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AFRICAN AND BORNEO BEADS: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SEMANTIC AND SEMIOTICS OSAKUE EMMANUEL EHIMEN A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master Faculty of Applied and Creative Arts
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK
2008
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AFRICAN AND BORNEO BEADS; COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SEMANTIC AND SEMIOTICS •
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT In the course of this research, the author is highly indebted to a lot of people whom
in one way or the other has contributed to the success of this work. Firstly, I would like to
extend my gratitude to the U niversiti of Malaysia Sarawak, for giving me the opportunity to
pursue my study in this great institution. Also, my appreciation goes to the schools
scholarship council for granting me a scholarship which in no small measure added to the
finance of this project. Secondly, I sincerely send my appreciation to my supervisors, i.e. Dr.
Nazlina and Mr. Awangko Hamdam
whose suggestion and advice were just accurate,
timely, and relevant. I would not have been able to complete this project without your
brilliant ideas and straight supervision. My appreciation also goes to the academic staffs of
the Faculty of Applied and Creative Arts. For fear of omission, I will not mention names
but you are all appreciated. My sincere thanks also go to all the external bodies I encounter
in the course of my data collections. Heidi Munan, your seminar and advice was so relevant
to my research. It is no surprise that you have been acclaimed as an authority in the field of
beads in Borneo. I am also highly indebted to Mr. Satu Roland who took the pain to show
me around some of the beads exponent and local bead producers in Limbang, Sarawak. This
vote of thanks will not be completed if some of the good people in Africa who contributed to
the success of this project are not mentioned. My family, my friends, my former colleagues, I
appreciate you all. I want to specially thank my brother, Henry and his wife, for their
contributions to the success of this project. My thanks are rather inadequate compared to
your financial and moral assistance towards me. Finally, I would like to extend my vote of
thanks to my interpreter, Enid Akep Roland - who is a multi linguaL Your translation of
local Lumbawang, Kelabit, and Malay Language and dialects assisted in no small measure
to the completion of this project. Above all, I would like to thank the Almighty God, without
whom any progress or project is ever made. However, for those whose names are not
mentioned in this vote of thanks, please know that it is not intentional because you will
always occupy a space in my heart.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgement--- ------ --- ---- ---- -- -- ----- ---- -- ---- --- ----- ---- ---- --- ---- ---- --- --- ---- --- --- ---- -- --- --- --- -- --i
Table of Contents -- ---- ------ -- -- -- ---- --- ---- ---- -- -- -- --- ----- --- ----- --- --- --- -- -- ---- ---- -- ---- -- ---- -- --- --- --- --ii
List of Tables- -- ------ --- ---- ---- ---- ------ --- ---- ---- ---- --- --- ---- ---- ---- ----- ---- ---- --- ---- --- ---- -- ---- ------- ----v
List of Figures -- ---- ---- -------- ---- --- --- --- -- -- ---- -- ----- --- ---- ---- ---- --------- ---- ---.. ------ ------ --- -- --- --- ---vi
List of Appendices --- ----- --- ---- -- ---- -- ---- --- -- ---- ----- ----- -- ---- ---- --- ---- --- --- ----- --- -- ---- ------ -- --- ---viii
Abstract-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ix
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTIONIBACKGROUND
1.1 Introduction --- ---- ---- --- ---- ---- --- ------ ---- -- ---- ---- ---- ---- -- -- --- ---- ---- -- ---- ---- --- --- ---- -- --- -- ---- ----9
1.2 Proble m S tatement--- -- ---- ---- ---- --- --- ----- ---- -- ---- -- ---- -- -- ----- -- ---- -- -- -- -- -- ---- -- -- -- -- --- --- --- ----9
1. 3 Scope and Limitation --- ---- -- -- -- ---- --- ---- ---- --- -- ----- ---- --- ------ ---- ---- ---- ------ --- --- ---- ----- ---- -12
1.4 0 bjective- --- --- ---- ------ -- ---- ---- ---- --- --- --- -- ---- ---- ---- -- -- ---- --- ---- --- --- ---- ---- ---- -- ---- -- --- -- ---- ---12
1.5 Hypothesis-- ---- --- ---- --- ---- -- ---- --- ---- ---- ---- ----- ---- --- ---- ---- --- ---- ---- -- ----- --- ---- -- ---- -- --- -- ---- -13
1.6 Research Question -- --- -- -- -- ---- --- ---- -- -- -- ------- --- ---- -- -- -- -- -- --- ---- -- -- ----. --- -- ---- -- ---- ----- -- ---13
1.7 Conclusion --- ---- ---- --- --- ---- --- --- ------- ---- ---- ----- --- ---- ---- ---- --- ---- ---- -- -- --- --- --- --- ------ --- -- ----13
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY
2.1 Introduction-- ---- ---- ----- -- -- -- ---- --- --- ----- ---- -- --- --- ---- ---- ---- --- ---- --- --- ----- --- ---- -- ------ --- -- ----14
2.2 Phase 1: Primary Research--------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- -----15
2.3 Phase II: Secondary Research ----------------------------- ------------------------------------------------23
2.4 Conclusion ----- --- ---- --- --- --- -- -- ---- --- ---- ---- ---- --- --- ---- -- ---- ------- ---- -- -- ---- ------ --- --- --- ------ -- --23
CHAPTER 3: THE ORIGIN OF AFRICAN AND BORNEO BEADS
3.1 Introduction---- ---- ---- --- ---- -- ---- --- ---- --- ----- ------ ---- --- --- -- -- --- ---- ---- ---- --- --- ---- ------ -- --- ------24
3.2 Africa -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------24
3.2.1 Development of Beads in Africa-------------------------------------------------------------------25
3.2. 2 Environmental and Social Influence ----- ---- ---- ---- --- -- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- -- --- -------- --26
3.2. 3 Geographical Influence- --- ---- ---- --- ---- ----- ---- ---- ---- --- -- ---- ---- ----- --- ---- ---- -- --- -- ------ -26
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3.2.4 Governmental Influence ---- -- -------- --- --- ------ -------- --- -- -- -------------------- ---- --- ---------27 3.3 Borneo-------------- -- ------- -------- --- -- ----- --- ------- --- -- -- -- ----------- ----- --- ---------------- -- --- -- -- -----30 3.3.1 Development of Beads in Borneo-------------------------------------------------------------------31 3.3.2 Geographical Influence ------------ ----- -------------------- --- --------------------- ------------------32 3.3.3 Environmental and Social Influence--------------------------------------------------------------32 3.3. 4 Governmental Influence---- ----------------. -------------------------- ------------------------- ------3 3 3.4 Concl usion ------------------------------------ ----------- --------------------------------------------------- ------3 3 CHAPTER 4: SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF AFRICA AND BORNEO BEADS
4.1 Introduction------------------- -- -- ----------------------- -------- ---- ----------------- -------- ---- ------------- --35 4.2 Forms of Beads-------------- -- ---- ----------------- -- ---- ------------------- ---- --- ----------- ---- ------- ------35 4.2.1 Classification of Beads Form-----------------------------------------------------------------------35 4.2.2 Semantic Analysis of Beads Shape---------------------------------------------------------------39 4.2.2.1 Round---------- -- -- --- --------------- ---------- ------ -- -- --- --- ---- --------- ----- ---- --- -----------40 4.2.2.2 Oval--- --- ----------- -------- ----------------- ---- -- -------------- --- ---- -------------- -------- -- ---41 4.2.2.3 Cycloid-- ---- --- -------------- ---- --- ---------- ----- --- ---- ----------- --- ---- --- ---------------- --- 41 4.2.2.4 Triangular Shaped--------------- --- ----- ----------- ---- ----------------- ---- ---- -- -----------43 4.2.2.5 Cylinder---------- ------------------ ------------------------------------- ----------- --------------44 4.2.2.6 Rare Shape------------------------------------ ---- --- ----------- --- ---- -------------- --- --- -----44 4.3 Materials and Technique- ---- --------- ----- ----- --------------- -- --- -- ------------- --- -- -------- ------------45 4.3.1 Natural Beads-------- ---- --- ------ ---------- ------ -------------- -- ----- ------------- --------- -- --- ------45 4.2.1.1 Seed Beads------------------------------------ -- ------------------ -- ----- ----------- --- -- -- ---- -46 4.3.2 True Be ads------------------------------------------------- --------------------- -------------------------48 4.3.2.1 Shell Beads-- --- ----- -- -------- --- ---- ----- ----- ------ -- -- ---- ---- ----------- --- ------- --- -------48 4.3.2.2 Bone Be ads---------- ------------------------- ------------------ --- ------------------ ------------49 4.3.2.3 Stone Beads------------------ -- ------- -------------- ---- --------------- --- --- ---------- ------ -- -- 50 4.3.2.4 Clay Beads- ------------------ --- ---------------------- --------------------- ---------------------52 4.3.3 Man Made Beads------------- ---- --- --- ---------- --------- ----------- --- --- -- -- -------- -------- -- --- ------53 4.3.3.1 Plastic---------- --------- ----------------------------- ----------------- -- -- ---------------------- --53 4.3.3. 2 Glass Baeds------------------- ---------------------- --------------------- ------ ------------------54 4.3.3. 3 Me tal Be ads------------,---------------------------------- ---------------------------- -----------56 111
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4.3.4 Dysfunctional Beads------ -- ---- ---- ---- --- ----- ----- --- ----- -- ---- --- ---- ---- --- --- ------ --- --- --- ---- --- 56 4.4 Semantic Analysis of Beads Colour and Ornamentation in Mrica and Borneo-------------60 4.4.1 Symbolism and Classification of Beads Colour---------------------------------------------------61 4.4.1.1 Feminine Colour of Beads--------------------------------------------------------------------61 4.4.1. 2 Masculine Colour of Beads------------------------- --------------------------------- -- ------ -62 4.4.2 Ornamentation------ ---- -- -- --- --- --- -- ---- ----- --- ---- ---- ---- --- ---- -- ---- ----- ----- ---- -- ----------- --64 4.5 Bead types in Mrica and Borneo--------------------------------------------------------------------------72 4.5.1 Trade Beads------- -- ---- ---- --- -- -.. ---- ---- ----- --- ---- ---- -- -- --- -- -- -- ---- ----- ----- -- -- -- --- ----- --- --72 4.5.2 Ethnic Beads------ -- -- -- ---- -- ----- ---- ---- ----- --- -- -- ---- ---- --- ---- -- ---- ----- --- -- ---- -- ---- ------- --7 3 4.5.3 Fakes and Simulations--------------------------------------------------------------------------------7 5 4.6 Conclusion --- ---- ---- --- --- ---- ---- -- ------- ---- -- -- ------ ---- -- ----- --- --- ---- -- ---- ----- --- -- ---- -- ---- ----- -- --77 CHAPTER 5: SEMIOTICS OF AFRICAN AND BORNEO BEADS
5.1 Introduction-- ---- ---- -- ----- ---- --- --- --- ---- ---- ---- -------- ---- ---- --- -- -- -- ---- ---- ---- -- ---- --- --- -- --- ---- --78 5.2 Significance of Beads----- ---- -- ---- ---- --- ---- -- -- ------ -- -- ---- -- ------- ---- --- --- ---- ---- -- --- --- --- -- ---- --79 5.2.1 Symbol/Symbolic Modes of Mrican and Borneo Beads Sign ------------------------------80 5.2.2 Icon/Iconic Mode--- -- -- -- ---- ---- --- ---- ---- --- --- --- --- ---- ------- ---- --- --- ---- ---- -- ---- -- --- -- ---- ---81 5.2.3 Indexllndexical--- ----- ---- -- ---- ---- --- ---- ----- ---- ---- ---- --- -- ---- ---- ---- ---- -- ---- -- ---- -- --- -- ---- 82 5.3 Expressions of Beads------- -- ---- ---- --- ---- ---- -- ---- ---- --- --- ---- --- ---- -- ----- ---- --- --- --- --- --- --- -- ----83 5.3.1 Denotation and Connotation of Beads------------------------------------------------------------84 5. 4 Representation of Beads--- ----- ---- -- -- -- ----- ----- --- ---- ---- -- -- -- --- ---- ---- -- ---- ---- --- --- --- ----- --- ---8 7
5.4.1 Culture and Myths of Beads-------------------------------------------------------------------------87 5.4.1.1 Beads and Rituals------------------------------------------------------------------------------88 5.5 Communication of Beads ---- --- -- ---- ---- -- -- ------ --- ---- --- --- ------- ---- --- --- ---- ---- -- ---- -- --- -- ---- --88 5.5.1 Encoding and Decoding of Beads Message------------------------------------------------------89 5.6 Conclusion ----- ---- --- --- -- ---- ---- --- -- ---- ---- ---- ------ -- -- ---- -- ---- --- ---- ---- -- ----- --- ---- -- --- --- -- --- ----91 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION
6.1 Introduction-- --- ----- --- -- ---- -- -- ---- --------- -- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- --- --- --- -- -- ---- ---- ------ ---- -- --- -- --- ---92 6.2 Manifest Result- ----- ------ ---- -- ------- ---- ---- ---- --- --- ---- -- -- ---- ----- ---- ---- ---- ---- -- ---- ---- -- -- --- ----92 6.2.1 Why beads are made----------------------------------------------------------------------------------92 IV
€>.2.2 rvi)Ttll--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------93
€>. 2. 3 Religion-- ----- ------- --- --- ---- ------- ---- ---- ------ ---- -------- --- ---- ---- -- -- --- --- -- ---- -- ---- -- --- ---- -93
€>.2.4 Bellaviour-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------94
6.2.5 Social Identification___________________________________________________________________________________ 94
€>. 2. €> CuItural Identification------------------- ---------------- ---------------------------------------------94
€>.2.7 Artistic Displa)T and Adornment-------------------------------------------------------------------95
€>.2.8 Currenc)T, Wealtll Storage and Displa)T ---------------------------------------------------------95
€>.3 Recommendation ----------- --- --- -- ---- ----- ----- ----- -------- --- --- --- -- --- --- --- --------- -- ---- ------ --- --- --9€>
€>.3.1 Guidelines for Anal)Tzing Beads -------------------------------------------------------------------9€>
€>. 3 .1.1 Basic guidelines---- --- -- -- ---- ------------- -- --- --- --- --- --- -- --- ------ --- ------ ------ --- ----- 9€>
€>.3.1.2 Shape guidelines--- ----. --- --- -- --- ------ -- --- --- -- --- --- --- ------ -- ------ ------ ------- -------9€>
€>. 3.1. 3 rvia terial guidelines--- ----- ----------- ---------------------- ----------- ------ -----------------98
€>. 3.1.3.1. Natural materials---------------------------------------------------------- ------ --99
€>.3.1.3.2. True bead materials-------------------------------------------------------------100
€>.3.1.4 Colour and ornamentation guideline--------------------------------------------------101
€>.4 Contribution-- --- -- -- ---- --- ---- -- -- -- ------- ---- ---- ------ -- -- -- ---- --- ---- ---- -- -- -- ---- -- ---- ------ --- ------ -1 02
General Bibliograph)T-- ------- --- --- ---- ------- ---- ---- ----- --- -- -- ---- --- --- --- -- -- ---- --- --- -- ---- -- ---- --- --- --1 04
Appendix (Questionnaire)
List of Table
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY
Table 2.1 Research Flowcllarts----------------------------------------------------------------------------------14
Table 2.2 Data Verification and Data Validation components of Africa and Borneo beads--21
Table 2.3 Codes for Anal)Tzing tile Acceptance of Beads and S)Tmbols------------------------------22
CHAPTER 3: THE ORIGIN OF AFRICAN AND BORNEO BEADS
Table 3.1 Classification of Beads Development in Africa and Borneo-------------------------------34
CHAPTER 4: SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF AFRICA AND BORNEO BEADS
Table 4.1 Common Sllapes of Beads in Africa and Borneo--------------------------------------------37
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Table 4.2 Table of Data (Percentage of Common Bead Shapes in Africa and Borneo)--------37 Table 4.3(a) Data of Dominant Bead Shapes in Africa---------------------------------------------------38 Table 4.3(b) Data of Dominant and Bead Shapes in Borneo-------------------------------------------38 Table 4.4 Categories of Beads Form in Relation to Beads material in Africa and Borneo----45 Table 4.5 Table of Beads Material in Africa and Borneo--------.. --------------------------------------57 Table 4.6 Data of Bead Materials from Africa and Borneo---------------------------------------------58 Table 4.7(a) Graph of Bead Materials from Africa--------------------------------------------------------58 Table 4.7(b) Graph of bead Materials from Borneo-------------------------------------------------------59 Table 4.8 Colour Analysis in Relation To Its Connotations in Africa and Borneo---------------60 Table 4.9 Visual Characteristics of Africa and Borneo Beads Ornamentation-------------------71 CHAPTER 5: SEMIOTICS OF AFRICAN AND BORNEO BEADS
Table 5.1 The Four Dimensions of Semiotic Analysis----------------------------------------------------78
Table 5.2 Composition of Beads Sign -------------------------------------------------------------------------79
Table 5.3 Classification of Africa and Borneo Beads Signs as Symbol Mode ---------------------81
Table 5.4 Classification of Africa and Borneo Beads Signs as Icon Mode -------------------------82
Table 5.5 Classification of Africa and Borneo Beads Signs as Indexical Mode ------------------83
Table 5.6 Methods for Analyzing Messages Sent Through Beads Symbol ------------------------89
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION
Table 6.1 Referential Evaluation on Why Beads are made---------------------------------------------93
List of Figures
CHAPTER 3: THE ORIGIN OF AFRICAN AND BORNEO BEADS
Figure 3.1 Map of Ancient Egypt Indicating Point of Entering Beads into Africa-------------25
Figure 3.2 Map of Africa Indicating the Location of Nigeria, Ghana and South Africa------27
Figure 3.3 Map of Nigeria Indicating the Location of the Yoruba Kingdom---------------------28
Figure 3.4 A King Beaded Regalia Worn Occasionally as Symbol of Authority----------------29
Figure 3.5 Detailed view of a King Regalia----------------------------------------------------------------30
Figure 3.6 Map of Malaysia Indicating Sarawak--------------------------------------------------------31
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Figure 3.7 Kenyah Baby Carriers-- ---- ---- ----- ------ -- -- --- --- ----- --- --- -- --- --- -- -- -- ---- --- --- --- ---- ----32
CHAPTER 4: SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF AFRICA AND BORNEO BEADS
Figure 4.1 Varieties of Beads and Shapes from Africa and Borneo--------------------------------36
Figure 4.2 Classifications of Beads Form in Relation to its Semantics in Mrica and
Borneo------------------------------------.---------------------------------------------------------39
Figure 4.3 'Kiffa' Round Bead from Mrica------------------------------------------------------------------40
Figure 4.4 Assorted Round Beads from Sarawak------------------- --------------------------------------40
Figure 4.5 Oval Shaped Glass Bead from Kalimantan, Indonesia----------------------------------41
Figure 4.6 Cycloid Shaped Beads from Ghana------------------------------------------------------------42
Figure 4.7 Diamonds Shaped Beads from Mrica---------------------------------------------------------43
Figure 4.8 Triangular Shaped Neck Beads from Kiffa-Mrica----------------------------------------43
Figure 4.9 Africa's Cylinder Shaped Beads Made in from Coral Beads--------------------------44
Figure 4.10 Cylinder Glass Beads from Sarawak-------------------------------------------------------44
Figure 4.11 Rudraksha Beads-from Rudraksha Tree (Utrasum Bead Tree )-------------------47
Figure 4.12 "Job Tears" Seed Beads from Borneo-------------------------------------------------------4 7
Figure 4.13 Mrican Seed Beads ------------------------------------------------------------------------------4 7
Figure 4.14 Coconut Shell and Cowry Shell Beads-----------------------------------------------------49
Figure 4.15 Bone Beads from Africa and Borneo--------------------------------------------------------50
Figure 4.16 Stone Neck Beads from Sarawak------------------------------------------------------------51
Figure 4.17 Hand Carved Stone Beads from Mrica
Figure 4.18
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Clay Prepared for Beads Production-------------------------------------------------------52
Figure 4.19 Clay Beads in Lawas, Sarawak---------------------------------------------------------------53
Figure 4.20
Plastic Beads Made in China ----------------------------------------------------------------54
Figure 4.21
Glass Beads from Ghana----------------------------------------------------------------------55
Figure 4.22
Glass Beads from Ghana----------------------------------------------------------------------55
Figure 4.23
Polychrome Glass Beads from Sarawak--------------------------------------------------55
Figure 4.24
Some Ornament of Beads from Nigeria, Ghana,
Cameroon and South Africa-­ ---­ ---­ --­ -­ --­ --­ -------­ --­ --­ --­ ---­ --­ --­ --­ -­ ---­ -----65
Figure 4.25
Ornaments of Beads from Sarawak, Sabah and Kalimantan----------------------67
Figure 4.26
Mosaic or Millefiore (Thousand Flowers) Beads from Ghana----------------------72
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Figure 4.27 Chevron Beads ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------73
Figure 4.28 Powder Glass Beads from Nigeria-----------------------------------------------------------7 4
Figure 4.29 Bodom - Powdered Glass Beads from Ghana--------------------------------------------7 4
Figure 4.30 Lukut Sekala - Most Prized Beads around Borneo------------------------------------75
Figure 4.31 Coral Beads from Nigeria
Fake and Genuine------------------------------------------76
Figure 4.32 Fake and Genuine Amber from Ghana-----------------------------------------------------76
Figure 4.33 Fake and Genuine Lukut Sekala from Borneo-------------------------------------------76
CHAPTER 5: SEMIOTICS OF AFRICAN AND BORNEO BEADS
Figure 5.1 Expressions of Beads in Social Roles in Africa and Borneo----------------------------85
Figure 5.2 Expressions of Beads in Relation to Beads
economic Roles in Africa and Borneo-------.. ------..---------------------------------86
Figure 5.3 Expressions of Beads in Relation to
Beads Religious Roles in Africa and Borneo-----------------------------------------87
Figure 5.4 "Love Letters" from South Africa-----------.. --..---------------------------------------------90
Figure 5.5 Waist Belt from Sarawak----.....----.---------------------.. -----------------------------------90
Figure 5.6 (a) "Acceptance" L>cu....··---­
Figure 5. 6 (b) "Acceptance" Bead-----------------------------------------------------------------------------90
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION
Figure 6.1 Prayer Beads-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------94
APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNAIRE
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ABSTRACT
(The purpose of this research is to present a comprehensive analysis of African and
Borneo Beads, and unveil the various messages and roles beads played in these two
communities.; In understanding the roles of African and Borneo beads, relevant theories
have been examined to outline the symbolic classification system observed to be prevalent
between these two cultures,
(Studies of beads
~gn
as cultural phenomena deals closely with social functions
which review customs and structures through semantic and semiotic analysis of visual
concept.) There are various reasons why certain elements like forms, materials, colours and
ornaments are used in certain beads in Africa and Borneo) The semantic interpretations of
these elements as well as the semiotic analysis of beads symbols explain the significance,
communication, expression and representations of beads in Africa and Borneo)
The Data are collected from a combined bead survey and literature review. Reviews
in the study were based on the origin of beads in Africa and Borneo, semantics of bead
elements, and the semiotics of African and Borneo bead. The result can be given as follows:
(1) beads entered Africa and Borneo by traders from foreign countries, (2) the theoretical
study of meaning regarding beads forms, materials, colours, ornamentations and types
reveal beads elements were not just used for the production of beads - rather, each elements
were composed of meanings and messages. In addition to this, such analysis creates a
concept guideline by which African and Borneo beads can be observed.
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTIONIBACKGROUND
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Throughout the world, traditional art and craft producers have incorporated
beads in many of their art forms. In particular, the glittering look of beads has
encouraged their use in decorating special body effects, including gowns, shoes and
walking sticks. Archeological studies have revealed that Beads were the first durable
ornaments humans ever possessed, and the intimate relationship they had to their
owners is reflected in the fact that they are among the most common items unearthed
from ancient graves. In tribal cultures still, certain beads are often worn from birth until
death and then are buried with their owner for the after life. (Lois, page 9). Besides their
wearability, either as jewelry or incorporated into articles of attire, evidence has shown
that bead symbols can also act as articulate vehicle of socio-cultural communications
that help to regulate behaviour between individual of opposite gender in Africa and other
part of the world.
More so, beads are kaleidoscopic, combined and recombined in an astonishingly
wide range of materials; they express social circumstances, political history, and
religious beliefs. In West Africa, beadwork has been predominantly used on altar
mantles, garment for royal status, and coverings for kingly stools. In ancient Asia, beads
were scattered like seeds beneath temples to induce bountiful harvest. Beads have
frequently been enlisted as symbolic repositories of sacred knowledge, been deemed to
have curative powers, served as the fee for passage to the after life, and used as
prompters to ensure the proper conduct of ritual and prayer. (Lois, page17).
In the contemporary societies, bead has remained an intriguing object that one
must ask the basic questions of what, where, and how whenever an interesting bead is
encountered. Beads are a miniature with bundle of secrets waiting to be revealed; their
history, technology, cultural context, economic role, religious role, political role, and
ornamental use are all points of information that one hopes to unravel in the
~ourse
of
this research. Therefore, this research delves into the semantic and semiotics of beads
from the African and Borneo perspective.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
African and Borneo do share a common history in terms of the origin of beads in
their various communities. It is believed that African beadwork in the region south of
9
Sahara has its origin in the comparative recent past when the colonization of Africa
opened up the dark continent to traders from the west. In Borneo also, beads were
originally traded and were one of the principle form of currencies. (Anderson, page 68).
Since the introduction of beads into various communities, it has become precious in their
own right. Beads were soon linked to whatever was valued in the culture of the African
and Borneo people who owned and crafted them into variety of customary objects, as a
token of social status, political importance and person adornment. Beads were valued in
Africa, not because Africans were duped into believing them to be precious stone by the
foreign traders, but because they were the product of an exotic technology of which the
equivalent was unknown in Africa at that time. However, as Africans became aware to
beads production, various patterns and designs were carefully crafted out in different
colours to represent various functions and messages.
It is important to note that the forms of tribal crafts and symbols in any given
society have a close relationship with the tribe's socio-ecological environment and their
means of livelihood. This however, is evident in most of the complex symbols in African
and Borneo traditional beads. These beads products, intended for frequent use are basic
in their functions but meticulously and beautifully constructed. Most of the beadworks
produced in Borneo stand significantly as testimony to their artistic consciousness and
sensibility to their fertile natural surroundings. These beads though primitive in nature,
bear important historical and anthropological significance, and also carry a lot of
encoded messages from one individual to another.
However, the beads symbols that is noticeable in Mrica and Borneo art posses a
lot of questions. These questions involve:
a) The semantic interpretations of elements of beads - bead forms, bead
materials, bead colours, and beads types in Mrica and Borneo. There are various reasons
why certain elements are used in certain beads.
b)
Determinant of beads value and identity. The issue of why a particular bead
looks the way it is, as well as why beads features are peculiar to a certain group of
people. A novice to this particular craft will wonder what determine the values of a
particular bead whenever he or she comes across one. Recently, the researcher placed
African beads and Borneo beads side by side for an experienced bead enthusiast and
marketer in Borneo Sarawak to identify which beads are from Africa or Borneo. This
became a difficult task though the features in the two sets of beads were very similar.
So, how does one identify or distinguish between beads from Borneo and beads from
10 Africa? Is the value of beads determined by the materials involved in the production or
by the artistic ingenuity or by its rarity?
c) Other issues worth noting are the problem of bead significance, bead
interpretations; bead expression, and bead communications. Among various beads
enthusiast in Africa and Borneo, it is commonly agreed that various beads symbols tend
to represent various meanings. In other words, beads has been viewed by Heidi Munan,
a bead enthusiast, as 'metaphor' i.e. it has been considered as a word or phrase that
means one thing in the literal sense but stand for something else. Therefore, beads are
similar to words in that they can convey messages and act as metaphors. But the issue
is, are these meanings generally accepted by every observer?
Daniel Chandler, a semiotic analyst, note: 'How can we know that a bunch of
roses signifies passion unless we also know the intention of the sender and the reaction
of the receiver, and the kind of relationship they are involved in? If they are lovers and
accept the conventions of giving and receiving flowers as an aspect of romantic, sexual,
love, then we might accept (this) interpretation. But if we do this, it is on the basis of the
social relationships in which we can locate the sign. The roses may also be sent as a joke,
an insult, a sign of gratitude, and so on. They may indicate passion on the part of the
sender but repulsion on the part of the receiver. They may signify family relations
between grandparents and grandchildren rather than relations between lovers, and so
on. They might connote sexual harassment' (Chandler, page 8).
Testing the truth behind Mrican and Borneo bead symbol interpretations
requires various methods. Semiotics approach makes certain kinds of questions easier to
ask than others. Semiotics approach is relevant in this context because it deals with the
investigation that explores the nature and function of signs as well as the systems and
processes underlying Signification, Expression, and Communication. In order to verify
the authenticity of beads interpretations and symbols, linguistics is of paramount
importance. Most of the names by which most beads are called are in the local dialect. To
understand the role of linguistic in semiotic analysis of beads symbols, Saussure,
another semiotic exponent, argued that 'nothing is more appropriate than the use of local
languages to bring out the nature of the semi logical problem' (Saussure 1983, pg16;
Saussure 1974, pg16). Semiotics draws heavily on linguistic concepts, because linguistics
is a more established discipline than the study of other sign systems. Language is almost
invariably regarded as the most powerful communication system by far. As a result of
this, the author employed some local interpreters to translate beads names and
11 messages from local tongue to English. Among the Dayak and the Orang Ulu ethnic
groups of Sarawak, where the majority of beads are produced; names of beads are
predominantly in Iban, Bidayuh, Kelabit and Lumbawang dialects. Also, among the
Rungus of Sabah, most of beads are named in the local dialects. Similarly, in Africa,
beads are named in local Zulu dialect as well as in Hausa and Yoruba dialects and were
translated to English language.
1.3 SCOPE AND LIMITATION
The research focuses on selected regions
In
Africa namely; Nigeria, Ghana,
Cameroon and South Africa, and in Borneo namely; Sarawak, Sabah and Kalimantan.
The reason for selecting these areas is because of the mass concentration and
development of beads in these regions. Limiting the scope of research to these regions is
due to the fact that most beads types that are associated with other ethnic groups across
Africa for example, can easily be found in Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon and South Africa.
And also, a large volume of bead types and forms around Borneo Island can be seen in
Sarawak, Sabah and Kalimantan. For this reason, Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon and South
Africa are looked into, while eastern regions of Malaysia (Sarawak and Sabah) and
Kalimantan of Indonesia are carefully examined.
1.4 OBJECTIVES
The role of symbols in human life has been an ongoing concern over the ages
whenever questions have been asked about what constitute signs and symbols and what
laws govern them. Fairly simple to a very complex bead symbols, some of them defYing
interpretations have been transcended from one generation to another amongst Africa
and Borneo people. In order to break down these complexities and carefully studying
them in order to find its rationale, thus, the objectives of this research are:
a) To identifY the function and aesthetic values of beads in relation to its cultural,
social, economic and religious roles in Africa and Borneo.
b) To compare the difference between Africa and Borneo beads in semiotic
method. Using semiotic approach will help to reveal the differences in beads expressions,
interpretations, representations, and communications.
c) To analyze the elements involved in beads making in Africa and Borneo. The
analysis continues by looking at the form of beads in relation to its usage and its
semantic interpretations in Africa and Borneo.
12 d) To establish concept guidelines for analyzing beads symbols. The idea behind
this approach is to create a theory that will enable the 'step by step' format by which
beads can be systematically analyzed.
1.5 HYPOTHESIS
Beadwork tells us about the way in which some communities have constructed
their society, But somehow, it is assumed that they have produced a closely integrated
system in which all institutions - religious, social, economics, education, technological,
communicational, recreation in the form of art - are mutually supportive. The great
variety of materials, forms, and technological used to create finished beads, as well as
their portability and natural prominence for adornment, renders them ideal vehicles for
conveying a complex range of cultural information. Therefore, a research on beads from
two different cultural zones may be viewed as a sort of cultural exchange, and also acts
as a vehicle to check the strength and weaknesses in terms of beads development in both
zones. In addition, there have been continuous puzzles to look for specific guidelines in
an organized and reliable way for analyzing beads symbol. Establishing a concept
guideline by which beads may be analyzed will definitely end these puzzles.
1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What are the similarities and differences in Africa and Borneo bead symbols?
2. What are the semiotic interpretations of these bead symbols and how authentic
are their interpretations?
3. Where does the symbol emanate from, and what influences the variations of
beads symbols?
4. How have beads influenced the lifestyle of the local people?
5. What make people want to collect beads?
1.7 Conclusion
Beads are appreciated throughout the world for the practical reason that they are
ideal for creating colourful ornaments on textile and other bodily effects. Beads offered
striking advantages compared to other materials. All the qualities of a unique jewelry
are combined in beads: a wide choice of sizes, availability in large quantities, and an
enormous choice of colours.
13 CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY
2.1. Introduction
In order to have a comprehensive and successful research, various methods were
employed to collect relevant data. This research method is divided into two phases
the
Primary Research and Secondary Research.
Table 2.1 Research Flowcharts
Introduction
I
r-
J
I Borneo Beads- origin
Africa Beads- origin
and development
Semantic of Beads symbol
i
and development
i
History
r-
PHASE
Bead shape,
material and
technique
I
Colours and
ornamentations of
i
beads
1>­
h
Semiotics of Beads
Significance
I
Expression
Function and
.~ Denotation and
importance of
connotation of
beads and symbols
beads and symbols
Analysis
Types of beads
I
Representation
i
Cultural and mythical
explanation
Communication
I---
Encoding and
decoding
'-­
r
I
-Symbolic
-Iconic
-Indexical
Input
Output
I
I
PHASE 2
Findings
L
-Social
-Economic
-Religious
Ritual
Feminine
Masculine
Young
Old
I
I
Findingslrecommenda
tion ­
! Concept guidelines for
i analyzing beads
I
,...__..
In table 2.1, Research flowchart explains the four levels of the research method. Level
one gives an insight into African and Borneo beads, and also looks at the origin and the
factors influencing the development of beads in Africa and Borneo, as well as the
14 semantic analysis of beads symbols. Level two deals with the four dimensions of
semiotics
analysis
of beads
i.e.
signification,
expressions,
representation
and
communication.
Level three looks into the applications of such analysis in relation to its importance
in social, economic, religious as well as demographic. Such analysis enables us to know
the various roles that beads played in the societies. Finally the findings/recommendation
is re-evaluated in the fourth level.
2.2. PHASE 1. PRIMARY RESEARCH
a) In-depth interview.
(1) Museums in Sarawak and Sabah were visited. Apart from collecting relevant data.,
curators in various museums were also interviewed. Sanib bin Said, the Director of Sarawak
Museum, emphasized the relevant of the museum when delving information regarding
ethnicity and culture. According to him, over the years, the Sarawak Museum evolved into an
ethnographical museum concentrating on ethnic material cultures and oral traditions. Since
the formation of Malaysia in 1963, it has continued to expand its ethnographical collections,
with more balanced exhibitions and collections from all ethnic groups. This came about due to
the realization that the museum had an important role to play in facilitating the state and
nation in building a harmonious and stable community. Apart from the useful information
collected from Sani bin Said about ethnic beads in Sarawak, information regarding the history
and uses of beads in Sarawak were also collected from the museum.
Having collected relevant information from Sarawak museum, it was imperative to
look at the ethnic bead collections in Sabah metropolis because this part of Borneo is also rich
in its bead culture. The Sabah Museum is the most prestigious museum in Sabah and is
the State's showcase of its rich cultural heritage and exhibits Sabah's history, culture,
social and natural history. The main building itself, comprises of the central exhibition
hall and six galleries. In these are located the Islamic Civilization Gallery, the
Archaeology and History Gallery, Natural History Gallery, Art Gallery, Ceramic and
Brassware Gallery, Traditional Costumes and many more. The archaeology and history
gallery housed lots of ethnic beads and history of beads. These materials were needed for
analyzing the history and functions of beads in Borneo.
Similarly, in Ghana, museums were visited and curators were interviewed.
15
Among notable bead authority interviewed are Mr. Kwame Sarpong, the Director of
Gramophone Records Museum and Research Centre of Ghana, Mr. Patrick Essien, the
Principal Museum Technician of Cape Coast Historical Museum, Ghana Museums and
Monuments Board. Mr. Kwame S. and Mr. Patrick E. are respectable members of the
International Council of Museums. The International Council of Museums (I COM) is an
international organization of museums which is committed towards the conservation,
continuation and communication to the society of the world's natural and cultural
heritage, present and future, tangible and intangible. Though Information about beads
was readily available in their organizational archives, yet they shared with the
researcher their wealth of experiences in matters pertaining to beads.
In Cape Town, South Africa, most of the beads found at the national museum can
be mistaken for those in Nigeria national museum. They are predominantly glass beads
which are similar with typical Nigeria beads in features and in history. South African
Museum was founded in 1825; it is the oldest museum in sub-Saharan Africa. The
essence of the museum is found in the great diversity of specimens exhibited. Housed in
a magnificent old building to which modern facilities have been added, it showcases the
natural history of South Africa, as well as the early human inhabitants of the sub­
continent. The early history of beads as well as the people that used them in sub-Sahara
Africa were collected at the archaeological and archive section of the museum.
(2) Discussions were carried out with experts in relevant fields to analyze issues
pertaining to beads. An interview was conducted with Heidi Munan, a renowned curator
of beads in Sarawak Museum. Munan have written books on beads in Sarawak, the most
recent is titled 'Beads of Borneo'. She is considered an authority in Borneo beads.
Another bead enthusiast, Mrs. Margaret Tan, an art and craft dealer and the chief
executive officer of 'Cafe Gallery' in Sarawak, was interviewed. She gave an insight into
varieties of beads from different ethnic groups in Borneo. In Nigeria, Jomoh Buriamoh, a
renowned bead artist and ex- president of the society of Nigerian Artists, enlightened the
researcher about the functions and material significance of beads in traditional Nigerian
society. More so, a meeting with Mr. Alhassan Mohammed, President of Eastern Beads
Association in Ghana, explained the myth behind certain beads in Ghana and other part of
West African sub-regions. Mr. Alhassan has been involved in Beads production for two
decades. According to him, beads are part of his family- it is a business that have transcended
from his grandfather to his father, and he wish to transfer the business to his next heir.
16 (3) With the aid of a local interpreter, local arts and crafts producers and
marketers around Borneo and Africa were interviewed. These interviews were conducted
in casual conversations with open-end answers.
The Kelabit and Lumbawang tribes of Sarawak are renowned for their carefully
crafted beads. In Lawas district of Sarawak where most of these tribal people resides,
different varieties of beads are produced periodically, and names are given (in local
dialect) to each typical bead design which categories and attribute functions to the bead.
The researcher, (with an audio recorder and a digital camera to record conversation and
photograph samples of beads), interviewed these local producers in local tongue through
an interpreter who speaks the Lumbawang and Kelabit dialects. A bead researcher's
visit to Sabah land will not be complete if Kota Kinabalu Handicraft Market or most
well-known as Pasar Filipina (Filipino Market) is not visited. Here, marketers of bead
explained to the researcher why a particular bead is more valuable than another and the
importance of beads colour and shapes to bead lovers. Most of these bead marketers are
educated in bead history hence they could identify fake bead from genuine ones, and
heirloom beads from imitations.
Local residents were also visited in Sarawak and information regarding bead
symbols was collected. Most of these local residences from the rural regions still posses'
bead heirlooms which have been transferred from one generation to another. The
meanings and functions of each bead were discussed openly and the elders among them
where happy to share their views on the historical aspect of beads. Mr. Roland Satu, the
headmaster of Long N apir primary school, Limbang, still have in his collection one of the
ancient bead heirloom that is dated back to the early 19th Century. He happily displayed
and recounts the history and mystery behind the bead which has been transferred from
the older generation to the present generation.
With these information collected from Borneo community and from four African
countries, namely: Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon, and the Zulu community in Southern
Africa, the author was able to know the significance and functions of beads in their
communities. In addition to this, local beads producers and users were able to enlighten
the researcher about the denotation and connotations of beads as well as the mythical
explanations behind beads.
17 b) Semiotics and Semantics approach.
This approach is important because it is the science that explains the roles of
bead signs and the significance of beads elements in Africa and Borneo societies.
Semiotic is the science that studies the life of sign in the society, while semantic studies
the relation of signs to the objects they represent.
There are two main sources of contemporary semiotic theory. One branch of
semiotic theory is grounded in the European efforts at the turn of the century to
reconfigure the study of language. That effort was led by the Swiss linguist, Ferdinand
de Saussure (Saussure, 1959). In this approach, all elements of language are taken as
parts of the larger system of language in use, and in fact all components of language are
defined not in terms of some absolute standard, but by their relations to other
components within the overall system. The key component of the sign relation, according
to Saussure, was the dyadic relation of the signified (or the sign proper) to the signified
(or the concept of something which the sign triggered in some sign user). Saussure
maintained that the link between the signifier and the signified was arbitrary, thereby
allowing for the formation of the networks and patterns of differences that characterize
meaning. By focusing on these signifier-signified links, the researcher can get below the
surface of sign relations and look at the underlying structural network of meanings.
Saussure, therefore, saw language as the premiere, but certainly not the only,
sign system. Using language as a guide, we are able to talk about the "languages" of such
diverse things as kinship patterns, fashion, and beads designs. We can call such systems
"codes." Within the semiotic literature, this notion of codes is a key part of the legacy of
Saussure. In his work, Saussure saw codes as an interrelated set of signs that allow us to
explain and understand our world. Those theorists and researchers who adhere to a
Saussurean model of semiotics tend to call their form of inquiry "semiology."
The second branch of semiotics is grounded in American pragmatist theory. The
founder of pragmatism, and also the founder of this branch of semiotics, is Charles
Sandler Peirce (Peirce, 1955). Peirce's model of signs is built on his theory of reality.
Starting with the Aristotelean notion of potency and act, Peirce expanded this
characterization into a triadic model: potency, act, and relation. Those aspects of reality
which deal with and characterize pure potency he called Firstness. Firstness deals with
(among other things) issues of possibility. Those aspects of reality which deal with and
characterize pure action he called Secondness. Secondness deals with such things as
brute force, pure reaction, and pure awareness that something is happening here and
18 now, without knowing or understanding what it is that is happening. In other words,
Secondness is the pure action-reaction relationship. Those aspects of reality which deal
with and characterize relation and lawlike actions and situations he called Thirdness.
Thirdness deals with such issues as rules, laws, and habits. Anything symbolic,
including language and sign systems in general, is real as Thirds. But any system of
Thirds embeds and contains prior systems and components of Firsts and Seconds.
Peirce's model of signs, like his model of reality, is also triadic. Any sign consists
of three interrelated components: the sign, the object, and the interpretant. The sign is
that particular physical or conceptual entity that will serve as the "home" of the sign
relation. A word, both in terms of its definition and in terms of its actual existence as a
mark or a sound, is a sign. But a sign is not all that interesting in and of itself - it is
interesting in terms of what it represents, or stands for. The thing that it stands for or
represents is its object. Finally, there will be a consequence of the object being
represented by the sign in question that will be different from the manifestation of the
object in and of itself, and that mediated consequence is what Peirce called the
Interpretant. An interpretation of signs as signs for particular objects is an obvious
example of an interpretant, but the concept of interpretant is much broader than
interpretation.
The notion of the role of inference in sign systems is the third necessary aspect of
Peircean semiotics. Peirce laid out three distinct types of reasoning: deductive, inductive,
and abductive. Deductive reasoning deals with drawing conclusions that are logically
necessary and further our set of truth claims, inductive reasoning deals with drawing
conclusions that are highly probable and expands our domain of probable truth claims,
and abductive reasoning deals with conclusions that are plausible, and expands of
domain of meaningful, if not certain, claims. As we move from abduction to deduction,
we are moving along a dimension from the simple reconciliation of meaning toward one
of necessary truth.
In order to analyze African and Borneo beads therefore, it is necessary to pick
which type of semiotic theory that serves as the basis for the analysis. Given its broader
perspective and more explicit links with issues relevant to research proper, the Peircean
approach is deemed to be the most useful starting point. Another consideration is the
controversial but defensible idea that Saussurean semiotics is a proper subset of
Peircean semiotics (Deely, 1990).
19 Peircean approach is important here because it helps us not to take 'reality' for
granted as something having a purely objective existence which is independent of human
interpretation. It teaches us that reality is a system of signs.
Firstly, applying semiotics and semantic analysis assisted the researcher to
become more aware of reality and meanings of beads as a construction and of the roles
played by beads.
Secondly, information or meanings of beads were actively created
according to a complex interplay of codes or conventions of which we are normally
unaware. Becoming aware of such codes is both inherently fascinating and intellectually
empowering. Thirdly, semantic and semiotics analysis helps to reveal so many meanings
that are embedded in beads and we have no way of understanding them except through
signs and the codes into which they are organized. Through the application of semantic
and semiotics we become aware that beads signs and codes are normally transparent
and disguise our task in 'reading' them.
c) Analysis of the data collected.
The data used in this research were extracted from the initial literature review,
survey conducted from field work, and questionnaires in Africa and Borneo.
1. Verification of data. To verify the data collected for this research, the
researcher employed the qualitative and quantitative research approach. In making
comparison between Africa and Borneo beads (in relation to its features, functions and
roles), representativeness and generalisability are the ultimate methods of approach.
Table 2.2 illustrates the overall framework and feedback loops that were needed for
data verification and data validation of African and Borneo beads. Although data verification
and data validation are both considered assessment tools, chronologically they occur prior to
the formal data quality assessment process. The goal of data verification is to ensure and
document that the data are what they purport to be, that is, that the reported results reflect
what was actually done.
20 Table 2.2 Data Verification and Data Validation components of Mrica and
Borneo beads
..
c
....0
. Field
Documentation
Review
III
~
-=....
!
f,;
QJ
:;.­
1
...
III
III
~
:
i
Data Verification
interviews Questionnaire : Analysis of Data
C
.......0
III
"C
....
-~
..
III
III
~
I Focused Data
: Validation
Report
Analytical Data
i
Data Quality
Assessment
However, quantitative approach has been adopted to investigate the various types of
beads materials, shapes, and colours, through likert-scale method, with the highest values of
(5) and the lowest value of (1). Five hundred questionnaires were prepared for the field
activities, half were distributed to relevant authorities and their associates in bead crafts in
Africa to indicate the appropriate answers and also give their views and comments on bead
elements. The other halves of the questionnaires were distributed among bead enthusiasts,
producers and marketers in Sarawak, Sabah and Kalimantan, to give their views on bead
matters.
The survey was conducted over a one-month period in Borneo following the
completion of the survey in Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroun and South Africa. Testing 500
respondents in Africa and Borneo with a margin of error of plus or minus three percentage
points. This survey, according to the outline in the questionnaire, asked multiple questions
from each section. Section (A) asked the demographic questions. The selected age groups
were from 5years and above. Section (B) asked questions about the Significance and
Expressions of bead Symbols. Section (C) and (D) asked questions about shapes, types and
21