Research Centre for Japanese Language and Linguistics
University of Oxford
オックスフォード大学 日本語研究センター
www.orinst.ox.ac.uk/research/jap-ling/
On Noun Incorporation in Old Japanese:
A corpus based study
Kerri L Russell
[email protected]
Japanese Linguistics Workshop
15 August 2015
Outline
!
!
Introduction
The present study
◦ Evidence for incorporation
◦ What can be incorporated in OJ
◦ Semantic role (意味役割) of the incorporated noun (IN)
◦ Other semantic roles assigned by the incorporating verb
(IV)
◦ Inflection of the IN-V
!
Conclusion
2
Introduction
!
What is noun incorporation?
◦ This study is on incorporation from a morphological
perspective.
◦ The process where a noun is affixed to a verb resulting in
a complex verb
! e.g., punanor- 船乗る ‘boat-ride; ride a boat’
3
Introduction
Mithun (1984) describes noun incorporation as a syntactic
morphological process.
! In her framework there are 4 types of noun incorporation.
This framework is hierarchical:
!
◦ 1) lexical compounding where the noun is assigned the role of
patient, location, or instrument by the IV
◦ 2) the manipulation of case, where the IN loses its argument
status and another noun receives it
◦ 3) the manipulation of discourse structure, where the IN is part of
information structure representing known (and not new)
information
◦ 4) classificatory noun incorporation, where the IN narrows the
scope of the IV but can be accompanied by an NP which
classifies the IN
4
Introduction
Mithun (1984) describes noun incorporation as a syntactic
morphological process.
! In her framework there are 4 types of noun incorporation.
This framework is hierarchical:
!
◦ 1) lexical compounding where the noun is assigned the role of
patient, location, or instrument by the IV
◦ 2) the manipulation of case, where the IN loses its argument
status and another noun receives it
◦ 3) the manipulation of discourse structure, where the IN is part of
information structure representing known (and not new)
information
◦ 4) classificatory noun incorporation, where the IN narrows the
scope of the IV but can be accompanied by an NP which
classifies the IN
5
Introduction
!
Rosen (1989) claims there are 2 separate word
formation processes.
◦ 1) argument structure of the IV changes, so that the verb
loses an argument
◦ 2) argument structure is unaltered
!
!
She claims language may have one or the other,
but not both.
OJ shows both.
6
Introduction
!
!
In modern Japanese, incorporated noun
structures are nominalized and typically used in
light verb constructions (see, e.g., Kageyama
1982)
OJ they are not always nominalized.
7
The present study: Evidence for incorporation
!
!
Data for this study were extracted from the Oxford
Corpus of Old Japanese (OCOJ)
Only included items if there was at least one
phonographic attestation
◦ Criteria for determining whether nouns are incorporated
in OJ:
1. positive evidence for incorporation
2. positive evidence against incorporation
3. absence of evidence against incorporation
8
The present study: Evidence for incorporation
!
Criterion 1: positive evidence for incorporation
◦
Bound form of noun
!
amater- ~ amader- 天照る‘heaven-shine; shine’
!
amagwirap- 天霧 ‘heaven-be.cloudy; be cloudy’
!
amagomor- 天隠る ‘rain-be.secluded; be secluded by rain’
!
punanor- 船乗る‘boat-ride; ride a boat’
!
somuk- 背く‘back-face; turn back on’
9
The present study: Evidence for incorporation
!
Criterion 1: positive evidence for incorporation
◦ Rendaku
! kotodate- 言立て ‘word-erect; declare’
! kotodop- 言問う ‘word-ask; exchange words’
! kumogakur- 雲隠る ‘cloud-be hidden; be hidden by clouds’
! miduk- 水付く‘water-attach; be soaked in water’
! nebap- 根延ふ ‘root-spread; spread roots’
10
The present study: Evidence for incorporation
!
Criterion 1: positive evidence for incorporation
◦ Presence of verbal prefix
! uti-panapwi- 打鼻嚏る ‘PFX-nose-sneeze; sneeze
suddenly’
! sa-nebap- さ根延ふ ‘PFX-root-spread; spread roots’
11
The present study: Evidence for incorporation
!
Criterion 2: positive evidence against incorporation
◦
◦
Free form of noun
Rendaku does not occur
!
te panare- 手離れる‘hand-be.separate; be far apart’ (tabanare- ‘id.’)
12
The present study: Evidence for incorporation
!
Criterion 3: absence of evidence against incorporation
◦
Noun lacks bound/free distinction
!
ine- 眠寝る‘sleep-sleep; sleep a sleep’
!
kunimi- 國見る‘country-see; look at the country’
!
kotonas- 言なす‘word-do; blurt’
13
The present study: Evidence for incorporation
!
Criterion 3: absence of evidence against incorporation
◦
Initial consonant lacks voiced/voiceless distinction
•
ine- 眠寝る‘sleep-sleep; sleep a sleep’
•
kunimi- 國見る‘country-see; look at the country’
•
kotonas- 言なす‘word-do; blurt’
14
The present study: Evidence for incorporation
!
Criterion 3: absence of evidence against incorporation
◦
!
Excluded if fewer than 5 attestations.
The Data set
◦
◦
◦
125 noun+verbs
102 fit criterion 1
23 fit criterion 3
15
The present study: Evidence for incorporation
!
What can be incorporated in Old Japanese?
◦ a noun
• puna-nor- 船乗る ‘boat-ride; ride a boat’
◦ a nominal prefix and a noun
• mi-yama-gakur- 御山隠る ‘HON-mountain-be.hidden; be
hidden in the mountains (i.e., be dead)’
◦ an adjectival stem and a noun
• yasu-i-ne- 安眠寝る ‘easy-sleep-sleep; sleep peacefully’
16
The present study: Evidence for incorporation
!
What can be incorporated in Old Japanese?
◦ a possessor and a noun
! yupuyamwi-no-konopa-gomoreru 夕闇の木葉隠える
'evening.dark-GEN-tree-GEN-leaf-be.wrapped; be wrapped in the
twilight’s tree leaves'
◦ a relative clause and a noun
• yo-no-pito-no-taturu-koto-date- 世の人の立つる言立てる
‘world-GEN-people declare words-declare; declare the words,
that the people declare’
!
Mithun’s type 4
◦ 4) classificatory noun incorporation, where the IN narrows the
scope of the IV but can be accompanied by an NP which
classifies the IN
17
The present study: Semantic role of the
incorporated noun (IN)
!
Semantic role of the incorporated noun (IN)
◦ Theme (主題) - 55 tokens
◦ Location (場所)- 24 tokens
◦ Instrument (道具)- 18 tokens
◦ Manner (状態)- 15 tokens
◦ Goal (目標) - 5 tokens
◦ Path (経路) - 4 tokens
◦ Source (起点) - 2 tokens
◦ Agent (動作主) - 2 tokens?
!
In the interest of time, I’ll skip the examples and
jump to slide 27.
18
The present study: Semantic role of the
incorporated noun (IN)
!
Semantic role of the incorporated noun (IN)
◦ Theme - 55 tokens
◦ Themes can be the subjects of intransitive verbs or the
objects of transitive verbs.
! iroduk- 色付く‘color-attach; turn color’
! pider- 日照る‘sun-shine; sun shines’
! mobik- 裳引く ‘skirt-pull; drag skirt’
! togar- 鳥狩る‘bird-hunt; hunt birds’
! tumagwop- 妻恋ふ ‘spouse-love; love spouse’
19
The present study: Semantic role of the
incorporated noun (IN)
!
Semantic role of the incorporated noun (IN)
◦ Location (time or place) - 24 tokens
! asadat- 朝立つ ‘morning-set.out; set out in the morning’
! ipabasir- 岩走る ‘rock-run; splash on rocks’
! ywodat- 夜立つ ‘night-go; set out at night’
! sitader- 下照る ‘below-shine; shine’
! uragwopwi- 裏恋ふ ‘heart-love; love in heart’
20
The present study: Semantic role of the
incorporated noun (IN)
!
Semantic role of the incorporated noun (IN)
◦ Instrument - 18 tokens
! agak- 足掻く‘leg-scratch; scratch with leg’
! munawake- 胸別ける‘chest-divide; push through with chest’
! tabasam- 手挟む ‘hand-clutch; clutch with hand’
! tawor- 手折る‘hand-bend; break with hand’
21
The present study: Semantic role of the
incorporated noun (IN)
!
Semantic role of the incorporated noun (IN)
◦ Manner - 15 tokens
! katamat- 片待つ ‘incomplete-wait; wait fervently’
! parabap- 腹
う‘belly-crawl; crawl on belly’
! sakidat- 先立つ ‘first-set.out; set out first’
22
The present study: Semantic role of the
incorporated noun (IN)
!
Semantic role of the incorporated noun (IN)
◦ Goal - 5 tokens
! amasosor- 天そそる‘heaven-tower; rise to heaven’
! unakudar- 海下る‘sea-go.down; go to sea’
! simadutap- 島伝う‘island-go; go from island to island’
23
The present study: Semantic role of the
incorporated noun (IN)
!
Semantic role of the incorporated noun (IN)
◦ Path - 4 tokens
! amagaker- 天翔ける‘heaven-soar; soar in the heavens’
! amatob- 天飛ぶ ‘heaven-fly; fly in the heavens’
! miwobik- 澪引く‘channel-pull; pilot a boat along a channel’
24
The present study: Semantic role of the
incorporated noun (IN)
!
Semantic role of the incorporated noun (IN)
◦ Source - 2 tokens
! amakudar- 天下る ‘heaven-descend; descend from heaven’
! miyade 宮出る ‘palace-leave; leave palace’
25
The present study: Semantic role of the
incorporated noun (IN)
!
Semantic role of the incorporated noun (IN)
◦ Agent (?) - 2 tokens
! kamudumar- 神づまる‘god-congregate, gods congregate’
! kamoduk- 鴨着く‘duck-arrive; ducks arrive’
26
The present study: Semantic role of the
incorporated noun (IN)
!
Table 1. Semantic roles assigned by IV
27
28
The present study: Semantic role of the
incorporated noun (IN)
!
The same verb can assign different roles.
◦ Instrument
! amagomor- 雨隠る ‘rain-be.secluded; be kept in by rain
! kwirigomor- 隠る霧 ‘mist-be.secluded; be secluded by mist’
◦ Location
! puyugomor- 冬隠る ‘winter-be.secluded; be secluded in
winter’
! mayamagomor- 山隠る ‘mountain-be.secluded; be secluded
in mountains’
◦ Theme
! tumagomor- 妻隠る ‘spouse-be.secluded; spouse is
secluded’
29
The present study: Semantic role of the
incorporated noun (IN)
!
Other semantic roles assigned by the
incorporating verb (IV)
◦ In some cases, the IN is the only argument assigned by
the verb.This happens with one-argument verbs when
the IN is a theme:
• akiduk- 秋着く ‘autumn-arrive; autumn arrives’
• panadirap- 花散らふ ‘flower-scatter; flowers scatter’
!
Supports Rosen’s (1989) 1st claim
◦ 1) argument structure of the IV changes, so that the verb
loses an argument
• The IN receives argument status, but no additional argument
is assigned by the IV
30
The present study: Semantic role of the
incorporated noun (IN)
!
Other semantic roles assigned by the
incorporating verb (IV)
◦ When the IN is an adjunct, there is no change in the
valency of the IV:
吾
待
君
思
舟出
為 良之
母
wa ga matu kimi si
puna-de
su rasi
mo
I GEN wait lord RES boat-go.out do PRS FIN
‘My lord, whom I wait for, has certainly set out by boat.’
(MYS.8.1529)
!
Supports Rosen’s (1989) 2nd claim
◦ 2) argument structure is unaltered
• only 1) or 2) is expected to be true
31
The present study: Other semantic roles
assigned by the incorporating verb (IV)
!
Other semantic roles assigned by the
incorporating verb (IV)
◦ In some cases, the IV appears to assign the same role to
the incorporated noun and to another argument.
龍田山乃
露霜尓
色附
時
丹
tatuta no yama no tuyusimo ni
iro-duku toki ni
Tatsuta GEN mountain GEN dew.frost DAT color-attach time COP
“At a time when Mt. Tatsuta turns color in the dew and frost.”
(MYS.6.971)
32
The present study: Other semantic roles
assigned by the incorporating verb (IV)
!
Other semantic roles assigned by the
incorporating verb (IV)
◦ iro is the subject and theme of duk龍田山乃
露霜尓
色附
時 丹
tatuta no yama no tuyusimo ni
iro-duku
toki ni
Tatsuta GEN mountain GEN dew.frost DAT color-attach time COP
“At a time when Mt. Tatsuta turns color in the dew and frost.”
(MYS.6.971)
33
The present study: Other semantic roles
assigned by the incorporating verb (IV)
!
Other semantic roles assigned by the
incorporating verb (IV)
◦ tatuta no yama no is the subject and theme of duk龍田山乃
露霜尓
色附
時
丹
tatuta no yama no tuyusimo ni
iro-duku
toki
ni
Tatsuta GEN mountain GEN dew.frost DAT color-attach time COP
“At a time when Mt. Tatsuta turns color in the dew and frost.”
(MYS.6.971)
34
The present study: Inflection of the IN-V
!
Unlike modern Japanese, in OJ the incorporating
structure can be found in a number of inflections:
35
36
The present study: Inflection of the IN-V
!
Some only occur with se-
37
The present study: Inflection of the IN-V
!
Some can occur with se-
38
Conclusion
!
Conclusion (1)
◦OJ has both lexical compounding (Mithun’s type 1) and
classificatory noun incorporation (Mithun’s type 4);
Mithun’s classification is hierarchical, but OJ does not
have type 2 (manipulation of case) or type 3
(manipulation of discourse structure).
◦OJ assigns more semantic roles than predicted in
Mithun’s type 1, and can also incorporate adjuncts.
◦ The valency of the IV can be decreased, as is the case
with examples like akiduk- (Rosen’s type 1). The IV can
assign the same semantic role to 2 arguments, as found
with iroduk- (Rosen’s type 2).
39
Conclusion
!
Conclusion (2)
◦ OJ has both noun and phrasal incorporation.
◦ A variety of semantic roles can be assigned; theme is the
most commonly assigned role.
◦ Subjects of intransitive verbs can be incorporated.
◦ Unlike modern Japanese, OJ incorporated structures are
not always nominalized and do not always occur in light
verb constructions.
40
References
Kinuhata, Tomohide. 2010. 上代語の名詞抱合について [On incorporated nouns in Old Japanese]. 語文, 92/93,
34-44.
Kageyama, Taro. 1982. "Word formation in Japanese". Lingua 57, 212-258.
Martin, Samuel E. 1987. The Japanese language through time. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Mithun, Marianne. 1984. “The evolution of noun incorporation”. Language 60, 847-894.
Omodaka Hisataka, editor. 1967. 時代別国語大辞典：上代編 [A dictionary of the Japanese language by
periods: Old Japanese volume]. Tokyo: Sanseidō.
Rosen, Sara Thomas. 1989. “Two type of noun incorporation: A lexical analysis.” Language 65, 2, 294-317.
Russell, Kerri L. 2012. "Noun incorporation in Old Japanese (上代日本語における名詞抱合について)"
presented at 通時コーパスプロジェクト・オックスフォード大VSARPJプロジェクト合同シンポジウム
(NINJAL Diachronic Corpus Project – Oxford VSARPJ Project Joint Symposium Corpus Based Studies of
Japanese Language History).
_____. forthcoming. "Noun incorporation in Old Japanse" in Frellesvig, Bjarke, Stephen Wright Horn, Kerri
Russell, and Peter Sells. Verb Semantics and Argument Realization in Old Japanese.
Russell, Kerri L., John Whitman, and Yuko Yanagida. 2014. "Was Old Japanese a polysynthetic language?"
presented at International Symposium on Polysynthesis in the World's Languages 国際シンポジウム
「世界の言語における複統合性」National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics, 20-21
February, 2014
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typological survey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Research Centre for Japanese Language and Linguistics
University of Oxford
オックスフォード大学 日本語研究センター
www.orinst.ox.ac.uk/research/jap-ling/
42