Farm-level transport and animal dependency in Kaffecho Zone, Ethiopia
by
John Howel and Rabira Garba2
JDepartment of Transport and Road Engineering, International Institute for Infrastructural, Hydraulic and
Environmental Engineering, Delft, The Netherlands
2Department of Civil Engineering, University of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract
This paper examinesthe importance of donkeyand muletransport in a remoteregion ofEthiopia (KaffechoZone).
Householdsare highlydependentonpack animalsin trying to developan exchangeeconomyabovemeresubsistence,
with climatic conditionsandpayload considerations
favouring the use ofmules.However,ownershiplevels are low
relative to national averages.Themain cause oflow ownershipis thoughtto bepoverty,although supplyconstraints,
including the availability ofcredit, mayalso be important.Policies to encouragewider ownershiprequire a better
understandingofboth supplyand demandconstraintswhich are identifiedand are currentlybeing researched.
Introd uction
Kaffecho Zone' (KZ) lies in the southwesterncornerof Ethiopia andcoversan areaof some 11,000km betweenthe
GojebRiver in the north andthe Omo River in the south-south-east.
Approximately96% of the 1994 populationof
between650,000and 700,000peopleis rural anddependsdirectly on agriculturefor its livelihood. The remaining
inhabitantsare mainly involved in trading and in governmentservices.KZ containsmostof the remnantsof the original
forest cover of the country -a uniqueandvaluablereservoirof biodiversity. Indeed,the word coffee is a corruptionof
the area'straditional name'Keffa'. The zoneis alsohometo Ethiopia'sgrowing tea industry.Despitethis valuable cash
crop,and bothwild and cultivated coffee,KZ remainsone of the country'spoorestregions.
Part of the explanationfor this lies in the inadequacyof its transportsystem.Thereare few roadsand motor vehicle
transportservices.Most farm householdsare dependentontraditional forms of transport-walking with goodscarried on
the shoulder,heador back,andthe use of packanimals.However,the climateand topographyplaceslimitations on the
useof animalsand ownershiplevelsare well belowthe nationalaverage.This paperdiscussesthe characteristicsof the
transportsystem,the role of animaltransport,apparentbarriersto the wider use animals,andmeasureswhich might be
takento improve farm-leveltransport.Withouttheseimprovementsit is difficult to envisagehowthe presentlow quality
of life can be significantly improved.
Climate and Geomorphology
Some85%ofKC is situatedat altitudesbetween1,500-2,200m and,consequently,enjoysa favourableand moderate
climate.Average annualtemperatures
vary from 16-20°c, while rainfall rangesbetween1,600and 2,200 mm, with one
long rainy seasonlasting on averagefrom 7-9 months (March-October)(Abate,1994).
Geomorphologyand climate,in combination,areresponsiblefor a landscapethat is characterisedby hundredsof rivers
(most of them perennial),steepvalleys and gorges,hills and thick heterogeneous
forests.The long rainy seasonfavours
the cultivation of perennialcropslike coffee,teaand ensette('falsebanana').Besidesmaizeasthe main cerealcrop,the
peoplecultivate teff (Staplegrain in muchof Ethiopia),sorghum,wheat,barleyand severalroot crops.
Vegetationand Land-Use
KC is endowedwith naturalforests(270,000ha, some26.6%of the Zone's total land-area)which arereportedto be
underpressureas a resultof uncontrolledfirewood-cuttingand slowbut steadyextensionof the areaundercultivation. It
is estimatedthat over 62%of the total land areais, or has been,underagriculturalcultivation. Some 10.2%of the Zone's
total land areais reportedto be grazingland.
Economy
Thereis virtually no industrial sectorin KC. Crop productionin the Zone is estimatedto be just abovethe level of food
self-sufficiencyin a normalyear.There are,however,a considerablenumberof families that go without their minimum
daily food requirements.The prevalenceof malnutrition,especiallyin its chronic forms,is almostashigh aselsewherein
Ethiopia (Argaw, 1994).
Transport system
Route Infrastructure
In the hilly and forestedterrain which characterises
muchof the settledpart ofKZ the influenceareaof an all-weather
road probablydoesnot exceed4-8 kIn, or 1-2 hourswalk. Thusthe combinedroad length of 281 kIn doesnot servemore
than 11-22%of the total, or 18-35%of the potentiallycultivable,area.The proportionsof the populationservedare
likely to be of a similar ordersince it is widely scatteredthroughoutthe cultivatedareas(in spite of the Dergue'spolicy
of'villagisation') (Abate,1994).But, reachingan all-weatherroaddoesnot guaranteeeitherthe availability or
affordability of modernmeansof transport.Underthe proposedRoad SectorDevelopmentProgramme,KZ can only
expectabout 140kIn. of road to be addedin the next 10-15years,increasingthe proportionof the total areaservedto
perhaps15-30%,or 26-52%of the potentiallycultivablearea.
Maps indicatea numberof otherexistinganddisusedroads.However,inspectionshowsthat dueto lack of maintenance
mosthavedeterioratedto the point that it is not possibleto use themat all, or only with greatdifficulty in the dry season
and with 4-wheeldrive vehicles.Thus,reliableroad communicationcurrentlyservesonly a limited areaandthereare
considerableareasand populationcentreslocateda long way from a motorableroad.
In additionto the formal road networkthereis an extensivenetworkof trails andfootpathsusedby packanimalsand
pedestrians,primarily for accessto marketsand essentialservices2.
Thereis no official categorisationof theseroutes,but
it is clear that for the majority of the populationthis is the effective transportsystem.Field surveysindicatedthat due to
the terrain,climate and soils,the conditionof mosttrails providesonly an arduousmeansof communication.It is not
possibleto usemotorcycleson themdueto the steep,rocky and often slipperysurfaces,absenceof drainage,andthe
poor quality of bridgeswhich offer only a precariousform of passagefor pedestrians.Bridging of large rivers, suchas
the Gojeb(35-40 m) which dividesthe northernpart ofKZ, is a major problemandmostdo not survivethe summer
(wet) seasonandhaveto be re-built. Thus,for manymonthsof the year partsof KZ arecut-off evenfrom their woreda
(district)headquarters3.
TransportServices
The Transportand CommunicationsDepartmentof KZ reportsthattherehas beena recentsurgein the numberof goods
vehiclesoperatingin the area,but only 7 areregisteredlocally as freight carriers.There arean additional24 privately
registeredmotor vehicles,21 owned by government,althoughnot all are in working order,and 26 governmentowned
motorcycles.This is a tiny fleet for a populationapproaching700,000andthe majority dependon animaltransportand
walking. Moreoverit is noteworthythatthe nationalfleethas beenstatic at about60,000vehicles for morethan a decade
(Howe, 1992).The majority arelocatedin the majorurbanareasand only a fewthousandareavailablefor hire and
rewardservicesin rural areas,mostlyalongthe major trunk routes.
Animal ownership and use
Thereare estimatedto be 63,700oxenand 17,900equids(12,800horses,5100mulesand donkeys)in KZ, or one pair
of oxen per4.1 householdsandone equid for every7.3 households(MOA, 1984;Abdelle 1994)4.In practicefew oxen
areusedfor transportandthereseemsto be considerablereluctanceamongmanyfarmersto use them for this purpose.
At 275-300kg the Ethiopian ox is a comparativelylight animal (Pathak,1987).Becauseof their low speed,seldom
exceeding0.6 mis, as againstthe normalworking speedof 0.9-1.0mls of similar animalsin Asia, a pair of Ethiopian
oxenis able to producea draft of about 100kg, sufficientto pull the traditional plough (Maresha)but insufficient for a
cart with a significantpayload(Brycesonand Howe, 1989).Not a single animal-drawncart was observedin KZ and
indeedthe terrainwould limit their useto relatively fewareas.Therewere only a few otherforms of non-motorised
transportsuchas bicycles,wheelbarrowsandhandcarts.Most of the latterwere crudelyconstructed,giving low capacity
andmaking them difficult to use.Packanimal transportby equids-mainly mulesanddonkeys-is the norm. In this
respectKZ is poorly endowedsinceits ownershiplevelis well belowthe nationalaveragewhich in 1983was estimated
at approximatelyone packanimal for everyhousehold,althoughat thattime therewas a decliningtrend in ownership
with the perhouseholdequid populationhaving fallen by 18%between1978-83(Admassi,Abebe,Ezra and Gay, 1983).
There are manypossiblereasonsfor the low levelof packanimalownership.The old southernregionsof GamoGoffa,
Keffa (KZ), and Wolegasharedthe lowestlevels of all regionsin Ethiopia suggestingenvironmentalconditions may be
a significant factor (Brycesonand Howe, 1989).A more likely reason,however,is income.The local cost of a mule is
Birr 1000-1400,a horseBirr 500-700,and donkeyBirr 150-250(US$ 1 = Birr 6.2). In comparisonthe local purchase
price for an ox is Birr 600-800.It is noteworthythat in KZ donkeyscommandonly 15-20%of the price of a mule
becausein the dampconditionswhich prevail they arereportedto havepoordiseaseresistanceand low life expectancy.
At 45 kg their averageload capacityis also only abouttwo thirds of the averagereportedfor a mule in Ethiopia
(Tesfahunegn,1986).
Surveysin the 1980'sconfirmedthe exceptionallylow cashincomesachievedby the rural people (FAO, 1986).There
was remarkablylittle wealth differentiationwithin regions,sinceland reformhadhad a levelling effect on household
outputand income.Extremely fewhouseholdshad off-farm, non-agriculturalsourcesof income.For zonestypical of the
land use in mostofKZ annualtotal farm incomewould havebeenin the rangeBirr 300-540,with net cashincome at
about 10-20%of this sum(FAO, 1986).A negligible amountis spenton transport(Ethiopia CentralStatistical
Authority, 1988).Giventhe negativeeconomicgrowthof Ethiopia'seconomyduring the 1980's,in real terms,it is
doubtful if householdincomeis presentlysignificantly different from theselevels(World Bank, 1992).
Consequencesof reliance on traditional transport
Relianceon traditionalforms of transportposesa considerablebarrierto the developmentof an exchangeeconomyand
locks the peasantfarmerinto a subsistence
modeof existenceand low quality of life from which it is difficult to escape.
Packanimalsoffer a significantpayloadadvantageoverhumancarriage,especiallyif one personcan commandthe use
of severalanimals.Evenwith a single animalthe potential costreductionfrom substitutionof pack for humancarriageis
of the orderof 50%, which would significantlyimprovethe efficiencyof transport-workby farmers(Tesfahunegn,
1986).
Two examplesfrom the field studiesillustratesomeof theseaspects.
Example 1.-
Mule hire for the journey from Chiri to Bonga -about 20-30kIn. dependingon the point of departure-costs Birr 15-20
for a maximumload of 1 quintal(100 kg). The trip would normally occupy2 daysnecessitatinga further Birr 10 for
mealsand accommodation.The daily opportunitycostof labourin rural areasis estimatedat Birr 2.5,giving a total
transportcostof Birr 30-35 perquintal. The averagesellingpricesof the most commonlytradedcommoditiesin
1993/94are given in Table 1 (Abdelle, 1994).
Table 1: The average selling prices of commonly traded commodities -1993/94
Source:Abdelle(1994)-
Only in the caseof the high value seeds,mostof which aretradedin small quantities,is the transportcost in reasonable
proportionto the grossselling price. It may still of coursebe disproportionatein relationto the net returnto the farmer.
For the low value food staples,suchasmaizeand sorghum,the transportcostmakesa net returnunlikely. Moreover,
giventhe low availability of pack animals,heador backloading is evenmoreunattractivebecauseof the limited payload
(20 kg maximumfor long distances)and transportcostsamountingto Birr 15.
Example2:
A mule carrying 60 kg of dried corianderpods,not seed,washired for Birr 15 for the 43 km. journey to Bonga from
FelegaSelam.It entailsa three day trip so allowing Birr 20 for mealsand accommodation
and Birr 7.5 for the
opportunity costof labourgives a total cost of Birr 42.5 or Birr 16.7/ton.km. ($ 2.7/ton km). The transportcost is again
high in relationto likely netandgrossreturns.Equivalentlocal truck transportratesare Birr 0.6 -0.9/ton km ($ 0.100.14/tonkm.) for the 115km trip from Bongato Mizan Teferi. Evenallowing for the taperingoff of costswith distance
it is clear thattraditional forms of transportare very expensive.
Passenger
transportby animalis generallymoreexpensivethan goods.This is dueto a combinationof both greater
demandand supplyconstraints.
Discussion
Notwithstandingthe foregoingexamplesit is clear that for a large proportionofKZ's populationpackanimal transport
offersthe only realistic way of obtainingreturnsfrom agricultureabovemeresubsistence.
Ownershipof an animal could
significantly reducetotal transportcostsand increaseboththe returnsto the farmer;andthe rangeof distancesover
which it is economicto trade differentfarm goods.This has beenunderlinedby recentresearchwhich hasemphasised
the economicadvantageconveyedby all simpleforms of transportthat offer efficiencyimprovementsover human
carriage,althoughsignificantlythe studiesexcludedpackanimals(Ellis and Hine, 1995;BarweII1996). Thereseems
little reasonto doubt that pack animaltransportis an importantstagein the transitionfrom inefficient humanload
carriage-on the head,backor shoulders-to highercapacity,cheaperand fastermovementby cart or motor vehicle. For
this reasonwider ownershipanduseneedsto be encouragedfrom existing modestlevels,but a numberof issuesneedto
be betterresearchedif appropriatepolicies areto be formulated,notably:
.What arethe economicadvantagesof wider equiduseand ownership?To what extentdoesincome from hiring
supplementdirectuse?
.What arethe key constraintson wider farmerownershipof equids:supplyof animals,very low incomes,or the
absenceof affordablecredit facilities?Giventhe (apparent)necessityof usingthe mostexpensiveequids in KZ
(mules)thenthis questionis crucialto their wider use.
.What arethe factorsconditioninga farmer'spreferencefor differentkinds of equidsandthe trade-offs betweenthe
extra capital costof a largeanimal (mule)and its increasedload capacityandspeed?
.What arethe maincharacteristicsof equidhire marketsanddo theyneedassistance
to develop?
It is intendedto addresssomeof theseissuesin the secondphaseof studiesin KZ which are currently in progress.
Notes:
I Thefield workfor this researchwasconductedin September-November
1994.Since thenKaffechoZonehas beenenlarged by the
addition offurther territory. All data in thispaper refer to the situation at the time ofthe original studieswith the exceptionthat the
road lengthfigure has beenupdatedto reflect the completion oftheGimbo -Masha road (- 130 km), which significantlyimproves
accessin two northern woredas (districts)-Gawata (Kobech)and Tiliku Gesha(Deka)-and for the wholezone.
2 Thereare approximately30 major and 52 secondaryand tertiary marketsin KZ. A surveyon one ofthe main trailsfrom Felega
Selamto Bonga indicateda mule traffic on the dayprecedingmarket of150-200animals.
3 In the hilly parts ofKZ, which comprisethe main settledand cultivated areas,rainfall can be expectedto exceed100 mm about 7-8
monthsa year.
4 In 1984 a Ministry ofAgriculture surveyindicatedthat in the old Keffa Regionthere were1. 7mulesfor every donkey{Ministry of
Agriculture 1984J.
5 For comparison,urban wagesin Bonga Townpaid bythe municipalityarefixed at a minimum ofBirr 6 per day,although
private sector rates ofBirr 3 were quotedfor urban areasgenerally.
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