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Forms of Government
∗
OpenStax College
This work is produced by OpenStax-CNX and licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution License 3.0†
Abstract
• Dene common forms of government, such as monarchy, oligarchy, dictatorship, and democracy
• Compare common forms of government and identify real-life examples of each
Figure 1: Former Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein used fear and intimidation to keep citizens in check.
(Photo courtesy of Brian Hillegas/ickr)
∗ Version
1.3: Jul 29, 2013 1:03 pm -0500
† http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
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Most people generally agree that
anarchy, or the absence of organized government, does not facilitate a
desirable living environment for society, but it is much harder for individuals to agree upon the particulars
of how a population should be governed. Throughout history, various forms of government have evolved to
suit the needs of changing populations and mindsets, each with pros and cons. Today, members of Western
society hold that democracy is the most just and stable form of government, although former British Prime
Minister Winston Churchill once declared to the House of Commons, Indeed it has been said that democracy
is the worst form of government except for all those other forms that have been tried from time to time
(Shapiro 2006).
1 Monarchy
Even though people in the United States tend to be most aware of Great Britain's royals, many other nations
also recognize kings, queens, princes, princesses, and other gures with ocial royal titles. From one country
to another, the power held by these positions varies.
Strictly speaking, a
monarchy
is a government in
which a single person (a monarch) rules until that individual dies or abdicates the throne. Usually, a monarch
claims the rights to title by way of hereditary succession or as a result of some sort of divine appointment
or calling.
As mentioned previously, the monarchies of most modern nations are ceremonial remnants of
tradition, and individuals who hold titles in such sovereignties are often aristocratic gureheads.
A few nations today, however, are run by governments wherein a monarch has absolute or unmitigated
power. Such nations are called
absolute monarchies.
Although governments and regimes are constantly
changing across the global landscape, it is generally safe to say that most modern absolute monarchies are
concentrated in the Middle East and Africa. The small, oil-rich nation of Oman, for instance, is an example
of an absolute monarchy. In this nation, Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al Said has ruled since the 1970s. Recently,
living conditions and opportunities for Oman's citizens have improved, but many citizens who live under
the reign of an absolute ruler must contend with oppressive or unfair policies that are installed based on the
unchecked whims or political agendas of that leader.
In today's global political climate, monarchies far more often take the form of
chies,
constitutional monar-
governments of nations that recognize monarchs but require these gures to abide by the laws of a
greater constitution. Many countries that are now constitutional monarchies evolved from governments that
were once considered absolute monarchies. In most cases, constitutional monarchies, such as Great Britain
and Canada, feature elected prime ministers whose leadership role is far more involved and signicant than
that of its titled monarchs. In spite of their limited authority, monarchs endure in such governments because
people enjoy their ceremonial signicance and the pageantry of their rites.
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Figure 2: Queen Noor of Jordan is the dowager queen of this constitutional monarchy and has limited
political authority. She is a noted global advocate for Arab-Western relations. (Photo courtesy of Skoll
World Forum/ickr)
2 Oligarchy
The power in an
oligarchy is held by a small, elite group.
Unlike in a monarchy, members of an oligarchy
do not necessarily achieve their status based on ties to noble ancestry. Rather, they may ascend to positions
of power because of military might, economic power, or similar circumstances.
The concept of oligarchy is somewhat elusive; rarely does a society openly dene itself as an oligarchy.
Generally, the word carries negative connotations and conjures notions of a corrupt group whose members
make unfair policy decisions in order to maintain their privileged positions. Many modern nations that claim
to be democracies are really oligarchies. In fact, some prominent journalists have labeled the United States
an oligarchy, pointing to the inuence of large corporations and Wall Street executives on American policy
(Krugman 2011). Other political analysts assert that all democracies are really just elected oligarchies, or
systems in which citizens must vote for an individual who is part of a pool of candidates who come from the
society's elite ruling class (Winters 2011).
Oligarchies have existed throughout history, and today many consider Russia an example of oligarchic
political structure. After the fall of communism, groups of business owners captured control of this nation's
natural resources and have used the opportunity to expand their wealth and political inuence. Once an
oligarchic power structure is established, it can be very dicult for middle- and lower-class citizens to advance
their socioeconomic status.
:
During the famed Gilded Age of American history, prominent socialite Mrs. Stuyvesant Fish
organized and hosted a lavish dinner party in honor of her pampered dog, who arrived at the
function sporting a $15,000 diamond collar (PBS Online 1999). Such absurd luxuries were fairly
commonplace among the ultra-rich during this era of American history, which saw the rise and
dominance of such families as the Vanderbilts, Rockefellers, and Carnegies.
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As the super-rich
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reveled in their wealth, however, most Americans scraped by, living below what was considered the
poverty level.
Figure 3: The Breakers, the famous Newport, Rhode Island, home of the Vanderbilts, is a powerful
symbol of the extravagant wealth that characterized the Gilded Age. (Photo courtesy of ckramer/ickr)
Interestingly, some scholars now believe that the United States has embarked on a second Gilded
Age and have oered hard data to back up their assertions.
Such camps point to the fact that
the 400 wealthiest American families now own more than the `lower' 150 million Americans put
together (Schulz 2011). Much of this current generation's wealth is concentrated among corporate
executives and Wall Street tycoons.
Many of the super-rich use their economic clout to purchase more than luxury items. Specically,
wealthy individuals and corporations are major political donors. Because their campaign contributions have the potential to inuence policy decisions and the election of candidates, the economic
power of this segment of society is used for acquiring political power. As this dynamic continues, it
supports the view that the concentration of wealth in the United States has contributed to making
it like an oligarchy (Krugman 2011).
These patterns of wealth distribution and political contributions have spurred lively debate in
recent years.
Some see great wealth as a fair reward for hard work and talent, believing that
political contributions are part of free expression in a democratic society.
Others maintain that
the concentration of wealth is a signal that too many people's economic opportunities are limited.
Another concern is that lack of equal power in making monetary donations will translate into
an uneven distribution of political powera situation that raises questions of the fairness of a
representational system. These viewpoints underlay many of the recent political debates about
tax policy, campaign nance reform, and government budgets in the United States.
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Figure 4: Support from prominent Russian oligarchs propelled leader Vladimir Putin to power. (Photo
courtesy of Kremlin.ru/Wikimedia Commons)
3 Dictatorship
Power in a
dictatorship is held by a single person (or a very small group) that wields complete and absolute
authority over a government or populace after the dictator rises to power, usually through economic or
military might. Similar to many absolute monarchies, dictatorships may often be corrupt and seek to limit
and even eradicate the liberties of the general population. Many dictators start out as military leaders and
are more conditioned to violence if they face opposition than non-military gureheads.
Dictators use a variety of means to perpetuate their authority.
Intimidation and brutality are often
foremost among their tactics; individuals are not likely to rebel against a regime if they know they will be
hurt. Some dictators also possess the personal appeal that Max Weber identied with a charismatic leader.
Subjects of such a dictator may believe that the leader has special ability or authority and may be willing
to submit to his or her authority.
Popular images of the late Kim Jong-Il, as well as his successor, Kim
Jong-Un, exemplify this type of charismatic dictatorship.
Many dictatorships do not align themselves strictly with any particular belief system or ideology; the
goal of this type of regime is usually limited to preserving the authority of the dictator at its helm. The
totalitarian dictatorship describes a more ambitious and oppressive style of dictatorship that attempts
to control all aspects of its subjects' lives. Communist regimes, for instance, are often totalitarian in nature.
They may attempt to regulate how many children citizens bear, what religious beliefs they hold, and so
forth. They may also demand that citizens publicly demonstrate their faith in the regime by participating
in public marches and demonstrations.
Some benevolent dictators, such as Napoleon and Anwar Sadat, are credited with advancing their people
or exercising a modest level of evenhandedness, but many end up grossly abusing their power. Joseph Stalin,
Adolf Hitler, Kim Jong-Il, Saddam Hussein, and Zimbabwe's Robert Mugabe, for instance, are heads of state
who earned a reputation for leading through fear and intimidation. Hitler, for example, is responsible for the
genocide of millions of Jews and other groups, while Mugabe has been accused of ruthless land acquisition.
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Figure 5: Dictator Kim Jong-Il of North Korea was a charismatic leader of an absolute dictatorship. His
followers responded emotionally to the death of their leader in 2011. (Photo courtesy of babeltrave/ickr)
4 Democracy
A
democracy
is a form of government that strives to provide all citizens with an equal voice, or vote, in
determining state policy, regardless of their level of socioeconomic status. Another important fundamental
of the democratic state is the establishment and governance of a just and comprehensive constitution that
delineates the roles and responsibilities of leaders and citizens alike.
Democracies, in general, assure certain basic rights to their citizens.
First and foremost, citizens are
free to organize political parties and hold elections. Leaders, once elected, must abide by the terms of the
given nation's constitution and are limited in the powers they can exercise, as well as in the length of the
duration of their terms. Most democratic societies also champion freedom of individual speech, the press, and
assembly, and they prohibit unlawful imprisonment. Of course, even in a democratic society, the government
constrains citizens from total freedom to act however they wish. A democratically elected government does
this by passing laws and writing regulations that, at least ideally, reect the will of the majority of its people.
Although the United States champions the democratic ideology, it is not a pure democracy. In a purely
democratic society, all citizens would vote on all proposed legislation, and this is not how laws are passed
in the United States. There is a practical reason for this: a pure democracy would be hard to implement.
Thus, the United States is a constitution-based federal republic in which citizens elect representatives to make
policy decisions on their behalf. The term
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representative democracy, which is virtually synonymous with
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republic, can also be used to describe a government in which citizens elect representatives to promote policies
that favor their interests. In the United States, representatives are elected at local and state levels, and the
votes of the Electoral College determine who will hold the oce of president. Each of the three branches
of the United States governmentthe executive, judicial, and legislativeis held in check by the other
branches.
5 Summary
Nations are governed by dierent political systems, including monarchies, oligarchies, dictatorships, and
democracies. Generally speaking, citizens of nations wherein power is concentrated in one leader or a small
group are more likely to suer violations of civil liberties and experience economic inequality. Many nations
that are today organized around democratic ideals started out as monarchies or dictatorships but have
evolved into more egalitarian systems. Democratic ideals, although hard to implement and achieve, promote
basic human rights and justice for all citizens.
6 Section Quiz
Exercise 1
(Solution on p. 9.)
Many constitutional monarchies started out as:
a. oligarchies
b. absolute monarchies
c. dictatorships
d. democracies
Exercise 2
(Solution on p. 9.)
Which nation is an absolute monarchy?
a. Oman
b. Great Britain
c. Denmark
d. Australia
Exercise 3
(Solution on p. 9.)
Which of the following present and former government leaders is generally considered a dictator?
a. David Cameron
b. Barack Obama
c. Qaboos bin Said Al Said
d. Kim Jong-Un
Exercise 4
(Solution on p. 9.)
A(n) _________________ is an extremely oppressive government that seeks to control
all aspects of its citizens' lives.
a. oligarchy
b. totalitarian dictatorship
c. anarchy
d. absolute monarchy
Exercise 5
Which is not a characteristic of a democracy?
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(Solution on p. 9.)
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a. People vote to elect ocials.
b. A king or queen holds the majority of governmental control.
c. One goal of this type of government is to protect citizens' basic rights.
d. A constitution typically outlines the foundational ideas of how this government should operate.
Exercise 6
(Solution on p. 9.)
Which statement best expresses why the United States is not a true democracy?
a. Many politicians are corrupt.
b. Special-interest groups fund political campaigns.
c. Citizens elect representatives who vote on their behalf to make policy.
d. Ancient Greece was the only true democracy.
7 Short Answer
Exercise 7
Do you feel that the United States has become an oligarchy? Why or why not?
Exercise 8
Explain how an absolute monarchy diers from a dictatorship.
Exercise 9
In which form of government do the average citizens have the least political power? What options
might they have for exerting political power under this type of regime?
8 Further Research
The Occupy Wall Street movement has addressed the policy debate about oligarchy by claiming that the
United States is becoming more oriented toward serving the rich than the general population.
Visit this
1
group's website to nd out more about its activities and agenda: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/occupy_wall_st
9 References
Krugman, Paul. 2011. Oligarchy, American Style. New York Times, November 3. Retrieved February 14,
2
2012 (http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/04/opinion/oligarchy-american-style.html
).
PBS Online. Gilded Age. 1999. The American Experience. Retrieved February 14, 2012 (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/ame
).
Schulz, Thomas. 2011. The Second Gilded Age: Has America Become an Oligarchy? Spiegel Online In4
ternational, October 28. Retrieved February 14, 2012 (http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,793896,00.html
).
Winters, Jerey. 2011. Oligarchy and Democracy. American Interest, November/December. Retrieved
5
February 17, 2012 (http://www.the-american-interest.com/article.cfm?piece=1048
1 http://openstaxcollege.org/l/occupy_wall_st
2 http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/04/opinion/oligarchy-american-style.html
3 http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carnegie/gildedage.html
4 http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,793896,00.html
5 http://www.the-american-interest.com/article.cfm?piece=1048
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).
OpenStax-CNX module: m42914
Solutions to Exercises in this Module
to Exercise (p. 7): Answer
B
to Exercise (p. 7): Answer
A
to Exercise (p. 7): Answer
D
to Exercise (p. 7): Answer
B
to Exercise (p. 7): Answer
B
to Exercise (p. 8): Answer
C
Glossary
Denition 1: absolute monarchies
governments wherein a monarch has absolute or unmitigated power
Denition 2: anarchy
the absence of any organized government
Denition 3: constitutional monarchies
national governments that recognize monarchs but require these gures to abide by the laws of a
greater constitution
Denition 4: democracy
a form of government that provides all citizens with an equal voice or vote in determining state
policy
Denition 5: dictatorship
a form of government in which a single person (or a very small group) wields complete and absolute
authority over a government or populace after the dictator rises to power, usually through economic
or military might
Denition 6: monarchy
a form of government in which a single person (a monarch) rules until that individual dies or
abdicates the throne
Denition 7: oligarchy
a form of government in which power is held by a small, elite group
Denition 8: representative democracy
a government wherein citizens elect ocials to represent their interests
Denition 9: totalitarian dictatorship
an extremely oppressive form of dictatorship in which most aspects of citizens' lives are controlled
by the leader
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