The Changing
Seasons
Kenn Kaufman
HE WINTER OF 1988-1989IN
NorthAmericacouldhavebe-
gun with a line borrowedfrom a
Western movie. Before the season had
a chanceto get underway,it seemed,
a mysteriousstrangerstalked to the
middle of the continent, faced the
north, and barked out, "All right-nobodymove!"And for the mostpart,
it worked. There were a few exceptions, but most of the northern birds
did not move, and the non-invasion
of all the invasive northern species
added up to the biggeststory of the
have such different impressions,is it
really a contradiction?Not necessar-
ily. It may be just the kind of pattern
we're looking for.
When one regionreportsthat a particular bird was unusually common,
it could mean one of three things:
1. It might be just a false impression.
2. It might mean that this species,
for some reason, is in high numbers
throughoutits range.If this is the case,
presumably,some other regionswill
comment
as well.
3. It might reflecta temporary shift
in the population.Birdsof many sorts
do movearoundin response
to changing conditions.This is especiallytrue
in winter, when the wild food supply
and the overallweatherpatternsmay
vary wildly from year to year. If food
is abundant in one area, attracting
large numbersof birds, we could expect numbers of birds to be reduced
somewhere else. This is no contradic-
tion; this is a pattern.
season.
Can we paint a clear picture of this
non-flight year? And can we identify
the mysteriousstrangerwho stopped
the flight?Yes and no. The Regional
Reportsdo give us a pretty thorough
idea of where the birds were and, especially,where they were not. But no
reasoncan be singledout for the lack
of an invasion, because there were
probably many reasons,at least one
for every speciesthat failed to move
south. The one common theme is that
the lack of a southward invasion--
while it might be bad news for birders-seems to reflect good news (at
least in the short term) for the birds
themselves.
What makes a detectable pattern?
A few times in recent years, firsttime writers in "The ChangingSeasons" have complained that the Regional Reports revealed no patterns:
one region would note that a given
bird was unusually common, while
anotherregionwould report the same
bird as scarce.Seeingthis as a contradiction, the writer would conclude
that there was no pattern.
But when two Regional Editors
Volume 43, Number 2
A winterenigma:this CommonRedpoll(shownconsorting
withAmericanGoldfinches)
photographed
February11, 1989 at GlenRose,providedonlythethirdacceptable
record
for Texas.One or twootherindividualswerenotedexceptionally
far southbutfor the
mostpart this and other "winterfinches"were remarkablylacMngin areas that they
usuallyinvade.Photograph/Greg
Lasley.
271
Three easy patterns:Red-breasted
Nuthatches stay in the North;
Golden-crownedKingletsblanket the
East; Northern Shrikes invade the
as scarce •n the Atlantic Provinces,
New England, Quebec, Ontario, and
West
however.
Examples culled from this winter's
reports are three widespreadpatterns,
confirmedby many regions,that are
easyto describe(althoughperhapsnot
easyto explain).
around
the
western
Great
Lakes.
Numbers picked up toward the west,
Northerns
were south
of
usuallimits in Missouri,and in Texas
one was asfar south asthe Guadalupe
Mountains. New Mexico had its largest flight in over a decade, Arizona
recorded its largest numbers ever,
Variations
on th•s theme could be re-
peatedfor most parts of the continent.
there are someareaswith heavyb•rding coverage,and more areaswithout.
To reallyunderstandany patternof
bird distribution, it helps to have an
idea of birder distribution, or at least
an appreciationof the fact that some
areaswill be under reported.
northernCaliforniahad high num-
From coast to coast, Red-breasted
Nuthatches were scarcealmost every-
bers, and several reached southern
The main event: in a massive non-
California.
where
We might ask: did this southern
push of Northern Shrikes represent
invasion,the "winter finches" moved
late or, mostly, never
south of Canada.
This
was
noted in so many regionsthat it was
clearlyno illusion.Evidentlythe birds
had little reason to move
South. In
Quebec, they remained common in
areas that are normally vacated in
w•nter; in New England, they were
spilloverfrom a hightotalpopulation,
or was it just an exceptionalmovement by smallnumbersof birds?But
we'll get no clear answers.The Spokane area of easternWashingtonhad
As Bill Boylestatedfor the HudsonDelaware Region, "The winter finch
storyis easyto summarize:therewere
virtually none." Blair Nikula wrote
that "for many of us in southernNew
England, the term 'winter finch'
evokesonlythe vaguestof memories."
From the Midwest, Bruce Peterjohn
reportedthat "it was the poorestyear
numerous in the interior but scarce
a high count, but coastalsectionsof
in more temperate areas near the
the Pacific Northwest
coast. One area that Red-breasted
Nuthatches did invade was southern
bers,and otherareashad no com-
Alaska, where an all-time high was
counted at Anchorage,about as far
north asthe species
getsat any season.
birders and Northern Shrikes are both
in a decade for winter finches." Vet-
toothinlyspreadfor usto expectone
eran GeorgeHall, who startedediting
the Appalachianreport beforemost of
us startedbirding, put it in a longer
perspective:"Probablyonly thoseb•rders whose memory goesback to the
had low num-
ment. In the interior of the Northwest,
to monitor the other.
The continental pattern seems clear
enough, with low numbers in the
south balancedby high numbersin
the north. Incidentally,somewestern
editors mentioned
the absence of
these nuthatches in connection with
Our detectionof patterns:how tight
is the grid?
1940s could recall a winter season so
deficient in Evening Grosbeaks or
It seems obvious that we could de-
the lack of a downslopemovement
tect avian trends and movements with
from the mountains.
greataccuracy
if we hada networkof
The continent-
w•de nature of this non-flightsuggests
anotherinterpretation.It suggests
that
the Red-breasted Nuthatches that are
sometimes common in the western
birders stationed at one-mile intervals
acrossthe continent,a grid systemof
observers.It Seemsequally obvious
that no such network
exists. Birders
other northern finches."
All acrossthe continent, south of
the Canadian border, there were no
dissentingopinions. Of course,there
were some purely local exceptions.
The Middle PacificCoastRegion had
very few Evening Grosbeaks,except
lowlands may come from the far
north, not from the nearby moun-
are spreadmore patchilythan birds:
tains.
tain West had high numbersof some
finches in the Englemann spruce
parently numerous at the northern
others.This hasa major effecton our
ability to detectpatterns.
In the great expanseof Northwest-
and southernextremesof their range
ern Canada, most of the reportscome
•n eastern
micro-birds
from small areas around Whitehorse
and Fort St. John. In the vastness of
most places. A few redpolls moved
late in the season,as often happens,
Golden-crownedKinglets were ap-
North America.
remained
in
These
above-
numerous in some areas, absent in
for one spot that hosted an all-t•me
regionalrecord number. The Moun-
zone, but low numbers of most •n
into Wisconsin
and North
Dakota
average numbers in Quebec and in
the Maritime Provinces, where the
"woods were almost dripping" with
Alaska, winter reports come from
only a handful of locations.And this
scarcityof observers
is not limited to
them in Nova Scotia. At the same
the Far North. In a footnote to me
t•me, this was the northern species
that "made the biggestimpressionon
Florida observers,"it was in higher
than averagenumbersthroughoutthe
Central Southern Region, and it was
from Colorado,Hugh Kingerywrote,
"No bird watcher (and certainly no
birder) hasever setfoot in vastexpan-
(the timing of this flight is one example of why the ChristmasBird Counts
cannot give the full winter picture)
But all these exceptionswere mentioned only as exceptions.The rule,
endorsedby virtuallyall United States
regions,was that the winter finches
ses of Nevada. A lot of observers fail
did not come south.
to appreciate the immensity of the
common in eastern and southern
Texas all winter. Between these ex-
West or the dearth of bird watchers
So where were they?
We know where the White-winged
Crossbillswere. Throughout northern
Ontario, they were "numerous." In
central Quebec, they were "abundant." In the Atlantic Provinces,Ian
McLarentermedthem"outstandingly
abundant." Responding to a mas-
tremes, and in the West, the kinglet
drew few comments.
East of the Mississippi,no one
seemedimpressedwith the movement
of Northern Shrikes;they were noted
272
here ... We have just one reporter
who lives in spruce/fir, so we don't
hearmuch aboutspruce/firbirds.But
we have a bunch of reporterswho live
in ponderosapine, so when the crossbillsshoTMup there,we hear aboutit."
AmericanB•rds,Summer 1989
slve cone crop, the Whlte-wlngeds
swarmed in the spruces,and many
were evidently breeding.Bruce Macravish dropped me a postcard from
Newfoundlandto say,"When all these
cones disappearin six or 12 months
from now... there is the potential for
the biggestWhite-wingedCrossbillin-
has many active birders If the abun-
katchewan instead, for example, it
might havegonevirtually undetected.
Indeed, that may have been where
some of the "missing" finches were
this season.The winter fincheswill go
wherethe food is, whether or not any
vaslon in decades. Look out Florida!"
birders are there to notice them.
dance had centered on northern
Sas-
And it may be no exaggeration.At
any rate, the great food supply was
undoubtedly the reason for the species' abundance in eastern Canada;
in appreciable numbers elsewhere.
Pine Siskins(which, as David Powell commented from Michigan, "held
a record non-invasion"
south of the
Canadian border) were also scarcein
most observedareas of Alaska, Ontario, and Quebec. However, they
were common (away from feeders)in
the Atlantic Provinces, where wild
food apparentlywasplentiful.
Pine Grosbeaks were considered
scarce in Alaska but common
in
northwesternCanada;in Quebecand
Ontario, they stayedin the boreal forests. In the Mountain West, with a
good spruce-conecrop, the resident
populations had high visibility for
those observersthat ventured up to
the sprucezones to seethem.
Redpolls were in averagenumbers
in Alaska but very scarcein northwestern Canada. In eastern Canada,
they generally stayedin the northern
sectionsof the provincesat least until
mid-winter, and the flight that developed late in the seasonwas not major
in numbers or extent.
The
winter
finches that
seemed
Following the fashion of the finches,
frugivores failed to fly
Almost as dramatic as the non-invasion of winter finches was the non-
invasion of fruit-eating birds, particularly robins and waxwings. Areas
from southern California to Texas to
the Gulf Coast reported that American Robins and Cedar Waxwingsessentiallynever arrived;even in southern Ontario, the expected mid-winter
influx of robins failed to materialize.
Again, their failure to appear in
southern areas can mostly be traced
to concentrationsat good food supplies farther north. Ian McLaren
called the holdback of robins in the
Atlantic Provinces one of the two
main eventsof the season,and laid it
to the abundance
of Mountain
Ash
berries there. (If your non-birding
neighborsget a kick out of the "first
robin of spring,"don't tell them about
the ten thousand that wintered
in St.
John's,Newfoundland.*)
Cedar Waxwingswere also numerousin that region. Another centerof abundancefor
frugivoreswasthe area from Missouri
throughthe northern partsof the Central Southern Region, where waxwings were plentiful and some large
scarceeverywherewereEveningGrosbeaks. Few reachedNew England or
counts of robins were made.
southern
there must have been good food supplies for Bohemian Waxwings, be-
Ontario.
In
the
Atlantic
Provinces,New Brunswickhad good
numbers but they were scarce elsewhere. They were scarcestof all the
w•nter
Great
finches around
Somewhere in the boreal wilderness
causethesebirdsgenerallyfailedto
reach our network of observers.
was undoubtedly somewhere in the
vastand mostlyunwatchedboreal for-
Inching North: with anothermild
winter, we saw a continuing
northward expansionof Carolina
Wren and other species
When
several mild winters follow
in succession,can southern birds extend their ranges northward? Read
what Ron Weir hasto sayabout Car-
olina Wrens in Ontario. Five years
ago, the province had five of these
wrens wintering; this season, there
were more than 80. New England also
had record numbers, Quebec had an
unprecedenteddozen wintering,good
numberswere in Michigan and Wisconsin, and extralimital birds were in
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Minnesota, and even Colorado.
Other southernspeciesalso posted
gains, albeit not so dramatically.
Northern Cardinals, attempting to
live up to their name, wereadvancing
in Michigan, Minnesota, Ontario,
Quebec, and New Brunswick. Redbellied Woodpeckersslippeda little in
Ontario, but continued to consolidate
their range in New England;adventurous individuals were well north in
Nova Scotia,Quebec,Michigan, Minnesota, and North Dakota. Northern
Mockingbirdnumberswereup in Ontario, and two even wintered in Newfoundland. Honorable mention also
went to Mourning Doves and Black
Vultureswinteringin northerlyareas.
The latter two are partially migratory,
frontiers do not have the do-or-the
Lakes. Few were seen on the
ofic Coast area, and northeastern
BrilashColumbia had only half the
with hunger.The sourceof this flight
however;individuals at their northern
the western
northern Great Plains, they were
scarcethroughout the Northern Pa-
many of the Great Grays makesone
wonder if they were alsoon the move
est to the north of Minnesota.
and its abundance there was undoubt-
edly the reasonwhy it wasnot present
ter incursions has rarely been so
graphically drawn, because the Boreals were apparently starving to
death, and the transient nature of
A disturbinglate-winter flight of
dying owls
commitment of essentiallyresident
birds. A Carolina Wren wintering in
Canada is a true pioneer.
Essentialreadingis David Powell's
usual numbers.
Of course,when we talk about these
account of the owl invasion
Western Great Lakes Region. That
Finches and Lesser Black-backed
birds beingabsent"everywhere,"we
area saw a record flight of Boreal
Gulls are up; anis and Common
mean "everywhere there was good
Owls,and a near-recordflightof Great
Ground-Doves
birdingcoverage."
Look at the exam-
Gray Owls, mostly in the latter part
to the
ple of the White-winged Crossbills.
of the winter. But birders derived little
Their abundance in the Atlantic Prov-
pleasurefrom this invasion. The connectionbetweenfood supplyand win-
inceswasrecordedbecausethat region
Volume 43, Number 2
Other on-goingtrends:House
are down
As the introduced easternpopulation of House Finches continues to
spread,eachseasonbringsnew reports
273
from the periphery This winter
counts have to span the continent...
Prince Edward Island had its second
or go even farther. This winter, for
example,waterfowlnumbersin Florida were unimpressive, while high
numbers wintered in Quebec, probably respondingto the overall mild-
record,the specieswas reportedto be
"spreadinglike wildfire" around the
Western Great Lakes, and it proved
its ability to survivea North Dakota
winter. The Iowa population was said
to be "increasingquite rapidly," and
in the Central Southern Region, Arkansaswas"receivingthe brunt of the
onslaught."At their farthest extension, House Finches are now turning
up in easternNebraska, Kansas,and
Oklahoma. Given the timing, it seems
almost certain to me that these birds
must be coming from the east, not
from the long-established
populations
ness of the season. The number
of
migrant ducks reachingHawaii this
season was down, while ducks in
Alaska (where the early seasonwas
alsomild) winteredin increasednumbers. Could there be connections here?
Ross' Geese are increasing,or at
least being detected with increasing
frequency,at the easternlimits of their
range just east of the Great Plains.
Greater
White-fronted
Geese
are
being found in higher numbers right
just to the west.
Lesser Black-backed
Gulls
in the
East have entered a new phase: they
are sonumerousthat many birdersdo
not bother to mention them, so the
total of actual reports is no longer a
good indicator of their numbers.In
the Hudson-DelawareRegion,for ex-
across the Middlewestern
Prairie Re-
gion to the Hudson-Delawareand
New England. Many of theseWhitefronteds,especiallytowardthe eastern
end of this continuum,arebeingidentitled as belongingto the Greenland
subspecies,
but Blair Nikula questions
ample, there were "more than two
dozen reported and many others not
reported." Some tip-of-the-icebergre-
how reliable
ports included 14 at one landfill in
Florida, birds at 21 locations in the
Middle Atlantic Coast Region, a few
in every state of the Middlewestern
Prairie Region, 13 birds in Ontario,
This seasonsaw a notable flight of
Harlequin Ducks southto New England, New York, New Jersey,and the
southern Great Lakes, and a stray
and at least five birds in Texas.
Provinces,however,numbersof Harlequins were so low as to causeconcern. Barrow's Goldeneyeswandered
far afield, with definite or probable
recordsin Delaware, Iowa, New Mexico, and even Hawaii.
As noted by H. T. Armistead, the
exoticwater plant Hydrilla on the Potomac is supportingrecord numbers
of some ducks, and large counts are
still possiblein the ChesapeakeBay
complex, while nearby at Back Bay
most duck numbersare declining.In
the Hudson-Delaware Region, census
Declines and rangecontractionsare
always harder to detect than expansions,but this seasonJohn Ogden and
Bill
Smith
noted
that
Common
Ground-Dovesseemto be fading out
in parts of Florida where they were
once numerous.
Similar
sentiments
have been expressed recently elsewhere in the Southeast, and even locally in the Southwest.Clearly, the
speciesneeds close monitoring. Dechneswerealsosuggested
for Smoothbilled Anis in Florida and for Groovebilled Anis in Louisiana and Texas.
Even thoughtheseareonly peripheral
outliers of widespreadspecies,their
populations here are worth preserving.
Shuffling the ducks:a slight
redistribution
of waterfowl
There has been valid concern re-
cently about populationsof somewaterfowl,but monitoringtheir numbers
in winter can be complicatedby the
fact that their wintering areas shift
from year to year. To be reliable,
274
these racial determina-
tions really are. His cautionary note
should be heeded.
even reached Florida. In the Atlantic
results show that overall numbers of
waterfowl are more or less steady-but a breakdownby speciesshowsthat
Canada Geese (adapted to civilization) are sharplyup, while many duck
speciesare down. These examples illustratethe dangersof makingblanket
statementsabout the waterfowl. They
must be analyzedsite by site, species
by species.
The interior
of the continent hosted a
diversityof gullsthat shouldhave
been elsewhere
Everywinter bringsnotablegull re-
ports.But this season,like the autumn
that preceded it, was clearly above
averagefor rare gull recordsinland.
From
the Middlewestern
Prairie
Re-
gion, Bruce Peterjohn wrote "Gulls
generatedthe most excitement"; Joe
Grzybowski, in the Southern Great
Plains,wrote"Thank goodness
for the
gulls";Greg Lasleyand Chuck Sexton
were enthusiasticabout the diversity
of gulls in north-central Texas. No
obviousexplanationfor thisladd bonanza comesto mind, sincethe species
involvedwere suchan eclecticgroup.
The Mew Gulls in Texas should have
been on the Pacific Coast, the Great
Black-backed
Gull
in
Nebraska
should have been on the Atlanuc
Coast, the Ivory Gull in Wisconsin
should have been in the Arctic, the
Sabine's Gull in Ohio should have
been somewhere in the southern
oceans,and the Slaty-backedGull on
the Mississippi River should have
been in Asia.
Perhaps most significant was the
scatteringof numbers of Frankhn's
Gulls in the interior. These prmnenesting gulls generally winter on the
westcoastof SouthAmerica, but this
seasonbirds were reported into the
winter in Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas,
Nebraska,South Dakota, Iowa, Missouri, Wisconsin, Tennessee, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida,
and Oregon (as well as California,
where a handful often winter). The
numbersinvolvedwere not large,but
the wide distribution
was remarkable.
Many of the birdsin the deepinterior
were reported to be in full breechng
plumage,surprisingin midwinter.
Weather's effectson wintering
birdlife were not universallynoted
The early winter was mild' in most
parts of the continent, and in some
areas the
whole
season continued
mild. However, record-breakingcold
hit Alaska in mid-January. This
weather systemgraduallyspreadeast
and south to affect many regionsof
North America by sometimein February, with conditions moderating
againafterwards.
This weatherpattern is easyto trace,
but for the most part its effects on
birdswere not obvious.Some regions
felt that the warm early part of the
seasoninduced marginal speciesto
linger, but not all sharedthis view
Somehalf-hardysongbirds
lingeredin
American Birds, Summer 1989
the Hudson-DelawareRegion, for example, but next door in New England
there were remarkably few lingering
shorebirds despite the mild conditions. The only birds that seemedto
be widely affected,as mentioned earlier, were some of the waterfowl that
wintered north of normal limits.
And when the cold weather did ar-
was,this is probablya speciesthat has
been overlookedin the past. Supertlciallyit lookslike somethingbetween
a Redhead and a Canvasback;up to
now, only a few astute observers
might have picked it out. But in the
wake of the Californiabird, everyone
will be lookingfor more,and I predict
that the Common
Pochard will be
rive, it seemedto bring about only
found again.
local movements, or none at all in
someareas.In Alaska, where the conditions were most severe, there was
some bird mortality. Another region
The probable extinction of another
American bird species
where the harsh weather had notable
effects on birds was the Northern Pa-
cificCoast.There, coincidingwith the
freeze, several shorebirdsmoved out,
while
kittiwakes
arrived
from
the
north. A number of montane birds,
such as Red-breasted Sapsuckers,
Steller's Jays, and Varied Thrushes,
moved into the lowlands.
Birding in Fashion: reports of
Yellow-billed Loons have spread; will
Common Pochard
be next?
As Ted Eubanks pointed out in this
column last year (American Birds
42:402), reports of a speciescan increasealong with its "popularity"-i.e., birders'awarenessof its statusor
its field marks.I suspectthat thispoint
ispartlyillustratedby therecentsurge
of Yellow-billed Loon reports in the
interior. To be sure,thereare far more
Some of the world's toughestendangered-species
problemsare in the
United States... in Hawaii. Strong
conservation
effortsare helpingsome
of the endangeredbirdsthere;but for
Twenty years ago, who wouM have dared
to report a Yellow-billed Loon in Oklahoma? Probably no one, but with better
some of the ultra-rare
understanding
of the species'fieldmarks,
native forest
birds, there is little that can be done
outsideof monitoringtheir numbers.
Monitorstheremay haveseenthe last
of the 'O'o'a'a, that black-and-yellow
phantom of the Alaka'i Wilderness.
Bob Pyle relatesthe sadstory.A loss
for Hawaii is obviouslya lossfor all
of us.
Read this or else
My aim in writing "The Changing
Seasons"has been to trace the megapatterns, the avian events that were
spreadover severalregions.As a re-
artificial bodies of water in the interior
of the West than there once were, but
sult, I have said much about common
the reports of Yellow-billedsstarted
rolling in long after these reservoirs
were available. The key factor seems
to be that goodinformationon identifying winter loons has become
widely accessibleonly very recently.
In regionsof the interior whereonce
Pine Siskins, and nothing about
mouth-wateringrarities such as Bananaquits or Bramblings. But those
birds are printed in boldfacetype in
birders would
have made the "con-
servative"assumptionthat any loon
must be a Common, such birds are
now beingstudiedcritically.The possibilityof rare visitorsis beingconsidered. With two Yellow-billed Loons
in the interior of British Columbia
and one in Colorado this season,the
appearanceof Oklahoma's first was
exciting,but perhapsnot totally unexpected.The speciesmight eventually turn up in most of our statesand
provinces.
This
winter
a Common
Pochard
was found in southern California, and
many felt that it was a genuinewild
stray, not an escapee.Whichever it
Volume 43, Number 2
birds such as American
Robins and
the Regional Reports, and you can
find them yourself. You owe it to
yourself to at least flip through the
Regionals,checkingout the boldfaced
birds and readingthe boxedessays.
A non-boxed essaythat's worth a
look is Dave Lambeth's discussion of
winter waterbirds
on the Northern
Great Plains. First he describes the
distribution of unfrozen water in his
region, and then he details the birds
that were found on that water during
this season. It's far more informative
than just listing the bird records out
of context.
Speakingof context, here'sanother
topic to think about. It's true that this
winter was exceptionally poor for
southward invaders, but many of
these winter irruptives have seemed
it has been detected in such inland states
as Minnesota, Colorado, and Arizona, so
a patternof raredispersal
to the interior
has been established.
This
Yellow-billed
Loon in first-winterplumage was photographed near Tulsa, Oklahoma. on December20, 1988. Photograph/SteveMetz.
oddly scarcefor a number of years
now. At the same time, quite a few
southernspecieshavebeen spreading
northward. Could these phenomena,
seemingly very different, have the
same cause?Your required reading
assignmentis Blair Nikula's introduction to the New England Region report, wherein he examinesthis possible connection.Remember the mysterious strangerwe talked about, the
onewho stoppedthe flight of northern
birds?Maybe his name was "Green-
houseEffect" or "Global Warming."
The seasons
are changing,and this is
a goodtime for all of us to pay attention, to monitor the changesin our
birdlife.
And finally, if your winter was on
the dull side,you might find comfort
in the account from the Atlantic Prov-
inces.That Region had it all: swarms
of finchesand fruit-eaters,lots of lingerers,a northward surgeof southern
birds,and a healthyhandful of strays
from Europe. Ian McLaren writes
about the season with obvious relish
and zest.You can read it just for fun,
and contemplate the possibilitythat
next time your Region might be the
lucky one.
--.950
Third Ave.,
New York, NY 10022.
275