out that children
27
Constance Kamii PhD, Professor of early childhood education at the University of Alabama,
Birmingham.
29
engaged in playing games requiring the use of calculations will “enthusiastically work”
on “keeping score during outdoor games, voting on class decisions, and taking
attendance” (see Crain, 2005, p. 139).
Therefore, Kamii was a strong advocate of
learning through play, which is in agreement with the theories of Froebel and Dewey, and
that practiced by Steiner schools (elaborated upon later in this thesis). This is also an
ideal opportunity for the teacher to become involved in the thinking process, by posing
questions to the children which are applicable to the activity they are engaged in. Kamii
said “It is far better …. for the children to keep thinking and wondering about the matter
than “to be told the answer and to learn incidentally that the answer always comes from
the teacher’s head”” (see Crain, 2005, p140). She was less concerned with the “amount
of knowledge children gain than in their desire to think for themselves”, thus encouraging
independent thinking (see Crain, 2005, p. 141). In contrast to Bruner and Kamii are the
following theories put forward by Albert Bandura and Lev Vygotsky, which represent a
more reductionistic view of children’s thinking processes and which Frankl was
vehemently opposed to, but it is necessary to outline these views also in order to give a
clearer picture of what education should involve.
Albert Bandura28
Albert Bandura’s ‘Social Learning Theory’ (“SLT”) of development found that
children of all ages displayed some form of reasoning, with younger children being
concerned with consequences and older children thinking more about motivation (see
Crain, 2005, p. 211). Bandura disagreed with the theories that children’s learning is
influenced by internal processes, but rather that “children’s thinking could be altered by
28
Albert Bandura, PhD, Psychologist.
30
modelling influences” (see Crain, 2005, p. 211). In one instance, he studied the reactions
of young children to an adult being praised for a good response to a moral dilemma and
then found that they attempted to replicate the adult’s behaviour, thereby receiving praise
themselves, thus proving that children take note of and learn by example and through
their own observations (i.e. social learning). Crain’s comment on Bandura’s theory is
that Bandura illuminated the “kind of learning that is dominant in our society today” (see
Crain, 2004, p. 216). SLT tends to view the child as somewhat passive whereas they are
more complex than this – it doesn’t account for creativity, curiosity or imagination.
Children do engage in imitation of adults but they don’t just mimic their behaviour, they
also engage in their own independent exploration of their world. Adults can only act as
guides, they are not programming machines, but attempting to influence free-thinking
individuals as to what is right and wrong. It is true that we do seem to constantly set
standards and evaluate our progress and abilities, but such extensive self-evaluation is
confining and debilitating, leading to what Frankl termed hyper-intention and hyperreflection. We become so wrapped up in ourselves that we lose touch with the childlike
delight in the world itself – in nature, other people, art, and the world as we find it. It is
not just a case of children learning from adults, but rather that adults need to be reminded
of what it is like to think / learn like a child.
Lev Vygotsky29 - the Zone of Proximal Development
According to Lev Vygotsky in 1935, children do certainly learn a great deal by
themselves but they also require some assistance, for example with reading, writing and
mathematics (see Crain, 2005, p. 245). He wrote of the “child’s natural inclination to
29
Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934), Russian Developmental Psychologist.
31
draw and to play” and that these advanced development, leading to abstract thinking (see
Crain, 2004, p. 245).
Vygotsky wondered how a child’s learning developed and
recognised that two children of the same age may not learn identically, not because of
intelligence but because there is a difference between them in how ready they are to
assimilate information, he termed this difference the ‘zone of proximal development’.
Vygotsky disagreed with standardised tests being used to determine a child’s ability, as
these tests measure the abilities of the child at that particular time, not what the child may
be capable of in the future. He believed that children should be instructed in learning by
the teacher. Vygotsky felt that the best approach was to help young children to learn, not
by telling them the answers but guiding them towards it, so that they are aware of their
own thinking processes and are able to manage it by using ‘self-directed speech’ (what
Piaget called egocentric speech), by talking themselves through the method, firstly out
loud to themselves, then, as they develop, this speech becomes internalised (see Crain,
2005, pp 239-242).
Vygotsky’s methods appear to lean more towards teachers
conditioning and leading children to learn, forcing their intellectual development, rather
than letting them steer their own course. This method of teaching was opposed by other
Developmentalists, who warned about the dangers of giving too much assistance, thereby
restricting the children’s ability to think for themselves (see Crain, 2005, p. 246).
Referring back to the more child friendly constructivist theories of Bruner and Kamii, this
thesis will now examine theorists who built upon this, such as Froebel, Dewey, Steiner
and Montessori.
32
Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel
Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel (or Froebel) (1782 –1852), a German educator,
believed that children have unique needs and capabilities (see Ellington, 2002). He
created the concept of the “kindergarten” (meaning ‘children’s garden, where children
should be cared for and nourished) and was one of these pioneers of early childhood
educational reform (see Ellington, 2002). As an idealist, he believed that every child
possessed, at birth, his full educational potential, and that an appropriate educational
environment was necessary to encourage the child to grow and develop in an optimal
manner (see Ellington, 2002). Froebel envisioned that his kindergarten would be an
environment where children could play with others of their own age group and
experience their first gentle taste of independence (see Ellington, 2002).
Froebel’s
philosophy of education was based on four basic components:
(a)
free self-activity;
(b)
creativity;
(c)
social participation; and
(d)
motor expression. (see Ellington, 2002)
Froebel believed that “stimulating voluntary self-activity in the young child was
the necessary form of pre-school education, which is defined as the development of
qualities and skills that make it possible to take an invisible idea and make it a reality;
self-activity involves formulating a purpose, planning out that purpose, and then acting
on that plan until the purpose is realized (Corbett, 1998a)” (see Ellington, 2002).
According to Ellington, Corbett suggests that one of Froebel's significant contributions to
33
early childhood education was his theory of introducing play as a means of engaging
children in self-activity for the purpose of externalizing their inner natures (see Ellington,
2002). “Froebel’s interpretation of play is characterized by free play which enlists all of
the child’s imaginative powers, thoughts, and physical movements by embodying in a
satisfying form his own images and educational interests” (Dewey as cited by Ellington,
2002). In summary, Froebel believed that stimulating play produces self-activity and that
transports him from one plane of educational growth to another (see Ellington, 2002).
Another factor of Froebel’s educational plan involved working closely with the
family unit (see Ellington, 2002). Froebel believed that parents provided the first as well
as the most consistent educational influence in a child’s life (see Ellington, 2002). A
child’s first educational experiences occur within the family unit and a child will
naturally mimic those things observed in daily family life (see Ellington, 2002). Froebel
stated that “Children are actively engaged in concrete experiences developed from their
own ideas and interests. The self-active child is one who is imaginative and creative,
logically able to plan and carry out an activity. Children who are engaged in their
learning process take ownership of their education” (see http://www.froebel.com).
Froebel’s theories greatly influenced the American philosopher, John Dewey, examined
below.
John Dewey
John Dewey (1859-1952), was an American philosopher, psychologist and
educator, and made one of the most significant contribution to the development of
34
educational thinking in the twentieth century.
In his 1916 book, Democracy and
Education: an introduction to the philosophy of education”, Dewey stated in “Chapter
One: Education as a Necessity of Life” that “What nutrition and reproduction are to
physiological life, education is to social life” (see Dewey, 1916, e-book p. 18). Dewey
posited that society exists through a means of transmission (i.e. education and learning)
and that “This transmission occurs by means of communication of habits of doing,
thinking, and feeling from the older to the younger. Without this communication of
ideals, hopes, expectations, standards, opinions, from those members of society who are
passing out of the group life to those who are coming into it, social life could not survive”
(see Dewey, 1916, e-book p. 10). Dewey also stated that “all communication (and hence
all genuine social life) is educative” and that “the very process of living together
educates” (see Dewey, 1916, e-book p. 13). Dewey viewed education as a controlling
system, “Conformity, not transformation, is the essence of education” (see Dewey, 1916,
e-book p. 82). Dewey believed that education must engage with and enlarge experience,
that education is development and that it is “a continuous process of growth” (see Dewey,
1916, e-book p. 75). Dewey’s exploration of thinking and reflection - and the associated
role of educators - has continued to be an inspiration. Almost one hundred years ago,
Dewey warned against engaging in purely formal education, “As formal teaching and
training grow in extent, there is the danger of creating an undesirable split between the
experience gained in more direct associations and what is acquired in school. This danger
was never greater than at the present time, on account of the rapid growth in the last few
centuries of knowledge and technical modes of skill” (see Dewey, 1916, e-book p. 19).
Like Froebel, Dewey believed that education should include the child’s own experiences
35
and interests, that the child should connect with and relate to what he is learning, thereby
making it a more personal experience for the child. Dewey also felt that educators
(parents and teachers) make the mistake of transposing their own aims onto the young.
He stated that education has no aims, it is merely a system, but that it is the adults
associated with it who have such aims. According to Dewey (as also posited by Frankl),
educators / teachers should be facilitators or guides in the learning process (see Dewey,
1916, e-book p. 142). Dewey puts forward three characteristics as good educational
aims:
“(1)
An educational aim must be founded upon the intrinsic activities and needs
(including original instincts and acquired habits) of the given individual to be
educated.
(2)
An aim must be capable of translation into a method of cooperating with the
activities of those undergoing instruction.
(3)
Educators have to be on their guard against ends that are alleged to be general and
ultimate” (see Dewey, 1916, e-book pp. 143-144).
Dewey believed that the more copious one’s understanding of future potentialities
are, the less likely he/she is to be concerned with a small number of alternatives, but
rather be responsive to the fact that anything is possible. This is what education should
be aiming towards.
Dewey also believed that combining play and work, is vital for children – it
enhances their school experience and going to school becomes for them a joy rather than
36
a burden. He states that play should not be used as a diversion from the tediousness of
school work, but that play should be a part of regular school work, enabling the children
“to explore, to manipulate tools and materials, to construct, to give expression to joyous
emotion, etc” (see Dewey 1916, e-book p253). He further states that when play is made
part of education, children become more fully engaged, because the gap between life in
school and outside is reduced. Basically, Dewey submits, “the grounds for assigning to
play and active work a definite place in the curriculum are intellectual and social, not
matters of temporary expediency and momentary agreeableness” (see Dewey 1916, ebook p253). Activities such as gardening, cookery and wood crafting for example, are
not taught as a means of preparing the students for future employment, but rather as a
means of instructing them through the enjoyment of the task, for instance, in the art of
horticulture and the natural world, learning about nutrition and in the use of tools and
measurement in order to shape the wood into something else.
Dewey stated that
children’s play always has an aim, an end result and there is a point to it. Dewey points
out that, for adults, hunting is a form of play, which used to result in the obtaining of
food, but in today’s society hunting for food is no longer a necessity, therefore engaging
in hunting activities, such as archery, shooting, fishing, horse riding, etc, is essentially
play. These activities are referred to as “interests” or “hobbies” by those who engage in
them. In observing children at play, Dewey says that one cannot help but recognise that
the child is absorbed in the activity until it reaches its conclusion (see Dewey 1916, ebook p265). Dewey firmly believed that for education to have meaning, children’s
interests must be honed and encouraged. The natural joy of children should be retained,
not removed, and this is this will ensure that children develop and learn. The similarities
37
between Frankl’s and Dewey’s views on education are striking, with both calling for
education to proceed along the lines of a more child-centred, rather than a controlling and
domineering system, and that teachers should be less authoritative and more inclusive of
what the children themselves can bring to the partnership. Dewey’s theories of education
bore striking similarities to logoeducation, especially on the role of teachers.
Taking up the mantle from Froebel and Dewey and continuing to examine the
relationship between play and education, another individual who strongly believed that
play was important to education and who has impacted upon today’s education was the
Austrian Philosopher, Rudolf Steiner.
Rudolf Steiner
Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925) “initiated a new science which he called
Anthroposophy (from the Greek: anthropos = human being; sophia = wisdom) (see
http://www.anthroposophy.ie). This form of knowledge encompasses all aspects of life
in its material, psychological and spiritual manifestations and is a symbiosis of Art,
Science and Religion” (see http://www.anthroposophy.ie).
According to Steiner's
philosophy, “man is a threefold being of spirit, soul, and body whose capacities unfold in
three developmental stages on the path to adulthood: early childhood, middle childhood,
and adolescence” (see http://www.anthroposophy.ie).
This is strikingly similar to
Frankl’s tri-dimensional ontology of man - body (soma), mind (psyche) and spirit (noos).
From this philosophy stems Steiner education, which ranges from 4 to 17 years of age. In
Steiner schools, “the education addresses the physiological, psychological and spiritual
38
needs of the developing child.
Art, science and practical skills development are
integrated in the flexible curriculum which follows the different stages of a child's
development” (see http://www.anthroposophy.ie). At present, there are 19 kindergartens
and 5 primary schools in Ireland, with the hope that more will follow (see
http://www.anthroposophy.ie).
One of the existing schools, the Hollywood Steiner
School in Northern Ireland, states that “Within the Steiner system, thinking, feeling and
the will are guided in a manner which creates harmony within the child. Teachers
encourage the children to develop a deep sense of responsibility and care towards others,
an ability to work together, and a deep wonder for the world” (see http://www.holywoodsteiner.co.uk). This would indicate that the idea is for teachers to encourage and to foster
a love of learning in the children and to do so responsibly.
Unlike Dewey and
Montessori, who established their educational theories on empirical child psychology,
Steiner’s educational plan was entirely based upon his cosmic spiritualistic anthropology
– that is “If we wish to detect the essence of the growing individual, we must set out from
a
consideration
of
the
hidden
http://www.thebee.se/comments/articles/).
nature
of
man
as
such”
(see
Steiner schools are said to “constantly
produce impressive educational results and in a recent qualitative study of the educational
biographies of former pupils of a Rudolf Steiner school with a double academic and
professional curriculum (Hibernia School at Herm, Germany) also showed that these
pupils were better equipped to face the challenge of life” and, “in particular, more
capable of dealing with technical tasks showed greater self-confidence and a wider range
of interests, were open to new ideas and were particularly willing to accept social
responsibility” (see http://www.thebee.se/comments/articles/). Steiner schools are not as
39
well known in Ireland as Montessori schools, whose methods are set out in the following
paragraphs.
Maria Montessori
One of the most revolutionary and well-known approaches to education was
developed by the first Italian lady physician and constructivist, Maria Montessori (18791952), who developed her well-known “educational method through a scientific
approach, using observation to understand the learning process for young children” (see
MRD30, 2012). Montessori believed that children possess an “innate impulse to
comprehend the world around them” (see MRD, 2012). The aim of the Montessori
method of teaching children is to stimulate and nurture “the acquisitive intellect of the
child” (see MRD, 2012). Crain writes that Montessori “argued that we are wrong to
assume that children are whatever we make them, for children also learn on their own,
from their own maturational promptings” (see Crain, 2005, p. 67). Crain outlines some
of the criticisms of the Montessori method of teaching, mainly that instead of guiding a
child who became stuck at a task they were directed towards another activity thereby
restricting innovation in the child by not allowing them to complete a task with some
assistance from the teacher. This would also impact negatively, as the child could learn
that it is acceptable not to finish something if it is too difficult. Crain is critical of the fact
that Montessori steered clear of free play and fantasy drawing in her classroom, basically
disregarding imagination altogether, which Crain states “overlooked the remarkable
qualities of children’s works” (see Crain, 2005, pp 85-86). The Montessori method
available in Ireland today claims to treat children as active participants, provides a
30
Montessori Research and Development (“MRD”) (http://montessorird.com).
40
flexible programme whereby children freely move about and choose their own activities,
simply guided by a trained teacher (see www.earlychildhoodireland.ie) (see also Chapter
7 of this thesis). This method, it is cited, increases sensory awareness and “helps develop
concentration, dexterity and independence, whilst providing indirect preparation for more
formal
learning
such
as
reading,
writing,
and
number
work”
(see
www.earlychildhoodireland.ie). Interestingly, as Crain pointed out, there is no mention
of free play or imaginary play in the Montessori curriculum, although toys and games are
employed but solely as a means of education. The Montessori method of teaching has
many advocates and Marie Montessori herself never actually formalised her method,
therefore there are many different types of Montessori available, with some utilising play
in the way envisaged by Froebel and Dewey, whilst others use play in a more formal
teaching manner.
Further to the above, in the next chapter the writer sets out the results of some
research on what children find meaningful and papers supporting the validity of making
logotherapy part of the education system. It is a fact that environmental influences affect
a child’s development, this is where they learn how to behave around others and what to
expect from school. If a society focuses on factors other than education, children will
pick up on this and learn from example.
41
6.
Children - Meaning and Logotherapy
“A meaning-oriented education, using Logotherapy, may provide more courage to a
teaching profession suffering from administrative rigidity and the need to rehumanise
education.”
Hoppe
In 2005, a study was conducted by Saoirse Nic Gabhainn and Jane Sixsmith of the
Centre for Health Promotion Studies, National University of Ireland, Galway, entitled
“Children’s Understandings of Well-Being”, involving children from both rural and
urban communities and children from both primary and post-primary schools (see Nic
Gabhainn & Sixsmith, 2005).
The aim of the study was to “contribute to the
development of National Child Well-Being indicators”. Children were given disposable
cameras and instructed to photograph “people or places that “make them well” or “keep
them well””, basically whatever they perceived as “feeling good, being happy and able to
live your life to the full” (see Nic Gabhainn & Sixsmith, 2005). The findings of this
study showed that through the subjects of the photographs taken and ensuing discussions
about them, children possess a good understanding of the subject of well-being and what
matters to them. The study found that children place the highest value on interpersonal
relationships (with family and friends), which give them a feeling of “belonging, being
safe, loved, valued and being cared for”, relationships with animals and nature, activities
and things to do. The study concluded that: “While the importance of relationship
building and maintenance skills cannot be overlooked, family support and infrastructure
supports, for both schools and community development in its broadest sense, are also
necessary if we are to maximise well-being among our children” (see Nic Gabhainn &
Sixsmith, 2005). These children, creatively, are exhibiting their will to meaning through
42
encounters with other people and nature, two of Frankl’s main characteristics of
logotherapy.
Hans-Norbert Hoppe31 refers to a study from West Germany in 1983 which states
that of the students studied, half of them held “negative feelings toward school” (see
Hoppe, 1989). Hoppe maintains that because of the pressures they have to contend with,
“a frightening number of students show symptoms of anxiety, aggressiveness, depression,
lack of relationships and responsibleness and tendency toward isolation” (Hoppe, 1989).
He goes on to state that “These symptoms may become pathogenic” and warns that
“Insecurity often leads to conformity” (Hoppe, 1989). To thwart this, he believes that
“the young, especially need orientation, role models, and guidance in a value system”
(Hoppe, 1989). To achieve this, Hoppe advocates the view that “A meaning-oriented
education, using Logotherapy, may provide more courage to a teaching profession
suffering from administrative rigidity and the need to rehumanise education”, that there is
a need for the setting up of “training seminars for teachers and meaning-orientated
sharing groups” (Hoppe, 1989) (also see chapter 8 of this thesis). He believes that
teachers who have attended these logotherapy training seminars, will be equipped with
the ability to meet students needs to be reassured that they are “worthwhile” people,
“regardless of achievement, appearance, or behaviour” and that they are encouraged to
improve their situation by discussing it and by taking responsibility (Hoppe, 1989).
Hoppe also urges that, as well as for teachers, lectures and seminars on logotherapy
should be made available for parents to attend (see Hoppe, 1989). Hoppe is not calling
31
Hans-Norbert Hoppe (MA in German literature and theology) is a high-school teacher in Washington
D.C.
43
for a change in existing education, but rather a change in teachers’ attitudes, resulting in
improved teacher-student relationships full of meaningful encounters (see Hoppe, 1989).
This would accord with Frankl’s view that it is important that teachers act as role models
for children, changing the face of education from a reductionistic model to the more
meaningful constructivistic one.
Bianca Z. Hirsche32 in 1995, stated that “identifying the meaning of behaviour
and questioning the value of such behaviour will help children relate cause and effect in a
clear and precise manner and, after various options have been explored, help them make
appropriate choices in the future” (Hirsch, 1995). Hirsch goes on to posit that the
implementation of logotherapy in the education system would be “not only prudent but
also practical” as, being “action-orientated”, logotherapy would enable children to learn
how to take “responsibility for their behaviour” (Hirsch, 1995). Children who are taught
that they are unique individuals and that no one else can do what they can do in the exact
same manner, can be encouraged to see that they are more than capable of working
towards realising their personal goals. She states that teachers should be trained in
logotherapeutic techniques enabling to use “Socratic dialogue, dereflection and teaching
children to make choices and assume responsibility for their actions and their attitudes”
(Hirsch, 1995). Following in Frankl’s footsteps, Hirsche believes that “logotherapy can
be applied by each and everyone in daily situations” (Hirsch, 1995). Therefore, there is a
real possibility that logoeducation can be practiced by anyone anywhere, it just needs to
be brought to the attention of people.
32
Bianca Z. Hirsch, PhD, is a School Psychologist in San Francisco and past President of the Viktor Frankl
Institute of Logotherapy, USA.
44
As Hoppe advocated in his paper mentioned above, Hirsch also posits that
“teachers can use Socratic dialogue to help students identify feelings, problems,
concerns” and “to bring to the awareness of students that they are not helpless victims but
they can be responsible” (Hirsch, 1995).
Hirsch also points out that by making
logotherapy available in schools, parents would be more likely to approve of their
children’s involvement in sessions, as it provides a service that parents may not have the
time or the finances to otherwise avail of (see Hirsch, 1995). Hirsch believes that the
availability of logotherapy in schools would be beneficial also because in many cases,
students may be experiencing upheaval at home and that school may be the only place
they feel secure and that the short-term answers logotherapy gives while focusing on the
immediate problem would help a child in determining their attitude towards the situation
(see Hirsch, 1995). This is further elaborated upon by Amber Epsing.
According to Amber Epsing, Hoppe’s words ring loudly in answer to the present
educational system, “arguing for a “meaning-oriented” education in which students are
encouraged to self-transcend and become responsible and oriented toward important life
tasks” (see Epsing, 2012). Hoppe believed that “meaning-oriented education does not
require new pedagogical strategies, but rather a new attitude for educators which
emphasizes the human encounter in the classroom” (Epsing, 2012). Rice and Young
state that “The present system of education not only ignores basic needs of students
(freedom, power, community), but also denies opportunities to develop and experience
the most important of basic needs – the will to meaning and purpose, the ‘why’ of living
45
and learning”. They suggest that educators should help students find this meaning in
education and in life, by “teaching them about the realities of psychological and
emotional courage, empathy, respect for self and others” (Rice & Young, 1998). They
state that students do not understand what is expected of them and are unable to “relate
what they are asked to do in school with any sense of meaning, or with ways to
incorporate their education into their lives” (Rice & Young, 1998). Meaning must be
inherent in education, students must be given “personal reasons (meaning) to meet the
psychological demands for learning” (Rice & Young, 1998). This accords with Frankl’s
view who points out “the foremost task of education, instead of being with transmitting
tradition and knowledge, is to refine that capacity which allows man to find unique
meanings” (Frankl, 1969, p 64). Epsing concludes by stating that “logotherapy has much
to offer those “independent and inventive, innovative and creative spirits” around the
world who use logotherapy in educational contexts” and that “Teachers, professors, and
other educators have virtually unlimited opportunity to realize this creative value every
time they step into a classroom, mentor a student, or write a pedagogically-oriented paper
emphasizing the meaningfulness of human existence” (Epsing, 2012, p. 8). There is no
reason why Irish educators cannot be included in this esteemed group of individuals who
guide their students towards discovering meaning. It is merely a matter of getting the
message across and of commencing to make logoeducation a reality within the
educational system.
Elisabeth Lukas, logotherapist, states that, “Although education accounts for only
part of our development, the importance of a meaningful education cannot be denied”.
46
According to Lukas, “Education to a meaningful life requires education to courage and
love. Only with courage can we educate children to courage – including courage to bear
unavoidable blows of fate – and only with love can we educate to love – including love
for life” (Lukas, 1989). Bianca Hirsch posited that logoeducation would prove to be both
“prudent” and “practical”, “Prudent, because of ongoing budget problems, schools need
to find ways of dealing with personal issues that overwhelm children and interfere with
learning.
Practical, because logotherapy is action-oriented, allowing participants to
assume responsibility for their own behaviour” (Hirsch, 1995). The absolute truth of
incorporating logoeducation into the existing school curriculum is that it will cost very
little; there is no need for huge changes to be made to make way for it, rather it can be
merely slotted in, like a puzzle piece that has been missing for a very long time. As
already outlined, this can be achieved through the instruction of the teaching community
in logotherapeutic methodology and could become part of their ongoing continuing
professional development training.
As previously stated, logoeducation in combination with P4C, beginning with preschoolers, would eliminate a lot of the problems children experience with education. The
world is changing and with it the education system needs to change radically also. Many
people are living in what can only be described as a virtual reality, escaping into
cyberspace in an attempt to find meaning, when none can be found therein. Friendships
are being maintained more often through social networking sites, which lack the personal
interaction vital to human development. This is essentially what Lukas referred to as
“denial of life”, which she believes is “more infectious and deadly” than any disease, and
47
is “characterized by a flight into the world of simulation” (Lukas, 1989). Therefore, the
social element of attending school is becoming much more important as a means of
human interaction.
Unfortunately, some children are finding this interaction more
difficult than others, with bullying having become disturbingly brutal, resulting in actual
suicides. Children are being failed in that they are unable to cope with the harsh realities
of living and the ability to deal with another whose attitude is negative and hurtful.
Bullying is not a new phenomenon, it has always been a part of growing up. If children
are not being taught how to manage this, this is entirely the fault of parents and teachers
who should ensure that the children they are responsible for are equipped with the means
of surmounting life’s trials and tribulations. This may be considered harsh, but it is sadly
true, where else will children learn these valuable life lessons.
Logoeducation and
philosophy will educate both those who are prone to bullying and those who may be
victims of bullying, in learning to listen and to be heard in a non-confrontational manner
while still getting their message across.
The following chapter will examine the present education system in Ireland and
the Irish Department of Education’s recommendations, in order to see how closely or far
removed from Frankl’s visions they are. Recently education has become a major talking
point in this country and there are many reforms proposed pertaining to same.
Coincidentally, the importance of parental involvement in their children’s education is
finally being recognised as an invaluable tool.
48
7.
Education in Ireland
“If one teaches things in a way that makes a one-sided claim on the child's intellect
and the merely abstract acquisition of skills, then the development of the native will
and sensibilities is checked; while if the child learns in a manner that calls upon its
whole being, he or she develops all around.”
Steiner
It is compulsory in this country for children from the ages of six to sixteen to
attend full-time education. It is optional for younger children to be enrolled in preprimary education, such as infant classes in primary schools. Presently, almost 40% of
four year olds and nearly all five year olds attend infant classes in primary schools (see
DOES, 2012). Pre-schools are a relatively new concept to Irish society. In 2010, a “free
Pre-school Year Scheme was introduced” in Ireland, under which scheme “all children
aged between 3 years 2 months and 4 years 7 months” can attend “a free pre-school year
of appropriate programme-based activities” (see DOES, 2012).
With both parents
working full-time, it is essential that children are placed in the hands of trustworthy
people, these precious and vulnerable little people are reliant upon a system that will not
mistreat them or abandon them to their own devices. Parents want their children to
develop and learn from their pre-school experiences, as there is very little interaction with
parents throughout the working week. This is also why it is vital that parents are
encouraged to become more involved in their children’s education, especially in preschool, with a view to making this interaction a rule of thumb throughout their years of
education.
49
In a 2004 report published by the Southwest Educational Development Laboratory
(“SEDL”), Scotland, it has been concluded that “When schools, families, and community
groups work together to support learning, children tend to do better in school, stay in
school longer, and like school more” (see SEDL, 2004). This report examined the results
of research conducted on parental involvement in their children’s education (over a ten
year period), stated that, “regardless of family income or background, students with
involved parents are more likely to:

Earn higher grades and test scores, and enrol in higher-level programs;

Be promoted, pass their classes, and earn credits;

Attend school regularly;

Have better social skills, show improved behavior, and adapt well to school; and

Graduate and go on to postsecondary education" (Henderson & Mapp, 2002)” (as
cited by SEDL, 2004).
SEDL states that “According to the National Network of Partnership Schools, for
parent involvement to flourish, it must be meaningfully integrated into a school's
programs and community. The network developed a framework of six types of parent
involvement that schools can use to guide their efforts. It says schools can:

Help families with parenting and child-rearing skills;

Communicate with families about school programs and student progress and needs;

Work to improve recruitment, training, and schedules to involve families as
volunteers in school activities;

Encourage families to be involved in learning activities at home;
50

Include parents as participants in important school decisions; and

Coordinate with businesses and agencies to provide resources and services for
families, students, and the community (Epstein, 2001)” (as cited by SEDL, 2004).
The conclusions of the SEDL report would indicate that education should involve as
many people as possible in a child’s education. This is reminiscent of days when there
were large family units living in close proximity, all actively involved in the younger
children’s care and rearing, not from an educational perspective but in life in general. In
an article written by Vassilopoulos and Kosmopoulos33 in 2009 on education in Greece, it
is stated that “Fifty years ago, it was home and families, culture, religion, and the
community that supported the education of students. Nowadays, the high rate of divorce,
multiculturalism and community destabilization has made this support problematic” (see
Vassilopoulos and Kosmopoulos, 2009). In Irish society today, where more people have
achieved higher levels of education than in previous generations, it should make sense
that involving parents in their children’s education would be an extremely advantageous
exercise, but unfortunately it appears that there is less involvement due to other outside
elements taking up parents’ time. With the results of the SEDL reported above, it is more
than an ideal that the role of parents in education is invaluable, it is a reality. The more
role models in a child’s life the better. Interestingly, Froebel and Dewey (chapter 5) both
felt strongly that parents (and family) involvement was vitally important to a child’s
education.
33
Dr. A. Kosmopoulos is an educator, psychologist, and philosopher. Dr. S. Vassilopoulos studied
pedagogical sciences in Greece and England.
51
According to Share et al (2011)34 in their Report on Community Childcare Centres in
Dublin Docklands, outline a proposed system of “Parent Involvement in Children’s
Learning (PICL)” and state that “National policy views parents as the primary educators
of their children” (Share et al, 2011). Their approach is to view parents as learners as
well as educators. Parental involvement in education during the early pre-school years
“seems to result in lower levels of parental stress”, enhances the children’s cognitive
development and that “higher home learning environments were associated with
increased levels of cooperation and conformity, peer sociability and confidence, lower
anti-social and upset behaviour and higher cognitive development scores”, thereby also
benefiting the teachers when dealing with the children in the school setting (Share et al,
2011). The Report cites a study by Siraj-Blatchford et al in 2002, which found that
“when parents and educators have shared aims it is the parental involvement in learning
activities in the home that is most closely associated with better cognitive attainment in
the early years” (see Share et al, 2011). The results of the Share et al Report would
certainly seem to indicate that now is the perfect time to look at setting up a relationship
with the pre-school education programmes in Ireland. From the research cited, it would
seem that there is a niche in this area to be filled and that the perfect solution would be
the introduction of combined logoeducation and philosophy. The present literature and
research is almost hitting on it, but there are some obvious elements missing, which is
exactly where logoeducation would come in. There are references to many different
methods and theorists, but reading between the lines, the components being looked at are
not exactly what is required. It is as if the knowledge of what is required is there, but no
34
Share, M., Kerrins, L. & Greene, S. (2011): “Early Years Professionalism: An Evaluation of the Early
Learning Initiative’s Professional Development in Community Childcare Centres in the Dublin
Docklands”; Dublin: National College of Ireland, 2011.
52
one so far has put forward the perfect model, the “aha” moment is missing.
The
combination of logoeducation and philosophy for children if presented properly could be
the perfect solution.
According to the DOES, the curriculum presently includes child-centred principles
and identifies “three key aims of primary education:
1. to enable the child to live a full life as a child and to realise his or her potential as a
unique individual;
2. to enable the child to develop as a social being through living and co-operating with
others and so contribute to the good of society;
3. to prepare the child for further education and lifelong learning” (see DOES, 2012).
It is stated that, “In its totality, the Primary School Curriculum aims to enable
children to meet, with self-confidence and assurance, the demands of life, both now and
in the future” (see DOES, 2012). The Social, Personal and Health Education (“SPHE”)
states that it provides “particular opportunities to foster the personal development, health
and well-being of the child and to help him/her to create and maintain supportive
relationships and become an active and responsible citizen in society” (see DOES, 2012).
The SPHE “aims to foster self-worth and self-confidence and places a particular
emphasis on developing a sense of personal responsibility for one's own behaviour and
actions” by promoting “self-awareness and understanding”, by enabling children to
evaluate their feelings and abilities and by teaching them coping skills in order to better
manage how they behave (see DOES, 2012). This all sounds very positive. It is certainly
53
excellent news that the curriculum is heavily promoting the creation of ‘active and
responsible citizens’, but it would be even more interesting if there was information
included as to how this is implemented.
It is further stated that the Primary School Curriculum (“PSC”) (from 1999)
“celebrates the uniqueness of the child and is designed to nurture the child in all
dimensions of his or her life, including the aesthetic (see PSC, 1999). It seeks to enrich
the child’s life as a child and to lay the foundations for happiness and fulfilment in later
education and in adult life (see PSC, 1999). The curriculum recognises the importance of
developing the full potential of the child, to develop children’s capacity for creative
expression and response, to think critically and to learn how to learn” (see PSC, 1999).
Unfortunately, although this would seem to promote a constructivist method of teaching,
there was no elaboration at the time on how this was to be achieved.
In 2009, the Irish National Teachers’ Organisation (“INTO”) proposed a method of
teaching that closely resembles the kind of education posited by Frankl and other
logotherapists, and stated that “it is necessary to ensure that there is a positive classroom
setting in place – one that is constructive, non-threatening and is founded on the belief
that all pupils can and have a right to learn” (see INTO, 2009). This climate, it was
posited, “can be created through the following means: Firstly, open-ended and varied
challenges or tasks can be set. Pupils should feel excited and challenged in the classroom,
not restricted and directed (see INTO, 2009). An open-ended task has no single correct
answer or a single way of getting a correct answer, therefore, open-ended tasks allow
54
pupils to engage with and apply subject knowledge and skills in an imaginative and
creative way, for example, through experimentation, role-play, problem-finding and
problem-solving” (see INTO, 2009). It went on to say that “a positive climate can be
achieved by ensuring that the contributions of all pupils are valued” (INTO, 2009). This
is exactly what education should be according to Frankl, indicating a definite move away
from reductionism, to the extent that there is even mention of constructive teaching
methods. This type of education would almost certainly be adaptable enough to make
way for the inclusion of logoeducation and P4C into the curriculum.
The INTO also posited that behaviour such as “risk-taking can be encouraged in order
to get pupils to come up with new ideas and approaches. In order for pupils to contribute
novel ideas, they need to know that their contributions are encouraged and that getting
things wrong is part of the learning experience” (see INTO, 2009). Therefore, the
response of teachers is important, for incorrect answers should be treated as valuably as
correct ones, no child should be made feel inadequate but rather encouraged to keep
trying. Teachers are urged to encourage open communication amongst the students,
which may be achieved through discussion and debate. It is believed that this open
communication promotes trust and gives children the opportunity to speak their mind and
support ideas. The students should be comfortable in the knowledge that all opinions are
taken seriously. Teachers should also work to challenge assumptions and stereotypes and
ensure that their pupils appreciate differences and diversity in others. Finally, learning
and discovery can and should be fun. Pupils enjoy trying things out without knowing
exactly what will happen next. This is why pupils seem to have fun while learning in
55
primary school. Overall, the curriculum “seeks to celebrate the uniqueness of the child”
(see INTO, 2009).
Research conducted by Michelle Dunlea for the Teaching Council (Ireland) (2009/10)
entitled “Textbooks in the Constructivist Classroom”, sought to look at the role of
textbooks in the classroom (in particular in science topics). One of the main problems is
the reliance teachers place on textbooks, due mainly to the teachers’ lack of confidence in
their knowledge of the subject, especially amongst older teachers. It was found that there
was textbook use of 70%, with teachers reporting that they felt the advantages afforded
by textbook usage outweighed the disadvantages. However, it was also reported that a
large number of teachers would be willing to teach without textbooks “because of the
flexibility and control that allowed” (see Dunlea, 2009/10).
Although 60% of the
teachers use the constructivist approach to teaching, it was admitted that few of them
used children’s own “ideas as a starting point for lessons” (see Dunlea, 2009/10).
It is impossible to evaluate what is important in children’s lives today without
including the role that computers play. According to Wilkinson et al (2001)35, the use of
computers “can have many positive as well as negative impacts on students development
and adjustment. The use of technology appears to down play the importance of social
contact and may lead many students to not develop the necessary social skills to function
in the world” (Wilkinson et al, 2001).
35
Wilkinson, L., Buboltz, W., Thomas, A. & Seemann, E., (2001) “Impact of Technology on Student
Socialization in the Classroom”; Louisiana Tech Univ., USA.
56
Canadian researchers, Larose et al36, have outlined the fact that “Children who use
the home computer systematically tend to do so in a solitary manner. Among children
inclined to be socially isolated, this propensity is reinforced by the use of home
computers” (Larose et al, 2001). In contrast to this, they also state that the use of
computers by children attending pre-school has been shown to be extremely beneficial,
“especially when used in a context of adult mediation”, in that cognitive development is
enhanced and it actually “promotes the construction of suitable social behaviour” (Larose
et al, 2001). Therefore, any position taken with regard to the education system, must
leave room for where the computer fits in as an extremely valuable tool for passing on
information, a cyber-teacher in effect.
Child-centred education derives largely from the work of Friedrich Froebel (see
chapter 5, pp 32-33), who held that children were endowed with certain qualities which
will mature given the appropriate environment. The child develops best in a “rich”
environment. The teacher should not interfere with this maturation, but act as a “guide”.
The function of early education, according to Froebel is “to make the inner outer” (see
Froebel, 1912, p. 94). Hence the emphasis on spontaneity and on stages of development,
and on “readiness” – the child will learn specific skills when he is “ready” (see Froebel,
1912).
There is a convergence between this view and the theories embodied in
Intelligence Testing - intelligence testing also embraces the notion that the child is
endowed with certain innate characteristics and that the process if education is to
36
François Larose, Bernard Terrisse, Johanne Bédard & Thierry Karsenti, (2001): “Preschool Education
Training: Skills for Adapting to a Changing Society” prepared for the 2001 Pan-Canadian Education
Research Agenda (PCERA) Symposium Teacher and Educator Training Current Trends and Future
Directions, 2001, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada.
57
actualise the given potential or in the sense of Froebel to “to activate and realise the
inner” (see Froebel, 1912). Both views deny the creative function of education, the
formative power of differential educational (or life) experiences. With regard to the
present Irish education system and the functions of imagination and creativity in an
educational context, it is interesting to note the following views expressed by an expert
on Irish education, Mark Patrick Hederman37.
Mark Patrick Hederman in his book “The Boy in the Bubble” (2012) states that the
present education model in Ireland is outdated, that children are being taught in exactly
the same way, in the same subjects, that were taught when he was a schoolchild. This,
Hederman states, “will be as useful to them as swordplay and musketry in nuclear
warfare (see Hederman, 2012, p. 12). He believes that the main objective of education
should be making children aware of their unconscious side and helping them to cope with
this aspect of themselves (see Hederman, 2012, p17) He goes on to say that to achieve
this, education must be redefined, it must become meaningful (see Hederman, 2012, p.
41). Although he is not naming it, what Hederman is looking for is logoeducation,
particularly when he says “Education must cease to be either the filtering of facts into
dull or bright receptacles, or the anarchical exacerbation of any and every unbridled
instinct. It must spark the organismic throb which constitutes the knowing humanity of
every child and then guide and direct this in whatever direction is necessary to allow each
of these potential centres of meaning to stretch fully across the reality of the universe”
(Hederman, 2012, p. 42).
37
Mark Patrick Hederman is Abbot of Glenstal Abbey, a Benedictine monastery in Co. Limerick, Ireland.
A former headmaster of Glenstal Abbey School, his doctorate was in the philosophy of education.
58
Hederman criticizes the present model of education, which places too much emphasis
on learning and lacks any “opportunity for dreaming” (see Hederman, 2012, p. 50).
Children are forced into this academic prison, where there is no time for normal
childhood activities or imagination, it is solely concentrated on learning. Frankl would
call this hyperintention or hyperreflection, leading to feelings of anxiety and the
development of phobias. Hederman believes that children’s originality is ‘castrated’ and
that this is achieved by placing children at an early age into a system where they are
wrong to want anything other than what they are told is acceptable by their ‘elders and
betters’ (see Hederman, 2012, p. 82). Hederman believes that this is the perfect time for
change, that the recession has taken the emphasis off spending money on the existing
education system. In fact, he goes so far as to state that “The education system currently
in place in Ireland is potentially a weapon of mass destruction where imagination is
concerned” (Hederman, 2012, p. 48).
Hederman cites statistics from a study “called Breakpoint and Beyond”38, which
posits that as a result of divergent thinking, 98% of kindergarten children are “able to
attain genius level” (Hederman, 2012, p. 52). This unfortunately deteriorates as children
age, because such divergent thinking is discouraged in schools. The reason for this is that
“from four years of age our children are treated to a bookish, commercial education” (see
Hederman, 2012, p. 52).
38
George T. Ainsworth-Land and Beth Jarman, Breakpoint and Beyond: Mastering the Future Today (New
York: Harper Business, 1992).
59
Hederman points out that in our society children leave home at an early age and enter
school, where they form new relationships outside of the family unit, but these new
relationships tend to mirror the child’s home life, with his/her peers becoming brothers
and sisters, and the teacher representing either mother or father depending on their
gender. It is therefore important that the experience for any child entering school for the
first time is a positive one. The importance of the teacher’s role cannot be emphasized
enough when used in this context, that is the teacher essentially becoming a surrogate
parent. The relationship initially formed between teacher and student must be a strong
one, with the child placing their trust in the teacher. With this trust, the child will be
willing to do as the teacher instructs and the teacher should appreciate and honour this
trust (see Hederman, 2012, p. 88). It is important the teacher does not take advantage of
the power he/she has in their role, that their will to power is supplanted. This is similar to
Frankl’s view that the teacher should be a role model in the child’s life, that their
attitudes are adopted and emulated by the children they teach, therefore the teacher’s
attitude is of vital importance and will impact either positively or negatively upon the
children in their care. Hederman says that teachers “must use the power of thraldom
which provides us with our effective authority in the educational situation, to coax the
student towards a higher level of being, towards the assumption of responsibility for their
own life and personality” (Hederman, 2012, p. 91). Again, responsibility (or responseability) is one of logotherapy’s main tenets and a hugely important part of logoeducation,
with children being guided and encouraged by the teacher towards owning their own
actions and thoughts, and of learning to become more aware of the self and others,
through logoeducation and the interactive P4C group settings.
60
Hederman proposes the integration of the Puskin model into education. In summary,
this involves getting in touch with the creative side of each child, introducing them to
nature in as natural a setting as possible and encouraging their creativity to come forth.
This model has enormous benefits for those already familiar with it and Hederman urges
that it become part of the Irish educational model.
This is interesting from the
logoeducation perspective, which (as previously outlined) lists creativity as part of its
three-tiered value system for discovering meaning. Hederman states that by adopting the
Puskin model, this would mean “injecting into the established educational system an
essential element which will transform it” (see Hederman, 2012, p. 138).
With
logoeducation and P4C, this thesis is reaching further than Hederman, in that the child’s
creativity will not only be encouraged, but his/her ability to live authentically through the
discovery of meaning through adopting creative, experiential and attitudinal values. In
Hederman’s own words, there should be more to education, “Education must be of the
whole person. It must take account of all three levels of our brain as well as catering
adequately for physical, emotional, intellectual and spiritual development” (see
Hederman, 2012, p. 200). Here he is referring to the three areas of the brain, the newer
higher functioning neocortex, the imaginative and creative limbic brain and the older
instincts driven serpentine brain, all three of which are catered for in logoeducation and
P4C, with children being encouraged to tackle any task or question they wish.
Having outlined and considered the existing educational system in Ireland, the current
pre-school / crèche / playschool picture is as follows. One of the most prevalent form of
61
pre-school in Ireland is Montessori Pre-School Education (see pp. 37 and 38 re Maria
Montessori), the premise of which is that “education begins at birth and is a natural
process which develops spontaneously” and where “respect for the child is the core
principle” (see www.earlychildhoodireland.ie). Less well known are Steiner schools and
the Play Based Programme available in pre-schools - these methods of education are now
set out in more detail:
1.
Montessori Pre-Schools
“The Montessori Setting

Classrooms are bright spacious multi-age learning communities guided by a
trained teacher.

Children are free to move around and independently choose their own
activities.
Using real child sized utensils the children learn to care for
themselves and their environment.

The specifically designed Montessori educational materials increase sensory
awareness and refinement of the senses and guide the child in their individual
growth and development.

These activities help develop concentration, dexterity and independence while
providing indirect preparation for more formal learning such as reading,
writing, and number work.

The child who feels good about himself/herself learns to love his companions,
the natural environment and learning” (see www.earlychildhoodireland.ie).
The “Benefits of Montessori Approach
62

The Montessori class provides comfort, security and a cohesive community.

The flexibility of the programme makes it adaptable to the needs of the child
regardless of the level of ability, learning style or social maturity.

Small steps, self-correcting materials, individual lessons and self-chosen tasks
all lead the child to experience success.

The focus is on the development of the whole child and the provision of an
environment complete with enriching activities that will foster growth in this
vital period of development” (see www.earlychildhoodireland.ie).
It is interesting that, on the one hand, the setting appears ideal for the addition of
logoeducation and philosophy into the Montessori method of education, but, on
the other hand, the assertion that the child experiences ‘success’ would not be an
aspect of logoeducation. Rather the focus of logoeducation would be that the
child experiences ‘meaning’ with success ensuring as a favourable by-product,
but this may well be an overreaction to the use of the word by the writer, who
points out that the danger with this might be that a child develops a ‘will to
success’ rather than a ‘will to meaning’. Of course it is important for a child to be
confident and well-rounded, but if they are pushed towards satisfactory results,
then this is what they will strive for, losing sight of all else. As previously noted,
the Montessori method does not seem to include fantasy play as part of its
process, but again as noted previously, this varies in the many different types of
Montessori schools available and parents should look into this fully when
deciding upon a preschool.
63
2.
Steiner Kindergartens
Steiner Kindergartens, based on the work of Dr. Rudolf Steiner (see Chapter 3, pp
36-37 of this thesis), claims to “provide a secure, gentle, home-like environment
where the young child can flourish and the wonder of childhood is protected”
(see www.earlychildhoodireland.ie). Steiner Kindergartens are available in most
European countries, but are still relatively unknown in Ireland. With the Steiner
method, “formal academic learning does not feature in the belief that children will
learn these skills more effectively if they have plenty of time and opportunity to
develop socially, emotionally and physically first, in a creative, secure and
harmonious environment” (see www.earlychildhoodireland.ie).
“What parents looks for in a Steiner Childcare Setting:

Warm, nurturing environment.

An emphasis on learning through doing, child led creative play, natural
materials, celebration of seasonal festivals and activities.

Healthy daily rhythms, alternating child-led time with teacher-led activity and
rest.

Simply natural playthings to nourish the senses and stimulate imagination.

Regular activities like handcraft, baking, painting, ‘ring time’ songs, verse,
stories.

Outdoor play.
Benefits for Children
64

The Steiner curriculum meets their developmental needs in an artistic, age
appropriate way.

Their imagination are nurtured and social, emotional and physical skills
developed as important prerequisites for formal school learning.

Careful consideration is given to the impact of everything in their
environment upon their senses” (see www.earlychildhoodireland.ie).
Unlike the Montessori method, the Steiner method places great emphasis on play
and imagination (fantasy play). Children naturally play, this is a fact, they learn
best through play, using their imagination to help them negotiate and understand
their environment and relationships with others. Some small children even have
imaginary friends or animals, with whom they interact and which they eventually
grow out of in their own time. In the writer’s opinion, this is the most favourable
form of preschool education available in Ireland, but alas there are very few to
choose from, unlike the Montessori schools of which there are an abundance.
3.
Play Based Programmes
In Ireland, there are also “Play Based Programmes”, which it is claimed is the
“the most common curriculum used in preschools, as most people in Ireland……
- believe that children have a right to play” (see www.earlychildhoodireland.ie).
This is supported by the Department of Education and the National Curriculum
Council. It is widely recognised that, as stated above, “play is a child’s way of
learning and of coming to terms with the world around them” and that “play
65
offers children the opportunity to set up real life scenarios where they can
practice, share and learn the skills they will need in later life” allowing them
“space to explore and think in creative ways” (see www.earlychildhoodireland.ie).
The Play Based Programme is structured so that “the job of the educator…. is to
facilitate play, to draw out and extend what children learn through play” and
“indoor and outdoor environments are structured so that children can play:

house, work, shop etc – explore roles, relationships, skills ….. – including
language and numeracy skills and thinking and relationship skills

building with lego/blocks etc to develop mathematical, design, collaboration
and negotiation skills

sand and water play - to explore science concepts about volume, capacity,
consistency, etc. Unless children have first-hand experience of materials and
their properties – they cannot understand them at a mental level

art – the purpose here is to encourage creative expression. …..We want to
open up the 100 language of children, rather than limiting them to talking,
reading and writing. Creativity creates alert minds that are able to invent and
think outside the box.

stories, songs, rhymes - children love them and they are a real help in
developing language, rhythm, movement and a sense of community

big movement play - where children stretch themselves – learn to manage
risk – develop a sense of adventure and well-being as well as important
physical and mental skills” (see www.earlychildhoodireland.ie).
There is a structured “daily routine” which ensures “that there is time for:
66

Free play, indoors and outdoors – where children choose their activities and
explore and experiment with the materials around them, either on their own,
or in collaboration with other children

Small Group time – when children further explore issues and interests that
arise in play. For example, if a group of children are playing holidays, the
educator might pursue this interest by discussing holidays and travel with
children to extend their knowledge and skills.

Large Group time – this could be a time for stories, songs, rhyme,
movement.

Tidy up times and meal times are also part of the learning experience for
children (see www.earlychildhoodireland.ie).
Summary
The pre-school settings already available in Ireland, as outlined above, could easily be
adapted to include logoeducation and P4C (which is outlined in the next chapter). The
perfect environment already exists, so that the children would not experience any major
change in their existing daily routine, but rather it would enhance and expand upon what
they are already doing. The emphasis with the preschools mentioned above is most
certainly on play and the importance of play in education has been taken up and is being
actively practiced in Irish preschools, which is in the writer’s view a most welcome and
satisfactory finding.
67
Also, in terms of the recommended teaching methods put forth by Frankl and the
other theorists mentioned in this thesis, in recent years Ireland’s educational system has
progressed dramatically and is steadily (albeit slowly) moving towards a more
constructivistic classroom. In this way, the reductionistic teaching that Frankl so disliked
is being phased out, with children being guided rather than pushed towards learning. The
play based methods of pre-school education, most especially that of Steiner, not only
places the child first but actually hold the child’s imagination and creativity in high
esteem. The additional benefits of introducing logoeducation and P4C into this already
desirable system, it is believed, would further encourage the children to develop their
social skills.
Taking the information presented above on education in Ireland today, it is of utmost
importance that careful consideration is given as to how logoeducation and P4C can be
introduced to younger children, ideally starting from within the existing pre-school
setting, which can then be carried through to national school education and on to
secondary level. It is worth emphasising again, that by educating teachers and parents in
the techniques of logoeducation and P4C, this would ensure that the children could be
continually encouraged to recognise and learn meaningfulness.
With this dual co-
operation, children would benefit from having a constant stream of meaningful examples
in their lives and it certainly would also be a positive experience for the adults.
Having considered the present models of education and having looked at the
recommendations, philosophical and psychological, as well as Frankl’s and his followers
68
views on what education is and should be, at present there is a system in train called
“Philosophy for Children” (“P4C”)39 which has been successfully pioneering (in other
countries) the integration of philosophy into the educational system. The idea is that by
engineering discussions with children through philosophical means, as Socrates began to
do in Athens, that children will in their own words navigate their way through important
existential topics that concern them. With the use of stories – well known fables and
tales, pictures – art and photographs, and popular children’s television shows and movies,
in other words, things children are interested in already (as put forward by Froebel,
Dewey and other constructivist theorists – see chapter 5), children should be able to
discover for themselves the art of living meaningful lives. This is further discussed in the
ensuing chapter, which outlines and elucidates the main aspects of P4C.
39
Philosophy for Children - developed by philosopher Matthew Lipman in the 1970s.
69
8.
Philosophy for Children
“Philosophy can enhance the entire educational experience of students.”
Pritchard
Philosophy for children (P4C) was established in 1972 by Professor Matthew
Lipman, and colleagues from the Institute for the Advancement of Philosophy for
Children (IACP) (see P4C.com, 2013). Lipman believed that philosophy was a rich
resource for education and that children were are capable of thinking about significant
matters and of engaging in thoughtful dialogue with their peers and with adults. Lipman
also believed that thinking skills could be taught to children, especially through the
sharing of literature. Lipman went on to write novels (his first being Harry Stottlemeier’s
Discovery) and stories for children to read and discuss. Harry’s discovery turns out to be
that thinking is the most interesting thing in the world, therefore Harry is thinking about
thinking or philosophising. Since its inception, P4C has been utilised by many countries
around the world, and there are thousands of books and articles available, as well as
instructions on how to set up philosophy groups (see P4C.com, 2013).
According to P4C, incorporating philosophy into children’s lives is simple and
easily achieved. P4C states that the basics of philosophy for children are straightforward.
The process is that children begin by sharing some reading, listening or viewing with
their teacher, then after a bit of thinking time, pose the questions that interest them and,
with guidance from the teacher, discussion ensues. “The teacher is concerned with
getting children to welcome the diversity of each others' initial views and to use those as
the start of a process of that involves the children questioning assumptions, developing
70
opinions with supporting reasons, analysing significant concepts and generally applying
the best reasoning and judgement they are capable of to the question they have chosen”
(see P4C.com. 2013). The aim is that the long-term outcome of this will be that children
will build on their skills, by reaching a better understanding of their world.
A
“community of enquiry” is established bringing to the classroom a more reflective
approach which encompasses “co-operation, care, respect and safety” resulting in
“understanding, meaning, truth and values supported by reasons”. In time, the questions
asked by children within this community “get deeper and more thoughtful” (see
P4C.com, 2013).
One of the exercises suggested by P4C for younger children is as follows.
Engaging in a “good because….” or “bad because….” activity with parents and children,
which involves firstly placing cards on a board titled “good” and “bad”, then choosing
items for discussion, such as:

“Sweets for breakfast, lunch and tea

Snowmen in summer

Six hands

Girls playing football

Sleep all day

Stay awake all night

No money

Children in charge?

Birthdays every day
71

Everyone looks the same

Always be happy” (see P4C, 2013)
Choosing a particular topic from the list, the children are instructed to say whether
they believe the item is good or bad, their names are then placed either under the good or
bad cards, followed by discussing with them why they chose either good or bad as their
answer. Suggested questions might be:

“Would be good about that choice?

What might happen if that was the case?

What wouldn't happen?

How would you feel about that?

What would you have to do if you chose that?

Do you think everybody would like that?” (see P4C, 2013)
By also involving parents in this exercise, it is helpful for both the parents and the
children to hear each others’ answers - it helps the children to learn that everyone’s
contribution is welcome and it helps the parents to understand why the children answer as
they do (see P4C, 2013).
The IAPC states that from the research conducted on the effects of philosophy,
children who are involved in philosophical discussion as part of their curriculum, are
more advanced cognitively than their peers (see IAPC, 2013). This should obviously be
the main attraction for the implementation of philosophy into any educational system.
Anything else that could possibly be seen to aid in improving academic success in
today’s society expounding the fact that it would produce more well-rounded individuals
72
is all well and good, but to make it really attractive, there has to be a more recognisable
benefit. This is where the advantages of combining the principles of logotherapy with
P4C become clearer, that is the resulting improvement of cognitive abilities gained from
philosophical exercises together with the ability to discover meaning in all circumstances
achieved through logotherapeutic methods.
Michael Pritchard40, 2009, states that when engaging in philosophy with children:
“Stories about those roughly their own age can provide opportunities for children to
discuss ideas that are most important to them” (Pritchard, 2009). Pritchard posits that the
opposition to introducing philosophy into the school curriculum may be due to the
teachers’ own worries that they are not capable of answering all the questions posed. It is
also a deterrent to teachers, that they have a strict curriculum to adhere to and results are
what matters. Introducing into the mix a subject which will produce no visible benefits to
prove its worth, may be felt to be a worthless exercise. Pritchard states that “philosophy
can enhance the entire educational experience of students” and that: “By inviting students
to reflect on relationships among different areas of inquiry and to make sense of their
educational experiences as a whole, philosophy can add to the meaningfulness of
students’ education as a whole. In addition, philosophy can make important contributions
to another area of concern that cuts across the curriculum, critical thinking” (see
Pritchard, 2009). Therefore, while the benefits may not be quantitatively measurable,
perhaps it is possible that the impact upon the students’ lives could be qualitatively
measured (Pritchard, 2009).
40
Pritchard, Michael (2009): “Philosophy for Children”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Summer 2009 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
73
Philosophy guides students “to develop good listening skills, responsiveness to
what others say, willingness to try to supports one's own ideas with good reasons, and
openness to the possibility that one should modify one's beliefs in light of new
considerations” (Pritchard, 2009).
P4C sets out examples of some questions children ask, such as:

“How do you know someone is really your friend?

Is it possible to hold a fair race?

What’s the difference between telling a lie and keeping a secret?

Is it ever ok to steal?

When did you start to think?

Do we have to be sad sometimes to be happy at other times?

If you had a different name would you be a different person?

Do we all have the same rights?

What is imagination?” (see P4C, 2013).
P4C outlines a selection of the principles underlying philosophy for children as
follows:

“Good thinking is learned from dialogue with others.

Children need to take part in dialogues that provide examples and models of good
thinking.

The wellspring of knowledge and intellectual excitement is questioning.
74

Claims should be tested in argument. Argument is not seen as a quarrel but as a
collaborative search for the best answer to a question.

To think well is to be creative as well as critical. Creative thinkers make connections,
speculate and explore alternatives.

Good thinking depends on attitudes as well as abilities.
Children should be
encouraged to be reasonable in the fullest sense of the word.

People make sense of the world through a web of concepts. We should talk with
children about significant concepts.

It is good for children and adults to talk together about philosophical questions -questions that matter and that link thinking about one area of experience to thinking
about experience as a whole” (see P4C, 2013).
The principles listed above could be applied to all age groups, with perhaps a minor
adaptation of some for younger children. P4C also outlines practices for implementing
these principles in four comprehensive groups:

“encourage questioning,

develop concepts,

encourage dialogue and

argument and work for reasonableness” (see P4C, 2013).
The most important facet of working with children in a philosophical setting is to give
it time, questions and answers should be looked at in depth and all opinions put forward
75
be considered. These philosophical sessions will take better shape with practice (see
P4C, 2013).
The group engaging in philosophical discussion should ideally sit in a circular
formation, which P4C states aids “good listening”. This also gives everyone an equal
opportunity to become involved, rather than the row settings used in classrooms, where
students may be overlooked or may be enabled to hide from view. To begin, the teacher
can read “stories, poems, news items or dialogues”, or introduce “images” by playing
“short films” to the group. The teacher may then initiate a discussion with some prearranged questions or ask the attendees to write down their thoughts or questions they
want to ask and to then discuss with everyone (see P4C, 2013).
Matthews41 in 2010, says that: “Developmentalists, following Piaget, have tended to
look for concepts, skills, and capacities that are present in children in only a primitive or
immature form but develop in stages until one is standardly able, in adolescence or
adulthood, to use the concept or skill or capacity in a fully mature way (see Matthews,
2010). But philosophy is not like that. Matthews posits that philosophy for children
should be about questioning things that children are concerned with and that writers and
poets of children’s literature obviously understand this. Books written for children are
not concerned with adult concepts about relationships, but with those which matter to
children. Children see problems, but do not look at them in the same way as adults and
certainly do not deal with them in the same way (see Matthews, 2010). Children talk
41
Gareth Matthews, (2010): “The Philosophy of Childhood”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
76
about things that bother them, they question what they do not understand, they seek to
discover meaning instead of hiding away from it.
It is important for authors to write on philosophical issues which appeal to children,
for example E.B. White’s “Charlotte's Web”, J.K. Rowling’s “Harry Potter”, J.R.R.
Tolkien’s “The Hobbit” and “The Lord of the Rings” trilogy, C.S. Lewis’s “Alice in
Wonderland” and “The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe”, as well as countless others
whose messages are of good overcoming evil, being responsible people, forgiving others
and a myriad of other valuable life lessons. Children have always hugely enjoyed seeing
‘the good guy’ triumph and it is through these stories that children are aided in adopting
their own personal system of beliefs. Professor Matthew Lipman, the founder of P4C,
believed that children are “not only capable of talking about matters of significance but
also that they were naturally disposed to question and wonder” (see P4C, 2013).
Children appreciate when something makes sense to them and question their world
constantly, actively seeking to understand their experiences whether positive or negative.
All children question life and death at some stage, wondering where they came from,
where they are going and the reasons for all that happens in the interim. It is the adults’
responsibility to help them negotiate their way and to guide them as best they can.
P4C has huge benefits for children and it is stated that “P4C improves children’s
critical, creative and rigorous thinking. It helps to develop higher order thinking skills,
improve communication skills and helps children learn to co-operate with others.
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Children learn to reflect before speaking so that they are accurate in what they really
want to say” (see P4C, 2013).
P4C cites that by incorporating philosophical methods in the classroom, for example
in mathematics and science, if children are encouraged to engage in discussing the
answers they give and to examine why they believe they are correct, this will bring a
greater understanding to the subject. In all areas, if children are encouraged to explore
and communicate their reasoning, learning will become something they are actively
engaging in rather than feeling they are required to give answers regardless of whether
they understand the context or not. It should not just be about finding the right answer
but rather should be about the manner in which the answer is arrived at, making it the
journey that is important and not the destination (as is the case with living one’s life). In
fact, P4C states that philosophy for children has been recognised as a “significant
educational intervention” and that “Controlled studies showed that it had a positive
impact on young people’s reading and reasoning skills, and on their interpersonal
relationships” (see P4C, 2013).
In an article from The Irish Times from February 2012, those few educators in Ireland
who have embraced philosophy in their classrooms have reported significant positive
results. The article quotes a 2007 study by Dundee University that “learning philosophy
raises children’s IQ by up to 6.5 points and improves their emotional intelligence and
concentration” and also that “After only one hour a week of philosophy over 16 months,
there were identifiable gains in pupils’ verbal and even numerical skills” (see
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www.irishtimes.com). The article also quotes Dr. Philomena Donnelly, lecturer in early
childhood education at St. Patrick’s College, Drumcondra, as having said that “Every
lesson you teach should have some level of teaching in the abstract” and that philosophy
should be introduced “As soon as you can talk” (see www.irishtimes.com). Dr. Donnelly
also opines that philosophy should not be taught as an examination subject but rather
should be integrated into daily classes (see www.irishtimes.com).
The combination of logoeducation and P4C into education is an ideal matching, as
both are about living authentically, examining life and living meaningfully, through
similar methods, most especially in their utilisation of Socratic Dialogue:
LOGOEDUCATION
Logotherapy
P4C
Philosophy
Socratic Dialogue
- Open questions -

Self-reflection

Paradoxical Intention





Dereflection
Active Listening



Attitudes


Values


Creativity


Responsibility /
response-ability

Who am I?
What is life?
Helping deal with fears /
phobias
Coping with anxiety
Everyone shares and
everyone listens
Discussion – what are
attitudes?
Discussion – what are
values?
Stories – using
imagination
Learning the difference
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As shown in the above diagram, logoeducation and P4C are already closely linked,
primarily through their employment of Socratic Dialogue. Logoeducation and P4C, as
outlined already, are ideally suited to be integrated into any classroom at any stage.
These two processes are perfectly designed to blend together, with P4C leading to the
questioning of the meaning of life and logoeducation helping to answer it, through the
discovery of self-reflection and self-distancing. Children involved in these discussion
groups will learn, assisted by the teachers, with minimal effort, to cope with fears and
phobias, to manage anxiety, to listen attentively to others, to give opinions, to participate
as fully as they wish, and most importantly they will learn, through others and from
within themselves. These children will know learn how best to express themselves,
through their experience in this group setting and will gain confidence and knowledge, in
an enjoyable setting, with an opportunity to talk about any subject they wish to propose,
as well as those proposed by others, where no one will judge them or interrupt their
thought processes. These groups can examine and discuss any issue they wish, but there
will also be topics chosen by the teacher, such as:

What is self-awareness?

What are values?

What is responsibility / response-ability and the difference between them?

What are attitudes?
These is an endless list of possibilities.
The final chapter now concludes by summarising this thesis in relation to the
introduction of logoeducation and P4C to Ireland’s pre-schools.
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9.
Conclusion
“Education is not preparation for life; education is life itself.”
Dewey
The aim of this thesis was to examine the viability of introducing logoeducation
and P4C to Irish schoolchildren (see chapter 1). This thesis was particularly aimed at 4
year old children, whom it is believed are capable of understanding the rudimentaries of
logoeducation and P4C and using same as part of their school programme. Chapter 2 –
Introduction, focuses on this aspect of the thesis.
Chapter 3 is concerned with firstly outlining and explaining the three main
assumptions of Viktor Frankl’s logotherapy, freedom of will, will to meaning and
meaning in life. This chapter secondly outlines the manner in which meaning may be
discovered, through three separate logotherapeutic values, creational, experiential and
attitudinal, and how these values may be realised. It is important that the existential
crises man experiences, arising from lack of meaning, are dealt with and it is through
utilising Frankl’s logotherapeutic methods of dereflection, paradoxical intention and
Socratic dialogue that this is achieved. Most importantly, man must live responsibly.
Finally, in this chapter, some studies are included, depicting the outcome of
logotherapeutic methods being utilised in different situations with regard to guiding
adolescents to discover meaning, with very promising results being recorded.
Chapter 4 then examines the views put forth by Frankl and other logotherapists on
children and education, with Frankl’s assertion that educational change is necessary in
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order to aid children to discover meaning and the aim should be to fulfil that meaning
through education. Frankl believed that education lacks direction, mainly because it has
not moved on from old reductionistic traditions which have become outdated and extinct.
He felt that new traditions and values should be created, where children are guided
towards realising values - creative, experiential and attitudinal values (as outlined in
chapter 3). Frankl, supported by other logotherapists, believed that education should be a
means through which children find meaning and that teachers should be role models who
inspire their students. This links with chapter 6, which examines some research on what
it is that children themselves find meaningful, the result being that it is their relationships
with others that is most important. Not surprisingly, most children have negative feelings
towards school. In this chapter, logotherapists such as Hirsch, Hoppe and Lucas identify
the need for meaning-centred education.
A variety of child development theories are discussed in chapter 5, with the
intention of providing evidence that 4 year old children are capable of learning
responsibility and of engaging in the search for meaning. This chapter begins with the
developmental theorist, Jean Piaget, whose theory does not support that 4 year olds are
able to think about or consider anyone else’s perspective. Although Piaget’s theories
have been hugely important in the understanding of children, his views concerning
children under 7 years of age has been revised by other theorists, such as Werner,
Wellman, Bruner and others, whose opinions are that younger children are much more
aware and capable than Piaget believed. The chapter concludes by examining some
82
educational theorists, such as Dewey, Froebel, Montessori and Steiner and their theories
on education.
Education in Ireland is outlined in chapter 7, by referring to information gleaned
from the Department of Education, such as the Primary School Curriculum, which does
seem to be on the right path towards helping children establish a better relationship with
school, but this does not seem to be actually happening in reality. Whilst this all looks
promising on paper, looking behind the words, there is still far too much emphasis on
grades and test scores. Unfortunately, the reality is that the curriculum is set up to churn
out well educated drones. Parents are buying into this. There is no meaning present in
any of this, therefore how will children discover any? It is not all bleak though, the Irish
National Teacher’s Organisation’s website gives a more positive slant to the area of
education and the need for children to engage in more than learning, such as engaging
their imagination and creativity in various tasks, discussions and role-play, etc. This
would indicate that teachers are ready to embrace new ideas and work with them,
therefore, logoeducation and P4C must be brought to teachers’ attention as soon as
possible.
Mark Patrick Hederman’s call for total reform of the current education system is
also outlined in chapter 7. He believes that the answer is to be found in getting in touch
with all three parts of the brain, the primal part, the higher functioning part and the
neglected creative part. Education is too focused on learning and not enough on the
person’s ability to create, to discover or to enjoy the beauty surrounding them.
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The latter part of chapter 7 is concerned with examining some pre-schools in
Ireland - Montessori, Steiner and Play Based Programmes, and concludes that
logoeducation and P4C would fit in perfectly with any of these pre-schools. There is no
denying that there is something important missing from education and this thesis
contends that that something is logoeducation and P4C. With this in mind, chapter 8 is
concerned solely with P4C, its origins and how it works. P4C is hugely successful in
other countries around the world, it encourages children to talk about everything and
anything they wish with their peers, under the supervision of their teacher. Children love
P4C and, as a result, they engage completely in it. Examples of questions and topics for
discussion are given in this chapter as well as a list of the principles underlying P4C. It
has been proven that P4C improves cognition, critical thinking, creativity as well as
enhancing communication and socialisation skills.
Chapter 8 winds up with a look at why logoeducation and P4C should be
combined. The table included shows how logoeducation and P4C, through Socratic
Dialogue, compliment each other. Difficult topics can be discussed through P4C and
dealt with through the logotherapeutic techniques of logoeducation. In time, the children
will become familiar with these techniques, so much so that their lives outside of the
classroom will be enriched. Logoeducation and P4C will become a way of life and not
just an exercise carried on at school.
Let the final words go to Aristotle:
“Educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all.”
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10.
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-
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