GEORGETOWN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS ASSOCIATION
THE FIFTY-SECOND
NORTH AMERICAN INVITATIONAL
MODEL UNITED NATIONS
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VIETNAMESE POLITBURO, 1978
CHAIR: MACKENZIE TRUMBULL
CRISIS MANAGER: VP DAO
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TABLE!OF!CONTENTS!
LETTER%FROM%THE%CHAIR%................................................................................................................................%2!
STRUCTURE%OF%THE%COMMITTEE%..................................................................................................................%3!
THE!NATURE!OF!CRISIS!ELEMENTS!........................................................................................................................................!3!
PORTFOLIO!POWERS!..................................................................................................................................................................!3!
OVERVIEW%..............................................................................................................................................................%3!
THE!WAR!WITH!CAMBODIA!......................................................................................................................................................!4!
RELATIONS!WITH!CHINA!...........................................................................................................................................................!4!
INTEGRATION!OF!SOUTH!VIETNAM!........................................................................................................................................!4!
CONCLUSION!................................................................................................................................................................................!5!
FOREIGN%AFFAIRS%................................................................................................................................................%5!
VIETNAM!AND!CAMBODIA!........................................................................................................................................................!5!
VIETNAM!AND!CHINA!................................................................................................................................................................!6!
VIETNAM!AND!THE!SOVIET!UNION!.........................................................................................................................................!9!
DOMESTIC%AFFAIRS%.............................................................................................................................................%9!
“REEDUCATION!OF!PUPPETS!AND!COLLABORATORS”!......................................................................................................!10!
THE!NEW!ECONOMY!...............................................................................................................................................................!10!
THE!NEW!SOCIETY!..................................................................................................................................................................!11!
BOAT!PEOPLE!...........................................................................................................................................................................!11!
USEFUL%SOURCES%FOR%FURTHER%READING%..............................................................................................%12!
REFERENCES%........................................................................................................................................................%13!
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LETTER!FROM!THE!CHAIR!
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Greetings!
On behalf of the staff of Politburo of the Communist Party of Vietnam, 1978, we would like to
welcome you to what we hope will be one of the best Model UN experience of your high school
career.
As you can guess from the name of our committee, we will be simulating the deliberations of the
Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam—the most powerful
political institution in Vietnam—in 1978. This background guide, which contains general facts
on and analysis of the state of affairs in Vietnam in the period leading up to 1978, will offer you
an abridged explanation as to the importance of the year 1978 in the post-Vietnam War history of
the country. We hope that you will find this document helpful as you begin your preparation for
the conference.
Look out for an update paper in late January for information on where matters stand when our
first committee session begins on February 12, 2015, dossiers for every character, as well as a
more detailed description of how our committee will function. Lastly, it is important to note that
the characters in this committee are achronistic; that is to say, all of them are from the
Vietnamese Politburo, but these specific individuals were not in the body at the same time.
We look forward to seeing you at NAIMUN LII!
Yours sincerely,
Mackenzie Trumbull
Chair
VP Dao
Crisis Manager
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STRUCTURE!OF!THE!COMMITTEE!
meantime,!delegates!with!questions!about!
their!portfolios!should!contact!the!Chair!or!
Crisis!Manager.!!
THE!NATURE!OF!CRISIS!ELEMENTS!
While!delegates!discuss!in!committee,!
NAIMUN!staff!members!are!working!hard!in!
the!Crisis!Suite!to!create!salient!and!dramatic!
updates!to!challenge!them.!NAIMUN’s!
Vietnamese!Politburo,!1978!Committee!has!
one!Crisis!Manager,!who!oversees!three!
subordinate!Crisis!Analysts.!While!these!
staffers!are!responsible!for!building!the!
framework!of!crises!before!Valentine’s!Day!
weekend,!they!also!present!updates!to!
delegates!and!respond!to!the!notes!and!
actions!that!delegate!orchestrate.!The!Crisis!
Suite!also!plays!the!part!of!bodies!that!are!not!
simulated!by!delegates;!for!example,!if!a!
delegate!requests!a!meeting!with!the!
President!of!China,!a!crisis!staffer!would!take!
on!that!role.!Lastly,!the!Crisis!Manager!can!
respond!to!delegates’!actions!and!notes!at!his!
or!her!discretion.!The!word!of!the!crisis!staff!
is!absolute!and!final.!Delegates!with!questions!
about!crisis,!especially!those!new!to!this!form!
of!committee,!should!feel!free!to!contact!the!
Chair!or!Crisis!Manager!before!or!during!the!
conference.!
Delegates!are!encouraged!to!creatively!
interpret!their!portfolio!powers!but!do!so!in!a!
plausible!way!by!conducting!extensive!
outside!research!to!back!their!claims.!For!
example,!the!delegate!representing!the!
Minister!of!Foreign!Affairs!should!extensively!
research!Vietnam’s!foreign!relations!and!the!
Minister!of!Propaganda!and!Education!
Committee!should!be!prepared!to!exercise!the!
various!tools!and!powers!of!the!Ministry!of!
Propaganda!and!Education.!
OVERVIEW!
The!military!reunification!of!Vietnam!
occurred!on!April!30,!1975,!when!the!tanks!
nominally!belonging!to!the!Provisional!
Revolutionary!Government!of!the!Republic!of!
South!Vietnam!rammed!through!the!gates!of!
the!presidential!palace!in!the!heart!of!Saigon.!
Political!reunification!happened!a!year!later,!
in!the!summer!of!1976,!when!the!Republic!of!
South!Vietnam!and!the!Democratic!Republic!
of!Vietnam!formally!combined!to!form!the!
Socialist!Republic!of!Vietnam.!At!the!end!of!
the!same!year,!the!4th!National!Congress!of!
the!Vietnam!Workers!Party!changed!the!
party’s!name!to!“the!Communist!Party!of!
Vietnam!(CPV)”!and!chose!the!first!postb
reunification!Politburo,!the!most!powerful!
political!institution!in!Vietnam!with!complete!
control!over!all!aspects!of!policy!in!the!
country.!
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PORTFOLIO!POWERS!
Because!Vietnam!was!very!unstable!
politically!during!the!1970s!and!very!little!
credible!information!exists!about!specific!
Vietnamese!ministers,!we!have!decided!not!to!
assign!delegates!characters.!As!mentioned!in!
the!chair!letter,!a!document!will!be!posted!on!
the!NAIMUN!website!in!January!delineating!
the!crisis!portfolios!of!each!delegate.!In!the!!
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The!latter!half!of!the!1970s!in!Vietnam!was!
not!calm!and!peaceful!as!one!might!expect,!
given!that!the!war!had!ended.!The!vindictive!
campaign!waged!by!the!new!national!
government!against!former!South!Vietnamese!
military!personnel!and!state!officials!
extinguished!the!hope!for!a!gradual!and!
cordial!process!of!reconciliation.!Meanwhile,!
SinobVietnamese!relations,!already!tenuous!
since!the!SinobUS!rapprochement,!continued!
to!sour!with!the!Chinese!takeover!of!the!
Paracel!Islands!in!1974!and!the!mistreatment!
of!ethnic!Chinese!in!Vietnam.!Relations!with!
Pol!Pot’s!Democratic!Kampuchea—a!client!
regime!under!Beijing’s!patronage—also!fell!
apart,!as!border!skirmishes!flared!up!
throughout!1975!and!1976.!Tensions!
escalated!into!war!in!1977,!and!in!1978!the!
Vietnamese!military!captured!Phnom!Penh,!
pushing!Pol!Pot!and!his!forces!towards!the!
Thai!border.!The!routing!of!the!Khmer!Rouge!
led!to!further!deterioration!of!relations!
between!Hanoi!and!Beijing.!In!February!1979,!
units!of!the!People’s!Liberation!Army!crossed!
the!SinobVietnamese!border,!starting!the!
monthblong!SinobVietnamese!War.!
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This!committee!will!simulate!the!discussions!
and!decisionbmaking!process!undertaken!by!
Politburo!of!the!Central!Committee!of!the!
Communist!Party!of!Vietnam!in!the!year!
1978,!before!the!decision!to!invade!Cambodia!
was!made.!Delegates!in!this!simulation!will!
have!three!main!topics!to!discuss:!!
provinces.!Vietnam!has!the!military!capacity!
to!put!an!end!to!the!constant!harassment!of!
its!borders!by!Pol!Pot’s!forces.!The!most!
effective!way!of!putting!an!end!to!Khmer!
Rouge!attacks,!however,!is!the!permanent!
removal!of!Pol!Pot!and!his!cronies!from!
power,!a!move!that!would!definitely!anger!
China.!How!does!the!government!of!newly!
reunified!Vietnam!defend!its!borders!and!
protect!its!citizens!from!foreign!attacks,!given!
that!constraint?!
RELATIONS!WITH!CHINA!
Looming!large!in!the!background!of!all!issues!
Vietnam!faces!is!China.!Vietnam!cannot!
conduct!its!foreign!policy!without!taking!into!
consideration!its!gigantic!northern!neighbor.!
Indeed,!having!a!good!relationship!with!China!
remains!in!Vietnam’s!best!interests.!Ever!
since!the!conclusion!of!the!Vietnam!War!in!
1975,!however,!SinobVietnamese!relations!
have!only!worsened,!and!SovietbVietnamese!
bonds!have!become!tighter!at!the!expense!of!
the!ties!between!Hanoi!and!Beijing.!How!
should!the!Vietnamese!government!define!
and!manage!its!relationship!with!the!“older!
brother”!to!the!north?!And!how!will!the!
developing!crisis!with!Cambodia!complicate!
these!considerations?!
INTEGRATION!OF!SOUTH!VIETNAM!
By!1978,!the!dismantling!of!the!building!
blocks!of!society!in!the!southern!half!of!
Vietnam!has!begun,!as!the!Communist!Party!
of!Vietnam!seeks!to!eradicate!the!influence!of!
capitalism!in!the!“liberated”!South.!This!
“socialist!reform”!program!has!created!the!
beginning!of!what!will!become!a!flood!of!
THE!WAR!WITH!CAMBODIA!
The!Khmer!Rouge!poses!a!real!threat!to!the!
security!of!the!newly!subdued!southern!
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refugees—the!infamous!Vietnamese!boat!
people.!How!does!Hanoi!proceed!with!the!
political!and!economic!assimilation!of!South!
Vietnam?!And!how!does!it!deal!with!the!
phenomenon!of!its!citizens!finding!whatever!
means!possible!to!escape?!
Beijing!and!Washington!would!also!benefit!
the!understanding!of!the!strategic!
environment!in!which!Vietnam!found!itself!in!
the!late!1970s.!
VIETNAM!AND!CAMBODIA!
Despite!the!veil!of!friendship!between!the!
Vietnam!Workers!Party!and!the!Khmer!Rouge!
that!held!firm!during!the!early!the!1970s,!
relations!between!the!Democratic!
Kampuchea!and!the!Socialist!Republic!of!
Vietnam!(SRV)!soured!almost!the!minute!the!
Khmer!Rouge!seized!power!in!Cambodia.!The!
two!Southeast!Asian!countries,!initially!
brought!together!by!their!mutual!struggle!
against!colonialism,!drifted!apart!due!to!
diverging!interests!and!the!changing!
geopolitics!of!the!region.!Though!many!
political!and!historical!factors!shaped!Khmerb
Viet!relations,!this!complex!relationship!can!
be!better!understood!by!exploring!the!
motivations!of!the!parties!in!play.!!
CONCLUSION!
It!is!important!to!note!that!these!three!topics!
do!not!stand!separate!from!each!other,!and!at!
no!point!will!the!discussion!of!one!topic!
happen!without!the!specter!of!the!other!two!
looming!in!the!background.!
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This!background!guide!is!meant!to!serve!as!a!
primer!on!the!issues!relevant!to!this!
simulation.!Rather!than!treating!this!
document!as!an!exhaustive!source!of!
information,!delegates!should!use!it!as!the!
starting!point!for!their!research,!referring!to!
the!bibliographic!information!contained!
herein!for!guidance!as!to!where!to!go!next!in!
their!preparation.!
After!repelling!the!United!States!from!their!
country,!the!Vietnamese!turned!their!
attention!towards!the!rest!of!Indochina.!The!
Vietnamese!Communists!believed!that!they!
had!an!internationalist!mission!that!“charged!
them!with!bringing!communism!to!all!of!
Indochina.”1!Thus!at!first!Vietnam!tried!to!
deepen!its!friendship!with!Pol!Pot’s!Khmer!
Rouge,!convinced!that!they!could!not!only!
FOREIGN!AFFAIRS!
Vietnam’s!foreign!affairs!in!1978!can!be!best!
understood!in!the!context!of!the!global!and!
regional!balance!of!power!and!interests!of!
that!time.!The!ostensible!foreign!affairs—and!
security—crisis!of!that!year!was!a!hostile!and!
belligerent!Cambodia,!but!Hanoi’s!actions!
must!be!assessed!in!the!context!framed!by!its!
relationship!with!the!two!major!communist!
powers—the!USSR!and!the!People’s!Republic!
of!China!(PRC).!While!not!absolutely!
necessary,!familiarity!with!the!SinobSoviet!
split!as!well!as!the!rapprochement!between!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1!Christopher!E.!Goscha,!“Vietnam,!the!Third!Indochina!
War!and!the!Meltdown!of!Asian!Internationalism,”!in!
The!Third!Indochina!War:!Conflict!between!China,!
Vietnam!and!Cambodia,!1972K79,!ed.!Odd!Arne!Westad!
and!Sophie!QuinnbJudge!(New!York:!Routledge,!2006),!
159.!
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spread!their!own!brand!of!communism!to!
Cambodia!but!also!bring!the!smaller!neighbor!
within!its!sphere!of!influence.!Initially,!Phnom!
Penh!agreed,!extending!a!friendship!treaty!to!
Hanoi!in!1975,!but!only!to!further!test!
Vietnamese!intentions.2!From!the!Cambodian!
perspective,!the!Vietnamese!vision!of!a!united!
Communist!Indochina!was!at!odds!with!its!
own!national!sovereignty.!In!the!past,!
Cambodia!lived!under!“the!expanding!shadow!
of!the!Vietnamese!empire.”3!Yielding!to!the!
whims!and!demands!of!Hanoi!risked!
jeopardizing!Phnom!Penh’s!vision!of!a!free!
Cambodia.!
instrument!of!Soviet!policy.”5!Thus,!Cambodia!
and!Vietnam!viewed!each!other!as!pawns!of!
the!interests!of!stronger!powers.!!
Increased!tension!led!to!frequent!border!
skirmishes!between!Cambodia!and!Vietnam!
during!the!latter!half!of!the!1970s.!The!first!
major!territorial!dispute!occurred!on!May!4,!
1975!with!the!Cambodian!attack!on!the!
Vietnamese!island!of!Phu!Quoc.6!This!attack,!
along!with!the!Khmer!invasion!of!Tho!Chu,!
another!Vietnamese!island!close!to!
Cambodian!shores,!on!May!10,!prompted!a!
retaliatory!response!from!the!Hanoi,!who!
launched!an!attack!on!the!Cambodian!island!
of!Vai,!taking!600!prisoners.7!The!Khmer!
motivations!for!these!attacks!were!based!on!
two!main!factors.!The!first!stems!from!what!
the!Cambodians!felt!to!be!the!encroachment!
of!the!Vietnamese!on!their!territory!and!the!
rising!influence!of!Vietnam.!The!second!
comes!from!historical!ambiguities!on!the!
claims!to!these!islands,!more!specifically!
confusion!over!the!Brevie!Line,!an!
administrative!landmark!drawn!to!delineate!
territorial!claims.!Thus,!the!two!main!
dynamics!in!play!are!Vietnam’s!desire!to!
expand!their!sphere!of!influence!in!Indochina!
and!Cambodia’s!strong!sense!of!selfb
preservation.!!
Aside!from!the!internal!dynamics!between!
Phnom!Penh!and!Hanoi,!outside!pressures!
from!Beijing!and!Moscow!also!had!a!
significant!impact!on!KhmerbViet!relations.!
The!strained!relationship!between!Cambodia!
and!Vietnam!could!be!seen!as!an!extension!of!
SinobSoviet!relations.!Cambodia!received!
extensive!support!and!aid!from!China!during!
the!1970s!while!Vietnam!viewed!its!brand!of!
socialism!to!be!more!LeninistbStalinist!than!
Maoist.!The!intentions!of!the!larger!
Communist!countries!were!relatively!clear.!
The!Soviets!wanted!to!“contain!China!with!a!
ring!of!antibChinese!states”!to!curb!Beijing’s!
influence!in!the!region.4!On!the!other!hand,!
China!wanted!to!not!only!avoid!this!
entanglement!but!also!check!Vietnam,!“a!
potential!rival!in!Southeast!Asia!as!well!as!an!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
VIETNAM!AND!CHINA!
By!1978,!relations!with!China,!Vietnam’s!
northern!neighbor!with!an!economy!of!
2!Thubhuong!Nguyenbvo,!KhmerKViet!Relations!and!the!
Third!Indochina!Conflict!(Jefferson:!MacFarlane,!1992),!
84.!
3!Ibid,!85.!
4!David!W.P.!Elliott,!introduction!to!The!Third!Indochina!
Conflict!(Boulder:!Westview!Press,!1981),!2.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
5!Ibid.!
6!Nguyenbvo,!78b79.!
7!Ibid.!
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approximately!$150!billion!and!a!population!
approaching!one!billion,!had!deteriorated!to!a!
critical!point.8!Hanoi!had!to!anticipate!
possible!repercussions!from!Beijing!when!
considering!any!foreign!policy!actions.!
Complicating!matters!further,!China!was!still!
in!the!midst!of!a!power!transition!with!Mao!
Zedong’s!death!in!1976.!By!1978,!however,!
Deng!Xiaoping,!an!advocate!of!rapprochement!
with!the!United!States!and!opposition!to!the!
Soviets,!was!getting!increasingly!close!to!
consolidating!all!political!and!military!power.!
Disputes!between!the!Communist!Party!of!
Vietnam!and!the!Communist!Party!of!China!
(CPC)!first!came!to!fore!as!the!two!countries!
evolved!their!respective!relations!with!the!
United!States.!While!Beijing!pursued!
rapprochement!with!the!US!(culminating!in!
Nixon’s!1972!visit)!and!supported!the!
superpower’s!“honorable”!disengagement!
from!Vietnam,!Hanoi!accused!China!of!
colluding!with!“aggressive!American!
imperialists.”!By!the!time!of!Vietnamese!
reunification,!an!emboldened!CPV!declared!
that!the!victory!was!not!only!a!defeat!for!the!
United!States!but!for!the!“Beijing!
expansionists.”11!
Historically,!Chinese!civilization!had!a!
significant!impact!on!Vietnam’s!development.!
Many!elements!of!Vietnamese!culture!were!
culturally!assimilated!to!Chinese!culture.!Up!
until!French!colonization!of!Indochina,!China!
had!exerted!both!direct!and!indirect!rule!over!
Vietnam.!Vietnam!had!gained!selfbrule!from!
China!in!the!9th!century!and!became!an!
independent!state!in!the!10th!century.!
However,!nominally,!until!the!19th!century,!
Vietnamese!kings!and!emperors!remained!
vassals!to!Chinese!emperors.9!In!modern!
times,!China!and!Vietnam!have!been!
communist!allies,!with!Ho!Chi!Minh!
characterizing!the!relationship!as!one!
between!“comrades!plus!brothers.”!During!
the!two!Indochina!Wars,!Beijing!funneled!
some!$20!billion!of!assistance!to!Ho’s!
government.10!
Ideologically!speaking,!the!split!between!the!
CPV!and!CPC!has!much!to!do!with!Vietnam’s!
ties!with!the!Soviet!Union.!Following!the!
Vietnam!War,!the!Moscow!forgave!all!
Vietnamese!debt!and!upped!its!economic!
investment!in!the!country.!In!addition,!
Vietnam!eventually!joined!COMECON,!the!
Sovietbled!economic!cooperation!
organization,!in!1978.12!Politically!the!Soviets!
also!backed!Vietnam’s!intention!to!establish!
its!communist!sphere!of!influence!in!
Indochina,!an!idea!that!drew!the!ire!of!China!
and!its!ally!Cambodia.!As!Hanoi’s!relations!
with!Moscow,!Beijing’s!archrival!since!1972,!
grew!closer,!the!PRC!gradually!distanced!
itself!from!the!SRV,!discontinuing!interestb
free!aid!to!its!southern!“comrade”!after!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
8!“World!Development!Indicators,”!The!World!Bank.!
9!Asian!Studies!Center,!“Vietnam!b!History,”!Michigan!
State!University.!!
10!Nicholas!Khoo,!Collateral!Damage:!SinoKSoviet!Rivalry!
and!the!Termination!of!the!SinoKVietnamese!Alliance!
(New!York:!Columbia!University!Press,!2011).!!!!
11!Harish!Kapur,!The!Awakening!Giant:!China’s!Ascension!
in!World!Politics!(Alphen!aan!den!Rijn,!Netherlands;!
Rockville,!MD:!Sijthoff!&!Noordhoff,!1981).!!!
12!Khoo,!111b113.!
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1976.13!This!move!further!convinced!many!
CPV!leaders!that!China!wants!Vietnam!to!
remain!a!weak!state!that!is!dependent!on!
China!for!its!security!and!economic!wellb
being.!Hanoi!also!opposed!Chinese!attempts!
to!exert!influence!over!the!Indochina!and!was!
concerned!about!China!using!Cambodia!as!a!
springboard!from!which!to!attack!Vietnam.14!
naval!vessels!clashed!around!the!Paracel!
Islands,!resulting!in!the!sinking!of!a!South!
Vietnamese!ship!and!the!complete!control!of!
the!archipelago!by!the!Chinese.17!This!
unilateral!seizure!of!the!Western!Paracels!
raised!China’s!commitment!to!regional!
security!in!Southeast!China!but!also!
demonstrated!China’s!naval!superiority!and!
Vietnam’s!lack!of!allies.18!To!the!south!of!the!
Paracels,!Vietnam!and!China,!along!with!
Brunei,!Malaysia,!and!the!Philippines,!had!
overlapping!claims!to!the!Spratlys,!with!the!
PRC!and!the!SRV!controlling!the!most!
territory!in!the!archipelago.!In!addition!to!the!
nationalist!sentiments!involved!in!these!
territorial!disputes,!at!stake!are!anywhere!
between!7!and!220!billion!barrels!of!
unexploited!oil!reserves!beneath!the!
seabed.19!!
The!situation!on!the!SinobVietnamese!border!
had!become!increasingly!volatile!by!1978,!
with!increasing!levels!of!Chinese!military!
activity!being!detected.!Since!1975,!border!
skirmishes!between!Chinese!and!Vietnamese!
border!defense!forces!had!increased.15!The!
border!disputes!over!some!60!square!miles!of!
land!was!essentially!the!rebignition!of!a!
conflict!from!before!1958,!when!China!agreed!
to!temporarily!shelve!the!dispute!in!light!of!
the!Vietnam!War.16!
Lastly,!the!Chinese!had!also!expressed!serious!
concern!about!Vietnam’s!treatment!of!ethnic!
Chinese—called!“Hoa”!people.!Prior!to!1975,!
Vietnam!had!a!commercially!successful!Hoa!
population!of!approximately!2!million!that!
was!concentrated!primarily!in!the!cities!of!the!
South.20!They!soon!became!scapegoats!for!the!
Another!source!of!tension!in!the!Sinob
Vietnamese!relationship!was!the!contested!
Paracel!and!Spratly!Islands!in!the!South!China!
Sea—which!the!Vietnamese!referred!to!as!the!
Hoang!Sa!Archipelago,!the!Truong!Sa!
Archipelago,!and!the!East!Sea,!respectively.!In!
January!1974,!PRC!and!Republic!of!Vietnam!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
17!Nga!Pham,!“Shift!as!Vietnam!Marks!South!China!Sea!
Battle,”!British!Broadcasting!Corporation.!
18!Ngo!Minh!Tri!and!Koh!Swee!Lean!Collin,!“Lessons!
from!the!Battle!of!the!Paracel!Islands,”!The!Diplomat,!
sec.!Security,!January!23,!2014.!!!!
19!Leszek!Buszynski!and!Iskandar!Sazlan,!“Maritime!
Claims!and!Energy!Cooperation!in!the!South!China!Sea,”!
Contemporary!Southeast!Asia:!A!Journal!of!International!
and!Strategic!Affairs!29,!no.!1!(April!2007),!143b171.!
doi:10.1353/csa.2007.0014.!!!
20!"Chinese!(Hoa),!“Minority!Rights!Group!
International,”!
http://www.minorityrights.org/3499/vietnam/chinese
bhoa.html!
!
13!Jaap!van!Ginneken,!The!Third!Indochina!War:!The!
Conflicts!between!China,!Vietnam,!and!Cambodia!
(Amsterdam:!J.!van!Ginneken,!1983),!217.!!!
14!Thien!TonbThat,!The!Foreign!Politics!of!the!Communist!
Party!of!Vietnam:!A!Study!of!Communist!Tactics!(New!
York:!C.!Russak,!1989).!!!
15!Kosal!Path,!“SinobVietnamese!Relations,!1950b1978:!
From!Cooperation!to!Conflict”!(Doctor!of!Philosophy!
(International!Relations),!University!of!Southern!
California).!
16!“Foreign!RelationsbChina,”!Federal!Research!Division!
of!Library!of!Congress,!http://www.countryb
data.com/cgibbin/query/rb14713.html!
!
!
8!
!
!
!
deteriorating!socioeconomic!conditions!of!
postbwar!Vietnam!and!were!mistreated!under!
the!discriminatory!policies!of!the!CPV.!!In!
1978,!95!percent!of!refugees!fleeing!across!
the!SinobVietnamese!border!and!85!percent!of!
the!boat!people!escaping!South!Vietnam!in!
1978!were!ethnic!Chinese.21!This!confirmed!
China’s!belief!that!the!CPV!had!adopted!
draconian,!discriminatory!policies!towards!
the!Hoa.!In!response,!China!suspended!
several!aid!projects!and!cancelled!the!opening!
of!several!Chinese!consulates!in!Vietnam.!
Moscow!emerged!clearly!as!the!answer.!The!
USSR,!aware!of!the!circumstances,!positioned!
itself!to!take!full!advantage!of!the!growing!
split!between!Hanoi!and!Beijing.!As!noted!
above,!after!the!end!of!the!Vietnam!War!in!
1975,!Moscow!waived!all!outstanding!
Vietnamese!debt!obligations!to!it,!and!in!
1978,!Vietnam!joined!COMECON.23!
Furthermore,!in!Vietnam’s!quest!for!
dominance!in!Indochina!after!1975,!the!Soviet!
emerged!as!the!logical!strategic!partner.!
While!Vietnam!had!managed!to!establish!its!
dominance!over!Laos!with!relative!ease,!
Cambodia!presented!a!key!challenge,!one!that!
Hanoi!deemed!insurmountable!without!Soviet!
support.24!The!Soviets,!meanwhile,!would!like!
to!make!dents!in!the!Chinese!network!of!
influence!by!any!means!convenient.!Thus,!by!
1978,!in!the!SRV’s!foreign!policy!calculus,!the!
USSR!was!seen!as!a!crucial!ally,!one!that!it!
could!potentially!rely!on!as!the!situation!in!
Indochina!reached!the!boiling!point.!
VIETNAM!AND!THE!SOVIET!UNION!
As!the!communist!superpower,!the!USSR!was!
a!key!ally!of!the!DRV!during!the!Vietnam!War!
and!remained!central!to!the!SRV’s!foreign!
policy!after!1975.!During!the!Vietnam!War,!
the!Soviet!Union!provided!both!economic!and!
military!aid!to!Vietnam.!Beginning!from!1973,!
SovietbVietnamese!ties!became!increasingly!
close,!with!the!Soviets!boosting!economic!aid!
to!its!ideological!ally.!In!1974!and!1975,!as!
Hanoi!sought!support!for!its!final!move!in!
defeating!the!ROV,!Moscow!was!quick!to!
“render!the!appropriate!assistance.”22!!
DOMESTIC!AFFAIRS!
When!the!ROV!government!fell!on!April!30,!
1975,!the!rhetoric!of!the!victors!was!filled!
with!conciliatory!words—promises!of!an!
inclusive!reconciliation!process!and!a!gradual!
and!painless!integration!program.!Within!a!
year,!however,!everything!changed.!The!
provisional!military!administration!that!took!
charge,!followed!by!the!national!government!
constituted!in!1976,!began!to!institute!a!range!
of!policies!that!touched!virtually!every!aspect!
of!life.!Southerners!were!introduced!for!a!first!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
This!positive!trend!in!SovietbVietnamese!
relations!happened!in!direct!connection!to!
the!deteriorating!conditions!of!Sinob
Vietnamese!ties.!As!Chinese!actions!in!the!
South!China!Sea!convinced!the!North!
Vietnamese!leadership!of!the!need!for!a!
clearer!balancing!act!in!foreign!policy,!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
21!Paobmin!Chang,!“The!SinobVietnamese!Dispute!Over!
the!Ethnic!Chinese,”!The!China!Quarterly,!no.!90!(June!
1982),!195b230.!!!
22!Khoo,!80b85.!
23!Khoo,!111b116.!
24!Ibid.!
!
9!
!
!
!
time!to!the!draconian!measures!that!had!
governed!life!in!the!North!for!two!decades.!By!
1978,!the!SRV!was!a!country!with!little!
domestic!economic!strength!ruled!with!an!
iron!fist!by!the!CPV!and!its!security!apparatus.!
authoritarian!framework!of!communist!North!
Vietnam.!
THE!NEW!ECONOMY!
Meanwhile,!on!the!economic!front,!a!series!of!
measures!informed!by!both!retributive!justice!
and!communist!ideology!took!place.!In!
Saigon,!renamed!“Ho!Chi!Minh!City”!after!the!
founder!of!the!DRV,!houses!owned!by!the!
“puppets”!were!appropriated!by!the!military!
administration,!with!people!inhabiting!
them—renters!and!relatives!alike—pushed!
out!onto!the!streets!with!minimum!notice.!
Owners!of!homes!with!“excess”!room!were!
also!asked!to!“donate”!some!of!the!
“unnecessary”!space!to!“the!people.”27!This!
was!a!precursor!to!a!series!of!policies!and!
government!actions!that!eradicated!the!
notion!of!private!property!and!free!commerce!
in!South!Vietnamese!society.!Agricultural!land!
was!collectivized!through!slow!coercion!into!
cooperatives,!while!storeowners!were!
dispossessed!of!their!goods!and!assets.!In!
addition,!through!indirect!and!direct!
pressure,!the!government!also!drove!many!
city!dwellers,!particularly!those!of!the!middle!
and!upper!classes!and!those!deemed!
“puppets”!and!“collaborators”!to!the!“new!
economic!zones”!(NEZs)!in!uninhabited!areas!
of!the!countryside.!Finally,!currency!reforms!
enacted!by!the!new!national!government!
erased!most!people’s!savings,!while!new!taxes!
!“REEDUCATION!OF!PUPPETS!AND!
COLLABORATORS”!
Almost!immediately!after!the!fall!of!Saigon,!all!
those!employed!by!the!former!Saigon!
regime—from!soldiers!and!sailors!to!
accountants!and!doctors—were!asked!to!
register!with!the!provisional!military!
authority.!They!were!later!sorted!by!the!
“severity”!of!their!“collaboration”!with!the!
Americans!and!given!the!appropriate!
“reeducation”!program,”!euphemism!for!
political!imprisonment.25!Some!remained!in!
“reeducation!camps”!for!more!than!a!decade.!
In!the!eyes!of!the!new!administration,!these!
“puppets”!and!“collaborators”!posed!a!threat!
to!the!newfound!peace.!Any!legitimate!and!
consequential!resistance!to!the!official!
political!reunification,!as!well!as!the!
integration!of!South!Vietnam!into!the!political!
system!of!the!North,!would!emerge!from!the!
ranks!of!former!ROV!military!officers!and!civil!
servants.26!The!removal!of!these!potential!
seeds!of!trouble!from!the!scene!served!the!
purpose!of!complete!pacification!and!
assimilation!of!South!Vietnamese!society—
which!had!had!a!taste!of!democracy!and!some!
levels!of!civil!liberties!prior!to!1975—into!the!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
25!Tiziano!Terzani,!Giai!Phong!:!The!Fall!and!Liberation!
of!Saigon,!trans.!John!Shepley!(New!York:!St.!Martin’s!
Press,!1976),!138b144,!214b242.!
26!Ibid.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
27!Terzani,!203b208.!
!
10!
!
!
!
were!introduced!as!an!additional!means!of!
expropriation.28!
though!it!had!been!under!the!ROV!
government,!was!soon!extinguished.31!
Meanwhile,!religious!groups,!ranging!from!
Catholics!to!Buddhists!to!smaller!sects,!faced!
measures!aimed!at!curbing!their!practice!and!
subjecting!their!organizations!to!government!
control.!Buddhists!and!members!of!sects!like!
Hoa!Hao!and!Cao!Dai,!once!allies!of!the!
communist!guerilla!fighters,!found!
themselves!persecuted!by!their!once!
“comrades.”32!Under!the!new!government!of!
the!reunified!Vietnam,!the!public!square!
belonged!to!the!CPV!and!its!affiliated!
organizations,!and!no!one!else.!
The!state!of!the!Vietnamese!economy!by!
towards!the!late!1970s!was!extremely!weak.!
In!1977,!per!capita!income!in!the!country!was!
in!the!$70b$140!range,!compared!to!the!$219b
$2,544!range!of!ASEAN!countries!at!the!
time.29!The!root!cause!of!this!economic!lag!
was!the!decades!of!war!that!had!preceded.!
The!economic!policy!of!the!SRV,!however,!
government!did!not!help!the!economy!
recover!after!the!end!of!hostilities!in!1975.!In!
fact,!the!economic!measures!introduced!and!
applied!in!North!Vietnam!before!1975!and!
throughout!the!reunified!Vietnam!after!1975!
created!an!informal!economy!in!the!shadows,!
while!theft!of!government!property,!
corruption,!and!graft!were!rampant!
countrywide.!The!Vietnamese!economy!by!
1978!limped!on!with!aid!from!the!Soviet!
Union!and!other!COMECON!countries!as!its!
crutch.30!
BOAT!PEOPLE!
For!some,!the!brutality!and!hardship!of!life!in!
the!new!Vietnam!were!too!much!to!endure.!
They!decided!to!“risk!everything,!including!
death,”!to!escape.!Immediately!after!the!end!
of!the!war,!people!began!fleeing.!Escape,!
mostly!by!sea,!involved!intricate!planning—
securing!boats,!finding!guides,!and!bribing!
officials!to!turn!a!blind!eye—as!well!as!
serious!and!sometimes!deadly!risks—border!
patrols,!pirates,!and!stormy!seas.33!Some!
escapees!were!captured.!Some!were!raided!
and!killed!by!pirates.!Some!drowned.!Some!
made!it!to!refugee!camps!around!the!region,!
the!starting!point!of!a!long!journey!to!
resettlement!in!Europe!and!North!America.34!
THE!NEW!SOCIETY!
Guided!by!both!ideology!and!security!
concerns,!the!new!government!set!out!to!
eradicate!independent!political!thought!and!
religious!influence!from!the!public!space.!
Soon!after!the!“liberation”!of!Saigon,!books,!
magazines,!journals,!and!other!forms!of!
printed!publications!deemed!antibcommunist!
or!“corrupt”!by!the!new!regime!were!burned,!
while!the!freedom!of!the!press,!limited!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
31!Terzani,!208b213.!
32!Nguyen,!164b187.!
28!Nguyen!Van!Canh,!Vietnam!Under!Communism,!1975K
33!Nghia!M.!Vo,!The!Vietnamese!Boat!People,!1954!and!
1992!(J!efferson,!NC:!McFarland!&!Company,!2006),!1b5,!
83b97,!101b114.!
34!Ibid,!142b162.!
1982!(Stanford:!Hoover!Institution!Press,!1983),!27b39.!
29!Ibid,!27.!
30!Ibid,!27b39.!!
!
11!
!
!
!
Those!who!sought!to!leave!were!mostly!the!
people!bearing!the!brunt!of!the!new!national!
government’s!policies:!former!ROV!soldiers;!
former!ROV!government!bureaucrats;!
professionals!and!business!people!who!
thrived!under!the!old!system;!devout!
Catholics!and!Buddhists;!ethnic!Chinese.!
However,!even!communists!fled—those!who!
came!to!fear!the!arbitrary!“justice”!of!the!
system!they!helped!create,!those!disillusioned!
by!the!utopiabturnedbdystopia,!and!those!who!
fell!out!of!favor.35!By!1978,!the!trickle!of!
people!who!were!fleeing!the!country!began!to!
pose!a!challenge!to!internal!order!as!well!as!a!
threat!to!Vietnam’s!image!on!the!
international!stage.!
4. Nguyen,!Van!Canh.!Vietnam!
Under!Communism,!1975K1982.!
Stanford:!Hoover!Institution!Press,!
1983.!
5. Nguyenbvo,!Thubhuong.!
KhmerKViet!Relations!and!the!Third!
Indochina!Conflict.!Jefferson:!
MacFarlane,!1992.!
6. Smith,!Ralph!Bernard.!
Communist!Indochina.!London:!
Routledge,!2009.!
7. Terzani,!Tiziano.!Giai!Phong!:!
The!Fall!and!Liberation!of!Saigon,!
translated!by!John!Shepley.!New!York:!
St.!Martin’s!Press,!1976.!
USEFUL!SOURCES!FOR!FURTHER!
READING!
8. TonbThat,!Thien.!The!Foreign!
Politics!of!the!Communist!Party!of!
Vietnam:!A!Study!of!Communist!
Tactics.!New!York:!C.!Russak,!1989.!
1. Chen,!King!C.!China’s!War!with!
Vietnam,!1979:!Issues,!Decisions,!and!
Implications.!Stanford:!Hoover!
Institution!Press,!1987.!
9. Vo,!Nghia!M.!The!Vietnamese!
Boat!People,!1954!and!1975K1992.!
Jefferson,!NC:!McFarland!&!Company,!
2006.!
2. Khoo,!Nicholas.!Collateral!
Damage:!SinoKSoviet!Rivalry!and!the!
Termination!of!the!SinoKVietnamese!
Alliance.!New!York:!Columbia!
University!Press,!2011.!
10. Westad,!Odd!Arne!and!Sophie!
QuinnbJudge,!ed.!The!Third!Indochina!
War:!Conflict!between!China,!Vietnam!
and!Cambodia,!1972K79.!London:!
Routledge,!2006.!
3. Mertha,!Andrew.!Brothers!in!
arms:!Chinese!Aid!to!the!Khmer!Rouge,!
1975K1979.!Ithaca,!NY:!Cornell!
University!Press,!2014.!
!
!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
35!Ibid,!115b129.!
!
12!
!
!
!
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Buszynski,!Leszek,!and!Iskandar!Sazlan.!“Maritime!Claims!and!Energy!Cooperation!in!the!South!
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no.!1!(April!2007),!10.1353/csa.2007.0014.!
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Chang,!Paobmin.!“The!SinobVietnamese!Dispute!over!the!Ethnic!Chinese.”!The!China!Quarterly!90!
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