Foundations of Interpretation
Competency Narrative
Corky Mayo
Chief of Interpretation
National Park Service
David Larsen
Training Manager
Interpretive and Education
February 2007
Revised June 2009
Completed in accordance with Sub Agreement 50 of the National Park ServiceIndiana University Cooperative Agreement CA 2670-97-001
Stephen A. Wolter
Executive Director
Beth Barrie, Ph.D.
Project Lead
Katie Bliss
Project Lead
Eppley Institute for Parks & Public Lands
Indiana University Research Park
500 N. Morton Street, Suite 100
Bloomington, IN 47404
812.855.3095
Acknowledgements
The following individuals contributed to this document’s development:
National Park Service Contributors
Kevin Bacher, Interpretive Park Ranger, Mount Rainer National Park
Alyssa Baltrus, Supervisory Park Ranger, Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and
Preserve
Charles Beall, Chief of Interpretation and Education, North Cascades National Park
Dominic Cardea, Chief of Interpretation, Haleakala National Park
Linda Chandler, Interpretive Park Ranger, Castillo De San Marco National Monument
Dave Dahlen, Superintendent, Mather Training Center
Jana Friesen, Natural Resources Program Writer, Washington D.C. Office
Richard Kohen, Interpretive Specialist, Intermountain Support Office
Becky Lacome, Training Specialist, Mather Training Center
David Larsen, Training Manager, Interpretive Development Program
Corky Mayo, Chief of Interpretation, National Park Service
Peggy Scherbaum, Chief of Interpretation, Cane River Creole National Historical Park
Eppley Institute for Parks and Public Lands Contributors
Beth Barrie, Ph.D., Project Lead
Matthew Berry, Graphics
Katie Bliss, Project Lead
Robert Cowles, Web Development
John Drew, Project Coordinator
Catherine Hall, Editor
Allene Lowrey, Editor
Emily Symonds, Editor
This document may not be duplicated without the permission of the Eppley Institute for Parks and Public
Lands, acting on behalf of Indiana University. The National Park Service and federal agencies may
duplicate it for training and administrative purposes, provided that appropriate written acknowledgement
is given. No other state or local agency, university, contractor, or individual shall duplicate the document
without the permission of Indiana University.
Copyright 2007, the Trustees of Indiana University
on behalf of the Eppley Institute for Parks and Public Lands
TABLE OF CONTENTS
What is Effective Interpretation? ..................................................................................... 1 What is an Interpreter? ................................................................................................ 1 The History of Interpretation ........................................................................................ 1 Defining Effective Interpretation................................................................................... 6 Making Connections .................................................................................................... 8 Making Connections: Using a Theme ....................................................................... 10 Types of Interpretation............................................................................................... 10 Why Do We Do Interpretation? ..................................................................................... 11 Resources Possess Meanings and Have Relevance ................................................ 11 Visitors Are Seeking Something of Value for Themselves......................................... 12 Fulfilling the NPS Mission .......................................................................................... 13 What Skills Do Interpreters Need? ................................................................................ 15 Visualizing the Components ...................................................................................... 15 o The Interpretive Equation: ................................................................................ 15 o Interpretive Triangle ......................................................................................... 16 o Interpretation as Art.......................................................................................... 17 Knowledge of the Resource....................................................................................... 17 Knowledge of the Audience ....................................................................................... 20 Appropriate Techniques............................................................................................. 24 Delivery Skills ............................................................................................................ 33 How Do You Do Interpretation? .................................................................................... 34 The Pieces................................................................................................................. 34 Putting the Pieces Together ...................................................................................... 35 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 41 Foundations of Interpretation – Competency Narrative
WHAT IS EFFECTIVE INTERPRETATION?
What is an Interpreter?
When most people hear the word interpreter, they think of someone who translates the
meaning of one language into another. In a museum, zoo, or park setting interpreters
“translate” artifacts, collections, events, and physical resources into a language that
helps visitors understand these resources. Credit for using the word interpretation to
describe the work of exhibit designers, educators, docents, and naturalists is given to
John Muir, who penned in his Yosemite notebook, “I'll interpret the rocks, learn the
language of flood, storm and the avalanche. I'll acquaint myself with the glaciers and
wild gardens, and get as near the heart of the world as I can" (John Muir, 1896).
The word interpretation is, at times, awkward for describing what naturalists, exhibit
designers, docents, and park rangers do because it does not always adequately capture
the full range of duties and functions performed. Another term for interpreters could be
visitor experience specialists. They provide information, orientation, and inspiration in
the right amounts and at the right times so that visitors will have more enjoyable,
meaningful experiences.
The History of Interpretation
Interpretation, as a profession, has evolved over time. Some of the important people
who helped define and develop the profession of interpretation are listed, with their
significant contributions, below:
•
John Muir (1838 –1914) was one of the earliest modern preservationists. His
letters, essays, and books telling of his adventures in nature, especially in the
Sierra Nevada Mountains of California, were read by millions and are still popular
today. His activism helped to save the Yosemite Valley and other wilderness
areas. The Sierra Club, which he founded, is now one of the foremost
conservation organizations in the United States. His vision of nature's value for
its own sake and for its spiritual, not just practical, benefits to humankind helped
to change the way we look at the natural world (taken from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Muir, retrieved December 14, 2006).
•
Enos Mills (1870-1922) founded the first nature guide school after serving as a
guide for his various hotel guests. He became the prime motivator for creating
Rocky Mountain National Park. His enthusiasm for preservation flourished during
a serendipitous friendship: while walking on the beach near San Francisco, he
asked an elderly passerby about a piece of kelp he found. The passerby just
happened to be John Muir, and his response about the kelp started an enduring
friendship. Muir encouraged Mills to join the conservation movement and write
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about his adventures in nature. Enos Mills wrote 20 books, including Adventures
of a Nature Guide—a work that is still relevant to interpreters.
•
Freeman Tilden (1883-1980), a newspaper columnist and author, at age 58
decided he needed a change in his life. When his friend, National Park Service
Director Newton Drury, invited him to work with the National Park Service, he
entered the field of interpretation and forever changed the profession. While
traveling to various parks to write books about the national park system, he
became concerned about the quality of interpretive programs in parks. This
concern eventually led him to write his foundational book, Interpreting Our
Heritage, published in 1957. It is in Interpreting Our Heritage that Tilden outlines
his enduring principles of interpretation:
1. Any interpretation that does not somehow relate what is being displayed or
described to something within the personality or experience of the visitor will
be sterile.
2. Information, as such, is not interpretation. Interpretation is revelation based
upon information,.but they are entirely different things. However, all
interpretation includes information.
3. Interpretation is an art, which combines many arts, whether the materials
presented are scientific, historical, or architectural. Any art is in some degree
teachable.
4. The chief aim of Interpretation is not instruction, but provocation.
5. Interpretation should aim to present a whole rather than a part and must
address itself to the whole man rather than any phase.
6. Interpretation addressed to children (say, up to the age of twelve) should not
be a dilution of the presentation to adults but should follow a fundamentally
different approach. To be at its best, it will require a separate program
(Freeman Tilden, 1957).
•
Sam Ham directs the Center for International Training and Outreach at the
University of Idaho’s College of Natural Resources, where he is a professor in
the Department of Resource Recreation and Tourism. His book Environmental
Interpretation (1992) contains four qualities that distinguish interpretation from
other communication. These qualities have become central to the profession of
interpretation:
1.
2.
3.
4.
•
2
Interpretation is pleasurable.
Interpretation is relevant.
Interpretation is organized.
Interpretation has a theme.
Larry Beck and Ted Cable authored the book Interpretation for the 21st Century
(1998) to provide direction in the field at the turn of the millennium. As professors
who teach coursework in interpretation, they have written extensively in the fields
of natural resource management and interpretation. Building upon the work of
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Enos Mills and Freeman Tilden, they developed Fifteen Principles of
Interpretation:
1. To spark an interest, interpreters must relate the subject to the lives of
visitors.
2. The purpose of interpretation goes beyond providing information to reveal
deeper meaning and truth.
3. The interpretive presentation – as a work of art – should be designed as a
story that informs, entertains, and enlightens.
4. The purpose of the interpretive story is to inspire and to provoke people to
broaden their horizons.
5. Interpretation should present a complete theme or thesis and address the
whole person.
6. Interpretation for children, teenagers, and seniors — when these comprise
uniform groups — should follow fundamentally different approaches.
7. Every place has a history. Interpreters can bring the past alive to make the
present more enjoyable and the future more meaningful.
8. High technology can reveal the world in exciting new ways. However,
incorporating this technology into the interpretive program must be done with
foresight and care.
9. Interpreters must concern themselves with the quantity and quality (selection
and accuracy) of information presented. Focused, well-researched
interpretation will be more powerful than a longer discourse.
10. Before applying the arts in interpretation, the interpreter must be familiar with
basic communication techniques. Quality interpretation depends on the
interpreter’s knowledge and skills, which should be developed continually.
11. Interpretive writing should address what readers would like to know with the
authority of wisdom and the humility and care that comes with it.
12. The overall interpretive program must be capable of attracting support —
financial, volunteer, political, administrative — whatever support is needed for
the program to flourish.
13. Interpretation should instill in people the ability and the desire to sense the
beauty in their surroundings — to provide spiritual uplift and to encourage
resource preservation.
14. Interpreters can promote optimal experiences through intentional and
thoughtful program and facility design.
15. Passion is the essential ingredient for powerful and effective interpretation —
passion for the resource and for those people who come to be inspired by the
same.
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•
The National Park Service (NPS) Interpretive Skills Teams and Development
Program (1983–2006) built on Freeman Tilden’s concept of meanings-based
interpretation. The National Park Service has provided an ideal venue for collegial
debate and discussion in defining the elements of successful interpretation. Putting
theory into practice added to the evolution of the profession through the watershed
events listed below:
o 1983-1992 – The Interpretive Skills Teams trained hundreds of interpreters in
the importance of professional delivery skills and the effective use of themes,
goals and objectives.
o 1993 – An Interpretive (R)evolution was launched, paving the way for a
complete rethinking of interpretive training and philosophy, beginning the NPS
Interpretive Development Program (IDP).
o 1994 – The “Compelling Stories” training booklet encouraged interpreters to
move beyond the presentation of straight facts and information, and to
explore and interpret the intangible meanings of tangible resources.
o 1996 – A group of 40 interpreters met at the Stephen T. Mather Training
Center in West Virginia to begin developing a rigorous peer review program
and defining professional standards. This initial watershed conversation grew
to include feedback from over 400 field interpreters and laid the groundwork
for establishing national standards for each of the essential interpretive
products and services NPS interpreters provide.
From those efforts, IDP theory established the idea that successful interpretation
provides visitors with opportunities to form their own intellectual and emotional
connections to the relevance and significance of the resource. Additionally, three
tenets of interpretation were defined:
- Resources posses meanings and have relevance.
- Visitors are seeking something of value for themselves.
- Interpretation facilitates a connection between the interests of the
visitor and the meanings of the resource.
o 2003 – The theory and tenets of the IDP were presented in the publication,
Meaningful Interpretation: How to Connect Hearts and Minds to Places,
Objects and other Resources, edited by David L. Larsen.
o 2006 – The IDP embarked on a new project to continue the interpretive
evolution, revising the entire NPS training curriculum and developing new
training tools and resources such as the Eppley Institute for Parks and Public
Lands online interpretive courses.
•
The National Association for Interpretation (NAI) (1988–Present) was formed in 1988
from two existing organizations – the Association of Interpretive Naturalists (AIN)
and the Western Interpreters’ Association (WIA). AIN was created in 1954 and WIA
in 1965 to provide training and networking opportunities for interpreters of natural
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and cultural history in non-formal settings (parks, zoos, nature centers, museums,
and aquaria).
NAI has served members in a variety of ways to encourage networking, training and
collaboration. Volunteers, docents, interpreters, naturalists, historians, rangers, park
guards, guides, tour operators, program directors, consultants, academicians,
suppliers and institutions are all part of this growing network of more than 5,000
members.
NAI’s mission, “Inspiring leadership and excellence to advance heritage
interpretation as a profession,” is pursued through a wide variety of services –
national and regional workshops, interpretive skills and management training,
Legacy magazine, The Interpreter magazine, the Journal of Interpretation Research,
professional certification, and newsletters of diverse kinds. Members working as
volunteers in regions, sections and chapters create the real assets of the
profession—colleagues helping colleagues to grow in their knowledge,
competencies and enthusiasm.
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Defining Effective Interpretation
Webster’s New World Dictionary defines Interpretation as, “The expression of a
person’s conception of a work of art or subject through acting, playing, writing, etc.”
However, the definition of interpretation in relation to the work performed by docents,
park guides, and/or naturalists continues to evolve. Following are a few quotes defining
interpretation in this capacity. Notice how they share the common assumption that
interpretation helps visitors relate to the resources of a place which, in turn, makes their
experiences personally relevant and meaningful.
6
•
Interpretation is “an educational activity which aims to reveal meaning and
relationships through the use of original objects, by firsthand experience, and by
illustrative media, rather than simply to communicate factual information” (Tilden,
1957, p. 8).
•
"Interpretation is the helping of the visitor to feel something that the interpreter
feels — a sensitivity to beauty, complexity, variety, interrelatedness of the
environment; a sense of wonder; a desire to know. It should help the visitor feel
at home in the environment. It should help the visitor develop perception" (Wallin,
1965).
•
“Interpretation is an attempt to create understandings” (Alderson & Low, 1976).
•
“Interpretation seeks to achieve 3 objectives. The first… is to assist the visitor in
developing a keener awareness, appreciation and understanding of the area he
is visiting. The second… is to accomplish management goals. The third… is to
promote public understanding of the agency’s goals and objectives” (Sharpe,
1982).
•
"Interpretation is an approach to communication. It is separated from other forms
of information transfer in that it is pleasurable, relevant, organized, and has a
theme" (Ham, 1992).
•
"Interpretation “give[s] meaning to a ‘foreign’ landscape or event from the past or
present. What is being translated (say glaciation of Yosemite Valley, ecosystem
dynamics at Yellowstone, or events surrounding the battle at Gettysburg) may
well be ‘foreign’ to substantial numbers of visitors” (Beck and Cable, 1998, p. 2).
•
“Interpretation is an educational activity that aims to reveal meanings about our
cultural and natural resources. Through various media – including talks, guided
tours, and exhibits – interpretation enhances our understanding, appreciation,
and, therefore, protection of historic sites and natural wonders. Interpretation is
an informational and inspirational process that occurs in parks, forests, wildlife
refuges, zoos, museums, and cultural sites.” (Beck and Cable, 1998, xi).
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•
The National Park Service (NPS) defines interpretation as “a catalyst in creating
an opportunity for the audience to form their own intellectual and emotional
connections with the meanings and significance inherent in the resource
(National Park Service, 2001).
•
“Interpretation enriches lives through engaging emotions, enhancing
experiences and deepening understanding of people, places, events and objects
from past and present" (Association for Heritage Interpretation AHI, 2005).
•
The National Association for Interpretation (NAI) defines interpretation as a
“mission based communication process that forges emotional and intellectual
connections between the interests of the audience and the meanings inherent in
the resource” (Brochu and Merriman, 2006).
Developmental activity: Now create your own definition of interpretation. How would
you describe the profession of interpretation to colleagues and friends?
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Foundations of Interpretation – Competency Narrative
Making Connections
Both the recent NPS and NAI definitions include the idea that interpretation facilitates
connections between the interests of the visitors and the meanings of the artifacts,
collections or natural resources of a site. Visitors will remember these personal
connections and powerful meanings long after their site visit, more so than the tactics
involved in a battle, or the names of wetland species. Truly meaningful interpretation
relates what is being interpreted to the hearts and minds of the audience and answers
the question “Why should I care?”
There are two ways visitors can connect to the resource being interpreted: intellectually
and emotionally. It is important for the interpreter to provide opportunities for visitors to
connect in both ways. An interpretive product that contains only opportunities for
intellectual connections would not be very effective for someone who discovers
relevance and significance in an emotional way.
Intellectual connections might lead to: insight, discovery, perceptiveness,
enlightenment, or unearthing. Emotional connections might lead to: amazement, anger,
despair, empathy, or wonder.
Connections involve moments of intellectual and emotional revelation, perception,
insight, or discovery. Opportunities for visitors to meaningfully connect to a site occur
when an interpreter successfully links a site’s tangible resources to the intangible
meanings those resources tend to represent.
Using Tangibles and Intangibles
Interpreters use the word tangibles when talking about the physical elements of a site. A
tangible is concrete: it has material qualities that can be seen, touched, tasted, heard or
smelled. Examples include
•
a boat
•
a tree
•
a place like a battlefield
•
a mountain
•
a zoo specimen
•
an ecosystem
However, important people, events, stories, and processes (geologic, biologic, or
historical), although not necessarily concrete, also have physical qualities and may be
considered tangible.
Interpretation involves connecting these tangible resources to the concepts and ideas
they represent – to their intangible meanings. Intangible meanings are abstract and
include ideas, feelings, relationships, values and beliefs. Examples include
•
democracy
•
justice
•
freedom
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•
•
•
death
health
loss
Some intangible meanings are universal concepts –which everyone can relate to but
no two people will see exactly the same way. Some of the intangibles in an interpretive
product or service should be universal concepts because they provide the maximum
amount of relevance to the widest audience.
Connecting a site’s tangible resources to their intangible meanings makes the resources
more personally relevant and valuable to visitors. For example, when the home of
former United States President Harry Truman is linked with the concepts of social
equality and democracy, the site becomes more meaningful to the visitors. In turn, the
importance of preserving the home for others to visit is easier to see and support.
Other examples include:
Tangible: Mission building
Intangibles: religious conversion, change, faith
Universals: change, faith
Tangible: Martin Luther King Jr.
Intangibles: Peace, courage, inequality, civil rights
Universals: Peace, courage
Tangible: bear
Intangible: power, fear, conservation
Universals: power, fear
“The nature guide [interpreter] is at his best when he discusses facts so that they appeal
to the imagination and to the reason, gives flesh and blood to cold hard facts, makes life
stories of inanimate objects” (Enos Mills, Adventures of a Nature Guide p. 126).
Tangibles, intangibles, and universal concepts form the basic building blocks for
providing visitors with opportunities to connect to a resource.
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Making Connections: Using a Theme
The building blocks of interpretation are the tangible and intangible links that provide
opportunities for visitors to form their own emotional and intellectual connections to the
personal relevance and national significance of the resource. If these links are not
organized in a logical and meaningful way it will be difficult for the audience to form
connections. Cohesively developing an idea relevant to visitors helps provide a focus
for them to form meaningful connections.
The theme statement is the tool interpreters use to ensure that a product contains a fully
developed idea. An interpretive theme statement summarizes, articulates, and distills
the idea the interpreter wants to develop within the whole interpretive product. Writing
an interpretive theme as a single sentence compels the interpreter to think clearly about
what he is trying to say in the interpretive product or service. Resources for learning
how to write a theme statement can be found in the Resources section of this
document.
“An interpretive theme articulates a reason or reasons for caring about and caring for
the resource. Using a theme, an interpreter hopes to provoke the audience to know the
resource is meaningful and feel that its preservation matters.” (David Larsen, 2001).
Types of Interpretation
There are essentially two ways to deliver interpretation: personal services and media
(non-personal) products. Personal services provide opportunities for visitors to interact
with an interpreter in person. They include such activities as informal contacts, talks,
guided walks, and demonstrations. However, personal services reach only about 22%
of the visitors. In contrast, over 62% of visitors receive interpretation through media
products such as brochures, newspapers, audio tours, and exhibit labels. While
personal services may reach fewer visitors, they typically provide more immersive
experiences and allow for a greater degree of two-way communication. Media products
can be more enduring and reach broader audiences through multiple languages and a
diversity of formats. Regardless of the type of interpretative service being provided, the
definition of interpretation remains the same for both (Visitor Use and Evaluation of
Interpretive Media, 2003).
So what is interpretation? It is a bridge between the meanings of the resources and
interests of the visitors. It connects the tangible artifacts, collections, events, or natural
resources of a site to the intangible concepts they can represent. It is the role of the
interpreter to ensure that those connections are built on the interests of the visitor, and it
is the role of the visitor to determine which bridges will be crossed.
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WHY DO WE DO INTERPRETATION?
A question often asked and possessing countless possible answers, “Why do we
interpret the places we are entrusted with?” should evoke both practical and
philosophical replies. In The Fifth Essence, Freeman Tilden provided both a solid
definition of interpretation and a sound reason to provide interpretive services to visitors:
It is true that each preserved monument “speaks for itself.” But unfortunately it
speaks in a language that the average visitor cannot comprehend. Beauty and
the majesty of natural forces need no interlocutor. They constitute a personal
spiritual experience. But when the question is “why?” or “what?” or “how did this
come to be?” [interpreters] must have the answers. And this requires both
patient research and the development of a program fitted to a great variety of
needs (p. 56-7).
The tangible resources we as a society preserve in parks, museums, forests, and
heritage sites are relevant to many people. Part of the power of these national
treasures lives in their ability to convey many different things to many different
people. The reason we, as professionals, do interpretation is to help visitors
discover and understand the meanings of these sites. For those visitors who
already relate to the site, interpreters offer opportunities to discover a broader
understanding, to see the site with new eyes. The meanings that these sites provide
can help to inspire and rejuvenate — perhaps leading to an appreciation for the
richness and complexity of life.
Translating the meanings of sites into languages visitors can understand serves
three purposes: to reveal the meanings a site represents, to facilitate valuable
experiences for visitors, and to fulfill the agency’s mission.
Resources Possess Meanings and Have Relevance
Each resource, private or public, subtle or obvious, has enough relevance
(spoken powerfully to enough people or powerfully enough to a few people) to
have achieved protected status (Larsen, p. 16).
The reason a language translator interprets a message is because someone has a
message they want to share — or, more accurately, because someone wants to
understand the message. The resources at a site have messages and relevance that
can enrich visitors’ lives. Interpretation helps visitors explore the importance of site
resources and understand their larger significance.
These sites have been put into public trust because they are viewed as having enough
meaning and enough significance to our society to be preserved. The meanings and
significance of the site drive its preservation and inspire visitors to visit and to care.
Interpretation highlights those meanings so they are not lost or forgotten. Often, we take
for granted the beliefs and values that drive our actions and choices. For example, while
many Americans value the ability to travel or speak freely, few ponder the meaning of
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freedom on a daily basis. “Interpretation facilitates the process by which meanings
move from being taken for granted to being actively engaged” (Goldman, et al., 2001, p.
24). This active engagement may result in more memorable experiences as visitors find
new meanings in the resources they enjoy.
For those who do not yet understand a resource they are visiting, interpretation can help
reveal meanings and relevance — though it is important to recognize that visitors
control the opportunities they will pursue in order to connect with the resource. As
representatives of our site we may believe we are holders of the official “truth.”
However, even historical and scientific “facts” are subject to personal bias and
perception. While some meanings may be generally held by members of a society, the
value and acceptance of those meanings is personal.
In fact, frequently the meanings audience members find in interpretive products and
services are not those intended or even previously known to the interpreter. There may
be many other meanings and opportunities provided in addition to those that are
planned by the interpreter. Interpretive products and services are open to a range of
interpretations. Because interpretation is not about delivering a take-home message,
the fact that visitors find their own meanings and significance in an interpretive product
or service is not a problem. Unintended bridges and paths to caring about the resource
are as legitimate as intended opportunities to connect with the resource.
Visitors Are Seeking Something of Value for Themselves
At best, interpreters promote enriched recreational experiences that turn to
magic, where everything comes together, where there is unencumbered
delight in knowledge and experience — a greater joy in living, a better
understanding of one’s place in the overall scheme, a positive hope for the
future (Beck & Cable, p. 3).
People visit parks, museums, and cultural and historical sites for a variety of reasons:
relaxation, recreation, socialization, solitude—the list can be as varied as the visitors.
The one thing that all visitors share is that they are looking for something they value. By
nature humans seek to make meaning of their experiences. Some psychologists believe
that searching for meaning is the primary motivation in life (Frankl, 1946). The
resources at a site have relevance that can enrich visitors’ lives. Interpretation helps
visitors explore the relevance of site resources and understand the larger significance of
these resources.
In 1951, Freeman Tilden explained that visitors “want to idle, browse, inhale deeply,
hike, go horseback riding, take pictures, mingle with folks doing all these things, and
forget their jobs or their routine existence” (The National Parks, p. 33). But Tilden also
understood that visitors are seeking something more. He recognized that after
interacting with the resources at a site, for many visitors these things they initially
wanted are “not enough.” The resources “are no longer something just to look at; they
are something to wonder about” (p. 34). The resources spark curiosity and “hold out a
hand. There are few [visitors] who do not grasp it. There are secrets. There are few who
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do not want to penetrate some of them” (p. 34). Interpreters are the professionals who
reveal those secrets by translating them into a language the visitor can understand.
Whether the visitors are physical or virtual, the resource is the foundation of any
interpretive experience. Because visitors come to the parks to experience the genuine
artifact, facilitating access to those resources and resource meanings contributes
greatly to the relevance these special places hold in our society. It is the resources
contained within our parks that bring visitors to experience them: thus, resources serve
as the foundation of interpretive programs. The experiences visitors have with the
places are what make interpretation and education in a national park setting so rich,
vivid, and powerful. The most powerful experiences come from direct interaction with
the resource itself. The opportunity to have these experiences is why our resources are
preserved in the first place.
Just as there are many motivations for visiting a site, there are countless ways visitors
may find meaning and value in a site. It’s important to respect the variety of experiences
visitors are seeking. It doesn’t matter why visitors come to parks and love parks as long
as they aren’t breaking the law, damaging the resource, or adversely affecting the
experience of other visitors. Part of an interpreter’s role is to recognize when
interpretation will aid and when it will hinder the visitor’s search for a valuable,
meaningful experience. Interpreters must respect the variety of experiences visitors are
seeking. To create opportunities for meaningful connections for visitors to a site, the
interpreter must develop her skills.
Fulfilling the NPS Mission
The NPS Organic Act of 1916 sets out the agency’s overarching mission: “. . . to
conserve the scenery, and the natural and historic objects and the wild life therein
and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means
as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations.”
Interpretation aids organizations in preserving resources by helping visitors find
meanings in sites. As Tilden suggested, some of what the site has to say can be
understood by the visitor, but there may be additional meanings that the visitor may
not yet have discovered. Interpretation can build upon these opportunities to expand
the visitor’s experience and understanding of the resources.
The larger significance of the site resources provides the reason they have been
preserved and protected. Providing visitors with opportunities to form their own
intellectual and emotional connections with the significance of a site should help them
care about the site. Caring about something is the first step toward caring for it.
Interpretation, as the voice for the site, can be a critical tool in the preservation of the
resources at the site.
In the end, we conserve only what we love. We will love only what we
understand. We will understand only what we are taught.
- Baba Dioum, Senegalese poet
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Visitors who discover social significance, personal relevance and meaning will be more
inclined to participate in conserving a site’s resources so that future generations can
enjoy them. Leaving resources untouched or untaken, picking up trash, putting money
in a donation box, joining a cooperating association or friends group, volunteerism —
these are likely outcomes of deeper connections to park resources. This may then
translate into larger, more overarching support for resource protection and preservation
on a national level. Through the preservation of NPS units that encompass places,
ideas, meanings, events, and habitats we preserve the baseline components of a
healthy, evolving society and environment. The NPS cannot preserve these national
treasures forever without the public taking an active role in their preservation.
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WHAT SKILLS DO INTERPRETERS NEED?
What skills are needed to facilitate valuable, enjoyable experiences while translating the
meanings of the resource? Combining solid knowledge of the resource, knowledge of
the audience, and appropriate interpretive techniques is essential to providing
interpretive opportunities. These elements underlie every successful interpretive
service.
Visualizing the Components
There are many ways to visualize the relationship between the elements that comprise
effective interpretation. Three ways are described below. The interpretive equation
describes the relationship as a mathematical formula where the proper combination of
the elements results in an interpretive opportunity. The interpretive triangle shows how
elements must be in balance to have the desired effect. The last model describes
interpretation as an art, comprised of teachable elements.
o The Interpretive Equation:
(KR + KA) AT = IO
An interpreter’s knowledge of the resource (KR), combined with their knowledge
of the audience (KA), can be shared through an appropriate technique (AT) to
provide an interpretive opportunity (IO). The better the interpreter’s knowledge of
the resource and audience, and the more appropriate their techniques for
presenting their knowledge to that audience, the more likely an opportunity will
allow for the visitors to form their own personal connections with the resource. If
any elements of the equation are missing, no interpretive opportunity would be
offered. While clearly it is impossible to fully represent an interpretive product
with a simple mathematical formula, the interpretive equation is a useful tool to
help remember the key ingredients of good interpretation and how they relate to
one another.
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o Interpretive Triangle
Firefighters know that three ingredients are needed for a fire: fuel, oxygen, and
heat. Without all three elements, there can be no chemical reaction leading to
combustion. Fire educators have often used a fire triangle to illustrate this. To
adapt this visual aid for interpretation, the sides of the triangle are knowledge of
the resource, knowledge of the audience, and appropriate techniques. Without a
proper balance and application of all three elements, an interpretive opportunity
cannot be sparked. For example, an interpreter may have a solid knowledge of
the resource but little knowledge of the audience, so he may select interpretive
techniques that are inappropriate or ineffective for that audience.
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o Interpretation as ART
Another way to think about the fusion of elements in effective interpretation is to
visualize the combining of knowledge and intuition through artistic expression. In
this case, interpretation is an ART...
A = knowledge of Audience
R = knowledge of Resource
T = appropriate Techniques
...which combines many ARTs, and any ART is in some degree teachable.
These three models are tools for remembering the elements of effective interpretation,
but it isn’t important how these elements are remembered. What is important is that they
are skillfully applied when creating interpretive products. For NPS interpreters,
knowledge of the resource, knowledge of the audience, and appropriate techniques are
foundational competencies that define the work of interpreters and have been validated
for use in professional standards. The following three sections describe the essential
knowledge, skills, abilities, and behaviors necessary to obtain and apply professional
standards in these three components.
Knowledge of the Resource
Translators need to be fluent in two languages. If a translator can only speak one, then
he can’t properly convey the information in a second language. Knowledge of the
resource and knowledge of the audience are the languages interpreters must speak.
Because resources cannot speak clearly for themselves, knowledge of the resource is
crucial to interpretive success.
By developing a solid knowledge of the resources at their site, interpreters can tell a
more complete story. Interpreters must understand many different perspectives about
the resources at a site in order to offer opportunities for visitors to find personal
relevance. A battle isn’t simply a glorious victory—it is also a stunning defeat. Telling
only one side of the story robs the visitor of valuable opportunities to understand the
significance of the site. The more perspectives visitors have to choose from, the more
likely they are to form connections to the resource that are relevant to themselves.
The NPS has developed a competency statement that defines the knowledge, skills,
abilities and behaviors associated with solid knowledge of the resource. The
competency statement establishes the importance of knowledge of the resource and
outlines the scope of what such knowledge contains.
Competency Statement
Interpretation relies on multi-disciplinary knowledge to provide different audiences with
relevant and meaningful connections to park resources. Interpreters at all levels must
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have a thorough understanding of the underpinning research, tangible features,
associated concepts, context, relationships, systems, processes, human values, and
other meanings associated with the resource. They must understand multiple points of
view regarding the resource as well as the park’s past and current conditions, and they
must possess the skills to interpret these for all visitors.
All Interpreters should
•
Understand why research and knowledge related to the resource is important
and why it should be current, accurate, and comprehensive.
•
Understand the ways that research supports the interpreter’s ability to facilitate
opportunities for audiences to make their own intellectual and emotional
connections to the meanings and significance of the resource.
•
Use the philosophies, methodologies, and assumptions of professional
disciplines to conduct research and evaluate sources for their relevance and
validity.
Gaining Knowledge
Interpreters begin their efforts to create meaningful connections for visitors by first
gaining knowledge of the site. Every aspect of interpretation is potentially improved as
the interpreter learns more about park resources and their meanings and associated
stories — connections to other events and modern issues may become clear, diversity
of viewpoints may be more thoroughly understood, and provocative and controversial
topics may be more thoroughly addressed.
Knowledge is more than just the facts about the resource. The first chief historian for the
NPS, Verne Chatelain, knew the importance of giving meaning to facts: in 1935 he said,
“The task [of the NPS] is to breathe the breath of life into American history for those to
whom it has been a dull recital of meaningless facts — to recreate for the average
citizen something of the color, the pageantry, and the dignity of our national past”
(Mackintosh, p.22). To do this, interpreters must identify and be fully aware of the many
intangible and universal meanings the resources represent to various audiences.
Interpreters must possess a very broad knowledge of the history of the park beyond just
the enabling legislation. They must be knowledgeable about past and contemporary
issues and the condition of the park and its resources.
What interpreters do with their knowledge of the resource is as important as the
knowledge they possess. To be most effective, interpreters should use their knowledge
to convey the park's primary interpretive themes. Interpreters must be careful to rely on
accurate information when developing interpretive material and avoid the tendency to
exaggerate or slant information to present a personal or particular viewpoint.
Interpreters should not use their knowledge of the resources and the
intangible/universal meanings associated with them to offer only bland recitals of noncontroversial, "safe" facts. Sound interpretation embraces a discussion of human
values, conflicts, ideas, tragedies, achievements, ambiguities, and triumphs.
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There are many different ways to build a solid base of knowledge of the resource. The
most essential is to interact with the resource as much as possible. Interpreters must be
fully immersed in the resource to gain intimate knowledge—hiking the trails, listening to
the birds, touching the "real" things, smelling the farm, etc.—in order to comprehend a
full range of those resource meanings. Being immersed in the resource provides an
interpreter with a first-hand opportunity to explore the meanings of the resources at a
site. Interpreters should explore their own relationships to these resource meanings
before attempting to interpret them for their audiences.
Such first-hand knowledge can have a lasting impact on visitors. Take, for example, this
visitor’s recollection of a knowledgeable guide, shared with a researcher 50 years after
the park visit:
[The guide] talked about the alligators. He said that the alligators were just about
gone and that something should be done to restore them to the Glades because
the Glades some of them had been drained and I don’t know how many acres.
He seemed very, very knowledgeable. Whether he made it up or not he really
sounded like he knew what he was talking about (Barrie, 2001).
Another essential task in acquiring knowledge of the resource is reading a wide variety
of sources of written information. While it’s easy to rely on one or two common books or
documents, real depth of knowledge comes only through a thorough literature search,
including primary and secondary sources. In addition, knowledge of recent and on-going
research can keep the interpreter’s KR on the leading edge, providing an understanding
of changing theories, ideas, and attitudes. Validating the accuracy of any information
used in interpretive services is essential. Additionally, it is important for the interpreter
to be aware of recent and ongoing research about her resources – this provides an
understanding of changing theories, ideas, and attitudes.
Knowledge of a resource should also be built by talking to people with experience at a
site such as senior staff, park researchers, curators, and historians. It can be very
helpful to routinely approach these experts and ask questions like, “What is the most
important message we should be trying to get out to the public about this topic?” and
“How does this issue or problem impact the park?” Regularly reading a local newspaper
can help prepare an interpreter for visitor questions and to provide historical
comparisons. For example, how does segregation in the Omaha Public Schools today
compare to segregation in public schools during the Brown v. Board of Education case
of 1954?
Telling a More Complete Story
One advantage of developing a solid knowledge of the resources at a site is the ability
to tell more of the story. In describing a battle, is it a “glorious victory” or a “stunning
defeat”? Or is it both? Interpreters must understand many different opinions and
perspectives about each topic. One way to consider multiple perspectives and to tell a
more complete story is to ask, “Whose history is it?” For example, whose story during
the Civil War is being told? Is it the story of men, of women, of states’ rights, of slavery,
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of freedom? Asking these questions challenges the perspectives and the lenses through
which we view our sites’ stories.
Using multiple points of view is a necessary part of telling a more complete story and
illustrates that a subject may be legitimately viewed in many different ways. Interpreters
should accommodate and present multiple points of view in their interpretation and not
presume to expound what they think is the only "official" or "true" version of the
resources and their meaning. Interpreters encourage visitors to see resources from
different perspectives. The more perspectives visitors have to choose from, the more
likely they will be able to form connections to the resource that are relevant to
themselves. By providing a relevant opportunity to connect with the meanings and
significance of a resource, interpreters help visitors care more about the resource and
its preservation.
Knowledge of the Audience
To provide relevant opportunities for visitors to connect with the meanings and
significance of a site, interpreters must know about their audience. Understanding as
much as possible about the audience during the development of interpretive products is
essential to providing enjoyable visitor experiences. Without solid knowledge of the
audience, interpreters will not be able to meet their needs. They may inflict
interpretation on a visitor who just wanted some brief information—not every visitor
requires an "intensive" interpretive experience—or an interpretive product may alienate
a portion of the audience by being inappropriate. Without understanding the audience,
an interpreter may provide opportunities for the audience to care less about the site,
something no interpreter can afford to do.
It is important to understand and respect the reasons visitors come to parks and to meet
them “where they are” in their understanding of the value of the resource. They would
not have come if there wasn’t something about the place that already had some value to
them — recreational, educational, or inspirational. Good knowledge of the audience
enables us to recognize when to let the visitor and the resource interact on their own,
and when, how, and where it is appropriate to use interpretation to help them discover
new or renewed meanings in the resource.
Competency Statement
Knowledge of the audience characteristics, interests, expectations, and multiple points
of view (including psychological, social, cultural, economic, political, religious, historical,
and philosophical influences and perspectives) is necessary to develop interpretation
that is relevant to a wide variety of audiences. Knowledge of life stages, including varied
learning styles of audience members and developmental functioning among different
audience members, is important to fulfill the varied expectations and interests of the
audience. Understanding the many motivations for visiting a resource and being
cognizant of the existing meanings, present interpretations, and current attitudes that
visitors hold about a resource can be important components in making interpretation
relevant to as many visitors as possible.
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All interpreters should:
• Understand the importance of in-depth knowledge of the audience in
providing opportunities for visitors to develop their own connections to
resource meanings.
• Understand the types of knowledge that need to be gained for a
comprehensive understanding of the audience.
• Use research and analytical skills to acquire and continuously update their
knowledge of the audience.
• Understand that each site has multiple audiences and potential audiences.
• Understand and respect that audience motivations are self-generated and
widely varied, and that whatever their perspective or interest, all visitors
are potential stewards of the resource.
• Apply in-depth knowledge of the audience in the planning and
implementation of all their interpretive programs and services.
Gaining Knowledge
Knowledge of the audience comes from an understanding of how people learn and
communicate as well as how their motivations, values, beliefs, expectations, and
experiences shape their park visit. With this knowledge an interpreter can design an
interpretive opportunity, from what technique is most appropriate to the depth of
information covered to the style and approach in which it is presented.
Interpreters should first develop some knowledge of who is and who is not visiting their
park or site. Site visitor surveys and demographic studies are often available for this.
Then interpreters should seek out a variety of sources that help them understand and
relate to their potential audiences. Site supervisors, historians, planners and colleagues
will have personal and/or historical observations on visitor demographics, patterns of
visitation, behavior, and interests. Textbooks and journals are good sources for
information on learning theories and visitor behavior studies. Keeping up with current
events will aid interpreters in understanding the concerns and interests of the general
public and their specific audience. The more specific the understanding of audience
backgrounds, needs, expectations, and interests, the more tailored and effective the
interpretive service can become. Approaching all interpretation as being for some vague
“general audience” is not an effective way to help visitors care about the preservation of
park resources.
In addition, a number of accepted theories can easily be applied to interpretation,
including: basic communication theories, multiple intelligences, multiple learning styles,
Bloom’s taxonomy, Piaget and the stages of cognitive development in children, and
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. By utilizing how people think and learn, interpreters can
maximize the potential for their audiences to receive and understand park messages.
Relevant to the Audience
Knowledge of the audience is critical to successfully relating to the visitor. Audiences
want to know how it relates personally to them, or “what’s in it for me.”
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Foundations of Interpretation – Competency Narrative
•
All audiences who want to visit or read about a site are seeking something of
value for themselves. They expect something special. Many have a personal
sense of what the place means. Many know a great deal about the resource,
some know what family or friends have told them, and others simply assume the
resource contains something worthwhile. Some visitors are not sure what to
expect or may assume it has no personal relevance to them.
•
The meanings audiences ascribe to the resource have a great deal to do with the
success or failure of interpretation. Expert audiences require different
approaches than children, seniors, or international visitors. Of course, a given
interpretive product can be required to meet any combination of those audiences
as well as many more.
•
Some sites have formal visitor surveys and demographic information available.
All interpreters, during the casual conversation that often offers itself, can benefit
by asking visitors what the resource means to them. A visitor who says the forest
is a place for spiritual renewal, solitude, and self-understanding might require a
significantly different program than one who feels the forest is a place where they
can get bitten by a snake.
•
Interpreters can gather understanding of audience meanings by asking questions
like, “What brought you here today?”, “What did you expect to find?”, “What do
you hope to gain here?”, “What do you hope your children will take away with
them?”, and “If you had my job, what would you tell people?” An interpreter who
thinks about and records the answers to these questions has the opportunity to
tailor their interpretive products to meet current audience interests as well as
provide newly discovered relevance (From the process model section of the
2004 Module 103 TEL broadcast packet by Howk and Baltrus).
Asking visitors what they think or feel about a tangible resource will often evoke
emotionally-laden words and phrases, which can then be explored by the interpreter. It
is critical to remember that a thorough knowledge of a resource also means a thorough
understanding of the different meanings visitors ascribed to that resource, so knowledge
of the resource and knowledge of the audience are inseparably linked.
The link between knowledge of the resource and knowledge of the audience is clear
when considering multiple perspectives. As interpreters gain more knowledge of the
audience, the multiple perspectives visitors hold may be more thoroughly integrated into
interpretive services. Incorporating multiple points of view enables the product to relate
to the broadest audience possible. Using multiple points of view demonstrates and
models inclusiveness and an understanding that visitors have the right to retain their
own opinions while being exposed to new ideas.
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Respectful of the Audience
Knowledge of the audience is not only important to providing interpretive opportunities,
it is essential to being respectful of the audience. Interpreters must recognize and
respect the specific personal values and interests visitors associate with resources. To
do so, interpreters must investigate those values and interests. Interpreters should keep
in mind the "visitors' bill of rights:" Whether visiting a park on-site or virtually, visitors
have a right to
• have their privacy and independence respected;
• retain and express their own values;
• be treated with courtesy and consideration; and
• receive accurate and balanced information.
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Appropriate Techniques
Knowledge of the audience and knowledge of the resource are clearly represented in
the visitors’ bill of rights, but to enable visitors to be open to interpretive opportunities
one more piece of the equation is essential. To link the tangible resources of a site with
the intangible meanings they represent, appropriate interpretive techniques must be
used. Simply declaring that a resource is important because it represents the universal
struggle for survival does not provide an opportunity for visitors to form their own
connections to what the resource means or why it is significant. Using techniques such
as storytelling or comparisons, if appropriate for this specific service, can provide
opportunities for connections to the resource which may motivate visitors to care about,
and perhaps even care for, the resource.
Examples of Techniques
There are many interpretive techniques from which to choose. Some are used only in
personal services, but many are helpful in both personal interpretation and media
products. The following list of activities is reprinted with permission from Peggy Ann
Scherbaum’s Handles: A Compendium of Interpretive Techniques to Help Visitors
Grasp Resources.
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•
Activity – An educational procedure designed to stimulate learning by firsthand
experience.
o Example – In a lesson about the Lewis and Clark expedition, an
interpreter has a cloth tape measure cut to the circumference of a tree as
recorded in their journals. Audience members hold the tape measure and
form themselves into a circle, using the group to represent the size of the
tree’s girth.
o Skillful Delivery Tips – “Develop ways of brining the audience back down
(excitement level) after participating. These are especially important with
school groups. You must also prepare the audience at the beginning of
the program (when you have their attention) for the use of these calming
devices or tools” (Deren, M.P., pp. 10-11, 1994).
•
Analogy – The comparison of two pairs that have the same relationship.
o Example – The dog, when he approaches the briars, looks around to
make sure I am within gunshot. Reassured, he advances with stealthy
causation, his wet nose screening a hundred scents for that one scent, the
potential presence of which gives life and meaning to the whole
landscape. He is the prospector of the air, perpetually searching its strata
for olfactory gold. Partridge scent is the gold standard that relates his
world to mine. From A Sand County Almanac and Sketches Here and
There by Aldo Leopold.
o Skillful Delivery Tips – “Knowing ones audience is as critical here as in
any technique. A powerful choice of analogy when working with local
residents is a local reference that not only communicates the concept but
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also enhances the bond of community between the interpreter and
members of the audience” (Strang, C.A., pp.23-24, 1999).
•
Compare and Contrast – An examination of two or more items to establish
similarities and dissimilarities.
o Example – These two pine trees are a lot alike. Both have three needles
to a group, and they grow in the same kinds of places. But if you smell the
bark you’ll notice that one of them smells like vanilla and the other like
turpentine. From Environmental Education by Sam H. Ham.
o Skillful Delivery Tips – “Compare or contrast items in the same class.
Compare dogs and cats, but not dogs and trees. Otherwise you have no
logical basis for comparison” (Lannon 257). “Support and clarify the
comparison or contrast through credible examples. Use research if
necessary, for examples that readers can visualize” (Lannon 257).
•
Demonstration – Proving or making clear by showing evidence, illustration or
example.
o Example – Colonial settlers used leather for clothing such as moccasins,
as well as equipment like pouches and cartridge boxes. Interpreters at a
Revolutionary War site demonstrate the tanning and preparing of hides.
o Skillful Delivery Tips – “Make sure what you’re showing is visible.
Standing or sitting on a slightly elevated place will be helpful” (Lewis p.79).
“Gather the audience about you as closely as possible for better visibility
and audibility. This will also give you the advantage of intimacy” (Lewis
p.80). “Involve the audience in the process as much as possible. When
feasible, let them try the process, let them touch, smell and taste (when
not prohibited by the U. S. Public Health Service)” (Lewis, p. 80). “Be sure
the tools, apparatus, or materials are in good working order and are not
likely to malfunction” (NPS Training Methods 2:13).
•
Description – Discourse intended to give a mental image of something
experienced.
o Example – I have just learned to see praying mantis egg cases. Suddenly
I see them everywhere; a tan oval of light catches my eye, or I notice a
blob of thickness in a patch of slender weeds. It is over an inch long and
shaped like a bell, or like the northern hemisphere of an egg cut through
its equator. The full length of one of its long sides is affixed to a twig; the
side that catches the light is perfectly flat. It has a dead straw, deadweed
color, and a curious brittle texture, hard as varnish, but pitted minutely, like
frozen foam. From Pilgrim at Tinker Creek by Annie Dillard.
o Skillful Delivery Tips – “Select details that are concrete and specific
enough to convey an unmistakable picture” (Lannon 183). “Overused, this
method is monotonous” (NPS Training Methods 2:11).
•
Discussion – Consideration of a question in an open and usually informal debate.
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Example – An interpreter leads students in a discussion about the value of
having natural areas set aside in various climate regions. Students
contribute their own thoughts about the subject.
o Skillful Delivery Tips – Keep responses moving and facilitate a variety of
responses by being supportive and drawing out many opinions from the
group (see NPS Training Methods 2:11). Periodically summarize the
discussion for clarification and organization (NPS Training Methods 2:12).
o
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•
Examples – Items, facts, incidents, or aspects that are representative of a group
or type.
o Example – These orchids are a good example of a plant that grows on
other plants. From Environmental Interpretation by Sam H. Ham.
o Skillful Delivery Tips – “Make your examples specific and concrete: where
possible, draw from personal experience or rely on careful research”
(Jacobus p. 95). “Arrange examples in a series in an accessible order. If
your illustration is a narrative or some historical catalog, order your
examples chronologically. Otherwise, try a “least-to-most” (least-to-mostdramatic or important or useful). Placing the most striking example last
ensures greatest effect” (Lannon p. 210). “Know ‘how much is enough.’
Never-ending streams of examples wear an audience out” (Lannon p.
201). “Explain how the example fits the point. Close by refocusing on the
larger meaning of you examples” (Lannon p.201).
•
Explanation – To show the reason for or cause of.
o Example – NOTICE: Ultraviolet (UV) rays are an invisible part of sunlight.
These rays can be harmful; sunburn, peeling paint and faded window
curtains are all caused by UV. Tent fabric is also sensitive to UV rays.
Prolonged exposure can cause the fibers to fade and eventually
disintegrate. This tent will last longer if you limit its UV exposure. (From a
warning tag inside a tent).
o Skillful Delivery Tips: “This process may be tricky: under explain, and you
lose them; over explain, and you bore them and turn them off. So give
this question serious thought, and add or remove material accordingly
(Sometimes, if you think some audience members will understand but
others won’t, you’ll need to hedge gracefully with ‘As you may be aware’
or some similar expression’” (Perlman, p.7). “Know ‘how much is enough.’
Overexplaining insults a reader’s intelligence” (Lannon p. 201).
•
Illustration – A picture or diagram that helps make something clear.
o Example – During a guided tour among the ruins of an ancient village, an
interpreter shows the audience a drawing of what the village may have
looked like in its heyday.
o Skillful Delivery Tips – “Drawings, illustrations and written words in a visual
aid should be legible to everyone in the audience, even those seated
farthest away” (Ham 80). “A visual aid should be shown only for as long
as it provides new and relevant information” (Ham 80). Avoid “holding an
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•
illustration in your hand while you’re gesturing or pointing at something
else” (Ham 108).
Metaphor – A comparison implied or stated between two usually unconnected
objects (without using the words like or as), often equating them to one another.
o Example – Our lumber pile, recruited entirely from the river, is thus not
only a collection of personalities, but an anthology of human strivings in
upriver farms and forests. The autobiography of an old board is a kind of
literature not yet taught on campuses, but any riverbank farm is a library
where he who hammers or saws may read at will. Come high water, there
is always an accession of new books. From A Sand County Almanac and
Sketches Here and There by Aldo Leopold.
o Skillful Delivery Tips – “Metaphors should make one point sharply. Long,
extended metaphors seldom interest the reader” (Marius 167).
•
Photograph – A picture or likeness obtained by the process of producing images
on a sensitized surface by the action of radiant energy.
o Example – An interpreter carries a photograph in her pocket. It shows the
park setting 150 years ago, when only a few coconut palms dotted the
otherwise treeless island. When visitors inquire about why the Caussyrina
trees are being burned by resource management, the photograph helps
her explain how invasive exotics have altered the landscape.
o Skillful Delivery Tips – Photographs can be laminated for guided hikes or
informal interactions. In presenting multiple photographs, provide enough
time for the visitors to process each image. Pacing and sequencing is
important. Avoid bias and propaganda in selection of photographs. “When
using photos from any source, be sure they are sufficient quality or
resolution. You want to use photos that are at least 150 dots per inch.
Most internet photos are only 72 dots per inch” (Renzo, A. & Robertson,
H., pp.145-147, 2003). Be aware of and respect copyright laws. Consider
using photographs from the NPS Focus Digital Library, an enormous
online storehouse of NPS images and reports.
•
Presentation of evidence – A descriptive or persuasive account of something that
furnishes proof.
o Example – Glacier National Park has approximately 50 small glaciers.
The glaciers have receded since they were first described in 1901, and
tree-ring studies indicate that glacial retreat began about 1850. At that
time there were more than 150 glaciers within Glacier National Park.
(From the website nrmsc.usgs.gov/research/glaciers.htm).
o Skillful Delivery Tips – “Any argument is only as convincing as the reasons
that support it. Before readers will change their minds, they need to know
why” (Lannon 284). “Evidence (factual support from an outside source) is
objective when it can be verified (shown to be accurate) by everyone
involved. Common types of objective evidence include factual statements,
statistics, examples, and expert testimony” (Lannon 285). Professionalism
may be as important as logic when it comes to being persuasive.
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•
Prop – A physical aid that strengthens or supports an interpretive message.
o Example – An interpreter brings a collection of props when visiting a
school to talk about the Lewis and Clark expedition. Among the items she
brings are a beaver fur, a peace medal, a reproduction journal, and a plug
of tobacco.
o Skillful Delivery Tips – “Make sure the prop is visible to everyone in the
audience. If the prop is too small for everyone to see (such as a seed,
cone or pebble), you should have enough of them to distribute throughout
the audience” (Ham 97). “Carry a knapsack or day pack containing visual
aids and communication helpers which you can use at planned stops or to
capitalize on unexpected opportunities. Depending on your tour and
audience, you might consider tools such as: field guides, binoculars, hand
lens, thermometers, increment borer, hand puppets, meter stick, tape
measure, string, tree cross sections, mounted photos, drawings, a small
flannel board and prepared illustration, maps, compass, mirror, mounted
animals and plant specimens, small tape player for playing bird calls or
oral history excerpts, clay or “Play-Doh” for creating miniature landscapes
or showing how rocks are made, a spray bottle with water for highlighting
spider webs, examples of hard-to-find things such as owl pellets, old bird
nests, snake skins, soil core samples, human artifacts, etc.” (Ham 147).
“Props, or artifacts, should never overwhelm the interpretive program; they
should augment the presentation. Too much ‘stuff’ often distracts the
audience and draws them away from the theme of the presentation”
(Weldon, B. & Luxader, J. C. F., pp.43-44, 2001).
•
Questioning – Conveying points of debate or propositions.
o Example – An interpreter begins her program with the question, “How do
you suppose this huge rock got to be perched on top of this column?”
o Skillful Delivery Tips – “Ask different types of questions during a program.
Let each question have a preconceived purpose, however. Quality – not
quantity – of questions is the key to a good presentation” (Regnier, Gross,
& Zimmerman p. 31). “Allow time for an answer. This is called ‘wait-time.’
Research has shown that the longer the questioner allows for an answer,
the better the answer will be. Never answer your own questions. If no one
offers a response, leave it open to be answered later or rephrase the
question” (Regnier, Gross, & Zimmerman p. 30). “Honor the thinking
process, not the fastest hand. Open-ended questions give a person an
opportunity to think and search for more comprehensive answers. This
process takes time. Wait five to 15 seconds before soliciting a response”
(Immer, S., pp. 44-45, 2003). “Do not start a question with ‘Does anyone
know.’ or ‘Can anyone tell me.’ Such phrases express doubt that the
question can be answered” (Regnier, Gross, & Zimmerman p. 32). “Accept
answers to questions gracefully, even if the answers are wrong. Never
make someone feel foolish for participating in the program” (Regnier,
Gross, & Zimmerman p. 30). “Acknowledge the visitor’s contribution, not
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the correctness of the answer. Never respond to an individual’s
contribution with ‘no’ or ‘wrong’. Open-ended questions have multiple
answers appropriate to each learner’s perspective. Responses such as
‘good’ and ‘perfect’ should also be avoided. They place value on an
answer and can stop an active discussion by leading other persons to
believe that there is nothing left to contribute” (Immer, S., pp44-45, 2003).
“Honor the person by respecting his/her right to express ideas. Use of
effective listening techniques results in improved participation” (Immer, S.,
pp.44-45, 2003).
•
Quotation – A passage referred to or repeated, especially in substantiation or
illustration.
o Example – This dilemma was eloquently expressed by Harriet Farley, a
Lowell mill girl: “Each new invention was looked upon as a portent from
the evil one for our destruction. Yet think of the toil which would befall us
were we to return to clothing the nations by hand.” (From Tess Shatzer,
Interpretive Park Ranger, Lowell National Historical Park).
o Skilful Delivery Tips – “Ensure accuracy. Copy the selection word for
word; record the exact page numbers, and double-check that you haven’t
altered the original expression in any way” (Lannon 370). “Keep the
quotation as brief as possible” (Lannon 370). “Less is more. Two or three
well-chosen quotes are better than six or eight that distract from your
message and make your audience wonder whether you have any original
thoughts” (Perlman, p.62). “If the quote is long, pick only the part that’s
truly relevant to your speech and that performs the function you want it to
perform” (Perlman, p. 62). “Take great care in setting up the quote and
identifying the person who said it. Make an educated guess as to your
audience’s knowledge base, and proceed accordingly. Nobody needs to
be told who Confucius was, although you can give a little historical
perspective: ‘Over two thousand years ago, Confucius wrote’” (Perlman,
p.62).
•
Sensory Experience – Direct participation through sight, hearing, smell, taste, or
touch.
o Example – On a guided walk through a forest, an interpreter encourages
group members to close their eyes and differentiate and describe the bark
of different trees, using only their sense of touch.
o Skilful Delivery Tips - “Sounds and smells are important mood setters. The
sound of rushing water provides a pleasing backdrop, but not if it drowns
out the speaker. Recorded sound can work well indoors, but can seem
artificial out-of-doors” (Regnier, p.36). Consider both the variety and the
potency of the items experienced.
•
Storytelling – Relaying a fictional or historical narrative.
o Example – An interpreter recounts the actions, thoughts, and statements
of citizens in New Orleans in the days before Hurricane Katrina hit.
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o
Skillful Delivery Tips – “Good stories pose a problem that cause listeners
to anticipate a resolution” (Regnier, Gross, &Zimmerman, p.52). “Recreate
sounds for dramatic effect: The ‘crrreak’ of a door, the ‘zzzzzt’ of a
mosquito landing” (Regnier, Gross, &Zimmerman, p. 53). “The visual and
musical aspects of storytelling should dance in harmony with the literary
aspect and never upstage it. One can tell when the literary aspect has
been upstaged. In such a case, we find ourselves more interested in the
presence, gestures or use of voice of the teller rather than imaginatively
engaging with a story” (Strauss 25). “Practice expressing different
emotions, feelings, or attitudes using only your face” (Yemoto, L. &Stobie,
P.J. F., pp. 10-11, 2001). “Once you’ve learned and told your story, only
repeated telling will let you polish your story. Practice, practice, practice!
Tell your story to a mirror, tape recorder, a video recorder, and to anyone
who will listen” (Yemoto, L. & Stobie, P.J.F., pp.10-11, 2001). “Storytelling,
by its very nature, is improvisational. The more you tell your story, the
more you will mold and shape it to fit your telling and your audience”
(Yemoto, L. & Stobie, P.J.F., pp. 10-11, 2001). “Let the story speak for
itself. If the story has a ‘moral’ let the listeners discover it. Never
summarize a story after you tell it, or point out a moral” (Addicks, M. 1989,
p.3). “Listen to your listeners listening. You are speaking to friends, not
performing on a stage. Pay attention as you speak to how they are
responding. Without an audience you are not a storyteller. You are having
a conversation with your listeners even though they do not speak”
(Addicks, M. 1989, p.3). “Select only stories which move you emotionally.
The best stories come from or are told from deep within yourself, from
your own encounter with the mystery of existence. A story conveys
information through emotions. Human beings not only observe life, they
experience it. Only if you are emotionally involved with your story will it
work for your audience. Your experience of the story will become theirs’
(Addicks, M. 1989, p.3).
Competency Statement
Interpretation relies on the appropriate integration of a wide variety of techniques to
foster opportunities for meaningful connections to the resource. The selection of
techniques must be based on specific program objectives and on knowledge of the
strengths and weaknesses of each technique. In addition, knowledge of both the
audience and the resource is necessary to determine the appropriateness of the
technique. Possessing and demonstrating the skills necessary to execute the chosen
approach must also be considered.
All Interpreters should
• Understand the role of interpretive techniques in fostering an opportunity for an
intellectual or emotional connection to the meanings/significance of the resource.
• Understand the strengths and weaknesses of the use of a particular technique.
• Recognize the appropriate use of a particular technique in relation to the
resource, setting, and audience.
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•
Skillfully implement a variety of interpretive techniques in formal programs,
media development, and informal contacts.
Appropriateness
Techniques should be appropriate for the audience, the resource and the interpreter.
There are various factors about the audience to consider when selecting techniques,
some of which are more obvious. Age, native language, accessibility issues, and the
social composition of the group (family, friends, or strangers) are some of the first things
to consider. Other factors include the following:
• Area of Residence (Rural, Urban, Suburban)
• Cultural Diversity and Influences
• Education level
• Site conditions
• Interests
• Learning Styles
• Ethnicity
• Gender
• Group Dynamics
• Sexual Orientation
• Race
• Size of Group
• Socio-Economic Background
• Stage of Life
While techniques should be appropriate for the audience, they should also be
appropriate for the resource. Protecting the resource is always paramount, So
techniques that degrade the resource should be avoided. Interpretive services or
products that include collections and resources that are considered sacred require
techniques selected with special care. To choose appropriate techniques in such
instances, interpreters need to communicate with other people at the site, such as
administrators and collection/resource managers. The tone of the site should influence
the techniques used. Techniques appropriate for recreation areas may not be
appropriate for war memorials.
Appropriateness for the audience and the resource is crucial, but ultimately the
techniques selected must also be appropriate for the interpreter. An interpreter whose
singing voice leaves something to be desired shouldn’t include the technique of singing
to the audience in their campfire program. Alternatively, getting the audience involved in
a sing-along could be appropriate if delivered with skill. If an interpreter doesn’t feel
comfortable with a technique, or has not practiced the use of the technique, it is not
appropriate for her to use it. Just as a good host doesn’t serve a dish he’s never
prepared to his guests, a good interpreter shouldn’t use techniques in an interpretive
product without practicing first.
There are various ways to learn more about interpretive techniques. Some helpful
resources include:
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Foundations of Interpretation – Competency Narrative
•
•
•
Watching or reading other interpretation – when you see or read something that
really connects with you, consider its appropriateness for one of your resources.
Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery.
Supervisors and colleagues – experienced interpreters have tried many
techniques and should have valuable insights to share.
Books or articles about techniques – there are many good textbooks that teach
about interpretive techniques. See the resources section for recommendations.
Selecting Techniques
A good host usually doesn’t serve only one dish; that would be boring and uninspired.
Just as an effective interpretive service contains multiple points of view to be relevant to
many visitors, the service should also contain multiple techniques to offer multiple
opportunities for visitors to form their own connections to the meanings and significance
of the resource.
There are many interpretive techniques, none of which is inherently better than any
other. The interpreter should never choose a technique without first identifying the
theme, goals, and objectives and the prospective audience to determine if it is an
appropriate "fit." Choosing techniques at random or because the interpreter personally
enjoys them may mean that programs only reach a small portion of the audience.
The selection of appropriate techniques requires knowledge of park audiences and
resources, along with knowledge of the great variety of techniques that can be used and
how to skillfully apply them in different situations. Virtuosity in both selection and
delivery of appropriate techniques is gained through practice, experience, selfassessment, and constructive feedback.
Interpreters need to stay current on communications and delivery techniques and new
media possibilities and use them appropriately. However, beware of adopting
techniques simply because they are new. The key is to thoroughly examine the
appropriateness of the technique before beginning to practice with it. Interpreters must
regularly evaluate the effectiveness of the techniques and replace and update them
when they no longer achieve the desired outcomes of addressing the themes, goals,
and objectives of the interpretive service while providing opportunities for visitors to form
their own connections to the meanings and significance of the resources at a site.
Making it Engaging
No matter which techniques are selected, an interpretive service should be actively
engaging. Asking thought-provoking questions can be just as interactive as having
visitors participate in a hands-on activity. It is possible for all interpretive services,
including media, to be participatory. Effective interpretive techniques facilitate some
level of audience involvement or engagement, be it passive or active.
Engaging the visitors directly, either by having them drive the experience with
questions, concerns, and observations of their own, or by giving them something
specific or tangible to connect with on a personal level, is essential to effective
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interpretation. Try to be creative in engaging the audience. Having audience members
share their thoughts and experiences can allow the audience to participate without
adding time and cost. Including opportunities that involve the senses of touch and smell,
when appropriate, engage visitors’ senses beyond sight and sound. With well-crafted
text, interpretive media (such as a brochure or self-guided trail) can encourage visitors
to participate in the experience by including questions that ask them to reflect on their
own experiences or share their thoughts with other members of their group.
Delivery Skills
In addition to the three essential components of the interpretive equation (knowledge of
the resource, knowledge of the audience and appropriate techniques), good
communication skills help interpreters provide opportunities for visitors to form their own
intellectual and emotional connections to the relevance and significance of a site.
Good Communication Skills
Interpreters and the services they provide are the communication link between the
visitor and the resource. An interpreter may have a wonderful program planned, but if
he or she does not have good communication or delivery skills even a well-designed
service can fail to be effective. A poorly written wayside or a crowded, confusing graphic
display has a greater chance of hindering visitor connections than facilitating them. In
personal services, eye contact, facing the group, appropriate volume and pitch, proper
grammar, a little confidence, and even minimizing regional accents all play an important
role in program delivery. Communication and delivery skills can also include reading
and reacting to non-verbal gestures and the ability to overcome communication barriers.
In media services, clear, concise and organized writing and design, as well as proper
grammar, spelling, and punctuation, are critical to effectively reaching an audience.
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Foundations of Interpretation – Competency Narrative
HOW DO YOU DO INTERPRETATION?
The Pieces
While the task of learning a resource, understanding its visitors, and gaining skill in
interpretive techniques may seem large enough, interpreters still need to know how to
put the pieces together. The steps necessary for constructing interpretive products and
services vary by person and product because interpretation is a very creative process.
While the approaches may all differ, the following pieces are essential:
• Recognizing the motivations, expectations, and prior knowledge of the visitors to
a site
• Identifying the site’s primary interpretive themes
• Identifying goals and objectives for the service or product based on agency and
audience needs
• Selecting tangible resources and choosing one as an icon for the focus of the
interpretive service
• Identifying intangible meanings that the tangible resources represent
• Verifying that intangible meanings include universal concepts (such as life, love,
death, survival, family) that most people can relate to in some way
• Identifying a specific audience for the service
• Brainstorming an imaginative idea, a thread that will wind its way through the
service and tie all the parts together
• Writing a specific theme statement that expresses this idea
• Selecting appropriate techniques that link the tangible resources with the
intangible meanings they represent
• Selecting a strategy based on a theme to organize the opportunities for
intellectual and emotional connections to the meanings and significance of the
resource in such a way that the audience can follow where the interpreter is
leading
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Putting the Pieces Together
The pieces of the interpretive process have been linked together in the Process Model.
The following steps for the process are reprinted with permission from David L. Larsen’s
Meaningful Interpretation:
Step 1
Select a tangible place, object, person, or event that you want the audience to care
about.
An interpretive product or service may provoke the audience to care about more than
one tangible resource. A program might focus on a single plant but intend for the
audience to also care about the species, place, and ecosystem. Similarly, an interpreter
might use a specific artifact to represent the material culture of a particular time and the
people who created and used it.
While an interpretive product or service may include several tangible resources, usually
one tangible resource acts as an icon or symbol. The icon is the engine that powers the
presentation, a net that captures and reveals a myriad of ideas, values, relationships,
contexts, systems, and processes. The icon provides a starting point and reference for
an exploration of associated tangible resources and multiple resource meanings. The
icon should be used to address in some way the larger interpretive themes and goals of
the site.
An interpretive product or service might use more than one tangible resource as an
icon. An interpretive tour usually focuses on a different object or feature at each stop to
explore a unique meaning or meanings. Sometimes an essay or talk uses two or more
icons to describe multiple perspectives regarding the same topic. The more icons an
interpretive product uses, however, the more complicated the development and delivery
will be.
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Foundations of Interpretation – Competency Narrative
Step 2.
Identify intangible meanings.
Considered only in terms of its physical attributes, a tangible resource has limited
significance. Without the stories that go with it, the Liberty Bell is a cracked piece of
metal with almost no value. Without the meanings of beauty, life, and the forest
ecosystem, a tree might only be measured in board-feet. However, when a tangible is
linked to broader intangible meanings its value becomes relevant to more people — its
importance more apparent and accessible.
Each tangible resource has an incredible variety of intangible meanings. Those
meanings can be obvious and popular or obscure and controversial. The more
Knowledge of the Resource (KR) and Knowledge of the Audience (KA) an interpreter
has, the more meanings can be linked to the tangible resources.
Tangible-intangible links are the basic building blocks of interpretation. Connecting
experiences occur when the tangible resource is linked to some larger intangible
meaning in a way that the audience can personally relate to and that provokes
understanding and/or appreciation. Intangible meanings speak to different people in
different ways. Only when the tangible-intangible link is personally relevant does an
individual connect to the resource. As Freeman Tilden states in his first Principle, “Any
interpretation that does not somehow relate what is being displayed or described to
something within the personality or experiences of the visitor will be sterile” (Tilden,
1957, p.11).
A tangible-intangible link occurs when the interpreter, in constructing the product or
service, meshes or combines the tangible resource with an intangible meaning or
meanings. Audiences wish to connect personally to the subject and/or resource, and if
this meshing is skillfully done and developed through the use of a specific technique
(see below), a tangible-intangible link is produced in the mind of the audience member.
Sometimes this occurs through the better understanding of context, a gaining of insight,
discovery, or revelation — in other words, the intellectual. Other times the connection
comes through the emotions — provoking a feeling of enjoyment, empathy, wonder,
concern, amazement, or pride.
Step 3.
Identify universal concepts.
Some intangible meanings are universal concepts — a concept that everyone can relate
to but that no two people will see exactly the same way. Universal concepts are
intangible meanings that are relevant to almost everybody. They are powerful vehicles
that reach many people in significant ways. Some of the intangibles in an interpretive
product or service should be universal concepts because they provide the maximum
amount of relevance to the widest audience.
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Like all intangible meanings, universal concepts can, and must, be linked to a tangible
resource in order to produce an interpretive opportunity. If presented by themselves,
universal concepts can be abstract and too abrupt to help the audience make personal
connections to the meanings of the resource. Merely stating a universal concept does
not help visitors make meaningful connections.
An interpreter must provide the universal concept in connection with a tangible
resource. Links that include a universal concept tend to work best when presented with
other tangible-intangible links. For example, a program proclaiming the power of water
without explaining the process of erosion might not reach a large segment of the
audience. But if the program describes and uses erosion as evidence for the power of
water to effect change (power and change are universal concepts), both erosion and the
power of water might become more compelling. Similarly, standing in The Bloody Lane
at Antietam National Battlefield and only speaking of death and bravery could seem
disconnected to those unfamiliar with the Civil War. However, a description of the
events that occurred there — the ways in which officers and soldiers maneuvered,
stumbled, and fought, the significance of their equipment and technology to the results
of the encounter — might make more powerful impressions of both the tactics and the
horror of war.
Universal concepts, joined with other tangible/intangible links, can provoke a desire to
understand and appreciate intangible meanings that might otherwise seem
uninteresting because these universals have touched a wider part of the human spirit.
Step 4.
Identify the audience.
All audiences who visit or read about a site are seeking something of value for
themselves and all expect something special. Each has a personal sense of what the
place means. Many already know a great deal about the resource, some know what
family or friends have told them, and others simply assume the resource contains
something worthwhile.
For interpretive programming to be most relevant, audience members’ identity, culture,
ethnicity, learning styles, and motivations for visiting should be examined. What are the
audience members’ expectations and interests? What existing meanings, beliefs, and
attitudes do they bring to the resource? It is important to understand and respect the
reasons visitors come to our sites. Visitors find value in park resources for a variety of
reasons. Regardless of their motivation for coming, the interpreter’s job is to ensure that
each visitor has a positive experience that fosters care for the resource.
Step 5.
Write a theme statement — include a universal concept.
An effective program has a focus and intends to clearly explore an idea or ideas about
the resource, yet successful interpretation occurs when audiences make their own
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Foundations of Interpretation – Competency Narrative
connections to the meanings of the resource. It may seem like a contradiction — an
interpretive product conveys an idea but the audience should take away their own
meanings.
An interpretive theme solves the problem. An interpretive theme is a tool that develops
an idea or ideas in order to inspire connections. An interpretive theme is not a message
as much as it is a relevant point that encourages new thoughts and feelings. A wellpresented program based on a solid interpretive theme will likely provoke connections
the interpreter did not anticipate and may never become aware of. No one in the
audience may be able to repeat exactly the interpreter’s theme, but the focus should be
clear and most people’s versions will be related and recognizable. The theme enables
the interpreter to communicate in an organized way and allows the audience to engage
personally based on that communication.
The interpreter should craft a theme statement that includes a tangible resource linked
to one or more intangible meanings based on the goal for the interpretive product, the
identified tangible-intangible links, and the knowledge of the audience. The most
compelling interpretive products have themes that tie a tangible resource to a universal
concept.
Interpretive themes
• Are single sentences that express meaning;
• Link a tangible resource to its intangible meanings;
• Organize interpretive products;
• Use tangible resources to focus on universally relevant concepts, linking them
together.
In the past, interpreters and supervisors were advised that the success or failure of an
interpretive product could be easily measured by the audience’s ability to state the
theme. This led to products where the theme was constantly repeated with the hope
that the audience would be able to parrot the message. A theme is not a refrain, a
sound bite, or a “take-home message.” Products organized in this manner generally fail
to cohesively develop an idea for the audience over the course of the delivery.
Crafting an interpretive theme takes care, time, and editing. It often takes several drafts
of both the theme and the product for the interpreter to become clear about what to say
and how to say it.
Examples of interpretive themes:
Topics (but Not
Interpretive
Themes)
Interpretive Themes
The power of water.
The power of water to carve, smooth, and continuously reshape
this landscape provides opportunities for us to marvel at how this
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seemingly simple liquid can play such a profound role in every
landscape on the planet.
Antietam was the
bloodiest battle of
the Civil War.
The Battle of Antietam became a turning point in the American
Civil War, halting the southern advance and making way for the
Emancipation Proclamation — the moral, social, and economic
legacies of which continue to profoundly influence the lives of
contemporary Americans.
Lincoln’s boyhood.
The values and life lessons that Lincoln learned here as a boy
helped mold him into the man who would become President and
typify the enduring connections that we all share in our
progression from youth to maturity.
Fire in nature.
Fire is a natural process that creates life out of death and
provides insight into tangible and intangible loss and renewal.
Step 6
Use interpretive techniques to link tangibles to their intangible meanings, providing
audiences with opportunities to make personal connections to those meanings.
The next step is to choose and develop tangible-intangible links that illustrate the idea
or ideas expressed in the theme statement into opportunities for the audience to form
personal connections to the meanings of the resource. By themselves links do not
provide opportunities for emotional and intellectual connections to the meanings of the
resource. Links must be developed into opportunities for audiences to make
connections to meanings. The resources and their meanings should be presented in a
compelling and engaging way through the use of specific techniques such as stories,
descriptive language, props, quotations, activities, and illustrations. A running narrative
with facts is not a technique: it is information, not interpretation.
Links between tangible items and their intangible meanings are developed by using
appropriate techniques. A visitor may know that freedom is an intangible meaning
associated with Ellis Island, but exploring that link through an interpretive service or
product would give the visitor an opportunity to connect with and draw meaning from his
or her experience. The interpreter must choose the most appropriate technique for
providing such exploration. Simply telling the audience that Ellis Island means freedom
does not offer a fully developed interpretive opportunity. Using techniques such as
reading a letter from a recent immigrant, showing a photo of people arriving at the
island, or telling a story of one family’s experience with freedom at Ellis Island would
provide the link necessary for visitors to make a personal connection with the resource.
To be broadly relevant, an interpretive product must provide opportunities for both
emotional and intellectual connections to the meanings of the resource. Some of the
links should be intentionally developed to provide opportunities for emotional
connections and some for intellectual connections. An interpreter needs to plan specific
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Foundations of Interpretation – Competency Narrative
opportunities that are intended to inspire or provoke feelings like awe, wonder,
sympathy, curiosity, amazement, regret, grief, and/or anger. Other specific opportunities
should provoke insight, understanding of context, and discovery and reveal
relationships. Some techniques are better at developing one type of opportunity over
the other.
Remember that many techniques may be used to develop a link into an opportunity for
an emotional or intellectual connection to the meanings of the resource. Success
depends on the link, the theme, the interpreter’s KR and KA, style, and the purpose of
the interpretive product. Stories, explanations, comparisons, quotes, activities,
demonstrations, examples, evidence, illustrations, questions, and discussions are just
some of the techniques interpreters use.
Step 7.
Use the theme statement to organize opportunities for connections and cohesively
develop an idea or ideas.
Think back to composition courses you may have taken in high school or in college. An
interpretive product is not so very different. You might introduce your topic and theme in
the first paragraph, then support your argument using specific techniques such as
examples, citations from text, or comparisons or contrast in the next few paragraphs,
and finally conclude your piece in the final paragraph.
The theme statement of the interpretive product should be used to organize the
opportunities into a sequence that cohesively develops the relevant idea or ideas stated
in the theme, much as you would in a composition for English class. It is important to
plan effective transitions to move from one opportunity to another.
Opportunities for emotional and intellectual connections to the meanings of the resource
sequenced with effective transitions and arranged to support a well-crafted interpretive
theme statement provide the architecture for a cohesively developed idea or ideas.
The best way to reveal meaning is through the exploration of an idea. To be relevant
and provocative, an interpretive product must cohesively develop an idea or ideas over
the course of its delivery. A meaningful idea captures, organizes, and sustains the
attention of the audience. A meaningful idea provides opportunities for audiences to
make their own connections to the meanings of the resource. Without the cohesive
development of a relevant idea or ideas, products are merely collections of related
information or haphazard arrays of tangible/intangible links — they are not interpretive.
A tutorial has been developed to explain the process model in an interactive format. The
tutorial is available online at http://interp.eppley.org.
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CONCLUSION
At best, interpreters promote enriched recreational experiences that turn to magic,
where everything comes together, where there is unencumbered delight in knowledge
and experience - a greater joy in living, a better understanding of one's place in the
overall scheme, a positive hope for the future.
~Larry Beck and Ted Cable, 1998
Although you may now know the basic what, why, and how of interpretation, this only
gives you the foundation. It is up to you to build upon that foundation to offer meaningful
experiences for your visitors. A suite of interpretation courses is available at
www.interptraining.org to assist you in developing the knowledge and skills to become a
full-performance interpreter.
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