excited to share their discoveries
with others.
Finally, observation and reflection support teachers' understanding of their images of children. Children's actions and language enable
them to describe what they observe.
Teachers who think about children's
intentionality and depth of understanding are likely to experience a
thirst for further study of child
development.
The educators at Reggio Emilia
have provoked teachers in the United States and elsewhere in the world
to consider their cultural images of
children–and thus their teaching
practices. Teachers who are inspired
by this approach eagerly seek ways
to deepen their understanding of
children as knowledgeable co-learners with their teachers. The ways
teachers view children's potential
and power strengthen their interaction with children, enable them to
plan a more responsive curriculum,
and design learning environments
that encourage children to meaningfully explore themselves and the
world around them.
References
Cadwell, L. (1997). Bringing Reggio Emilia
home: An innovative approach to early
childhood education. New York: Teachers College Press.
Edwards, C., Gandini, L., & Forman, G.
(1998). The hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia approach–
advanced reflections. Greenwich, CT:
Ablex.
Forman, G. (1999). Instant video revisiting: The video camera as a tool of the
mind for young children. Early Childhood Research and Practice, 1, (2).
Retrieved from http;//ecrp.uiuc.edu/
vln2/forman.html
Fu, V.R., Stremmel, A.J., & Hill, L.T.
(2002). Teaching and learning: Collaborative exploration of the Reggio Emilia
approach. Columbus, OH: Merrill
Prentice-Hall.
Gandini, L., & Edwards, P.C. (Eds.)
(2001). Bambini: The Italian approach
to infant/toddler care. New York: Teachers College Press.
Gandini, L., & Goldhaber, J. (2001). Two
reflections about documentation. In L.
Gandini & C.P. Edwards (Eds.). Bambini: The Italian approach to infant/toddler care (pp. 124-145). New York:
Teachers College Press.
Hendrick, J. (1997). First steps toward
teaching the Reggio way. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Hughes, E. (2002, Spring). Planning
meaningful curriculum from observation: A mini-story of children and
teachers learning together. Childhood
Education, 78(3): 134-139.
Hughes, E. (2000). "If you have sun and
you rain you get a rainbow:" Creating
meaningful curriculum from young
children's actions and words. Journal of
Early Childhood Teacher Education,
20(2): 89-100.
Lewis, M., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1979).
Social cognition and the acquisition of
self. New York: Plenum.
Malaguzzi, L. (1994). Your image of the
child: Where teaching begins. Child
Care Information Exchange, 96, 52-61.
Rinaldi, C. (2001). Reggio Emilia: The
image of the child and the child's environment as fundamental principle. In
L. Gandini & C.P. Edwards (Eds.).
Bambini: The Italian approach to
infant/toddler care (pp. 49-54). New
York: Teachers College Press.
Thank You, Reviewers
SECA expresses its appreciation to these people who reviewed the
articles that appear in this issue:
Denise Da Ros-Voseles
Eleanor Duff
Loraine Dunn
E. Anne Eddowes
Aaron Fink, M.D.
Janet Foster
Stephen Graves
Peggy O. Jessee
Susan Kontos
Mary Langenbrunner
Karen M. La Paro
Joann Niffenegger
Margaret Puckett
Christine A. Readdick
Dean Richey
Jean Shaw
Anne Stanberry
How can families and teachers support children's healthy
self-concepts? These concrete suggestions for families and
educators are drawn from the best research and theory.
Self-Esteem and Young Children:
Guiding Principles
Muriel Azria-Evans
develops largely from an individual's social interactions
and the relationships in which they are embedded (Hartup, 1989; Yabiku, Axinn, & Thornton, 1999). Parents,
teachers, coaches, peers, grandparents, and siblings, to
name a few, make up children's social environment.
Children's opinions about their competence, control,
and worth develop out of close involvement with these
people (Hartup).
Adults, including parents and teachWhat Is Self-Esteem?
ers,
relay information to children
Precursors of
Although self-esteem does not
through words, facial expressions, and
self-esteem begin
emerge fully until middle childhood
actions. Direct and indirect informain infancy.
(Harter, 1998), precursors of selftion influences a child's evaluation of
esteem begin in significant relationthe self. The self is an "abstraction
ships that develop during infancy
that
an
individual
develops about the attributes, capaci(Bowlby, 1988). These relationships form children's
internal working models or scripts, which will define ties, objects, and activities which [s]he possesses and purtheir expectations of self and others. Children's internal sues" (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 20). It has been well docrepresentations of self are gradually supported or reject- umented that even young children possess the ability to
ed by the socializing environment (Bowlby). In other organize information relevant to themselves (Cooley,
words, developmental changes in self-representation and 1909; Eder, 1990; Harter, 1998; Mead, 1934). Children's concepts of themselves, derived fundamentally
eventual self-esteem occur in the context of the child's
from interpersoncognitive construct and social environment (Harter).
al relationships,
Coopersmith (1967), a leader in the study of selfChildren's concepts of
influence
their
esteem, defined self-esteem as the evaluation an individthemselves influence
ual makes regarding him- or herself. "It indicates the future behavior.
their future behavior.
Self-esteem includes many aspects of self-evaluation
that develop over time in the context of significant
social relationships. The purpose of this article is to
define self-esteem, show the relation between selfesteem and children's social environment, and offer
practical suggestions to help foster the development of
healthy self-esteem in young children.
extent to which the individual believes himself to be
capable, significant, successful, and worthy" (p. 5).
Coopersmith observed that self-esteem evolves from
three basic needs:
1) the need to belong,
2) the need to feel capable, and
3) the need to be worthwhile.
Influence of
caregiving styles
One of the first interpersonal relationships to develop
is between children and their parents. Baumrind (1971,
1989) has described two distinct dimensions of caregiving
How Does Self-Esteem Develop?
Muriel Azria-Evans, Ph.D., CFLE, is Assistant Professor,
School of Family and Consumer Sciences, Child and Family
Studies, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg.
Self-esteem is a social construct (Cooley, 1909) that
20
Volume 32, Number 1
DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
Winter 2004
Winter 2004
DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
Volume 32, Number 1
21
(responsiveness and demandingness) that sustain various
caregiving styles (authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative). Different caregiving
styles are gauged by their
degree of responsiveness and
demandingness.
Neglectful caregivers oftentimes have been ineffective in
disciplining their children in
the past, so they succumb to
allowing their children to
make their own decisions.
They are considered to be
low in responsiveness and
• Responsiveness refers to the
demandingness. They allow
degree to which caregivers
self-regulation of activities and
are supportive, cued into
avoid exercising control.
children's developmental
On the other hand, indulneeds, and available to meet
gent caregivers, while warm and
their needs.
responsive, choose not to exer• Demandingness refers to the
cise control because they
extent to which caregivers
believe that they do not have a
have and state expectations
right to control their child in
for behavior, supervise and
any way. These caregivers are
monitor behavior, and are
considered low in demandingwilling to confront a child.
Although Baumrind's careness but high in responsiveness
giving styles have been preand are generally nonpunitive,
dominantly used to describe
accepting, and affirmative.
Nancy P. Alexander
parents, they are also appropriBy their actions, neglectful
Relationships
characterized
by
authoritative
guidance,
ate in describing other significaregivers in particular, and
cant adults who interact with mutual respect, and cooperation contribute to feelings of
indulgent ones as well, are
self-worth and healthy self-esteem.
young children, including
telling children that no one is
teachers, child care providers,
there for them, which may
esteem). Children may fear that they
coaches, and religious educators.
make
children feel discounted,
will be abandoned if they make a
Authoritarian caregivers demon- mistake, and conclude that rules are scared, and hurt. From these feelings
strate high levels of demandingness more important than their needs. children may make one of two conand low levels of responsiveness Children who are exposed to pre- clusions about themselves: "I must
(Baumrind, 1971, 1989). They gendominantly controlling adults take care of other people's feelings"
erally use set standards of conduct to develop a sense of self that is indecior "Because no one cares about me,
control and shape children's behav- sive and that needs or seeks control I will have to do everything on my
ior. They value unquestioned obedi- from others (DeVries & Zan, 1994). own." These two perceptions reflect
ence and often have unrealistic
In contrast, many adults uncon- children's feelings of not belonging
expectations. One side effect of an sciously choose to use a permissive
and lack of worth, both of which are
authoritarian caregiving style is the caregiving style in which children components of less-than-healthy
underlying message being sent to
are actually the powerful ones and self-esteem.
Authoritative caregivers, on the
the child. Messages such as "your
the adults are powerless (Baumrind,
needs are not important and there- 1971, 1989). Permissive caregivers other hand, demonstrate high levels
fore ultimately you are not impor- fall in two categories, those who are of both demandingness and respontant" cause children to feel power- neglectful and those who are indul- siveness (Baumrind, 1971, 1989).
They commonly encourage verbal
less, angry, rejected, and inadequate. gent. Both of these caregiving styles
These feelings may surface as grant freedom to children before give and take and use reason and
children hear and come to believe they are capable of handling the reinforcement in shaping behavior.
Authoritative caregivers generally
that they are not important (i.e., responsibility.
have appropriate expectations of
lack of worth, a component of self-
22
Volume 32, Number 1
DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
Winter 2004
dler saying, "I see me going way, way
down there!" Placing the mirror above
her head, a girl said, "I am here."
Once again, a teacher's attention to a
toddler's discovery helped maintain
children's interest and excitement,
and led to a sharing of ideas.
In another situation, children
held up mirrors and noticed reflected images of children who were
standing behind them. "I can see
Tracy. Tracy is over there!" one child
shouted. Another child observed, "I
can see outside." Both children saw
reflections of children who were
playing behind them.
Pablo was sitting on the couch
looking at his reflection in two mirrors. He had placed one in front of
him and another on the floor
behind him. He exclaimed, "I see
me. All of me!"
When Jennifer revisited photographs of these play experiences,
she tried to better understand how
children were learning about their
bodies in space. Some questions she
asked herself included:
• What does children's language
reveal about the concepts they
are constructing?
• How do interactions with mirrors
promote further exploration?
"Double, I see double!"
Winter 2004
• What is the difference between
seeing one's reflection in a mirror and watching a video
recording of oneself?
• What connections with prior
experiences lead children forward? How do learning opportunities provide possibilities for
understanding concepts in different ways?
• How do teachers decide to
respond? What informs their
decisions?
Think Deeply About the
Documentation
Jennifer studied her observations
and documentation at several different points.
• As she conducted observations,
she thought about what she was
viewing.
• When she revisited her observations with other teachers, she
had opportunities to interpret
and reflect on the children's
actions and to use these understandings to make betterinformed decisions about daily
practices.
• Finally, as time passed, Jennifer
reflected on the meaning of her
learning experiences and those
of the children.
Studying documentation gathered through observation
enables
teachers to better
understand young
children in many
ways. First, teachers who follow children's actions better
understand how
their
concepts
develop. For example, as toddlers
explored their sense
of self, they used
language to express
their ideas about
DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
self-image, size, spatial relationships,
reflections, and perspective.
Second, tools such as camcorders
help teachers and children focus
their attention. Questions that arise
during reflection include: How does
focused attention on children motivate and extend a teacher's interest
level, which, in turn, provokes further study about toddler learning?
Why does revisiting experiences with
toddlers maintain their interest?
How does the thoughtful study of
children's actions and words lead to
connected experiences for children?
The opportunity to think deeply
about how to plan meaningful experiences is an outcome of reviewing
documentation over time (Cadwell,
1997; Edwards, Gandini, & Forman, 1998; Fu, Stremmel, & Hill,
2002; Hendrick, 1997; Hughes,
2000, 2002).
Toddlers AND teachers
need time to explore and
reflect on their actions.
Jennifer discovered how essential
it is to have time to sift through her
work and organize her observations.
She appreciated this cyclical nature of
documentation as being an important step to her inquiry (Gandini &
Goldhaber, 2001). Just as toddlers
need time to explore and reflect on
their actions, so do teachers.
Third, teachers recognize how
children create bonds with each
other when they enjoy shared learning experiences. Toddlers in Jennifer's group continue to be presented with experiences that offer possibilities for inquiry. Natural interactions then occur as children explore
their common interests. They are
Volume 32, Number 1
19
Mercedes put her mirrors together just
like the teacher and Jazdia did.
boy touched the image of another
child and then went over and
touched the boy's face. Another child
looked down at his image when he
appeared on the television screen,
and then walked behind the television to look for himself.
The children's reactions to the
video provide insights about how
children explore their understanding of sense of self and the representation of self as an image.
Observations like these can help
teachers confirm that a toddler's
"categorical" self emerges during
Kerrie moves the mirror in close to
her face.
18
Volume 32, Number 1
the second year (Lewis & BrooksGunn, 1979). These types of experiences may well support children's
development of their self-concepts.
Toddlers might well be exploring
the question, "What is the meaning
of this image, separate from
myself?"
Jennifer also questioned her
understanding of the meaning of
friendships for children at this age.
She observed how, when interests
were shared, children readily
acknowledged the presence of other
children. She revisited her understanding of parallel play and the
socialization of toddlers. Clearly,
shared interests were a powerful tool
for bringing children together.
Mirror, Mirror
Jennifer decided to find ways
extend the toddlers' exploration of
their images. She was curious
whether children would play with
their images of each other and
revisit them without a camcorder.
How could the environment be
modified to further children's play
with images?
The teachers in the classroom
discussed how toddlers often carried
their belongings around the room.
They decided to make "traveling
mirrors" from Mylar® that could be
used by toddlers in multiple ways.
Children were soon observed
exploring the mirrors. Kerrie looked
at herself, bringing the mirror in so
close that it touched her face.
Another child looked at the mirror,
and then turned the mirror to show
his reflection to another child.
Jazdia's teacher put two mirrors
together as though she were holding
a book. Jazdia soon positioned two
mirrors in the same way. Mercedes,
who was watching Jazdia, put her
mirrors together in the same way.
The two toddlers examined their
mirrors, looking back and forth.
Later, Jazdia stood on top of two
mirrors and exclaimed, "Double, I
see double!" Jennifer asked her,
"What's double?" Jadzia replied,
"Right here!" pointing to the two
mirrors stacked on top of each
other. Jennifer responded, "Jennifer
and Jennifer!" Jazdia then went for
another child to show him that if
two mirrors are stacked on each
other, one sees "double."
The children were also observed
standing on the mirrors with one tod-
A teacher holds up two mirrors like a book. Jazdia
mirror the same way.
DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
positions her
Winter 2004
children's behavior based on their
development and are willing to
enforce clearly established rules.
Accordingly, they demonstrate
through their actions that the welfare of children is important and
that the adults in their world are
able to be both warm and responsible. They give the implicit messages
that children's needs are important,
as are the needs of others.
In response, children may feel
safe, supported, but also frustrated,
and resistant at times. Feelings of
safety and support are a result of the
warmth and respect elicited by the
parent. Occasional feelings of frustration and resistance may also
develop from having to follow certain rules and guidelines. These feelings result from the notion that
while there are some rules they must
follow, they are loved and supported
in their efforts to follow certain reasonable expectations. Because these
expectations are clearly stated and
children with authoritative caregivers are supported, they generally
feel capable in their efforts, which is
an important component of healthy
self-esteem.
In the 30 years since Baumrind's
(1971) formulation of these parenting styles, more attention has
been given to the adaptive nature
of parenting behavior. For instance,
such adaptation takes place when
parents residing in dangerous
neighborhoods use very stringent
child management techniques to
ensure their children's safety
(Brody & Flor, 1998).
Brody and Flor (1998) termed
this type of parenting "no nonsense
parenting." It is defined by high levels of parental control, greater than
would be expected from authoritative parents, coupled with affection-
Winter 2004
ate behaviors, more than would be
expected from authoritarian parents.
Accordingly, this type of parenting
style falls between what Baumrind
identified as authoritative and
authoritarian. This form of parenting "communicates to the child that
the parent is vigilant and concerned
for the child's welfare" (Brody &
Flor, p. 805), which should consequently nurture healthy self-esteem
in childhood and beyond.
Because self-esteem is a social
construct, children's interpersonal
interactions with others will influence their self-evaluation. Relationships characterized by authoritative
guidance, mutual respect, and cooperation (Baumrind, 1989; DeVries
& Zan, 1994), contribute to feelings of self-worth and healthy selfesteem (Buri, Louiselle, Misukanis,
& Mueller, 1988). Various behaviors within the context of such relationships can strengthen children's
acceptance of themselves and others,
self-control of their behavior, sense
of moral worth, and feelings of
competence.
Six specific suggestions for families and other caregivers to foster the
positive development of children's
self-esteem follow. Although some
suggestions might appear natural
and elementary, they are nonetheless
fundamental to the development of
young children's self-esteem.
1. Express genuine interest in
children and engage in joint
activities willingly.
Children can sense when an
adult is sincerely interested in their
company or when they are spending
time out of duty. Both verbal and
nonverbal communication conveys
messages to children as to whether
or not adults are genuine in their
DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
interest in the children and their
activities.
"Both sociologists and psychologists have found parents' involvement with their children's schools to
be important to youth achievement
and psychosocial competence"
(Brody, Flor, & Gibson, 1999, p.
1199). When adults are truly interested in shared activities, their efforts
are most productive (DeVries &
Zan, 1994) and they communicate
that the child is worthy of their time.
Feeling worthy is an important
dimension of healthy self-esteem
(Yabiku et al., 1999). Statements
such as "The green you painted in
your picture makes me feel like playing in the park" sends the message
that the adult is sincerely interested
in the child's actions. When an
adult values a child's contributions,
the child is likely to feel a sense of
belongingness and, consequently, an
increase in healthy self-esteem
(Eaton, 1997).
2. Plan age-, skill-, and culturallyappropriate activities that encourage children to problem solve.
Children benefit from participating in activities for which they can
make real decisions and contributions. Because children can be very
creative in designing solutions and
solving problems, adults should
make time to discuss solutions to
concerns and problems with children (Nelsen, Erwin, & Duffy,
1998). When children take responsibility by making a contribution,
such as helping a teacher or solving
a class dilemma, healthy self-esteem
is fostered. For instance, a broken
water pipe at a laboratory school
allowed children to problem solve
by answering the question, "How
can we wash our hands before
Volume 32, Number 1
23
snack?" Their responses included:
"We could take all our buckets and
go next door to get water." "We
could use wet wipes to clean our
hands." "My mother buys water at
the grocery store."
By offering suggestions for solving the problem, children felt connected to each other and viewed
themselves as hard workers. Such
traits are enduring (Verschueren,
Marcoen, & Buyck, 1998) and are
internalized, thus promoting healthy
self-esteem.
Role-playing is also a great
avenue to help children begin to
learn problem-solving skills. Roleplaying enables them to practice
behaviors–both appropriate and
inappropriate–in a safe setting
(Curry & Johnson, 1990). Boys and
girls in dramatic play centers, for
instance, can be firefighters, astronauts, nurses, babies, or farmers!
They develop important problemsolving skills by sharing responsibilities, clarifying adult roles, and making group decisions.
3. Use active, reflective listening
to acknowledge children's emotional needs.
All feelings are legitimate (Gordon, 1970). Children communicate
their feelings through words and
actions. Active, reflective listening is
based on the idea that when children communicate with adults they
do so because they have a need.
Active listeners are open and
approachable. Steps in active listening include, but are not limited to:
1) playing the "guessing game"
with preverbal infants and toddlers (i.e., stating feelings and
behaviors that the child might
be experiencing),
2) giving names to different feel-
24
Volume 32, Number 1
Subjects & Predicates
Through role-playing, children develop important problem-solving skills as they share
responsibilities, clarify adult roles, and make group decisions.
ings (e.g., sadness vs. frustration
vs. anger), and
3) reflecting children's feelings
with statements such as "It
sounds like . . ." or "I hear you
saying . . ." (Gordon).
Statements such as "I know you
are angry right now. You wanted to
play with the doll first. It's hard to
wait but you will have a turn when
April is finished" communicates
trust and confidence in children
that they can deal with their feelings. By accepting and respecting
children's positive and negative feelings, adults let children know that
love is not contingent on an arbitrary standard (e.g., when the child
is being "a good girl", when they
"do as they are told").
4. Give meaningful, appreciative
feedback and use realistic words
of encouragement to children.
Verbal acknowledgement and the
use of value-affirming support have
been found to be related to healthy
self-esteem (Kernis, Brown, & Brody,
2000). Feedback on how children
DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
have performed tasks is an important
source of information about children's capabilities. A sense of mastery
and competence is a significant component of healthy self-esteem.
Not all feedback and/or praise
are equal, however (Hitz &
Driscoll, 1988). Effective feedback/encouragement, or what has
been called "descriptive reinforcement" (Hitz & Driscoll), is more
valuable than empty praise and flattery, which quickly becomes ineffective and superfluous. Empty
praise and flattery actually may
harm rather than support children
by causing dependence, competition, and resentment (Hitz &
Driscoll, 1988; Mangin, 1998).
Descriptive responses, on the
other hand, help children recognize
their own accomplishments. They
highlight the process instead of just
the outcome (Curry & Johnson,
1990). Reinforcement is personalized when adults
• use children's names,
• choose a variety of encouraging
words, and
Winter 2004
One toddler developmental milestone is that they typically recognize
themselves in pictures between the
ages of 19 and 24 months, which is
what Kerrie did. Forman (1999)
points out that when young children view their own images, they
use a third-person point of reference. Again, that is exactly what
Kerrie did.
Forman (1999) refers to the camcorder as a "tool of the mind" for
teachers. By knowing how toddlers
develop, and observing them in
action, Jennifer and her staff can
teach in a way that is responsive to
children's interests and knowledge.
Children's excitement as they saw
their images on the camera screen
led Jennifer to ask herself questions,
such as "How do children come to
understand the representation of self
as an image?"
After reflecting on the learning
opportunities that the camera
opened up for teachers, Jennifer
decided to focus her future observations on toddlers' curiosity and their
understanding of themselves, their
image of self.
Watching Children Watch
Themselves
The second time the
camera was used, Jennifer
wanted to observe children's interactions with it.
What else would they say
or do when they saw their
images in the screen?
Immediately she noted
that children spent a lot of
time intently watching
themselves. Her interest
in them had apparently
heightened their interest
in themselves!
Jennifer saw that Danny tried to
make sense of his image by touching
his face as he watched the video
screen. Danny commented, "I see
Pablo." He moved the camera and
said, "I see Kerrie." Turning to Jennifer, he asked, "Where is Danny?"
Both teacher and children began
to value the recognition that
emerges from observation of the
other. Malaguzzi (1994) speaks to
the value of and need for adults and
children to be observed and the
resulting pleasure that results. He
notes:
When the child is observed, the
child is happy–it's almost an
honor that he is observed by an
adult. On the other hand, a
good teacher who knows how
to observe feels good about
himself because that person
knows that he is able to take
something from the situation,
transform it, and understand it
in a new way. (p. 55)
By viewing toddlers as worthy of
recognition, and as individuals who
have interests, ideas, and theories,
teachers enhance their own positive
image of toddlers.
As the children became more
familiar with the camera, they
engaged in shared experiences that
"I see Pablo. I see Kerrie. Where is Danny?"
Winter 2004
DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
created a natural context for forming relationships with each other.
Instead of a teacher directing the
children to interact, the excitement
of the experience encouraged children to get their peers involved on
their own.
Pablo entered camera range,
moved in close to the screen, and
then moved back. He repeated this
action several times. As Pablo played
with his changing image size, Mercedes came along and pointed to the
screen, saying, "There's you and
Pablo!" Children's actions and
words can provoke questions for
educators about children's understanding of themselves and others.
Children spent a lot of
time intently watching
themselves.
Everyone Watches the Tape
Jennifer decided to play the
videotape for the children and
record their actions as they
watched themselves. She wondered
how the children would react to
seeing themselves on the tape, and
about how the children
not shown would respond
to the other children's
images. Would the experience spread curiosity
among more of children?
To Jennifer's delight, the
toddlers exhibited a variety
of actions as they viewed the
tape. Many stood up and
touched the television screen
when they saw themselves.
Several called out their
friends' names as they
appeared on screen. One
Volume 32, Number 1
17
How can teachers focus their observations to document, analyze, and
enhance toddlers' actions? These glimpses into one classroom support the
image of toddlers as competent, curious, and full of a sense of wonder!
• offer a verbal description of what
the children are doing to warrant
effective praise (Thomas, 1991).
Camera in Action! Seeing Toddlers in
a Positive Light
Eileen Hughes and Jennifer Lentz
Early childhood educators at Italy's Reggio Emilia
hold an image of children as individuals who are competent, capable, and rich with ideas. Rinaldi (2001)
explains that adults construct their views of childhood
from their society's social and cultural images. These theories about childhood then drive educational practices.
One of the fundamental points of the Reggio philosophy is an image of the child who experiences the
world, who feels a part of the world right from birth;
a child who is full of curiosities, full of desire to live;
a child who is full of desire and ability to communicate from the start of his or her life; a child who is
fully able to create maps for his or her personal, social,
cognitive, affective, and symbolic orientation. Because
of all this, a young child reacts with a competent system of abilities, learning strategies, and ways of organizing relationships. (Rinaldi, 2001, p. 50)
Teachers who view toddlers as individuals who are
full of ideas and curious with questions and creativity
will closely attend to children's words and actions. Their
interactions with children closely reflect this image.
Central to the daily work of Reggio Emilia teachers is
the deep belief that teacher and children are coresearchers (Edwards, Gandini, & Forman, 1998).
Every day, teachers use observation and documentation
to help them identify children's interests, learning
processes, ideas, theories, and questions.
Reflection and analysis of these observations leads to
a better understanding of children's development and
learning. This cyclical process of observation, documentation, and reflection informs teachers' decision making
about curriculum, environment, and interactions with
young children.
What can teachers in programs in the United States
do to fine-tune their observational skills? This article
looks at the experiences of a teacher seeking to better
understand toddlers and their interactions in groups.
16
Volume 32, Number 1
Observe With a Focus
Inspired by the Reggio Emilia approach, Jennifer, a
toddler teacher, regularly observes and records children in
her group with a digital camcorder. The camera has a view
screen so she can see the children while she records what
they're doing. Later, she transcribes their actions and
words. She and other staff members use her documentation to thoughtfully plan children's learning experiences.
Teachers who are beginning to observe children are
often not sure what to look for. At first, Jennifer simply
experimented with this more contemporary way of
recording and analyzing. The focus of her observations
evolved as she increasingly valued children's expressions
and responses.
A First Look...for
Toddlers and Teachers
When the camera was
introduced, Jennifer's
toddlers took an immediate interest in it, looking into the screen to
view themselves. Kerrie,
a 2-year-old, exclaimed,
"There's Kerrie! There's
Kerrie again," pointing
Photographs courtesy of the author
to the image of herself on "There's Kerrie!
the screen.
There's Kerrie again."
Eileen Hughes, Ph.D., is Associate Professor in the Early
Childhood Program, College of Education, University of
Alaska Anchorage.
Jennifer Lentz, B.A., is an Educational Consultant with
Rural Cap Head Start, Anchorage, Alaska.
DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
Winter 2004
For example, when a child completes a puzzle, statements such as "I
saw how you turned that puzzle
piece to fit just so. You completed
it!" are more effective than the
overused "Good job." Feedback that
is specific, genuine, and focused on
what children are doing results in
children's increased appreciation of
their own behaviors and achievements (Hitz & Driscoll, 1988).
When feedback is given
is as important as how it
is given.
When feedback is given is as
important as how it is given.
Although self-esteem is influenced
by other's evaluations, a healthy or
authentic sense of self is a feeling
that eventually develops within an
individual. Consequently, when giving feedback, it is important that
one does so judiciously. "Humans
are by innate inclination active,
curious, and desirous of challenges"
(Deci & Ryan, 1992, p. 32). Consequently, feedback that is dispensed
indiscriminately and without merit
may hinder children's intrinsic
motivation, creativity, and realistic
sense of self-esteem (Deci & Ryan;
Mangin, 1998).
5. Demonstrate respect for all
children, family compositions,
and cultures.
Having authentic respect for all
children, including children with
differing abilities, and for children
from various cultures and races (e.g.,
Morrison & Rodgers, 1996) sends
the message that they are important.
Winter 2004
Accepting and learning about children's similarities, as well as differences, goes far beyond one-time
events and/or didactic lessons
(Curry & Johnson, 1990). Modeling and encouraging respect for others will send a resounding message
that although children and families
may be diverse, they all have unique
strengths to be appreciated.
"Building a child's self-esteem in
today's multicultural classroom must
include a sensitivity to each student's
linguistic heritage" (Silicone, 1995,
p. 56). One way to demonstrate genuine interest in different cultures is to
learn how to say key words in each
language spoken by children and
families in the group. Preparing a
large banner to hang in front of the
room with various words for welcome, for instance, will help establish
an inviting classroom for older students and their families (Silicone).
Because social interactions as well
as academics may be challenging for
children who are speakers of languages other than English or who
have learning disabilities, it is
important for teachers to support
their academic and social competence (Convoy, Langenbrunner, &
Burleson, 1996; Tamaren, 1992).
Self-regulation and peer interactions
influence and are influenced by selfesteem, so it is important to present
opportunities for all children to
master specific social skills.
Creating an atmosphere of inclusion while recognizing individual
differences is important in guiding
the development of children's
healthy self-esteem. For instance,
when celebrating holidays such as
Mother's Day, be sensitive to differences in family composition. Recognize and validate children who are
mothered by adopted mothers,
DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
grandmothers, stepmothers, aunts,
fathers, and uncles.
Also, be wary of gender biases. It
is important to be aware of the gender information children gather
from the environment. Children's
perceptions about themselves and
their abilities is believed to be assimilated into their sense of self-esteem
(Ochman, 1996). For example,
always calling on males when physical help is needed sends indirect
messages to females that they are not
capable of completing the same task.
While it is commonly expected
that individuals working with children will be responsive to various cultures and religious groups, it is also
important to remember that assumptions should not be made about a
family's practices. "Within any cultural group–be it ethnic, racial,
socioeconomic, or religious–individuals and families vary in their beliefs
and adherence to the social conventions of their community" (Okagaki
& Diamond, 2000, p. 78). Consequently, wise teachers initiate conversations with families to ascertain and
understand different perspectives
they may have on such areas as discipline and values.
Family participation is also a
great way to help children feel more
comfortable with various cultures
and traditions. Invite families to regularly visit the class and bring in
items to touch that represent their
music, customs, and celebrations.
Frequent "tasting parties" are just
one great way to share foods from
around the world!
6. Teach social skills that foster
healthy self-esteem.
It is likely that children's social
skills and consequent ability to
make friends reflects their selfVolume 32, Number 1
25
esteem, and that friendships are a
means to strengthen and refine one's
own self-perception (Curry & Johnson, 1990). Correspondingly, lack
of social skills is often associated
with low acceptance in a peer group
(e.g., Renshaw & Asher, 1982),
which is itself associated with low
self-esteem.
Fortunately, social
skill training has been successful
with children exhibiting difficulties
interacting with peers (e.g., Factor
& Schilmoeller, 1983; Gottman,
Gonso, & Schuler, 1976; Zanolli,
Paden, & Cox, 1997). Teaching
children real skills–how to take
turns, how to ask for something,
how to enter a group, how to share,
and how to respond to someone's
anger (Convoy et al., 1996; Greenberg, 1991; Katz & McClellan,
1997)–can help them more effectively engage in interpersonal interactions with peers.
There are specific steps to making friends, so it is important for
adults to identify children who have
difficulty in particular areas. Where
does their need for improvement lie?
• Do they have faulty interpretations of others' behaviors
and/or intent? Rejected and
neglected children often have
distorted interpretations of others' intentions (Feldman &
Dodge, 1987).
Caregivers can creatively offer
opportunities for children to work
on their social skills without singling
them out. Organize cooperative
activities instead of win-lose games,
especially with young children who
are often "me firsters and poor
losers" (Rimm, 1997, p. 41).
Similarly, adults who assess the
age, skill, and cultural appropriateness of each social situation can
coordinate the setting and activities
accordingly. Preschool teachers, for
instance, expect a level of egocentrism (Piaget, 1970) that makes taking turns and sharing difficult.
Expecting a young child to share his
favorite teddy bear with others is
inappropriate. Instead, start with
objects and toys that are not as personal to introduce the concept of
sharing and taking turns.
Adults are responsible for assisting children to engage in positive
Actively engage
children in positive
social interactions.
social interactions. For instance,
when children exclude others, adults
must help neglected or rejected children find a way to reenter the group
and improve peer relations (DeVries
& Zan, 1994). Adults must actively
engage children in behaviors that
will result in positive social interactions, and thus support their development of positive self-esteem.
• • •
Self-esteem is socially constructed, so there are numerous opportunities to foster healthy self-esteem in
young children. The strategies proposed here target the core components of self-esteem—feelings of
belongingness, worth, and competence. Activities that focus on problem solving develop young children's
sense of mastery, while expressing
genuine interest and actively listening to children relay the message that
they are worthy of attention.
Respecting the heterogeneity of the
children illustrates that each
child plays a significant role
and belongs in the group.
Lastly, all of these strategies
fall under the umbrella of an
authoritative and cooperative relationship that sets the
stage for fostering overall
healthy self-esteem.
• Is it that they always try to
change the rules of the game
when they enter a group?
Rejected children often
have difficulty staying
"on task" and may not be
adaptable to new situations or new groups of
children (Coie, Dodge,
& Kupersmidt, 1990)
• Is it that they are unable
to share or take turns?
Preschoolers are just
beginning to learn to
negotiate and compromise, so sharing and taking turns are an ongoing
Nancy P. Alexander
challenge in the developChildren's
social
skills
and
consequent
ability
to
make friends
ment of their social skills
reflects
their
self-esteem.
Friendships
are
a
means
to strengthen
(Nelsen et al., 1998).
and refine one's self-perception.
26
Volume 32, Number 1
DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
References
Baumrind, D. (1971). Current
patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology
Monographs 4 (1, Pt. 2), 1103.
Baumrind, D. (1989). Rearing
competent children. In W.
Damon (Ed.), Child develop-
Winter 2004
in development and learning. Dimensions of Early Childhood, 28(4), 25-30.
Edwards, C., Gandini, L., & Forman,
G.E. (Eds.). (1998). The hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia
Approach–Advanced reflections (2nd
ed.). Greenwich, CT: Ablex.
Katz, L.G., & Chard, S.C. (1991). Engaging children's minds: The project
approach. Stamford, CT: Ablex.
Moran, M.J., & Jarvis, J. (2001). Helping
young children develop higher-order
thinking. Young Children, 56(5):31-35.
Rosenfield, D., Folger, R., & Adelman,
H.F. (1980). When rewards reflect
competence: A qualification of the
overjustification effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(3),
368-376.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The
development of higher mental processes.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
Warash, B., & Kingsbury, D. (1999). The
scrapbook project. In Practical classroom application of language experience:
Looking back and looking forward edited by O. Nelson (pp. 59-63). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Warash, B., & Workman, M. (1993). All
life's a stage: Children dictate and reenact personal experiences. Dimensions of
Early Childhood, 21(4), 9-12.
Warash, B. (2001). Is it contract day?
ACEI Focus on Pre-K & K, 13(3), 4-8.
SECA
&
Heifer International
Children Are Changing the World
A Community Service Project of the Southern Early Childhood Association
SECA and Heifer International
The Southern Early Childhood Association and Heifer International have joined
together to sponsor a project to meet the goals of enriching and supporting the global family.
What Are We Asking You to Do?
SECA and Heifer International are offering you several different ways to participate:
➀
Raise money to purchase a chick, a cow, or a goat (or other
animal) and donate those funds to Heifer International.
➁
Incorporate information and materials from Heifer International into your curriculum to educate your children about
the global family. Heifer International does not require
that you do a fundraising project in order for you to
receive their materials.
➂ Use the SECA materials developed for prekindergarten children to supplement your classroom activities. “Join the Global Family” is a resource guide for teachers about animals
and how they support families in different countries.
We’d suggest that you do all three! The curriculum materials
provided by Heifer International are wonderful, full-color curriculum materials and they’re FREE to your program. You don’t have
to do a major fund-raising project. A contribution of $20 to Heifer
International will buy a flock of 10 to 50 chicks! For a small contribution, you can make a big difference to a family in the world.
To order Heifer
International Resources:
We’d like to share your Heifer Project with the members of
SECA. We’ll publish articles in both Dimensions and the SECA
Reporter during the next year about projects that you’ve completed as part of this community service initiative.
To submit an article, please consider the following guidelines:
➀
The article should be 1000 words or less and include
information about the type of project, number of children participating, and the major activities in the project.
➁
We encourage the submission of photos. Photos should
follow SECA photo guidelines and photo releases are
required. You can access a copy of our photo guidelines
at www.southernearlychildhood.org. (Click on the
Dimensions button.)
➂ Articles and photos can be transmitted electronically to
[email protected] or by mail to:
Southern Early Childhood Association
PO Box 55930
Little Rock, AR 72215-5930
To order SECA Resources:
Call (800) 422-0474 and tell the staff which materials you
would like to receive. Specify either the Read to Feed kit or
the Animal Crackers/Fill the Ark materials.
Winter 2004
Tell Us About Your Heifer Project
Call (800) 305-7322 and ask for the Join the Global
Family packet.
DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
Volume 32, Number 1
15
The paper doll project offered
many opportunities for socialization
that led to improved communication
skills, too. As children worked on
their dolls, they were engaged in constructive conversations of how they
might use the dolls. They used their
paper dolls in creative ways. Small
groups of children invented scenes
with the paper dolls as the actors.
Using paper dolls facilitated the
imagination of young children to set
up pretend scenarios and gave them
the opportunity for more advanced
stages of play. The paper dolls were
simple homemade props that set the
stage for the children to plan their
own roles. As groups of children
worked on their dolls, conversations
about the names they had given
their dolls arose.
Social play enables children to function at a
higher level.
Several children wanted to use
their paper dolls in a puppet show
with a stage and props. Children
made clothes that resembled traditional clothing in Hawaii. They cut
slits into the bottom of triangular
skirts to replicate grass skirts. They
pretended they were landing on the
island and the paper dolls were
dancing and meeting the new people. Symbolic thinking and the cognitive skills that children use in
imaginative play such as this are
necessary for continued development (Bodrova, Leong, Hensen, &
Henninger, 2000). Social play
enables children to function at a
higher level than their independent
level of performance.
The paper doll project also
enabled children to expand on their
14
Volume 32, Number 1
knowledge about occupations.
When the teacher talked about people such as firefighters, nurses, doctors, and construction workers, corresponding materials were provided
for children to make appropriate
uniforms for the dolls. When the
children were making firefighter
uniforms, many interesting and
informational conversations arose.
Elena said that firefirefighters squirt
water from a hose. Dustin said that
they put water on the fires and 911
is for a fire engine. Caroline chimed
in with additional information that
firefighters cool down hot things
and that they wear hats, boots, jackets, and pants. Tommy went on to
talk about fire drills.
Encouraging children to revisit
their drawings and creations is
extraordinarily valuable in promoting their learning (Edwards, Gandini, & Forman, 1998). When children revisit, they are more likely to
develop mental functions associated
with higher-order thinking skills
(Moran & Jarvis, 2001). Children
at the Nursery School revisited their
work and they often revised something on their paper dolls. Sometimes they added fingernails to
hands or a bracelet to an arm. Some
children made changes to their original dolls, while others would make
a new cutout form that included
more detail. These types of behaviors occurred because children had
the opportunity to use their creations in various ways.
Families were enthused about the
project, which encouraged the children's further involvement. The
dolls and dollhouses also were displayed to families and friends during an open house at the Nursery
School. Children were excited as
they showed their parents their
DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
accomplishments. It was evident
that the process was important, and
that the products were something
they were very proud of because
they could use them in their play.
Children took good care
of their paper dolls.
It is easy to recognize the values
of such a project by noting the children's increased competency with
scissors and recording incidents of
their more advanced social play.
Children's overall accomplishments
went far beyond these observed
milestones. They made something
that they could continue to use.
Their dolls were not hung on the
wall or placed in a closet for later
admiration. The paper dolls were
revisited again and again throughout the semester in various play
opportunities. They took good care
of their paper dolls and respected
their materials.
The goal to involve children in
making a simple old-fashioned toy
that could be used in play, and that
in turn would be taken care of, was
certainly accomplished. And that
was just the beginning of the benefits of this contemporary twist on a
traditional toy.
References
Berk, L.E., & Winsler, A. (1995). Scaffolding children's learning: Vygotsky and
early childhood education. Washington,
DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
Bodrova, E., & Leong, D.J. (1996). Tools
of the mind: The Vygotskian approach to
early childhood education. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bodega, E., Leong, D.J., Hensen, R., &
Henninger, M. (2000). Imaginative,
child-directed play: Leading the way
Winter 2004
ment today and tomorrow (pp. 349378). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parentchild attachment and healthy human
development. London: Perseus.
Brody, G.H., & Flor, D.L. (1998). Maternal resources, parenting practices, and
child competence in rural single-parent
African American families. Child
Development, 69, 803-816.
Brody, G.H., Flor, D.L., & Gibson, N.M.
(1999). Linking maternal efficacy
beliefs, developmental goals, parenting
practices, and child competence in
rural single-parent African American
families. Child Development, 70, 11971208.
Buri, J.R., Louiselle, P.A., Misukanis,
T.M., & Mueller, R.A. (1988). Effects
of parental authoritarianism and
authoritativeness on self-esteem. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,
14, 271-282.
Coie, J.D., Dodge, K.A., & Kupersmidt,
J.B. (1990). Peer group behavior and
social status. In S.R. Asher & J.D.
Coie (Eds.), Peer rejection in childhood
(pp. 17-59). New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Convoy, M.A., Langenbrunner, M.R., &
Burleson, R.B. (1996). Suggestions for
enhancing the social behaviors of
preschoolers with disabilities using
developmentally appropriate practices.
Dimensions of Early Childhood, 24(1),
9-15.
Cooley, C.H. (1909). Social organization.
New York: Scribner's.
Coopersmith, S. (1967). Antecedents of selfesteem. San Francisco: Freeman.
Curry, N.E., & Johnson, C.N. (1990).
Beyond self-esteem: Developing a genuine
sense of human value. Washington DC:
National Association for the Education
of Young Children.
Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (1992). The
initiation and regulation of intrinsically
motivated learning and achievement.
In A.K. Boggiano & T.S. Pittman
(Eds.), Achievement and motivation: A
social-developmental perspective (pp. 936). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
DeVries, R., & Zan, B. (1994). Moral
classrooms, moral children: Creating a
constructivist atmosphere in early education. New York: Teachers College Press.
Winter 2004
Eaton, M. (1997). Positive discipline: Fostering the self-esteem of young children. Young Children, 52(6), 43-46.
Eder, R.A. (1990). Uncovering young children's psychological selves: Individual
and developmental differences. Child
Development, 61, 849-863.
Factor, D.C., & Schilmoeller, G.L. (1983).
Social skill training for preschool children. Child Study Journal, 13(1), 41-56.
Feldman, E., & Dodge, K.A. (1987).
Social information processing and
sociometric status: Sex, age, and situational effects. Journal of Abnormal
Child Psychology, 15(2), 211-227.
Gordon, T. (1970). Parent effectiveness
training: The no-lose program for raising
responsible children. New York: P. H.
Wyden.
Gottman, J., Gonso, J., & Schuler, P.
(1976). Teaching social skills to isolated children. Journal of Abnormal Child
Psychology, 4(2), 179-197.
Greenberg, P. (1991). Character development: Encouraging self-esteem and selfdiscipline in infants, toddlers, and 2year-olds. Washington DC: National
Association for the Education of Young
Children..
Harter, S. (1998). The development of
self-representation. In W. Damon &
N. Eisenberg (Eds.), Handbook of child
psychology: Social, emotional and personality development (5th ed., pp. 553617). New York: Wiley.
Hartup, W.W. (1989). Social relationships
and their developmental significance.
American Psychologist, 44(2), 120-126.
Hitz, R., & Driscoll, A. (1988). Praise or
encouragement? New insights into
praise: Implications for early childhood
teachers. Young Children, 43, 6-13.
Katz, L.G., & McClellan, D.E. (1997).
Fostering children's social competence:
The teacher's role. Washington, DC:
National Association for the Education
of Young Children.
Kernis, M.H., Brown, A.C., & Brody, G.
H. (2000). Fragile self-esteem in children and its associations with perceived
patterns of parent-child communication. Journal of Personality, 68(2), 225252.
Mangin, M.C. (1998). Praise: What does
it accomplish? Dimensions of Early
Childhood, 26(3 & 4), 12-18.
Mead, G.H. (1934). Mind, self and society.
DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Morrison, J.W., & Rodgers, L.S. (1996).
Being responsive to the needs of children from dual heritage backgrounds.
Young Children, 52(1), 29-33.
Nelsen, J., Erwin, C., & Duffy, R. (1998).
Positive discipline for preschoolers. Rocklin, CA: Prima Publishing.
Ochman, J.M. (1996). The effects of nongender-role stereotyped, same-sex role
models in storybooks on self-esteem of
children in grade three. Sex Roles, 35,
711-735.
Okagaki, L., & Diamond, K.E. (2000).
Responding to cultural and linguistic
differences in the beliefs and practices
of families with young children. Young
Children, 55(3), 74-79.
Piaget, J. (1970). Piaget's theory. In P.H.
Mussen (Ed.), Carmichael's manual of
child psychology (pp. 703-732). New
York: Wiley.
Renshaw, P.D., & Asher, S.R. (1982).
Social competence and peer status: The
distinction between goals and strategies. In K.H. Rubin & H.S. Ross
(Eds.), Peer relationships and social skills
in childhood (pp. 375-395). New York:
Springer-Verlag.
Rimm, S. (1997). Raising preschoolers: Parenting for today. New York: Three
Rivers Press.
Silicone, F. (1995). Celebrating diversity:
Building self-esteem in today's multicultural classrooms. Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.
Tamaren, M.C. (1992). I make a difference!
A curriculum guide building self-esteem
and sensitivity in the inclusive classroom.
Novato, CA: Academic Therapy Publications.
Thomas, J. (1991). "You're the greatest!"
Principal, 71, 2-3.
Verschueren, K., Marcoen, A., & Buyck, P.
(1998). Five-year-olds' behaviorally
presented self-esteem: Relations to selfperceptions and stability across a 3-year
period. Journal of Genetic Psychology,
159, 273-279.
Yabiku, S.T., Axinn, W.G., & Thornton,
A. (1999). Family integration and children's self-esteem. American Journal of
Sociology, 104(5), 1494-1524.
Zanolli, K.M., Paden, P., & Cox, K.
(1997). Teaching prosocial behavior to
typically developing toddlers. Journal of
Behavioral Education, 7(3), 373-391.
Volume 32, Number 1
27