on
le
t,
tond-
ge
art
C A R D S O R T I N G by DONN A SPENCER
w
on
her
to
C ARD SORTING
Designing Usable Categories
by DONN A SPENCER foreword by Jesse James Garrett
TABLE OF CONTENTS
How to Use This Book
iii
Who Should Read This Book?
What’s in This Book?
iii
iv
What Comes with the Book?
iv
Frequently Asked Questions
vi
Foreword
xii
CHAPTER 1
All About Card Sorting
My First Card Sort
What Is Card Sorting?
Steps in a Card Sort
How Card Sorting Is Used
A Word of Caution
Complementary User Research Techniques
Timing of Card Sorts in a Project
Let’s Get Sorting
Chapter 1 Summary/Tips
1
3
4
5
6
8
9
12
13
14
CHAPTER 2
All About Organizing
15
The Challenges of Organizing
Structure: Hierarchies and Databases
Classification Schemes
Categories
Chapter 2 Summary/Tips
References
16
20
24
31
38
39
m```
:Xi[Jfik`e^
CHAPTER 3
Defining the Need
43
Need to Learn Broad Ideas
44
Need to Check You’re on Track
44
Need to Explore an Idea in Detail
Need to Compare People
Justify a Recommendation
Setting Goals
Chapter 3 Summary/Tips
45
45
45
46
47
CHAPTER 4
Choose the Method
51
Open or Closed Card Sort
Team Versus Individual Card Sorts
Manual Versus Software
Chapter 4 Summary/Tips
52
54
55
60
CHAPTER 5
Choose the Content
61
Locating Content
Tips for Selecting Content
How Much Content/How Many Cards?
Working on Large Sites
Chapter 5 Summary/Tips
62
64
69
70
71
CHAPTER 6
Choose the People
73
Choosing a Facilitator
Choosing the Participants
Chapter 6 Summary/Tips
74
74
81
KXYc\f]:fek\ekj
`o
CHAPTER 7
Make the Cards
83
Making Physical Cards
84
Closed Card Sort: Making Category Cards
87
Making “Cards” Using a Software Tool
Chapter 7 Summary/Tips
87
88
CHAPTER 8
Manage the Sort
93
Prepare for Analysis
Other Supplies
Before You Start: The Test Run
Run the Card Sort
Hand Out the Cards
Observe the Sort
Record the Outcomes
Chapter 8 Summary/Tips
94
94
95
96
100
101
104
106
CHAPTER 9
Use Exploratory Analysis
Goals and Exploratory Analysis
Preparing for Exploratory Analysis
Start the Analysis
Chapter 9 Summary/Tips
CHAPTER 10
Use Statistical Analysis
Goals and Statistical Analysis
Analyzing the Data
Chapter 10 Summary/Tips
o
:Xi[Jfik`e^
109
110
112
117
126
127
128
129
141
CHAPTER 11
Use What You’ve Learned
145
Use All Inputs
146
Be Practical
147
Don’t Assume
Determine Categories Carefully
Be Flexible
Test Your IA
Don’t Rely on a Technique to Do Your Thinking
147
148
148
149
150
APPENDIX
Documentation
151
Bare-Bones Report
Detailed Report
Comprehensive Report
153
153
154
Index
155
Acknowledgments
161
About the Author
162
KXYc\f]:fek\ekj
o`
Open or Closed Card Sort
K
_\i\Xi\[`]]\i\eknXpjkfileXZXi[jfikXe[\XZ_^`m\jpfl
[`]]\i\ekflkZfd\j%K_`jZ_Xgk\i`jXccXYflkk_\[`]]\i\ek
d\k_f[jÇfg\efiZcfj\[#k\Xdfi`e[`m`[lXc#dXelXcfin`k_
jf]knXi\%9\]fi\pflZ_ffj\k_\d\k_f[#b\\g`ed`e[k_Xkpfle\\[kf
[\k\id`e\pfli^fXcj%
Open or Closed Card Sort
8dfe^k_\Ôijk[\Z`j`fejkfdXb\`jn_\k_\ikfileXefg\efiZcfj\[ZXi[
jfik%8j@d\ek`fe\[`e:_Xgk\i(#È8cc8Yflk:Xi[Jfik`e^#Épflj_flc[
lj\k_\]fccfn`e^Zi`k\i`Xkf[\k\id`e\n_`Z_fe\kflj\1
› @eXefg\eZXi[jfik#gXik`Z`gXekjZi\Xk\Xe[cXY\ck_\`ifne^iflgj
f]ZXi[j%
› @eXZcfj\[ZXi[jfik#pflgifm`[\Xj\kf]ZXk\^fi`\jXe[Xjb
gXik`Z`gXekjkfjcfkZfek\ek`ekfk_fj\ZXk\^fi`\j%
Open Card Sorts
Fg\eZXi[jfikjXi\lj\[dlZ_dfi\]i\hl\ekcpk_XeZcfj\[Y\ZXlj\pfl
ZXec\Xiedfi\]ifdk_\dÇpfl^\k`e]fidXk`feXYflkk_\^iflgjg\fgc\
Zi\Xk\Xjn\ccXjk_\ZXi[jk_Xk^f`ekfk_\^iflgj%
8efg\eZXi[jfik[f\jeËke\\[kfY\Zfdgc\k\cp]i\\Çpfl[feËk_Xm\kf
aljkc\kgXik`Z`gXekjjfik`eXnXpk_Xkjl`kjk_\d%;\g\e[`e^fen_Xkpfl
nXekkfc\Xie#pfldXp[\Z`[\kfXjbgXik`Z`gXekjkf]fZljfegXik`ZlcXi
Zi`k\i`X%=fi\oXdgc\#pflZXeXjbgXik`Z`gXekjkfk_`ebXYflk1
› DX`eXl[`\eZ\^iflgj
› DX`ekXjbjk_\pXi\c`b\cpkf[f
› Jk\gjfijkX^\jf]XgifZ\jj
GXik`Z`gXekjk_\ejfikk_\ZXi[jXZZfi[`e^kfk_XkZi`k\i`X%
,)
:_Xgk\i+
Open or Closed Card Sort
Closed Card Sorts
:cfj\[ZXi[jfikj[fefkZfcc\ZkXjdlZ_`e]fidXk`feXjfg\ejfikj#dX`ecp
Y\ZXlj\pflZXeËk\ogcfi\n_Xkb`e[jf]^iflgjg\fgc\nflc[Zi\Xk\%
K_\i\Xi\k`d\j#_fn\m\i#n_\epfl[feËke\\[kfileXefg\ejfik%Lj\X
Zcfj\[ZXi[jfik`ejk\X[f]Xefg\en_\epfl_Xm\k_\]fccfn`e^Zfe[`k`fej1
› Pfl_Xm\Xj\kf]ZXk\^fi`\jk_XkpflbefnZXeËkY\Z_Xe^\[#Xe[pfl
nXekkfj\\n_\i\k_\Zfek\eknflc[^f%
› PflXi\X[[`e^XjdXccXdflekf]Zfek\ekkfXe\o`jk`e^jkilZkli\%
› PflXi\ZfeÔ[\ekk_Xkpfli^iflgjnfibn\cc#Xe[pflnXekkf\ogcfi\
X[\kX`c\[Xjg\Zkf]Zfek\ekgcXZ\d\ek%
C`b\fg\eZXi[jfikj#Zcfj\[ZXi[jfikjZXeY\Zfe[lZk\[]fii\Xjfej
fk_\ik_Xekf`[\ek`]pk_\cfZXk`fef]Zfek\ek%K_\pZXeY\lj\[XjX
Zfddle`ZXk`fekffc#]fiZfej\ejljYl`c[`e^#fiXjX[[`k`feXclj\ii\j\XiZ_%
What You Can’t Learn
@Ëm\_\Xi[Zcfj\[ZXi[jfikj[\jZi`Y\[XjX^ff[nXpkfZ_\Zbk_XkXj\k
f]ZXk\^fi`\jn`cc_\cgg\fgc\Ôe[`e]fidXk`fe%@k_`ebk_XkËjjkiXe^\
Y\ZXlj\[li`e^XZcfj\[jfikpflXi\Xjb`e^g\fgc\kfglkZfek\ek`ekf
^iflgjZcXjj`]p`e^`e]fidXk`fe #efkXjb`e^k_\dkfcffb]fi`e]fidXk`fe%
:cXjj`]p`e^Zfek\ekXe[Ôe[`e^`kXi\[iXdXk`ZXccp[`]]\i\ekkXjbj%@]pfl
nXekkfbefnn_\i\g\fgc\nflc[cffb]fiZfek\ek#pflj_flc[Xjbn_\i\
k_\pnflc[cffb]fi`k#efkXjbn_\i\k_\pnflc[glk`k%
C\kd\^`m\pflXe\oXdgc\%@feZ\_\cg\[Xk\Xdn_f_X[ileXe
fg\eZXi[jfikfeXe`ekiXe\kXe[Zi\Xk\[ZXk\^fi`\jf]d\[`Xi\c\Xj\j#
glYc`ZXk`fej#^l`[\c`e\j#]XZkj_\\kj#Xe[gfc`Z`\j%K_\p]fccfn\[n`k_X
Zcfj\[jfikXe[lj\ijjcfkk\[Zfek\ek`ekfk_\j\ZXk\^fi`\jm\ip\Xj`cp%9Xj\[
fedp\og\i`\eZ\#@nXjZfeÔ[\ekk_\j\ZXk\^fi`\jnflc[eËknfibm\ipn\cc
`ek_\cfe^k\id%KfZ_\Zb#n\Xjb\[g\fgc\kfcffb]fi`e]fidXk`fe%=fi
\oXdgc\#n\Xjb\[#ÈN_\i\nflc[pflcffbkfÔe[flk_fndlZ_kiXm\c
XccfnXeZ\pflXi\\ek`kc\[kf6ÉN\hl`Zbcp[`jZfm\i\[k_Xkk_\ZXk\^fi`\j
Zi\Xk\[nflc[efk_\cglj\ijÔe[k_\`e]fidXk`fek_\pe\\[\[%
@]pflnXekkfc\Xien_\i\g\fgc\nflc[cffb]fi`e]fidXk`fe#k_XkËjn_Xk
pflj_flc[Xjbk_\d%
:_ffj\k_\D\k_f[
,*
Team Versus Individual Card Sorts
Team Versus Individual Card Sorts
K_\e\ok[\Z`j`fekfdXb\`egcXee`e^XZXi[jfik`jn_\k_\ikf`emfcm\
gXik`Z`gXekj`e[`m`[lXccpfi`ek\Xdj%Efkfecp[f\jk_`j[\Z`j`feX]]\Zkk_\
kpg\Xe[hlXc`kpf][XkXpflXi\XYc\kf^Xk_\i#Ylk`kXcjf[\k\id`e\j_fn
n\ccpfln`ccle[\ijkXe[k_\[\Z`j`fe$dXb`e^gifZ\jj%
Team Card Sorts
@cfm\k\XdZXi[jfikj%;li`e^k_\ZXi[jfik#k_\gXik`Z`gXekjkXcbXYflkn_Xk
k_\pXi\[f`e^#Xi^l\XYflkn_\i\mXi`fljZXi[j^f#[`jZljj[`]]\i\eknXpjkf
^iflgk_\ZXi[j#hl\ipn_XkZfek\ekd\Xej#Xe[kXcbXYflk_fnk_\pd`^_k
lj\k_\Zfek\ek%K_`j[`jZljj`fe`j`eZi\[`YcpmXclXYc\Ç`edXepZXj\j#k_\
[`jZljj`fe`jdfi\lj\]lck_Xek_\flkZfd\f]k_\ZXi[jfik%@ejfd\f]dp
gifa\Zkj#k_\Y\jk`ej`^_kj_Xm\Zfd\]ifdk_\j\kpg\jf][`jZljj`fej%
While their hands are busily shuffling the cards around, I learn all
about what they hate about the current site, what they wish the
new site would do, and how they never knew that particular utility
already existed.
—Torrie Thomas (Aquent)
K_\dX`e[`jX[mXekX^\f]Xk\XdjfikZXeY\^iflgY\_Xm`fi%Jfd\k`d\jX
[fd`eXekd\dY\if]Xk\XdZXe]fiZ\_`jfi_\ifg`e`fefek_\fk_\ij#Xe[
k_\flkZfd\i\Õ\Zkjk_\`[\Xjf]fecpfe\d\dY\i%Fek_\fk_\i_Xe[#jfd\
k\XdjdXb\dXepZfdgifd`j\j`ejk\X[f]nfib`e^k_ifl^_k_\`i[`]]\i\eZ\j#
Xe[k_\ek_\ÔeXcflkZfd\dXpefkdXb\Xcfkf]j\ej\kfXepfe\%
Individual Card Sorts
8ck_fl^_@cfm\k\Xdjfikj#`e[`m`[lXcZXi[jfikj_Xm\k_\`igcXZ\Xjn\cc%
K_\pXi\^i\Xk]fi^\kk`e^XcXi^\ieldY\if]i\jgfej\j#Xe[`kZXeY\\Xj`\i
kfZffi[`eXk\`e[`m`[lXcjk_Xek\Xdj%
K_\dX`e[`jX[mXekX^\f]`e[`m`[lXcZXi[jfikj`jk_XkpfldXpefk^\kk_\
jXd\`ej`^_k`ekfk_\gifZ\jjk_Xkn\ek`ekfk_\jfik%@]pflXi\[f`e^k_\
ZXi[jfik]XZ\$kf$]XZ\#pflZXeXjbgXik`Z`gXekjkfÈk_`ebXcfl[É[li`e^
,+
:_Xgk\i+
Team Versus Individual Card Sorts! !Manual Versus Software
k_\XZk`m`kpXe[\ogcX`en_pk_\pXi\Zi\Xk`e^k_\^iflgj%K_`jZXgkli\j
jfd\\okiX`e]fidXk`fe#Ylk_Xjefe\f]k_\i`Z_[`jZljj`feXe[YXek\ik_Xk
_Xgg\ejn`k_Xk\Xdjfik%
Using Both Methods
N_\e@ZXe#@lj\Yfk_d\k_f[j%=ifdk_\k\XdZXi[jfik#@c\XieXYflk
n_pg\fgc\^iflgZXi[jXjk_\p[f%=ifdk_\`e[`m`[lXcZXi[jfik#@^\k
dfi\[XkX]ifdk_\jXd\eldY\if]g\fgc\%
@kdXpY\k\dgk`e^kfile`e[`m`[lXcZXi[jfikjn`k_\m\ipfe\[f`e^k_\
XZk`m`kp`eXiffdXkfeZ\Çdfi\`e]fidXk`fe]ifdk_\jXd\eldY\i
f]g\fgc\Xe[c\jjk`d\i\hl`i\[]ifdpfl%@Ë[ilek\Xdjfikj`ejk\X[Ç
Xck_fl^_`kdXpkXb\dfi\f]dpk`d\#k_\i\jlckjnflc[Y\Y\kk\i%
EfdXkk\in_\k_\ipflileXk\XdfiXe`e[`m`[lXcjfik#dXb\jli\k_Xkpfl
Xi\k_\i\kffYj\im\k_\gifZ\jj%@eX[[`k`fekfc`jk\e`e^kfk_\[`jZljj`fej#
pflZXeXcjfj\\k_\gifZ\jjg\fgc\lj\kf^iflgZXi[jÇpflZXedXb\efk\
f]n_`Z_ZXi[jn\i\^iflg\[dfjk\Xj`cp#n_`Z_n\i\c\]klek`ck_\\e[#Xe[
n_`Z_n\i\dfm\[]ifdfe\^iflgkfXefk_\i%
Manual Versus Software
@e[`m`[lXcjfikjZXeY\Zfe[lZk\[n`k_XZXi[$jfik`e^jf]knXi\kffcfi[fe\
n`k_Xg_pj`ZXcj\kf]ZXi[j%K\Xdjfikj[feËki\Xccpjl`kXjf]knXi\kffc% Manual
@gi\]\idXelXcZXi[jfik`e^%@c`b\k_\]XZkk_Xk`k`jcfn$k\Z_Xe[Xccfnj
Xn`[\iXe^\f]g\fgc\kfY\`emfcm\[n_fdXpY\c\jjZfd]fikXYc\n`k_
Xk\Z_e`ZXcfgk`fe%@Xcjfc`b\k_\g_pj`ZXc#jgXk`XceXkli\f]k_\XZk`m`kpÇ
jgi\X[`e^ZXi[jflkfeXkXYc\#glkk`e^k_`e^jk_XkXi\i\cXk\[e\Xife\
Xefk_\i#Xe[^iX[lXccpglkk`e^k_\d`eg`c\j`jXm\ipeXkliXcnXpkfnfib#
d`iifi`e^_fnn\XiiXe^\flig_pj`ZXcfYa\Zkj%K_`jdXb\jk_\XZk`m`kp
`ekl`k`m\]fiXn`[\iXe^\f]gXik`Z`gXekj%
:_ffj\k_\D\k_f[
,,
Manual Versus Software
Software
K_\i\Xi\XeldY\if]kffcj]fijf]knXi\$YXj\[ZXi[jfik`e^%K_\j\cffb
hl`k\j`d`cXikfXdXelXcZXi[jfikÇk_\ÈZXi[jÉcffbXY`kc`b\i\XcZXi[j
Xe[ZXeY\[iX^^\[Xifle[k_\jZi\\e`ekfZXk\^fi`\j%K_\X[mXekX^\jf]
lj`e^jf]knXi\Xi\k_\]fccfn`e^1
› @k`jXfe\$jk\ggifZ\jj%Pfl[fefk_Xm\kf\ek\ik_\i\jlckj]ifdk_\
ZXi[jfik`ekfXkffc]fiXeXcpj`jÇk_\gifZ\jjf]Zfcc\Zk`e^k_\[XkX
\ek\ij`k`ekfk_\kffcXlkfdXk`ZXccp%
› @kZXeY\dlZ_\Xj`\ikf`emfcm\i\dfk\gXik`Z`gXekj%
› PfldXpY\XYc\kf`emfcm\dfi\g\fgc\k_Xepflnflc[[li`e^X
]XZ\$kf$]XZ\jfik%
Lek`ci\Z\ekcp#@e\m\iiXejf]knXi\$YXj\[ZXi[jfikjY\ZXlj\k_\kffcjn\i\
jfgffi%@nfii`\[k_XkljXY`c`kpgifYc\djnflc[^\k`ek_\nXpf]Zfcc\Zk`e^
^ff[[XkX%?fn\m\i#k_\i\Xi\jfd\e\nkffcjefnXmX`cXYc\[\jZi`Y\[`e
k_\]fccfn`e^j\Zk`fe k_XkXi\\Xjpkfj\klgXe[lj\%
Fe\nXpkfZfdY`e\k_\i`Z_`ej`^_kXmX`cXYc\]ifdX]XZ\$kf$]XZ\XZk`m`kp
Xe[k_\Zfem\e`\eZ\f]jf]knXi\$YXj\[jfik`e^`jkflj\jZi\\e$j_Xi`e^
jf]knXi\Xe[Xg_fe\_ffblg%PflZXenXkZ_k_\gXik`Z`gXeknfibXe[kXcb
kfk_Xkg\ijfeXYflkn_Xk_\fij_\`jk_`eb`e^%
Summary of Software Tools
?\i\Xi\jfd\\oXdgc\jf]jf]knXi\kffcjk_Xkpfld`^_kÔe[lj\]lc%
@Ëm\[\jZi`Y\[k_\gifjXe[Zfej#jfpflZXeg`Zbk_\fe\k_XkY\jkjl`kj
pflie\\[j%
Optimal Sort
Fgk`dXcJfikwww.optimalsort.com/ #`ccljkiXk\[`e=`^li\+%(#`jXe
fec`e\Yifnj\i$YXj\[kffck_Xklj\jX[iX^$Xe[$[ifgjgXk`Xc`ek\i]XZ\%
@kZXk\ijkffg\eXe[Zcfj\[ZXi[jfikj%
,-
:_Xgk\i+
Manual Versus Software
FIGURE 4.1
Optimal Sort’s sorting interface.
K_\i\Xi\XeldY\if]XeXcpj`jfgk`fejÇpflZXe\ogfikk_\[XkXkfdp
XeXcpj`jjgi\X[j_\\k[`jZljj\[`e:_Xgk\i0 fi\ogcfi\k_\i\jlckjfek_\
jZi\\e%Fgk`dXcJfik[f\jefkZlii\ekcpf]]\iXjkXk`jk`ZXcXeXcpj`jfgk`feXk
k_\dfd\ek#YlkdXp[fjf`ek_\]lkli\%
K_\i\Xi\efc`d`kXk`fejkfk_\eldY\if]gXik`Z`gXekjfiZXi[j#Ylkpfl
[fe\\[kfk_`ebf]_fnpflXi\^f`e^kfXeXcpq\k_\[XkX#Y\ZXlj\dXep
XeXcpj`jkffcj_Xm\c`d`kXk`fej]fi`ejkXeZ\#dpXeXcpj`jjgi\X[j_\\kZXk\ij
kfXdXo`dldf]+'gXik`Z`gXekj %
Gi`Z`e^`jYXj\[feXjlYjZi`gk`fedf[\cn`k_[`]]\i\ekgi`Z\j]fidfek_cp#
hlXik\icp#Xe[XeelXcjlYjZi`gk`fej%JdXccjkl[`\jZXeY\ile]i\\f]Z_Xi^\%
WebSort
N\YJfikwebsort.net/ #j_fne`e=`^li\+%)#`jXefk_\ifec`e\ZXi[$jfik`e^
kffck_Xk`jYifnj\i$YXj\[Xe[ilejfm\ik_\@ek\ie\k%@klj\jX[iX^$Xe[$
[ifg`ek\i]XZ\Xe[XjgXk`Xcjfik`e^d\kXg_fi#Xe[ZXe`eZcl[\`dX^\jfe
k_\ZXi[j%N\YJfikZXk\ijkffg\eXe[Zcfj\[ZXi[jfikj%
:_ffj\k_\D\k_f[
,.
Manual Versus Software
FIGURE 4.2
WebSort’s sorting interface.
K_\i\Xi\XeldY\if]XeXcpj`jfgk`fejk_Xkc\kpfl\ogcfi\k_\i\jlckjfe
k_\jZi\\e%
K_\i\Xi\efc`d`kXk`fejkfk_\eldY\if]gXik`Z`gXekjfiZXi[j%
N\YJfik`jXmX`cXYc\XjXdfek_cpjlYjZi`gk`fe%Gi`Z\jZlii\ekcpmXip]ifd]i\\
kfXZflgc\_le[i\[[fccXij[\g\e[`e^fek_\jlYjZi`gk`fegcXepflj\c\Zk%
OpenSort and TreeSort
Fg\eJfikXe[Ki\\Jfikwww.themindcanvas.com Xi\knfkffcj`e
D`e[:XemXjÇXj\i`\jf]^Xd\$c`b\\c`Z`kXk`fed\k_f[j]filj\ii\j\XiZ_%
Fg\eJfik#j_fne`e=`^li\+%*#`j]fifg\eZXi[jfik`e^2Ki\\Jfik`j]fiZcfj\[
ZXi[jfik`e^%9fk_lj\Xefec`e\Yifnj\iXe[_Xm\X[iX^$Xe[$[ifg`ek\i]XZ\%
PflZXeg\i]fidXeXcpj`j`eZfealeZk`fen`k_LqXekfk_\ZfdgXepn_f
gifm`[\jk_\j\im`Z\ #fipflZXe[f`kpflij\c]%LqXekfgifm`[\jXm`jlXc
,/
:_Xgk\i+
Manual Versus Software
XeXcpj`j\e^`e\k_XkXccfnjpflkfgcXpn`k_k_\flkglkjn`k_flke\\[`e^kf
befnk_\jkXk`jk`Zj%8mXi`\kpf]jkXk`jk`ZXcflkglkjXi\XmX`cXYc\%
FIGURE 4.3
OpenSort’s sorting
interface.
@_Xm\eËklj\[k_`jj\im`Z\#Ylk@[fc`b\k_\cffbf]k_\jfik`e^`ek\i]XZ\Xe[
k_\m`jlXc`qXk`fe\e^`e\%
D`e[:XemXj`jgi`Z\[feXgifa\Zk$Yp$gifa\ZkYXj`j%
xSort
oJfikwww.apple.com/downloads/macosx/productivity_tools/
xsort.html `jXjf]knXi\kffc]fiDXZFJ`k[f\jefkilefec`e\ %@klj\jX
[iX^$Xe[$[ifgjgXk`Xc`ek\i]XZ\Xe[ZXk\ijkffg\eXe[Zcfj\[ZXi[jfikj%
oJfik`j]i\\jf]knXi\%
SynCaps
Jpe:Xgjwww.syntagm.co.uk/design/cardsort.shtml gifm`[\j
Zfdglk\i$X`[\[ZXi[jfik`e^%@klj\jdXelXcZXi[j#gi`ek\[n`k_YXiZf[\j#
kfdXb\k_\jk\gf]i\Zfi[`e^[XkX\Xj`\i%
K_\XeXcpj`jfgk`fej`eZcl[\gifo`d`kpdXki`o#Xj`dgc\[\e[if^iXd#Xe[X
k\okÔc\k_XkZXeY\`dgfik\[`ekf<oZ\cfiXjkXk`jk`ZXcXeXcpj`jkffc%
Pfl[fe\\[kfXcjfgliZ_Xj\X_Xe[$_\c[YXiZf[\i\X[\i%
:_ffj\k_\D\k_f[
,0
Chapter 4 Summary/Tips
Chapter 4 Summary/Tips
K_\e\okjk\g`egi\gXi`e^XZXi[jfik`jkfj\c\ZkXd\k_f[1
› Fg\eZXi[jfikfiZcfj\[%Fg\e`j^i\Xk]fi^\kk`e^`[\Xjfe
^iflgjf]Zfek\ek2Zcfj\[`jlj\]lc]fij\\`e^n_\i\g\fgc\nflc[
glkZfek\ek%
› K\Xdfi`e[`m`[lXc%K\XdjfikjXi\gXik`ZlcXicp^ff[]fic\Xie`e^
`e]fidXk`fe^c\Xe\[]ifdk_\Zfem\ijXk`feXk\Xd_Xj[li`e^
k_\jfikÇjfd\k`d\jdfi\lj\]lck_Xek_\i\jlckjk_\dj\cm\j%
@e[`m`[lXcjfikjXi\Y\jklj\[n_\epflZXeËk^\k\m\ipfe\kf^\k_\i
`efe\gcXZ\fin_\epflnXekXcXi^\eldY\if]mXi`\[i\jlckj%
› DXelXcfin`k_jf]knXi\%DXelXcZXi[jfikj`emfcm\gXg\i`e[\o
ZXi[j#Xe[g\fgc\cfm\k_\dY\ZXlj\k_\pXi\cfnk\Z_Xe[efk
jZXip%Jf]knXi\$YXj\[ZXi[jfikjXi\^ff[]fij\e[`e^flkkf
g\fgc\n_fZXeËk^\kkfpfl%
-'
:_Xgk\i+