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Volume 36 Number 1
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Cover. Panning for gold in the Cariboo; painted in 1864 by W.G.R. Hind, noted Canadian artist who prospected in the Cariboo at the
time; courtesy of the British Columbia Archives and Record Service (BCARS).
GEOSCIENCE CANADA
Volume 36 Number 1
March 2009
1
SERIES
Great Mining Camps of
Canada 3.
The History and Geology of
the Cariboo Goldfield,
Barkerville and Wells, BC
Atholl Sutherland Brown and
Chris H. Ash
SUMMARY
The discovery of placer gold deposits
in the Cariboo in 1860, and the immediate realization of their importance,
were directly responsible for the establishment of the Province of British
Columbia, allowing Canada to expand
from ‘Sea to Shining Sea.’ Later, in the
early 1930s, the new lode gold mines
helped rescue the province from bankruptcy during the Great Depression.
The Cariboo Goldfield is one of the
longest continuously productive mining
camps in Canada (nearly 150 years).
The Cariboo Goldfield, like
the California Goldfield, manifests two
styles of mineralization: 1) primary
lode gold deposits, and 2) secondary
placer deposits. In plan, the zone of
lode deposits trends linearly about 6
km in a northwest–southeast direction,
within an inverted boot-shaped cluster
of placer deposits having a surface area
Atholl Sutherland Brown
546 Newport Avenue
Victoria, BC
E-mail: [email protected]
Atholl Sutherland Brown received a Ph.D. degree from Princeton
in 1954 for studies related to regional and mine mapping in the
Cariboo District. Later, he conducted bedrock mapping for the BC
Geological Survey, followed by studies of copper-iron skarns, porphryry deposits and metallogeny. He was editor of Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Special Volume 15, Porphyry
Deposits of the Canadian Cordillera, in 1976. From 1975 to 1984
he was Chief Geologist of the Survey. He then worked as a consultant, during which he spent three years mapping in central Vancouver Island as part of Phase 1 of Lithoprobe. He was President
of the Geological Association of Canada in 1979-1980 and of the
Canadian Geoscience Council in 1982. Since retiring, he has written three histories, including one on the BC Geological Survey.
Another concerned his experiences as a long-range fighter pilot
with the RCAF in Burma during WWII. He was awarded a Distinguished Flying Cross in 1945, Queen Elizabeth's Silver Jubilee
medal in 1978, and the Ambrose medal of GAC in 1987.
of about 250 km2. Three zones of rich
placer creeks also trend northwest–
southeast within the goldfield, the
most northeasterly of which envelopes
the known lode trend.
The Cariboo Goldfield
encompasses two dominant rock
domains–an upper or hanging-wall
domain of late Paleozoic ophiolitic
rocks, part of Slide Mountain Terrane,
and a more widespread, lower or footwall domain of late Proterozoic to
Paleozoic continental margin meta-sedimentary rocks, part of the Barkerville
Terrane. In cross-section, the lode
deposits are located in a sub-horizontal, terrane-bounding fault (suture or
high-strain zone), which separates the
hanging-wall and footwall domains.
The vertical extent of the mineralized
zone below this suture is half a kilometre or less. Gold occurs in both
pyritic quartz veins and pyritic replace-
Chris H. Ash
CASH Geological Consulting
405-1350 Stanley Avenue
Victoria, BC
E-mail: [email protected]
Chris Ash, a native of Newfoundland, obtained both his B.Sc. and
M.Sc. degrees from Memorial University of Newfoundland. His
M.Sc. thesis focused on the crust-mantle transition zone of the
Troodos ophiolite in Cyprus. From 1988 to 2002, Chris worked as
a Project Geologist with the BC Geological Survey. During this
time, he conducted geological mapping and mineral deposit studies
on a wide range of deposit types and commodities throughout
British Columbia, including gold-quartz veins, Cu-Au and Cu-Mo
porphyries, Cu-Ni (PGE) ultramafic deposits, and PGEs in
Alaskan ultramafic bodies. From 2002 to 2008 Chris was involved
in land use planning and mineral policy with the BC Ministry of
Energy and Mines while moonlighting as a geological consultant
conducting mineral property evaluations for exploration companies
throughout the Yukon. Since leaving the BC Ministry of Energy
and Mines in 2008, he has worked as a geological consultant
involved primarily in mineral property mapping in both BC and the
Yukon.
2
ment deposits; the mineralogy of the
ore is simple: gold-bearing (auriferous)
pyrite and minor amounts of other sulfide minerals.
Three lode mines in the goldfield are from southeast to northwest,
the Cariboo Gold Quartz, Island
Mountain and Mosquito Creek mines.
Combined production from these
mines between 1933 and 1987 is about
38.3 million grams (g) (1.23 million
troy ounces) of gold and 3.16 million g
(101 439 troy ounces) of silver, which
would be worth more than one billion
dollars at current prices (~US$900
gold).
Major placer deposits are
located largely along creeks in the
Goldfield mostly lying in gutters on
bedrock overlain by Late Tertiary gravels but gold is also redistributed within
overlying glacial sediments. Gold
nuggets exhibit diverse shapes, from
irregular and drusy to rounded and
hammered, indicative of varied histories of transport. Average fineness
ranges from 830 to 950 [gold to
gold+silver, pure gold = 1000]. Since
1860, placer mines probably produced
more than 118.2 million g (3.8 million
troy ounces) worth about 3.4 billion
dollars at current prices.
Adventuresome placer miners
reached the south end of the Goldfield
in the winter of 1860 and the major
producing creeks were all discovered
during the following year. Initial mining took place in shallow deposits
along creeks but within a year some
mining was underway in water saturated gravels to depths of 20 m. Production peaked in 1863 but has continued
at diminished rates until today. As placer production tailed off, great efforts
went into the search for lode deposits.
Many mineralized, pyritic quartz veins
were found with very fine-grained gold
contained within pyrite, but quartz
veins containing nugget gold typical of
that found in the placers remained elusive. In spite of provincial government
assistance by providing milling and
roasting facilities to process the lode
deposits, the technology of the day
was inadequate to make the deposits
economic. The lodes were not viable
until cyanide treatment became available and the price of gold rose. The
Cariboo Gold Quartz mine opened in
January 1933 and Island Mountain in
November 1934. The Cariboo Gold
Quartz purchased the Island Mountain
mine in 1959 and both mines continued producing until 1967 when they
closed because of unfavourable economics. Higher gold prices resulted in
the Mosquito Creek mine coming into
production in 1980 and continuing
until 1987, after prices had receded.
Recent high gold prices have again
stimulated significant exploration.
Like all gold rushes, the Cariboo has had a cast of strong and interesting characters. Four of the most
memorable include: Billy Barker, an
early placer miner; Bill Hong, a later
Chinese placer miner; Amos Bowman,
the first geologist; and Fred Wells, a
prospector and mining entrepreneur
during the heyday of lode mining. The
village of Barkerville, named after Billy
Barker, is now the site of a provincial
park and museum dedicated to the
gold rush, and the nearby town of
Wells, named after Fred Wells, now
functions mainly as a base for seasonal
tourism, some exploration, and minor
placer mining.
RÉSUMÉ
La découverte des gisements aurifères
dans la région de Cariboo en 1860, et
la prise de conscience immédiate de
leur importance, sont les causes
directes de la création de la province
de Colombie-Britannique, ce qui a permis au Canada de s’étendre « d’un
océan à l’autre ». Puis, au début des
années 1930, de nouvelles mines d’or
filonien ont permis de sauver la
province de la faillite durant la Grande
crise. Le champ aurifère de Cariboo
est l’un des camps miniers ayant été en
production continue le plus longtemps
au Canada (presque 150 ans).
Le champ aurifère de Cariboo,
comme le champ aurifère de Californie, comporte deux styles de
minéralisation : 1) des gisements primaires d’or filoniens, et 2) des gisements secondaires placériens. En plan,
la zone de gisements filoniens s’étire
sur 6 km du nord-ouest vers le sud-est,
au sein d’un essain de gisements
placériens formant une botte inversée
d’une superficie de 250 km2. Trois
zones de ruisseaux de riches gisements
d’or placériens s’étirent aussi du nordouest au sud-est au sein de la région
aurifère, la plus au nord-est envelop-
pant la zone de gisements filoniens.
Le champ aurifère de Cariboo
comprend deux domaines principaux
de roches – à l’éponte supérieure, un
domaine de roches ophiolitiques paléozoïques faisant partie du terrane de
Slide Mountain, et à l’éponte inférieure,
un domaine plus étendu de roches
métasédimentaires de marge continentale de la fin du Protérozoïque et du
Paléozoïque faisant partie du terrane
de Barkerville. En coupe, on peut voir
que les gisements filoniens sont situés
dans la zone d’une faille subhorizontale
(de suture ou de déformation intense)
séparant les domaines des deux
épontes. Verticalement, l’épaisseur de
la zone minéralisée sous cette suture ne
dépasse pas un demi kilomètre. L’or se
présente tantôt dans des veines de
quartz pyritiques et tantôt dans des
gisements de remplacement pyritique;
la minéralogie du minerai est simple : il
s’agit de pyrite aurifère et de quantités
mineures d’autres minéraux sulfurés.
Dans le champ minier, du sudest vers le nord-ouest on trouve trois
mines d’or filonien, soit les mines
Cariboo Gold Quartz, Island Mountain
et Mosquito Creek. La production
combinée de ces trois mines entre
1933 et 1987 totalise environ 38,3 millions de grammes (1,23 onces troy)
d’or et 3,16 millions de grammes (101
439 onces troy) d’argent, ce qui
vaudrait plus d’un milliard de dollars au
prix actuels (~900 $ US l’once d’or).
Les gisements placériens les
plus importants sont situés surtout le
long de ruisseaux du champ minier
formant gouttière sur le substratum
recouverts de graviers de la fin du Tertiaire, mais on trouve aussi de l’or
remobilisé au sein des dépôts glaciaires
sus-jacents. Les pépites d’or se présentent sous des formes diverses, allant
d’irrégulières et drusiques à arrondies
et martelées, selon l’historique de leur
transport. En moyenne la pureté (titre)
varie de 830 à 950 (or à or + argent, or
pure=1000). Depuis 1860, les mines
placériennes ont donné plus de 118,2
millions de grammes (3,8 millions
d’onces troy), ce qui vaut environ 3,4
milliards de dollars aux prix actuels.
Les chercheurs d’or les plus
aventureux ont atteint la limite sud du
champ minier à l’hiver de 1860, et les
principaux ruisseaux producteurs ont
tous été découverts durant l’année
GEOSCIENCE CANADA
Volume 36 Number 1
suivante. Au début, l’extraction s’est
faite à partir des gisements peu profonds le long des ruisseaux, mais en
moins d’une année on a travaillé à partir de gisements de graviers saturés
d’eau à des profondeurs de 20 m. La
meilleur année de production a été
1863, mais la production s’est poursuivie jusqu’à maintenant à des
rythmes moindres. Au fur et à mesure
que la production placérienne baissait,
on a investit de plus en plus d’efforts
d’exploration en quête de gisements
filoniens. On a trouvé de nombreux
gisements filoniens de quarts minéralisés de pyrite renfermant des grains
d’or très fins, sans que l’on puisse trouver des gisements filoniens de quartz
renfermant des pépites d’or comme
celles des gisements d’or placériens.
En dépit de l’aide gouvernemental
provinciale qui a fourni des installations de concassage et de grillage du
minerai filonien, la technologie d’alors
n’en permettait pas une exploitation
profitable. L’exploitation des gisements filoniens sont demeurés non
rentables jusqu’à l’avènement du traitement par cyanure et la hausse du prix.
La mine Cariboo Gold Quartz a été
inaugurée en janvier 1933 et la mine
Island Mountain en novembre 1934.
La mine Cariboo Gold Quartz a acheté
la mine Island Mountain en 1959 et les
deux exploitations ont continué leurs
opérations jusqu’à leur fermeture en
1967 à cause d’un contexte
économique défavorable. De meilleurs
prix pour l’or ont permis l’ouverture
de la mine Mosquito Creek en 1980,
opérations qui ont continuées jusqu’en
1987, jusqu’à une baisse insoutenable
du prix de l’or. La remontée récente
des prix a encore une fois stimulé des
investissements significatifs en exploration.
Comme toutes les ruées vers
l’or, celle de la région de Cariboo a eu
ses personnages intéressants. En voici
quatre parmi les plus illustres : Billy
Parker, un des premiers mineurs; Bill
Hong, un mineur placérien arrivé plus
tard; Amos Bowman, le premier géologue; et Fred Wells, un prospecteur et
entrepreneur minier de l’âge d’or de
l’exploitation minière filonienne. Le
village de Bakerville, du nom de Billy
Barker, est maintenant le site d’un parc
provincial et d’un musée dédié à la
ruée vers l’or, et non loin de là, la
March 2009
3
Figure 1. Index map showing the location of Barkerville in east-central British
Columbia.
petite ville de Wells, du nom de Fred
Wells, doit son existence surtout au
tourisme saisonnier, à l’exploration
minérale et à quelques activités
mineures d’extraction de placers.
INTRODUCTION
Location and Overview
The Cariboo Goldfield is located in the
Quesnel Highlands (QH) of east central British Columbia (BC), 220 km
north of Vancouver, centred at
approximately 53EN and 121E30’W. It
is situated 60 km, by Highway 26, east
of Quesnel, which connects to Highway 97, the main route north through
central BC (Fig. 1). The landscape is
characterized by mountains that display
rounded summits to just above 2000 m
(Figs. 2, 3). The local base level (Jack
of Clubs Lake) is at approximately
1200 m elevation. The mountains are
covered to near the peaks with subalpine forest of Engelmann Spruce
(Picea engelmann), Subalpine Fir (Abies
lasiocarpa), Lodgepole Pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia), and the shrub, Rhododendron albiflorum, but near Barkerville,
the forest has been clear-cut and
burned several times. It is being harvested again because of the current
pine beetle infestation.
The area is subject to a semialpine continental climate and moder-
ately heavy winter snowfall and summer rainfall. The mean daily temperature at Barkerville (elevation 1265 m)
in January is -9.2EC and in July is
12.3EC. The mean monthly precipitation of all sorts in January is 99.6 mm
and in July is 89.8 mm. Water for placer mining, especially hydraulic mining,
depended on natural and artificial storage of snow melt run-off and was a
critical factor in placer gold production.
Camp is a term normally used
to describe a cluster of mineral
deposits or occurrences that have a
similar mineralogy and geological setting. Cariboo Goldfield is an alternative
term to camp and is preferred because
it is succinct and because the area contains both lode (primary) and placer
(secondary) gold deposits. The placer
and lode deposits have a common geographic distribution suggestive of a
common origin, although the distribution of placer deposits extends beyond
that of the lode deposits. This relationship is clearly demonstrated at Antler,
Lightning, Slough and Williams Creeks
(Table 1), where the richest placer sites
are in close proximity to the lode sites
(Fig. 2). The assumption of most miners and geologists since the earliest
days has been that the placer deposits
originated from the lodes, although the
distribution of the two types is not
32
NEW SERIES
The Geoscience of Climate
and Energy: An Introduction
Andrew D. Miall
Department of Geology
University of Toronto
Toronto, ON, Canada, M5S 3B1
E-mail: [email protected]
This new series in Geoscience Canada
focuses on the science presented at the
Gussow–Nuna conference on the
Geoscience of Climate Change, held at
the Banff Centre, Alberta, 20–22
October, 2008. The two and one-half
day conference consisted of invited
oral presentations, followed by a oneday field trip to examine the record of
Holocene climate change in the Banff–
Calgary area. The two major objectives of the conference were, i) to
thoroughly explore the record of climate change through the last few million years of Earth history and work
toward a better understanding of what
it tells us about the dynamics of the
climate system, and ii) to review the
state of energy supply, energy sustainability, and energy alternatives. Authors
prepared extended, illustrated abstracts
of their presentations, and this series
has developed from these abstracts,
which, in most cases, have been
expanded and updated.
The history of Earth’s climate
is one of continual change. Many natural processes contribute to this change,
including i) long-term forcing related
to the movement and elevation of the
Earth’s continental plates, ii) changes in
the amount and distribution of solar
radiation received by the Earth, driven
by regular changes in the earth’s orbit
and the sun’s activity, and iii) climatic
modulations driven by periodic oscillations in the pattern of oceanic and
atmospheric currents.
There is a global consensus
amongst most scientists that the climate is now also being forced by the
anthropogenic addition of greenhouse
gases to the atmosphere. The level of
carbon dioxide in our atmosphere is
now greater than at any time in the
past 800 000 years. However, the balance of forces that are driving current
changes in climate remains unclear.
One of the most important
ways to evaluate current models of climate change is to thoroughly explore
the record of change through the last
few million years of Earth history. To
examine this record and work toward a
better understanding of what it tells us
about the dynamics of the climate system, at all space and time scales, is an
exercise for the geosciences, and was
the first of the two conference objectives. There is a rich record of paleoclimatic variability and an array of techniques for evaluating climate history,
including the study of landscapes, sedimentary rocks, soils and paleosols,
palynology, cave deposits, marine sediment cores, ice cores, and other
records. Only by working from such an
understanding can we reliably evaluate
the contribution being made to climate
change by anthropogenic processes.
The major cause of greenhouse gas increases is the combustion
of fossil fuels, and there is an increasing realization that means must be
found to increase the efficiencies in
our use of fossil fuels to bring about
substantial net reductions in their use
in the coming decades. This presents a
two-part problem: worldwide economic growth is increasing rather than
reducing the use of fossil fuels, leading
to an accelerating depletion of these
resources, and many experts predict a
decline in the availability of inexpensive oil, natural gas and coal within the
foreseeable future. Similar problems
are emerging with the other crucial
natural resource: water. Impending
shortages, therefore, constitute a second equally important reason for
reducing the use of fossil fuels; hence,
the second major objective of this conference was to review the state of the
fossil fuel supply, to discuss energy
sustainability, and to examine energy
alternatives and some possible technical solutions.
Thanks are due to the two
technical advisors for the conference,
W.F. Ruddiman and W.R. Peltier, for
their invaluable assistance in developing the technical program. Shauna Carson, assisted by Tanya Santry, convention staff with the Canadian Society of
Petroleum Geologists, was responsible
for all conference arrangements. The
conference was also sponsored by the
Canadian Federation of Earth Scientists, the Geological Association of
Canada, and the Royal Society of
Canada. As General Chair of the conference, I am very grateful to Lyn
Anglin, Steve Grasby, Elisabeth
Kosters, Jeff Packard, and Ian Young,
for their advice and suggestions.
GEOSCIENCE CANADA
Volume 36 Number 1
March 2009
33
SERIES
The Geoscience of Climate
and Energy 1.
Understanding the Climate
System, and the Consequences of Climate
Change for the Exploitation
and Management of Natural Resources: The View
from Banff
Andrew D. Miall
Department of Geology
University of Toronto
Toronto, ON, Canada, M5S 3B1
E-mail: [email protected]
Charlene E. Miall
Department of Sociology
McMaster University
Hamilton, ON, Canada L8S 4M4
E-mail: [email protected]
SUMMARY
A commonly expressed opinion within
the earth-science community is that the
work of the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC) has largely
ignored paleoclimate data and the
methods of research utilized by earth
scientists. It can be demonstrated that
this is not the case, and one of the
objectives of the Gussow–Nuna conference was to present current research
in this area.
Whereas earth scientists might
seem ideally placed to address issues of
climate change and energy, many of
the beliefs that inform public opinion
about global warming and climate
change are based on misrepresentations or over-simplifications. Six examples are discussed here, including misperceptions about the melting and
retreat of glaciers, the true causes of
concern about the future fate of polar
bears, and myths about petroleum pricing and availability.
There is ample space for the
earth-science community to add its
informed voice to debates about energy and climate change, but, to date,
this voice appears to be have been
largely ineffective.
RÉSUMÉ
Dans le milieu des sciences de la Terre
on a souvent l’opinion que les travaux
du Groupe d'experts intergouvernemental sur l'évolution du climat
(GIEC) ont largement ignoré les données et les méthodes de recherche
paléoclimatiques employées par les
géoscientiques. On peut prouver que
ce n’est pas le cas, et que c’était un des
objectifs de la Conférence Gussow−
Nuna que de présenter les recherches
actuelles en la matière.
Bien qu’il semble que les géoscientifiques soient les mieux placés
pour traiter de questions de changement climatique et d’énergie, de nombreuses croyances qui modèlent l’opinion publique sur le réchauffement
global et le changement climatique
reposent sur des informations
trompeuses ou des simplifications
excessives. Six exemples seront discutées ci-dessous, dont les perceptions
erronées sur la fonte et le retrait des
glaciers, les véritables motifs d’inquiétude sur le sort des ours blancs, et la
saga des prix et de la disponibilité du
pétrole.
Nombreux sont les forums où
les géoscientifiques peuvent faire
entendre leur voix compétentes dans
les débats sur l’énergie et le changement climatique, mais il semble que
cela ait été sans grand effet jusqu’à
maintenant.
INTRODUCTION
The modern world is facing several significant and interrelated problems: A
global climate system that is evidently
undergoing rapid change, and a growing world economy that will soon have
to deal with the rapid depletion of its
most important energy source: readily
available and inexpensive oil and gas.
Concurrently, as the degradation of the
environment has emerged as a major
global concern, attention has focused
on the role of anthropogenic or human
influences such as the burning of fossil
fuels, on global environmental problems of ozone depletion, toxic gas
emissions, and global warming. In their
discussion of these pressing issues, scientists who work with the rock record
have repeatedly voiced the following
three concerns about scientific investigations of climate change:
1) that throughout the First, Second and Third assessments by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), there was no
specific focus on paleoclimates,
leaving the impression that this
rich geological database and the
role of natural processes in climate
change have been ignored. The
other two concerns arise from this:
2) that there is no complete, unanimous scientific consensus that
42
SERIES
The Geoscience of Climate
and Energy 2.
Climate Changes at Geologic Time Scales: An
Overview
William F. Ruddiman
Department of Environmental Sciences
University of Virginia
Charlottesville, VA, 22904, USA
E-mail: [email protected]
Exploration in recent decades has
defined the basic outline of climate
change over a range of time scales
from tectonic (millions of years or
more) to orbital (governed by changes
in the earth’s orbit around the sun over
tens to hundreds of thousands of
years) to suborbital variations over millennia, centuries and decades. In each
case, greenhouse-gas variations appear
to have played a major role.
Over tectonic time scales,
potential climatic drivers include, i)
changes in positions of continents; ii)
elevation of plateaus and mountains;
and iii) isthmus connections between
land masses. During the well-defined
changes of the last 50 million years,
both poles experienced major cooling,
marked by shifts to successively colderadapted vegetation types and eventually
the appearance of ice sheets. One
index of these changes is the shifts in
benthic foraminiferal d18O trends
toward heavier values (colder deepwater temperatures, greater ice volume;
Fig. 1).
Opening of full circumAntarctic ocean circulation is often
cited as the cause of Antarctic cooling,
but simulations with general circulation
models do not support this hypothesis.
Instead, cooling of both poles since 50
million years ago is now widely attributed to a gradual decrease in atmospheric CO2 concentrations. One proposed driver of this trend is reduced
CO2 delivery to the atmosphere
because of a slowing of seafloor
spreading rates, but reinterpretations of
paleomagnetic anomalies in the northwest Pacific Ocean have now brought
Cretaceous spreading rates surprisingly
close to modern values. Another (still
viable) proposed forcing is increased
CO2 removal by enhanced chemical
weathering of silicate rock debris produced by uplift in Tibet, the Himalaya
and the Andes.
Over orbital time scales,
changes in Earth’s climate are driven
by variations in tilt (obliquity) and by
eccentricity-modulated changes in precession. These orbital changes drive
two major components of the climate
system: ice sheets in subpolar northern
latitudes, and monsoons in the tropics
and subtropics. Benthic foraminiferal
d18O time series in marine sediments
show large ice-volume changes at
orbital periods during the last 2.75 million years, but the relative amplitudes
of the ice-volume changes are not well
matched to those of the periods at
which the orbital changes drive
changes in solar radiation that reach
Earth’s atmosphere and alter Earth’s
climate (Figs 2, 3).
Figure 1. Benthic foraminferal d18O
trend toward heavier values during the
last 50 million years (from Ruddiman
2007, after Miller et al. 1987).
High-latitude insolation variations have both a substantial 23 000year (precession) component, as well as
a 41 000-year (tilt) component. In contrast, ice volume varied mainly at the
41 000-year period from 2.75 to 0.9
million years ago, and then primarily
near the 100 000-year (eccentricity)
period during the last 900 000 years
(Figs. 2, 3). The cause of this mismatch is under active investigation.
Because atmospheric CO2 varies in
close concert with ice volume (Fig. 4),
greenhouse gases are a likely part of
the explanation.
Variations in tropical monsoon strength over the last 15 million
years are relatively well understood.
Kutzbach (1981) proposed that past
changes in low-latitude summer insolation at the 23 000-year period control
the intensity of summer monsoons in
the tropics and subtropics (Fig. 5). This
mechanism is a direct amplification of
the way that strong summer-season
insolation (compared to weak winter
GEOSCIENCE CANADA
Volume 36 Number 1
March 2009
45
REVIEWS
Dry Store Room No. 1: The
Secret Life of the Natural
History Museum
Richard Fortey
Harper Press, London, UK, 2008
ISBN: 978-0-00-720988-0
$34.95 (Hardcover)
Reviewed by Alwynne B. Beaudoin
Royal Alberta Museum
12845-102nd Avenue
Edmonton, AB, Canada, T5N 0M6
E-mail: [email protected]
As part of the celebrations for the
Royal Alberta Museum’s fortieth
anniversary in 2007, I was involved in
developing a small exhibition highlighting some significant events and
achievements of the previous four
decades. My research into the Museum
and its history made me acutely aware
that much of this tradition is carried in
the minds and memories of my fellow
workers and is never written down.
Perhaps because of this experience,
Richard Fortey’s eminently readable
book about the history of the Natural
History Museum (NHM), London,
strongly appealed to me.
Well known for his earlier,
well-received, books on palaeontology
and earth sciences, Fortey now turns
his acute intelligence and observant
eyes on his own workplace. He provides us with an enjoyable and informative behind-the-scenes tour of the
curatorial departments. Having spent
his professional career working in the
Museum, Fortey considers himself well
qualified to write about the place. He
starts from a profound belief in the
importance of museums and a conviction that “the people who work out of
sight are what keep a museum alive”.
This is not a sanitized official history
but, as he says, stories from the shop
floor, featuring the kind of institutional memory and folklore that established staffers pass along to newbies,
and which form part of the institution’s tradition. Fortey gathers up and
tells stories about some eccentric characters who have worked or still work
for the NHM. Of course his own
department, palaeontology, gets considerable attention but he also introduces us to specialists from other disciplines, including botany, entomology,
zoology and mineralogy. Amusing
anecdotes about bizarre characters can
too easily turn into “you had to be
there” accounts, only understandable
and funny if you actually know the
people. Fortey gracefully sidesteps this
pitfall. He situates these unconventional personalities within the continuous
stream of knowledge and research
built around the Museum’s collections,
from diamonds to Diptera, diatoms to
dodos. He emphasizes the scholars’
research contributions and the scientific value of their work as well as their
peculiarities. “Their motivation”, he
believes, “is an unquenchable instinct
to find things out and to make those
discoveries known to others”. However, this is not simply an account of
some eccentrics. If this were all, the
book would be no more than an amusing and irrelevant oddity. Fortey, however, takes this further as he examines
the significance and purpose of museums in general. From this perspective,
the NHM can be regarded as simply a
case study.
In fact, his book has a more
serious intention: to advocate for
museums. Amongst the jokes and
anecdotes, Fortey presents a wellargued case for the value of museums
and their collections. Museums, he
maintains, are places “where the visitor
can come to examine evidence, as well
as to be diverted”. The amount of evidence is impressive; Fortey estimates
the NHM’s collections at 80 million
specimens. He provides examples of
the importance of collections, together
with the taxonomists who classify
them and the scientists who study
them. Collections, declares Fortey,
“defy time; they transcend what any
one scholar might make of them; they
are outside our own little personal histories”. Fortey shows how specimens
can be re-examined and re-interpreted
by successive generations of experts,
yielding new insights each time, as for
NHM’s famous specimen of
Archaeopteryx. Fortey concentrates on
perhaps the Museum’s main functions,
taxonomy, the naming of names, and
systematics, the often slow and
46
painstaking elucidation of the characteristics of, and relationships between,
organisms. This work is unglamorous;
sometimes, as Fortey remarks, it is dismissed as “counting hairs on legs”. Yet
it is fundamental to all biosciences,
including palaeontology. New species
are being discovered all the time and
we only know they are new by consulting the archive of known and
described species. As Fortey points
out, in some groups, such as beetles
and fungi, millions of species remain
to be described and named. Further,
Fortey notes the urgency of this task;
documenting the world’s biodiversity is
critical in the light of increasing extinction rates. Although the whole organism is still the fundamental unit of
study, especially for elucidating structures and behaviour, Fortey acknowledges the undoubted advances in
molecular studies in recent years, and
their value in unravelling knotty taxonomic conundrums. He illustrates this
with a compelling but complicated
example from truffle taxonomy. Cladistics is discussed too. Lest one should
think of taxonomy as sterile and irrelevant, Fortey presents examples of its
practical implications, including
research towards the eradication of
diseases such as bilharzia, the control
of harmful insect pests, and development of more productive agricultural
crops. The impacts of this work can be
far-reaching.
Museums have not been
immune to the upheavals and dislocations consequent upon social and economic changes in recent years. Fortey
documents their impact on the NHM,
especially the imposition of a business
model of operation, and the resulting
reorganization and staff cuts. This
model often requires justification of
research in terms of immediate benefits, which militates against the
“research for its own sake” ethos.
Fortey is clearly at odds with the new
system; he presents several examples of
unanticipated benefits resulting from
curatorial work that was driven solely
by scientific curiosity. Perhaps the most
surprising is the discovery of a lost
Mozart manuscript by a researcher
looking for illustrations of herring.
Fortey also describes the tensions
between the front of house (exhibitions and public areas) and back of
house areas (collections and research
labs) and the increasing staff numbers
being allocated to marketing and fund
raising, rather than curatorial work and
research. Galleries, exhibitions, and
outreach get limited discussion,
although Fortey recognizes changing
public expectations for museums
through the years. He touches only
briefly on his experience in gallery
development. Evidently, there is another book to be written about this aspect
of museum work, in which curators
are often heavily involved. However,
here the focus is firmly on the back of
house activities. Fortey notes, with perhaps a certain amount of regret, the
increasing lack of tolerance for eccentricity or, with less regret, for non-productivity. He also describes every curator’s worst nightmare: rogues in the
museum, or people who gain positions
of trust and then steal specimens.
Thankfully, Fortey concentrates more
on the positive and contributory
aspects of the passion for collections.
I found myself cheering,
chuckling and smiling wryly at many
places in this book. It is hugely entertaining. True, it could be classified as a
gentle polemic or as self-justification.
Special pleading? Well, perhaps. Some
of the situations Fortey describes are
particular to museums. Yet his “tell it
like it is” account of museum life
includes much that will be familiar to
anyone who has ever worked in a similar large institution or organization,
such as a university or geological survey. His discussion is wide-ranging,
persuasive, thought provoking, and
lucid. As a curator myself, I certainly
agree with Fortey that museums are
special places. Now, thanks to Fortey’s
splendid portrayal, the pleasures and
implications of museum work can be
widely shared. I highly recommend his
book to my colleagues in geoscience.
Gold Deposits of the CIS
Gregory Levitan
Xlibris (2008)
ISBN: 978-1-4363-5354-0
ISBN: 978-1-4363-5353-3
Price $29.99 (Hardback), $19.99 (Paperback)
Reviewed by Richard J. Goldfarb
United States Geological Survey
Box 25046, Mail Stop 973
Denver Federal Center
Denver, CO 80225, USA
E-mail: [email protected]
Gold Deposits of the CIS (i.e. Commonwealth of Independent States) provides
a series of brief descriptions of the
major gold deposits and resources of
the former Soviet Union (FSU). This
region of Eurasia, extending from latitude 30EE (Ukraine) to 175EE (Kamchatka), and as far south as latitude
39EN (Tajikistan), is defined as containing the world’s largest cumulative
gold reserve. Although a few major
deposits such as Muruntau, Kumtor,
and Sukhoi Log have recently received
attention in the Western economic
geology literature, many of the large
gold systems in this region lack any
English-language geological description
beyond a few vague sentences on company websites. Thus, this book
attempts to fill a need in the basic ore
geology literature.
The author of the volume,
Gregory Levitan, is among the few
individuals qualified to fill such a need
in the economic geology field. He
worked on mineral deposits for the
Soviet Ministry of Geology for 35
years within the FSU, before moving to
the West and spending the most recent
fifteen years as a consultant specializing on gold ores within the same vast
region. His most recent experience is
reflected in the inclusion of available
mining and mineral economics data on
described deposits, material commonly
lacking in other published descriptions
of gold deposits within the FSU.
The book begins with two
brief introductory chapters, one on the
history of exploration and mining, and
the second describing the complex
classification system of gold deposits
in the CIS. The classification system is
GEOSCIENCE CANADA
Volume 36 Number 1
based on gold ore host rocks and is
used to subdivide the remainder of the
book. Deposits are grouped into those
associated with Archean and Paleoproterozoic host rocks (Chapter 3), and
Neoproterozoic through Phanerozoic
sedimentary, intrusive, and volcanic
host rocks (Chapter 4). Most western
readers will recognize orogenic, intrusion-related, skarn, and Carlin-type
deposits as being described within the
first three groups of host rocks, and
the epithermal deposit types as being
discussed within the volcanic rockrelated section of the book. These
four groups of gold deposits are further subdivided into sections within
chapters 3 and 4; these sections are
based on both, mineralization style and
major mineralogical signatures of the
ores. The deposits discussed in this
book are strictly those in which gold,
or rarely silver, is the dominant ore
component. Hence, large auriferous
porphyry copper deposits, such as the
giant Almalyk system in Uzbekistan,
are not described.
Chapters 3 and 4 are three- to
five-page-long descriptions of 51
major gold deposits that occur in the
FSU. Each description typically
includes location coordinates, regional
and local geological descriptions, maps
and cross-sections of variable quality,
ore and alteration mineralogy, available
grade and tonnage data, any published
geochronology, summary of interesting
geochemical features, and the dominant genetic interpretation(s) on ore
formation. Chapter 3 summarizes the
older FSU gold deposits; these Precambrian ores are basically the orogenic gold deposits of the Ukrainian
Shield in the southwestern corner of
the East European Platform.
Chapter 4 discusses the
remaning gold deposits and thus constitutes the bulk of the book. The
sedimentary rock-hosted deposits are
divided into those hosted by a) metamorphic sequences, b) black shales and
carbonates, and c) sedimentary and
carbonate rocks. The first of these
groups is characterized by limited
arsenic concentrations in pyrite, relatively high formation pressures and
temperatures, ‘greenstone’ (probably
meaning greenschist) facies metamorphism, and thick flysch over mature
continental crust, which would suggest
a back-arc tectonic setting. These ores
in metamorphic sequences are further
broken down into ‘deposit types’ that
include gold–feldspar–carbonate–
quartz (Kumtor), gold–quartz (Sovetskoye), gold–feldspar–carbonate-sulfide
(Muruntau), and gold–quartz ± carbonate (Sukhoi Log). At times, the
numerous levels of classifications seem
to become too complex and can be
contradictory and confusing. For
example, in the section describing the
gold–feldspar–carbonate–quartz type
deposits, a discussion of Muruntau follows that of Kumtor and begins by
stating Muruntau is another example of
gold–feldspar–carbonate-sulfide type
mineralization. What happened to the
‘quartz’? Furthermore, the Muruntau
mineralization is said to reflect two
stages of hydrothermal activity, and to
contain five assemblages that are not
related to these stages, although the
fifth assemblage is actually called a
‘stage’. The second sedimentary rockhosted group (black shales and carbonates) includes deposits such as
Olimpiada, Bakirchok, and Daugyztau.
Many features of this group are not
obviously different than the features of
the first group; for example, host rocks
are affected by greenschist metamorphism, gold-bearing arsenopyrite is
present, and formation temperatures
above 400EC are reported for some of
the largest deposits. Yet some deposits
in this group are lower temperature
and seem to resemble epizonal Sb-rich
orogenic gold deposits, such as the
Alaskan Donlin Creek deposit. Also,
gold–mercury–quartz deposits in this
group have similarities with Carlin
ores; these include Kyuchus in eastern
Russia and perhaps Vorontsovka in the
Urals. If I had to generalize, my opinion would be that this second group
includes some of the same mesozonal
orogenic gold deposits that are
grouped within metamorphic sequence
host rocks, as well as epizonal orogenic
and Carlin-type gold deposits. The
third group (sedimentary and carbonate rocks) is suggested to consist of
epithermal gold deposits in lower
greenschist facies rocks and distal to
any known igneous rocks. The silverrich nature of these deposits (e.g.
Okzhetpes) and reported low-temperature phases such as kaolinite and dickite, are used to support such an inter-
March 2009
47
pretation.
The intrusion-related gold
deposits described in Chapter 4 are
also divided into three subgroups: a)
stockworks, veinlets, and disseminations in plutons (e.g. Vasil’kovskoye,
Jilau); b) veins within and near plutons
(e.g. Jerooy, Natalka, Darasun,
Kochkar, Berizovsk); and c) skarns (e.g.
Makmal). Levitan states that all the
deposits are defined by a close spatial
or genetic link to plutons, although it
seems that there is also a spatial link
between intrusions and many of the
sedimentary-rock hosted deposits. The
first two subgroups are defined as ‘porphyry gold deposits’ and are stated to
differ from the classic intrusion-related
gold system at Fort Knox, Alaska, by
the greater abundance of sulfide minerals and the more mafic character of
igneous phases. The vein-type subgroup is further subdivided into gold–
quartz and gold-sulfide–quartz
deposits based on sulfide volumes of
less than or greater than five percent,
respectively. Although some of these
may indeed be ‘intrusion-related’,
descriptions of other deposits, such as
Jilau, where ore occurs in the sheared
margins of plutons, may indicate similarities to the sedimentary rock-hosted
deposits. The gold deposits that are
related to volcanic rocks are classified
as gold-telluride (e.g. Zod, Kochbulak),
gold related to andesite–dacite (e.g.
Kubaka, Baley), and gold–silver or silver related to dacite–rhyolite (e.g.
Dukat). These are generally equivalent
to alkalic-related, high sulfidation, and
low sulfidation epithermal preciousmetal systems, respectively.
The descriptions of the
deposits summarize the information
available from all published sources in
the Russian literature and from Levitan’s site visits. It would have been
helpful if the author had been a little
more critical in evaluating the often
quite variable information. For example, in discussing Muruntau, one paragraph states that the ores formed in
two stages at 245 and 220 Ma, and
thus long after magmatism, whereas
the next paragraph reports a 287 Ma
date for mineralization that is coeval
with magmatism. Which paragraph
should the readers believe? Broad
ranges of fluid inclusion temperatures
are reported for many deposits, such as
48
465 to 100EC at the Kochbulak
epithermal deposit, but what does such
a range tell us about temperatures of
ore formation? A meteoric water origin is stated for the Maiskoye gold
deposit based on hydrogen and oxygen
isotope compositions of bulk extractions of fluid inclusion waters, but is
such an interpretation valid? These
types of statements will often leave the
reader questioning the validity of many
interpretations of ore genesis in the
FSU deposits. Also, comparisons with
deposits outside of the FSU are often
questionable. For example, it would be
good to know which specific deposits
in the ‘southern Appalachians’ resemble Sovetskoye and Muruntau. Sukhoi
Log is stated to most closely resemble
Homestake based upon a similarity in
resource tonnage, age, structure, mineralization style, and metamorphic
grade. But these deposits are more
than 1 billion years different in age,
and Homestake is related to sulfidized
Paleoproterozoic banded iron formation, whereas no such unit is present in
the auriferous Baikal area. Some of
the intrusion-related deposits are compared to the ‘Alaska-Treadwell laddertype vein deposit of the Canadian
Cordillera’, which obviously refers to
the Alaska-Juneau and Treadwell
deposits of Alaska, USA, where
igneous host rocks pre-date gold mineralization by 50-150 my. Many important references are included for each
deposit, although there are long
sequences of text, such as the regional
description of Kumtor on page 72,
which lack any referencing. Too often,
names of various Russian workers are
informally mentioned within the text
(i.e. a long list of authors who have
published on Muruntau geology, V.
Berger’s classification of Sb-rich
deposits, V. Yevstrakhin and M. Itsikson’s descriptions of granite-related
gold deposits, etc.), without any clue as
to who these people are or where they
have published their material.
The weakest part of the book
may be the figures, although the author
cannot be faulted for some because
better figures for certain deposits may
not exist. The author should also be
acknowledged for revising all figures to
include western-style legends, rather
than using the typical difficult Russian-
style numbered boxes. Most deposit
descriptions are accompanied by a
local geological map that is quite generalized. For example, the geological
map of the Sovetskoe deposit shows
swarms of veins surrounded by alteration assemblages and 'tectonic boundaries', but no geologic units. Regional
geological/lithological maps would be
helpful for each area, but are often
lacking and so the local figures cannot
be put into any regional context. Even
when regional maps are used, they are
often less than satisfactory, such as in
the case of the Central deposit, where
a 10 x 5 km area is covered by a series
of lines defining faults, veins, and
dikes, but without any regional geological background. The appendix has one
geographic map of the entire FSU and
locations of all deposits in the book
are shown on that map (the same map
is shown on the book's front cover at a
much smaller size, yet none of the
names are readable).
In summary, the book serves
an important purpose and will be of
use to those individuals considering
exploration programs in Eurasia or
who want to know more about the
economic geology of specific epithermal and orogenic gold deposits in the
FSU. The listed prices of $19.99 (US)
for paperback and $29.99 (US) for
hardcover are very reasonable considering the amount of difficult to obtain
information summarized by Levitan.
The user should be aware, however,
that other sources will be required to
obtain a clear understanding of the
tectonic and metallogenic belts that
host the described gold deposits.
GEOLOGICAL
ASSOCIATION OF
CANADA
(2008-2009)
OFFICERS
President
Carolyn Relf
Vice-President
Daniel Lebel
Past President
Carolyn (‘Lyn) Anglin
Secretary-Treasurer
Toby Rivers
COUNCILLORS
Carolyn (‘Lyn) Anglin
Michel Champagne
Tim Corkery
Peter Dimmell
John Gosse
Jeff Harris
Don James
Eileen van der Flier-Keller
John Ketchum
Garth Kirkham
Daniel Lebel
Alain Liard
Jeff Packard
Steve Piercey
Carolyn Relf
Toby Rivers
Jim Teller
STANDING COMMITTEES
Communications: Tim Corkery
Finance: Michel Champagne
Publications: Jeff Harris
Science Program: Don James
NewPublications available from the
GAC
®
AGC
®
Geological Association of Canada
SP 48: Dynamics of Epeiric Seas
B.R. Pratt and C. Holmden, 2008, 418 pages,
ISBN: 978-1-897095-34-8
This collection of 16 copiously illustrated papers by an international slate of
authors grew out of special sessions held at the Geological Association of
Canada annual meeting convened in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, in 2002. They
cover a wide range of subject matter using examples from around the world.
Thus the papers represent the state-of-the-art in a variety of aspects, from
sedimentological to paleoecological, geochemical to oceanographic,
siliciclastic to carbonate. This volume will be of great interest to earth
scientists of many stripes, including stratigraphers, sedimentologists,
paleontologists, geochemists and petroleum geologists.
Géologie des ressources minérales
Michel Jébrak & Éric Marcoux, 2008, 667 p.,
ISBN: 978-2-551-23737-1
Géologie des ressources minérales offre une synthèse actuelle des
connaissances en métallogénie et est orientée vers leur utilisation pratique
en exploration. Avec de nombreux exemples pris au Québec et dans les
pays francophones, on trouvera pour chaque environnement des données
sur la géologie (lithologie, structure, minéralogie, géochimie) les types de
gisements, leur genèse, leur économie et les techniques de prospection.
MP 7: Ottawa’s Building and Monument Stones
A Walking Guide
Quentin Gall, 2009, 152 p., ISBN: 978-1-897095-41-6
A Walking Guide - Ottawa's Building and Monument Stones offers residents
and visitors alike an opportunity for outdoor discovery of the dimension
stones and natural and built heritage in Canada's capital. The book contains
maps, photographs and descriptions by Quentin Gall, a geological
consultant and teacher who has lived in Ottawa for over 30 years.
(Resellers please contact us for further discounts on bulk orders.)
Check out these and other great books online at:
`
www.gac.ca/bookstore
`
GEOSCIENCE CANADA
JOURNAL OF THE GEOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION OF CANADA
JOURNAL DE L’ASSOCIATION GÉOLOGIQUE DU CANADA
Series
Great Mining Camps of Canada 3
The History and Geology of the Cariboo Goldfield, Barkerville and Wells, BC
A. Sutherland Brown and C.H. Ash
1
New Series
The Geoscience of Climate and Energy: An Introduction
A.D. Miall
32
Series
The Geoscience of Climate and Energy 1
Understanding the Climate System, and the Consequences of Climate Change
for the Exploitation and Management of Natural Resources: The View from Banff
A.D. Miall and C.E. Miall
33
Series
The Geoscience of Climate and Energy 2
Climate Changes at Geologic Time Scales: An Overview
W.F. Ruddimann
42
Reviews
Dry Store Room No. 1: The Secret Life of the Natural History Museum
Gold Deposits of the CIS
45
March 2009
Mars 2009
VOLUME 36 NUMBER 1
VOLUME 36 NUMÉRO 1
GSCNA7 36 1-48
ISSN 0315-0941