EUROPEAN AND VEINED SQUID
Loligo vulgaris (European) and Loligo forbesi (Veined)
Sometimes known as Cape Hope Squid, Chokker Squid, Kalmar, Calamaro
SUMMARY
European and Veined Squid are found in the northeast Atlantic Ocean, with Veined Squid more
common in northern areas and European Squid most abundant in southern areas. Both species
grow fast and become sexually mature within one year. Spawning is considered intermittent and
terminal for both species, meaning a squid lays several batches of eggs over several months and
then dies. European and Veined Squid are especially vulnerable to changes in environmental
conditions like water temperature during their entire lifetime. Catches of both Squid species are
combined, so we don't know what proportion each one represents. Overall, there is little
information on their abundance, but Squid landings do vary over time. One of the main gear
types used to catch European and Veined Squid is bottom trawl, which can damage the seafloor.
Criterion
Points
Final Score
Life History
3.00
2.40 - 4.00
Abundance
2.50
1.60 - 2.39
Habitat Quality and Fishing Gear Impacts
0.75
0.00 - 1.59
Management
0.50
Bycatch
2.00
Final Score
1.75
Color
Color
LIFE HISTORY
Core Points (only one selection allowed)
If a value for intrinsic rate of increase (‘r’) is known, assign the score below based on this value.
If no r-value is available, assign the score below for the correct age at 50% maturity for females
if specified, or for the correct value of growth rate ('k'). If no estimates of r, age at 50% maturity,
or k are available, assign the score below based on maximum age.
1.00
Intrinsic rate of increase <0.05; OR age at 50% maturity >10 years; OR growth rate
<0.15; OR maximum age >30 years.
2.00
Intrinsic rate of increase = 0.05-0.15; OR age at 50% maturity = 5-10 years; OR a growth
rate = 0.16–0.30; OR maximum age = 11-30 years.
3.00
Intrinsic rate of increase >0.16; OR age at 50% maturity = 1-5 years; OR growth
rate >0.30; OR maximum age <11 years.
Growth of European Squid is highly related to water temperature (Villanueva 2000;
Natsukari and Komine 1992), fastest in warmer waters. This contributes to significant
differences in growth, size at sexual maturity and weight, of European Squid between
regions (Moreno et al. 2002). For example, European Squid from Portugal reach maturity
at a smaller size, than in other parts of the Atlantic but at a similar size to those from the
Mediterranean (Moreno et al. 2002). European Squid become sexually mature within
their first year (Moreno et al. 2004). In all regions, females appear to grow at a faster rate
than males (Vila et al. 2010). European Squid’s life span is around one year (Bettencourt
et al. 1996; Arkhipkin 1995; Guerra and Rocha 1994; Natsukari and Komine 1992) and
they typically grow to 30 - 40 cm in size (Relini et al. 1999) but can reach sizes of 54 cm
and 64 cm for females and males respectively (Raya 2001). In Portuguese waters,
European Squid grow at rates of around 0.8 mm per day during the first 240 days, after
which male growth only increases to 1.70 mm per day (Moreno et al. 2007). Off the
French Mediterranean coast, European Squid were around 24 cm in length 240 days after
hatching (Natsukari and Komine 1992). European Squid have an estimated growth
coefficient of 1.74 (Sifner 2000), which is high.
Veined Squid also have an approximate year long life cycle (Collins et al. 1997, 1999),
although some may live as long as 18 months (Rocha and Guerra 1999). Maturity of
Veined Squid occurs at a range of sizes, with males typically growing to a larger size
than females (Hastie et al. 2009) but maturity is typically reached by 200 mm mantle
length (Challier et al. 2005). In Scottish waters for example, there is a seasonal effect on
maturity with animals having a higher probability of being mature in January to March
than from August to October (Pierce et al. 2005). Maximum lengths and weights of 62
cm and 2.87 kg and 42 cm and 1.54 kg for males and females in the UK have been
recorded (Hastie et al. 2009).
Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed)
-0.25 Species has special behaviors that make it especially vulnerable to fishing pressure (e.g.,
spawning aggregations; site fidelity; segregation by sex; migratory bottlenecks; unusual
attraction to gear; etc.).
-0.25 Species has a strategy for sexual development that makes it especially vulnerable to
fishing pressure (e.g., age at 50% maturity >20 years; sequential hermaphrodites;
extremely low fecundity).
-0.25 Species has a small or restricted range (e.g., endemism; numerous evolutionarily
significant units; restricted to one coastline; e.g., American lobster; striped bass; endemic
reef fishes).
-0.25 Species exhibits high natural population variability driven by broad-scale
environmental change (e.g. El Nino; decadal oscillations).
The short life span and fast growth rates of squid make them especially vulnerable to
changes in environmental conditions (Boyle and Pierce 1994a; Bellido et al. 2001) and
there is significant evidence that environmental conditions are an important factor for
European and Veined Squid during their entire lifetime (Moreno et al. 2007). For
example, movements, distribution patterns and abundances of Veined Squid have been
linked to environmental, specifically water temperature, conditions (Pierce et al. 1998;
Waluda and Pierce 1998; Bellido et al. 2001; Sims et al. 2001; Pierce and Boyle 2003;
Zuur and Pierce 2004). In addition, temperature is crucial for the hatching and survival of
young European Squid, causing differences in abundance between seasons (Sanchez et al.
2008). For example, European Squid hatched in cold water reached sexual maturity at a
later age (8.5 months and 6.8 months for females and males respectively) compared to
those hatched in warmer waters (7.3 months and 5.5 months respectively) (Moreno et al.
2004). European Squid that are found in warm water also live longer than those from cold
water (Moreno et al. 2007). In the North Sea, correlations between Veined Squid
abundance and the winter North Atlantic Oscillation index, average sea surface
temperature and sea surface salinity have been found (Pierce and Boyle 2003). In northwest Spain, the growth of Veined Squid of the same sex has been shown to vary by
season (Rocha and Guerra 1999) and in Scottish waters high water temperatures during
the autumn and winter months appear to be associated with high Veined Squid
abundances (Pierce et al. 2005). The migration of Veined Squid into the English Channel
is also affected by water temperature with eastward migration occurring earlier when
water temperatures are higher (Sims et al. 2001).
+0.25 Species does not have special behaviors that increase ease or population consequences of
capture OR has special behaviors that make it less vulnerable to fishing pressure (e.g.,
species is widely dispersed during spawning).
+0.25 Species has a strategy for sexual development that makes it especially resilient to
fishing pressure (e.g., age at 50% maturity <1 year; extremely high fecundity).
European and Veined Squid reach sexual maturity at a young age, generally around 10
months (Moreno et al. 2005). In some locations it is quicker. In Portuguese waters, for
example, European Squid reach maturity at 7.6 and 8.7 months for males and females
respectively (Moreno et al. 2004).
In the western Mediterranean, European Squid spawn throughout the year with peaks
occurring in March and April (Mangold-Wirz 1963). Off the Catalan coast, peak
spawning also occurs in March and April (Sanchez et al. 2008). In the Gulf of Cadiz,
mature European Squid are observed year round, with peak abundance observed in the
winter and spring (Vila et al. 2010). European Squid also spawn year round in the waters
of Portugal with peak spawning occurring between October and February and between
April and June (Moreno et al. 1994; Moreno et al. 2002). In the north of France and
Greek Seas, European Squid only spawn between November and April (Moreno et al.
2002). In the central Adriatic Sea, mature European Squid are found year round with
peak spawning occurring from January to May (Sifner and Vrgoc 2004). In the North Sea
European squid spawn from April until August (Tinbergen and Verwey 1945) with peak
spawning occurring in the spring months (Oesterwind et al. 2010).
Veined Squid spawn from December through May, although there may be separate
winter and summer breeding populations (Collins et al. 1997, 1999; Zuur and Pierce
2004; Oesterwind et al. 2010). For example, in the United Kingdom, there appears to be a
winter and summer spawning population (Holme 1974) but in Scottish waters the winter
spawning population dominates and spawning now occurs earlier (Pierce et al. 2005). In
Scottish waters, peak spawning occurs from December to February (Pierce et al. 1994a).
In Portuguese waters spawning occurs in the autumn and winter months (Moreno et al.
1994). It is likely that spawning areas exist in the north-western part of the North Sea
(Oesterwind et al. 2010).
However, European and Veined Squid spawning is considered intermittent and terminal,
meaning several batches of eggs are laid and death occurs at the end of the spawning
season after all of the eggs are laid (Roch and Guerra 1996; Macewicz et al. 2004).
Fecundity has been estimated to be 28,500-74,200 eggs per female for mature European
Squid (Laptikhovsky 2000). Female Veined Squid produce up to 23,000 eggs during a
lifetime (Pierce et al. 2010). Larger females produce more eggs (Pierce et al. 2010).
Although fecundity levels are moderate, both European and Veined Squid mature within
1 year, so points are added.
+0.25 Species is distributed over a very wide range (e.g., throughout an entire hemisphere
or ocean basin; e.g., swordfish; tuna; Patagonian toothfish).
The distribution of European and Veined Squid overlaps, but Veined Squid are more
common in the northern part of its range, while European Squid are most abundant in the
southern part of their range and are very uncommon in Scottish waters (Pierce et al.
1994b,c). European Squid are found from the British Isles to the Gulf of Guinea and out
to Madeira along the eastern Atlantic and throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Belcari
1999; Clarke and Lu 1995; Roper et al. 1984). Veined Squid are found in the north-east
Atlantic from the Azores to the Faroes and the northwest coast of Norway, as well as in
the North Sea between Scotland and Norway and can be found in limited amounts in the
Mediterranean (Roper et al. 1984). It is uncommon to find Veined Squid south of the Bay
of Biscay. Veined Squid are commonly found in the following areas of the United
Kingdom; English Channel (Holme 1974), Irish Sea (Collins et al. 1995), Rockall Bank
and the Scottish west coast (Pierce et al. 1994a) and in the Moray Firth (Young et al.
2006). There is some evidence that there is a North Sea and Atlantic population of
Veined Squid (Oesterwind et al. 2010) and the population of Veined Squid in the Azores
is genetically significantly different than the Atlantic population (Norman et al. 1994).
Both species have medium size distribution ranges so no points are added.
+0.25 Species does not exhibit high natural population variability driven by broad-scale
environmental change (e.g., El Nino; decadal oscillations).
3.00 Points for Life History
ABUNDANCE
Core Points (only one selection allowed)
Compared to natural or un-fished level, the species population is:
1.00
Low: Abundance or biomass is <75% of BMSY or similar proxy (e.g., spawning
potential ratio).
2.00
Medium: Abundance or biomass is 75-125% of BMSY or similar proxy; OR
population is approaching or recovering from an overfished condition; OR
adequate information on abundance or biomass is not available.
European and Veined Squid grow fast and die early, with growth, migration and
spawning highly correlated to water temperature. This means that Squid abundance can
vary greatly over time. For example, abundance of Veined Squid in Scottish waters is
related to the seasons, with abundance highest in autumn (October to December) as they
approach the breeding season (Bellido et al. 2001). Commercial catches of both species
are combined in most areas, so the overall catch of each species is typically unknown
(Hastie et al. 2009).
In Italy, temporal variations in abundance of European Squid results in no apparent trend
in population size over time (Piccinetti and Piccinetti-Manfrin 1994) and in the English
Channel, abundances vary seasonally, being highest in late autumn and early winter
(Royer et al. 2001). In Portuguese waters, a first step toward a population assessment has
been undertaken, which has shown a decrease in landings of European Squid since 1995
(ICES 2011). Veined Squid populations have been dramatically reduced in the southern
part of their original range since the 1990’s, while abundance in the northern areas
around Scotland has increased (Chen et al. 2006). This northerly shift in abundance could
be a result of changes in seawater temperature and not of a reduction in abundance (Chen
et al. 2006). In Scottish waters there has been a decrease in the population of summer
breeding Veined Squid since the 1970’s while the abundance of winter breeders has
increased and now dominates the population (Pierce et al. 2005).
Over the past decade, total long-fin squid landings, which include Veined and European
Squid, have ranged from 8,000 to 11,000 t in the NE Atlantic (Hastie et al. 2009). In
areas monitored by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES),
landings of common squid, including Veined and European squid, have ranged from
12,464 to 3,143 between 2000 and 2010 but have been at the lowest amounts during 2009
and 2010 (ICES 2011). In the Basque Country, squid landings, which include Veined and
European Squid, have been variable since 1994, increasing slightly in 2010 (ICES 2011).
Landings in Spain for Loliginidae squid, which includes European Squid (Veined Squid
landings are very scarce in this region), having decreased since highs in the early part of
the past decade (2000-2010) (ICES 2011).
The population of European Squid in Morocco, Mauritania, Senegal and Gambia was
determined to be overexploited in 2006 (FAO 2007) but in Europe no formal assessments
of European or Veined Squid abundance have been done (Moreno et al. 2007) (although
there are plans to do so in the future) so a core point of 2 was awarded.
3.00
High: Abundance or biomass is >125% of BMSY or similar proxy.
Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed)
-0.25 The population is declining over a generational time scale (as indicated by biomass
estimates or standardized CPUE).
-0.25 Age, size or sex distribution is skewed relative to the natural condition (e.g., truncated
size/age structure or anomalous sex distribution).
-0.25 Species is listed as "overfished" OR species is listed as "depleted", "endangered", or
"threatened" by recognized national or international bodies.
-0.25 Current levels of abundance are likely to jeopardize the availability of food for other
species or cause substantial change in the structure of the associated food web.
+0.25 The population is increasing over a generational time scale (as indicated by biomass
estimates or standardized CPUE).
Abundance estimates of European Squid from Italy have been reported to vary greatly
over time with no apparent trend evident (Piccinetti and Piccinetti-Manfrin 1994). In the
English Channel, abundances vary with season, highest in late autumn and early winter
(Royer et al. 2001). Recruitment of European Squid is highest in the English Channel in
November and December (Royer et al. 2001). In the Moray Firth, abundance of European
Squid declined from a high or 5.8 million squid in 1990/91 to 0.23 million in 1996/97
(Hastie et al. 2009). The population increased again around 1997/98 and then decreased
in 1999 (Hastie et al. 2009). However, the changes in abundance over time showed
considerable variation between years and it is difficult to determine the accuracy of the
estimates because of issues with the quality of the data and natural mortality estimates
(Young et al. 2004).
Abundance trends from Portuguese and French waters show a general declining trend
since the 1970’s but an increasing trend in Scottish waters (Chen et al. 2006). In French
waters, both species abundances increased from 1990 to 1995 and then decreased until
2002 (Chen et al. 2006). In Scottish waters, there was a general decreasing trend in
Veined Squid abundance from the early to late 1990’s (Young et al. 2004). In Scottish
waters the abundance of winter breeders has increased and now dominates the population
but there has been a decrease in the population of summer breeding Veined Squid since
the 1970’s (Pierce et al. 2005).
Due to the high level of variability in abundance between seasons we have not added any
points.
+0.25 Age, size or sex distribution is functionally normal.
In the central Adriatic Sea, the sex ratio of European Squid is 1:1 (Sifner and Vrgoc
2004). Although males dominated the smaller animals and females dominated medium
sizes animals (Sifner and Vrgoc 2004). In the English Channel, the majority of European
Squid that are caught are between 7 and 9 months old and there is no evidence in changes
to this age structure over time (Moreno et al. 2007).
Evidence from Scottish waters shows the average weight of Veined Squid varies interannually by month (Young et al. 2004). It is difficult to determine changes in the size
composition over time because Veined and European Squid are found in similar size and
age groups and therefore individual hauls will contain similar sized animals and not
necessarily be representative of the population as a whole (Young et al. 2004). In
addition, there are differences in the size selectivity of the fishing gear. For example, in
UK waters Veined Squid are typically fully recruited to the fishery by 15 cm (Pierce et al.
1994b) but in the Moray Firth, the mesh size of the nets are smaller and therefore catch
smaller Veined Squid (Young et al. 2006b). In the English Channel, the majority of
catches (trawl) is made up for Veined Squid ages 8-9 months and European Squid ages 67 months (Royer et al. 2001).
+0.25 Species is close to virgin biomass.
+0.25 Current levels of abundance provide adequate food for other predators or are not
known to affect the structure of the associated food web.
The diet of European Squid includes bony fish, cephalopods, worms and crustaceans
(Pierce et al. 1994c; Rocha et al. 1994; Vila et al. 2010). Veined Squid consume mostly
fish, crustaceans and cephalopods (Pierce et al. 1994b; Rocha et al. 1994). Examples of
commonly consumed fish by Veined Squid in Scottish waters include whiting, sand lance
and herring (Pierce et al. 1994b). Cannibalism has been observed in European Squid
(Rocha et al. 1994). The diet and amount of food consumed by European Squid varies by
seasons, with larger animals tending to eat more fish than crustaceans (Rocha et al.
1994). European Squid are preyed on by fish, marine mammals and sea birds and there is
no indication that their abundance level cannot support the associated food web.
Specifically in Moray Firth, squid fishing in unlikely to impact populations of
commercial fish species (Hastie et al. 2009). Veined Squid are preyed on by marine
mammals including dolphins and seals as well as large bottom dwelling fish (Pierce and
Santos 1996; Santos et al. 2004; De Pierrepont et al. 2005). In the North Sea, daily fish
consumption by Veined Squid is around 133 t in the summer and 295 t in the winter
(ICES 2011) and there is no indication that their abundance level cannot support the
associated food web.
2.50 Points for Abundance
HABITAT QUALITY AND FISHING GEAR IMPACTS
Core Points (only one selection allowed)
Select the option that most accurately describes the effect of the fishing method upon the habitat
that it affects
1.00
The fishing method causes great damage to physical and biogenic habitats (e.g.,
cyanide; blasting; bottom trawling; dredging).
Historically the majority of common squid, which includes Veined and European Squid,
were landed by France, although in recent years Scotland has had the highest landings
(ICES 2011). In general, Veined Squid make up almost all of the landings in United
Kingdom waters, while in the Mediterranean Sea European Squid are for the most part,
the only species landed (Guerra et al. 1994). The most commonly used fishing gear to
catch Veined and European Squid is bottom trawls (Hastie et al. 2009).
The majority of European and Veined Squid are caught as bycatch in fisheries targeting
various fish species (Young et al. 2004; Chen et al. 2006). Off the Catalan coast, 90% of
total European Squid catches are caught using bottom trawl, with purse seine and other
artisanal gears making up the remainder of the catches (Guerra et al. 1994). In the Gulf of
Cadiz, European Squid are also predominantly (99% of landings) caught using bottom
trawl fishing gear (Vila et al. 2010). In Italy, European Squid are caught using trawl gear
(Relini et al. 1999) and in the English Channel, European Squid are caught, primarily as
bycatch, by a multi-species bottom trawl fishery (Royer et al. 2001) but are also targeted
in a directed squid fishery (Hastie et al. 2009). A large percentage (5-70%) of Veined
Squid is caught in Scottish waters from the Moray Firth targeted fishery (Hastie et al.
2009). There are also important artisanal inshore jig fisheries off the coasts of Spain and
Portugal that target Veined and European Squid (Guerra et al. 1994; Chen et al. 2006). In
the Azores, Veined Squid are the only commercially fished species of squid by an
artisanal fleet that uses handlines and jigs (Martins 1982; Porteiro and Martins 1994)
Bottom trawling is known to have a significant impact on bottom habitats (ICES 2010f)
and decreases in biodiversity after trawling have been shown in offshore areas of the
North Sea (ICES 2010i). For example, decreases of 56% and 21% of bottom biomass and
production respectively, were seen in fished compared to non-fished areas in the North
Sea (Hiddink et al. 2006; Hinz et al. 2008). In addition, since Veined Squid spawn over
hard bottom habitat, bottom trawls could easily damage the eggs (Pierce et al. 2010).
Morgan and Chuenpagdee (2003) consider bottom trawls to have a very high negative
impact on bottom habitat.
2.00
The fishing method does moderate damage to physical and biogenic habitats (e.g., bottom
gillnets; traps and pots; bottom longlines).
3.00
The fishing method does little damage to physical or biogenic habitats (e.g., hand
picking; hand raking; hook and line; pelagic long lines; mid-water trawl or gillnet; purse
seines).
Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed)
-0.25 Habitat for this species is so compromised from non-fishery impacts that the ability of the
habitat to support this species is substantially reduced (e.g., dams; pollution; coastal
development).
-0.25 Critical habitat areas (e.g., spawning areas) for this species are not protected by
management using time/area closures, marine reserves, etc.
Critical habitats are not protected.
-0.25 No efforts are being made to minimize damage from existing gear types OR new or
modified gear is increasing habitat damage (e.g., fitting trawls with roller rigs or
rockhopping gear; more robust gear for deep-sea fisheries).
Efforts are not being made to minimize the damage from bottom trawls used to capture
European Squid.
-0.25 If gear impacts are substantial, resilience of affected habitats is very slow (e.g., deep
water corals; rocky bottoms).
+0.25 Habitat for this species remains robust and viable and is capable of supporting this
species.
European Squid are found over all substrate types, most often in waters 50-100 m deep
but do move into shallower water to spawn (Gamulin-Brida and Ilijanic 1972). They can
also be found in water up to 500 m deep (Vecchione and Young 2010). Essential Fish
Habitat for young European Squid off the Catalan coast includes areas north and central
to the coast in May (Sanchez et al. 2008). European Squid in the NE Atlantic overwinter
in the deep waters off Portugal, move towards the French coast in the spring and from
May through June migrate towards the North Sea (Vecchione and Young 2010).
Veined squid are found along the continental shelf and on offshore banks at depths of 50250 m in United Kingdom (UK) waters (Pierce et al. 1994b), 15-150 m in the North sea
and eastern Atlantic, 150-400 m in the Mediterranean (Mangold-Wirz 1963) and 100-200
m in Portuguese waters (Moreno et al. 1994). Additional research in the UK suggests
Veined Squid are found in deep waters (100-200 m) along the shelf-edge at the beginning
and end of spawning but during peak spawning months are found in shallower waters
(<50 m) (Stowasser et al. 2005).
Habitat for both squid species remains sufficiently robust, so points are added.
+0.25 Critical habitat areas (e.g., spawning areas) for this species are protected by management
using time/area closures, marine reserves, etc.
+0.25 Gear innovations are being implemented over a majority of the fishing area to minimize
damage from gear types OR no innovations necessary because gear effects are minimal.
+0.25 If gear impacts are substantial, resilience of affected habitats is fast (e.g., mud or sandy
bottoms) OR gear effects are minimal.
0.75 Points for Habitat Quality and Fishing Gear Impacts
MANAGEMENT
Core Points (only one selection allowed)
Select the option that most accurately describes the current management of the fisheries of this
species.
1.00
Regulations are ineffective (e.g., illegal fishing or overfishing is occurring) OR the
fishery is unregulated (i.e., no control rules are in effect).
Targeted squid fishing in United Kingdom waters is unregulated, except for a minimal
legal mesh cod-end size (Pierce et al. 1998). Off the coast of western Africa, management
measures include, trawl mesh size restrictions, size restrictions, seasonal closures to
protect spawners, limited entry, individual transferable quotas, and closed areas to
trawling (FAO 2007). In Portugal and Spain there is a landing size restriction and in
Spain there are gear restrictions and fishing seasons (Pierce et al. 2010). Overall, fishery
management for European and Veined Squid is poor.
2.00
Management measures are in place over a major portion over the species' range but
implementation has not met conservation goals OR management measures are in place
but have not been in place long enough to determine if they are likely to achieve
conservation and sustainability goals.
3.00
Substantial management measures are in place over a large portion of the species range
and have demonstrated success in achieving conservation and sustainability goals.
Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed)
-0.25 There is inadequate scientific monitoring of stock status, catch or fishing effort.
Proper assessments of European and Veined Squid are hampered due to a lack of species
specific information. For example, in the English Channel both species of squid are
caught but are not separated by species for reporting purposes (Royer et al. 2001). In
addition, the fishery is unregulated so there is a lack of catch and effort data and it has
been stated that biological variability must be monitored on a weekly or monthly basis for
proper assessment and management of squid species (ICES 2011).
Scientists have also suggested that additional information should be collected throughout
their range including: the impact of bottom trawl gear on Veined Squid eggs, spawning
and nursery areas, handling techniques, discarding and gear selectivity and recruitment
success (Pierce et al. 2010). In addition, due to Veined and European Squids short life
cycles, biological variables should be monitored every week or month, which is not
currently done in all areas (ICES 2011). Sampling should also be increased during
months when landings and discards are the highest (ICES 2011).
-0.25 Management does not explicitly address fishery effects on habitat, food webs, and
ecosystems.
This fishery is unregulated and therefore, management does not address fishery effects on
habitat, food webs or the ecosystem.
-0.25 This species is overfished and no recovery plan or an ineffective recovery plan is in
place.
-0.25 Management has failed to reduce excess capacity in this fishery or implements subsidies
that result in excess capacity in this fishery.
+0.25 There is adequate scientific monitoring, analysis and interpretation of stock status, catch
and fishing effort.
+0.25 Management explicitly and effectively addresses fishery effects on habitat, food webs,
and ecosystems.
+0.25 This species is overfished and there is a recovery plan (including benchmarks, timetables
and methods to evaluate success) in place that is showing signs of success OR recovery
plan is not needed.
+0.25 Management has taken action to control excess capacity or reduce subsidies that result in
excess capacity OR no measures are necessary because fishery is not overcapitalized.
0.50 Points for Management
BYCATCH
Core Points (only one selection allowed)
Select the option that most accurately describes the current level of bycatch and the
consequences that result from fishing this species. The term, "bycatch" used in this document
excludes incidental catch of a species for which an adequate management framework exists. The
terms, "endangered, threatened, or protected," used in this document refer to species status that is
determined by national legislation such as the U.S. Endangered Species Act, the U.S. Marine
Mammal Protection Act (or another nation's equivalent), the IUCN Red List, or a credible
scientific body such as the American Fisheries Society.
1.00
Bycatch in this fishery is high (>100% of targeted landings), OR regularly includes a
"threatened, endangered or protected species."
2.00
Bycatch in this fishery is moderate (10-99% of targeted landings) AND does not
regularly include "threatened, endangered or protected species" OR level of
bycatch is unknown.
Information on bycatch in European and Veined Squid fisheries is generally lacking. One
small study conducted in Aberdeen, Scotland found that bycatch of finfish was low (e.g.
cod <1%; haddock and whiting ranging from 0.5-8.4%) with all fish discarded (Campbell
and McLay 2007). However this study did not collect enough data to determine a total
estimation of the number of fish discarded. A separate study conducted by observers in
Moray Firth, North Sea, found whiting, haddock, dab and flounder to be the most
commonly caught bycatch species (Hastie et al. 2009). Discard rates for whiting ranged
from 17-56%, while discard rates for haddock, dab and flounder ranged from 0-11%
(Hastie et al. 2009). Overall targeted European Squid fishing in the Moray Firth had very
low levels of bycatch and it is unlikely this fishery negatively impacts commercial fish
species in this region (Hastie et al. 2009).
3.00
Bycatch in this fishery is low (<10% of targeted landings) and does not regularly include
"threatened, endangered or protected species."
Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed)
-0.25 Bycatch in this fishery is a contributing factor to the decline of "threatened, endangered,
or protected species" and no effective measures are being taken to reduce it.
-0.25 Bycatch of targeted or non-targeted species (e.g., undersize individuals) in this fishery is
high and no measures are being taken to reduce it.
-0.25 Bycatch of this species (e.g., undersize individuals) in other fisheries is high OR
bycatch of this species in other fisheries inhibits its recovery, and no measures are
being taken to reduce it.
European and Veined Squid are important bycatch in the whitefish and Nephrops
fisheries of the United Kingdom (Howard 1979; Howard et al. 1987; Pierce et al. 1994b).
These fisheries primarily capture pre-spawning and spawning European Squid (Young et
al. 2006). In Germany up to 100% of long-finned squid, which includes European Squid,
were discarded between 2004 and 2010 (ICES 2011). In Scottish waters, Veined Squid
are caught as bycatch in the whitefish fishery (Young et al. 2004). French and United
Kingdom trawlers also catch a substantial amount of Veined Squid in Scottish waters
(Pierce et al. 1996).
-0.25 The continued removal of the bycatch species contributes to its decline.
+0.25 Measures taken over a major portion of the species range have been shown to reduce
bycatch of "threatened, endangered, or protected species" or bycatch rates are no longer
deemed to affect the abundance of the "protected" bycatch species OR no measures
needed because fishery is highly selective (e.g., harpoon; spear).
+0.25 There is bycatch of targeted (e.g., undersize individuals) or non-targeted species in
this fishery and measures (e.g., gear modifications) have been implemented that
have been shown to reduce bycatch over a large portion of the species range OR no
measures are needed because fishery is highly selective (e.g., harpoon; spear).
In Aberdeen, Scotland research has shown that all non-squid species were discarded, with
discard rates being <1% for cod ranging from 0.5-8.4% for haddock and whiting
(Campbell and McLay 2007). However, this study did not collect enough data to
determine a total estimation of the number of fish discarded, so the results are not
conclusive. An additional study in Moray Firth found whiting, haddock, dab and flounder
to be the most commonly caught bycatch species, and discard rates for whiting ranged
from 17-56%, while discard rates for haddock, dab and flounder ranged from 0-11%
(Hastie et al. 2009). Overall targeted European Squid fishing in the Moray Firth had very
low levels of bycatch and so it is unlikely this fishery negatively impacts commercial fish
species in Moray Firth (Hastie et al. 2009).
+0.25 Bycatch of this species in other fisheries is low OR bycatch of this species in other
fisheries inhibits its recovery, but effective measures are being taken to reduce it over a
large portion of the range.
+0.25 The continued removal of the bycatch species in the targeted fishery has had or will
likely have little or no impact on populations of the bycatch species OR there are no
significant bycatch concerns because the fishery is highly selective (e.g., harpoon; spear).
2.00 Points for Bycatch
REFERENCES
Arkhipkin, A.I. 1995. Age, growth and maturation of the European squid Loligo vulgaris
(Myopsida, Loliginidae) on the West Saharan shelf. Journal of the Marine Biological Association
of the United Kingdom 75:593:604.
Belcari, P. 1999. Loligo vulgaris, pp, 710-714. In: G. Relini, J. Bertrand and A. Zamboni (Eds)
Synthesis of the knowledge on bottom fishery resources in central Mediterranean (Italy and
Corsica). Biologia Marina Mediterranea 6.
Bellido, J.M., Pierce, G.J. and Wang, J. 2001. Modelling intra-annual variation in abundance of
squid Loligo forbesi in Scottish waters using generalized additive models. Fisheries Research
52:23-29.
Bettencourt, V., Coelho, M.I., Andrade, J.P. and Guerra, A. 1996. Age and growth of the Loligo
vulgaris of south of Portugal by statolith analysis. Journal of Molluscan Studies 62:359-366.
Campbell, R. and McLay, A. 2007. The Moray Firth squid fishery 2006. Fisheries research
Services Internal Report No. 15/07, Aberdeen. Crown Copyright.
Challier, L., Pierce, G.J. and Robin, J. 2005. Spatial and temporal variation in age and growth in
juvenile Loligo forbesi and relationships with recruitment in the English Channel and Scottish
waters. Journal of Sea Research 55:217-229.
Chen, C.S., Pierce, G.J., Wang, J., Robin, J.P., Poulard, J.C., Pereira, J., Zuur, A.F., Boyle, P.R.,
Bailey, N., Beare, D.J., Jereb, P., Ragonese, S., Mannini, A. and Orsi-Relini, L. 2006. The
apparent disappearance of Loligo forbesi from the south of its range in the 1990s: trends in
Loligo spp. Abundance in the northeast Atlantic and possible environmental influences. Fisheries
Research 78:44-54.
Clarke, M.R. and Lu, C.C. 1995. Cephalopoda of Madeiran waters. Boletim do Museu Municipal
do Funchal 4:181-200.
Collins, M.A., Burnell, G.M. and Rodhouse, P.G. 1995. Recruitment, maturation and spawning
of Loligo forbesi (Steenstrup Cephalopoda: Loliginidae) in Irish waters. ICES Journal of Marine
Science 52:127-137.
Collins, M.A., Pierce, G.J. and Boyle, P.R. 1997. Population indices of reproduction and
recruitment in Loligo forbesi (Cephalopoda: Loliginidae) in Scottish and Irish waters. Journal of
Applied Ecology 34:779-786.
Collins, M.A., Boyle, P.R., Pierce, G.J., Key, L.N., Hughes, S.E and Murphy, J. 1999.
Resolution of multiple cohorts in the Loligo forbesi population from the west of Scotland. ICES
Journal of Marine Science 56:500-509.
De Pierrepont, J.F., Dubois, B., Desormonts, S., Santos, M.B. and Robin, J.P. 2005. Stomach
contents of English Channel cetaceans stranded on the coast of Normandy. Journal of the Marine
Biological Association of the UK 85:1539-1546.
FAO. 2007. Status of stocks and resources 2007, European squid-Morocco, Maruitania, Senegal
and gambia, 2006. FIRMS Reports. In: Fishery Resources Monitoring System, Rome.
Hastie, L., Pierce, G., Pita, C., Viana, M., Smith, J. and Wangvoralak, S. 2009. Squid fishing in
UK waters. University of Aberdeen. 84 p.
Gamulin-Brida, H. and Ilijanic, V. 1972. Contribution ala connaissance des Cephalopodees de
l’Adriatique. Acta Adriatique 14:3-12.
Gonzalez, A.F., Otero, J., Pierce, G.J. and Guerra, A. 2010. Age, growth and mortality of Loligo
vulgaris wild paralarvae: implications for understanding of the life cycle and longevity. ICES
Journal of Marine Science 67:1119-1127.
Guerra, A. 1992. Mollusca, Cephalopoda. Fauna Iberica, museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales,
Madrid:327.
Guerra, A. and Rocha, F. 1994. The life history of Loligo vulgaris and Loligo forbesi
(Cephalopoda: Loliginidae) in Galician waters (NW Spain). Fisheries Research 21:43-69.
Guerra, A., Sanchez, P. and Rocha, F. 1994. The Spanish fishery for Loligo: Recent trends.
Fisheries Research 21:217-230.
Hiddink, J.G., Jennings, S., Kaiser, M.J., Queiros, A.M., Duplisea, D.E. and Piet, G.J. 2006.
Cumalative impacts of seabed trawl disturbance. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic
Sciences 63:721-736.
Hinz, H., Hiddink, J.G., Forde, J. and Kaiser, M.J. 2008. Large-scale responses of nematode
communities to chronic otter-trawl disturbance. . Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic
Sciences 65:723-732.
Holme, N.A. 1974. The biology of Loligo forbesi (Steenstrup: Mollusca, Cephalopoda) in the
Plymouth area. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 54:481-503.
Howard, F.G. 1979. Recent trends in the Scotish fishery for Loligo forbesi, together with some
notes on the biology of the species. ICEES CM 1979/k:36
Howard, F.G., Ngoile, M.A., and Mason, J. 1987. Lolifgo forbesi its present status in Scottish
fisheries. ICES CM 1987/k:5
International Council for the Exploration of the Seas (ICES). 2010. North Sea sole in subarea IV
(North Sea). ICES Advice June 2010 6.4.10. 10 p.
International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). 2011. Report of the Working Group
on Cephalopod Fisheries and Life History (WGCEPH), 28 February-03 March 2011, Lisbon,
Portugal. ICES CM 2011/SSGEF:03. 118 p.
Laptikhovsky, V. 2000. Fecundity of the squid Loligo vulgaris Lamarck, 1798 (Myopsida,
Loliginidae) off northwest Africa. Scientia Marina 64:275-278.
Macewicz, B.J., Hunter, J.R., Lo, N.C.H., and LaCasella, E.L. 2004. Fecundity, egg deposition
and mortality of market squid (Loligo opalescens). Fisheries Bulletin 102:306-327.
Mangold,-Wirz, K. 1963. Biologie des Cephalopodes benthiques et nectoniques de la Mer
Catalane. Vie et Millieu 13:285.
Martins, H.R. 1982. Biological studies of the exploited stock of Loligo forbesi (Cephalopoda) in
the Azores. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK 62:799-808.
Moreno, A., Cunha, M.M. and Pereira, J.M.F. 1994. Population biology of the veined squid
(Loligo forbesi) and European squid (Loligo vulgaris) from the Portuguese coast. Fisheries
Research 21:71-86.
Moreno, A., Pereira, J.M.F., Arvanitidis, C., Robin, J.P., Koutsoubas, D., Raya, C.P., Cunha,
M.M., Balguerias, E. and Denis, V. 2002. Biological variation of Loligo vulgaris (Cephalopods:
Loliginidae) in the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean. Bulletin of Marine Science 71:515-534.
Moreno, A., Pereira, J., Morais da Cunha, M. 2004. The effect of time of hatching in age and
size at maturity of Loligo vulgaris. ICES CM 2004/CC:20. 17 p.
Moreno, A., Pereira, J. and Cunha, M.M. 2005. Environmental influences on age and size at
maturity of Loligo vulgaris. Aquatic Living Resources 18:377-384.
Moreno, A., Azeyedo, M., Pereira, J. and pierce, G.J. 2007. Growth strategies in the squid Loligo
vulgaris from Portuguese waters. Marine Biology Research 3:49-59.
Morgan, L.E. and Chuenpagdee, R. 2003. Shifting gears: addressing the collateral impacts of
fishing methods in US waters. Pew Science Series. Washington, DC. Island Press.
Natsukari, Y. and Komine, N. 1992. Age and growth estimation of the European squid Loligo
vulgaris, based on statolith microstructure. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the
United Kingdom 72:271-280.
Norman, J., Murphy, J.M., Pierce, G.P. and Boyle, P.R. 1994. Preliminary molecular genetic
analysis of stock structure in the squid Loligo forbesi (Steenstrup). ICES Document CM
1994/K:23. 8 p.
Oesterwind, D., Hofstede, R., Harley, B., Brendelberger, H. and Piatkowski, U. 2010. Biology
and meso-scale distribution patterns of North Sea cephalopods. Fisheries Research 106:141-150.
Piccinetti, C. and Piccinetti Manfrin, G. 1994. Considerazioni sullo stato di sfruttamento delle
risorse demersali (Alto e Medio Adriatico). Biologia Marina Mediterranea 1:77-87.
Pierce, G.J. and Guerra, A. 1994. Stock assessment methods used for cephalopod fisheries.
Fisheries Research 21:255-285.
Pierce, G.J., Boyle, P.R., Hastie, L.C. and Key, L. 1994a. The life history of Loligo forbesi in
Scottish waters. Fisheries Research 21:193-216.
Pierce, G.J., Boyle, P.R., Hastie, L.C. and Shanks, A. 1994b. Distribution and abundance of the
fished population of Loligo forbesi in UK waters analysis of fishery data. Fisheries Research
21:193-216.
Pierce, G.J., Boyle, P.R., Hastie, L.C. and Begona-Santos, M. 1994b. Diets of squid Loligo
forbesi and Loligo vulgaris in the northeast Atlantic. Fisheries Research 21:149-163.
Pierce, G.J., and Santos, M.B. 1996. Trophic interactions of squid in Scottish waters, pp. 58-64.
In: S.P.R. Greenstreet and M.L. Tasker (EDs) Aquatic Predators and their Prey. Fishing News
Books, Oxford.
Pierce, G.J., Bailey, N., Stratoudakis, Y. and Newton, A. 1998. Distribution and abundance of
the fished population of Loligo forbesi in Scottish waters: analysis of research cruise data. ICES
Journal of Marine Science 55:14-33.
Pierce, G.J. and Boyle, P.R. 2003. Emperical modeling of interannual trends in abundance of
squid (Loligo forbesi) in Scottish waters. Fisheries Research 59:305-326.
Pierce, G.J., Zuur, A.F., Smith, J.M., Santos, M.B., Bailey, N., Chen, C.S. and Boyle P.R. 2005.
Interannual variation in life-cycle characteristics of the veined squid (Loligo forbesi) in Scottish
(UK) waters. Aquatic Living Resources 18:327-340.
Pierce, G.J., Allcock, L., Bruno, I., Bustamante, P., Gonzalez, A., Guerra, A., and Jereb, P. et al.
2010. Cephalopod biology and fisheries in Europe. ICES Cooperative Research Report No. 303.
175 p.
Porteiro, F.M. and Martins, H. 1994. Biology of Loligo forbesi Steenstrup, 1856 (Mollusca:
Cephalopoda) in the Azores: simple composition and maturation of squid caught by higging.
Fisheries Research 21:103-114.
Raya, C.P. 2001. Determinacion de la edad y studio del crecimiento del choco (Sepia hierredda
Rang, 1837), el calamari (Loligo vulgaris Lamarck, 1798) y el pulpo (Octopus vulgaris Cuvier,
1797) de la costa Noroccidental Africana. PhD thesis, Universidad de La Laguana, Spain. 192
pp.
Relini, G., Bertrand, J. and Zamboni, A. 1999. Synthesis of the knowledge on bottom fishery
resources in Central Mediterranean (Italy and Corsica). Biologia Marina Mediterranea 6:189196.
Rocha, F., Castro, B.G., Gil, M.S. and Guerra, A. 1994. The diets of Loligo vulgaris and L.
forbesi (Cephalopoda, Loliginidae) in northwestern Spanish Atlantic waters. Sarsia 79:119-126.
Rocha, F. and Guerra, A. 1996. Signs of an extended and intermittent terminal spawning in the
squids Loligo vulgaris Lamarck and Loligo forbesi Steenstrup (Cephalopoda: Loliginidae).
Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 207:177-189.
Roper, G.F.E., Sweeney, M.J. and Nauen, E. 1984. FAO Species Catalogue Vol 3: Cephalopods
of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of species of interest to fisheries. FAO
Fisheries Synopsis 125. 277 p.
Royer, J., Peries, P. and Robin, J.P. 2001. Stock assessments of English Channel Loliginid squid:
updated depletion methods and new analytical methods. ICES CM 2001:K:29. 15 p.
Sanchez, P., Demestre, M., Recasens, L., maynou, F. and Martin, P. 2008. Combining GIS and
GAMs to identify potential habitats of squid Loligo vulgaris in the northwestern Mediterranean.
Hydrobiologia 612:91-98.
Santos, M.B., Pierce, G.J., Learmonths, J.A., Reid, R.J., Ross, H.M., Patterson, I.A.P., and Reid,
D.G. et al. 2004. Variability in the diet of harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) in Scottish
waters 1992-2003. Marine Mammal Science 20:1-27.
Sifer, S.K. 2000. Prilog poznavanju I ekologije lignje, Loligo vulgaris (Lamark, 1798) u Jadranu.
Masters t’hesis Sveuciliste u Zagrebu. 98 p.
Sifer, S.K. and Vrgoc, N. 2004. Population structure and reproduction of the European squid,
Loligo vulgaris, in the central Adriatic Sea. Fisheries Research 69:239-249.
Sims, D.W., Genner, M.J., Southward, A.J. and Hawkins, S.J. 2001. Timing of squid migration
reflects the North Atlantic climate variability. Proceedings of the Research Society of London
268:2607-2611.
Stowasser, G., Bustamante, P., MacLeod, C.D., Wang, J. and Pierce, G.J. 2005. Spawning areas
and toxic element levels in squid (Loligo forbesi) in UK waters, with notes on toxic element
levels in other squid species. UK Department of Trade and Industry’s Offshore Energy Strategic
Environmental Assessment Program. 41 p.
Yinbergen, L. and Verwey, j. 1945. The biology of Loligo vulgaris Lam, vol. 2733. Transactions
of the Service Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 35 p.
Vecchione, M. and Young, R. 2010. Loligo vulgaris Lamarck 1798, European squid. Version 02
September 2010 (under construction). The Tree of Life Web Project (http://tolweb.org/)
Vila, Y., Silva, L., Torres, M.A. and Sobrino, I. 2010. Fishery, distribution pattern and biological
aspects of the common European squid Loligo vulgaris in the Gulf of Cadiz. Fisheries Research
106:222-228.
Villanueva, R. 2000. Effect of temperature on statolith growth of the European squid Loligo
vulgaris during early life. Marine Biology 136:449-460.
Waluda, C.M. and Pierce, G.J. 1998. Temporal and spatial patterns in the distribution of squid
(Loligo spp.) in UK waters. South African Journal of Marine Science 29:323-336.
Young, I.A.G., Pierce, G.J., Daly, H.I., Santos, M.B., Key, L.N., Bailey, N., Robin, J.P., Bishop,
A.J., Stowasser, G., Nyegaard, M., Cho, S.K., Rasero, M. and Pereira, J.M.F. 2004. Application
of depletion methods to estimate stock size in the squid Loligo forbesi in Scottish waters (UK).
Fisheries Research 69:211-227.
Young, I.A.G., Pierce, G.J., Murphy, J., Daly, H.I., and Bailey, N. 2006a. They Moray Firth
directed squid fishery. Fisheries Research 78:39-43.
Young, I.A.G., Pierce, G.J., Murphy, J., Daly, H.I. and Bailey, N. 2006b. Application of the
Gomez-Munoz model to estimate catch and effort in squid fisheries in Scotland. Fisheries
Research 78:26-38.
Zuur, A.F. and Pierce, G.J. 2004. Common trends in northeast Atlantic squid time series. Journal
of Sea Research 52:57-72.