Ф Е Д Е Р АЛ Ь Н О Е АГ Е Н Т С Т В О П О О Б Р АЗО В АН И Ю Р Ф
В О Р О Н Е Ж С К И Й Г О С У Д АРС Т В Е Н Н Ы Й У Н И В Е Р С И Т Е Т
Г И Д РО Л О Г И Я
У чебноеп особиеп оанглийском у яз
ыку п осп ециальност и:
П р ир одоп ольз
ование020802 (013400)
О П Д 020802
В О РО Н Е Ж
2005
2
У т верж д ен о н а у чн о-м етод ическим совет ом ф а ку льт ета ром а н огерм а н ской ф илологии п ротокол № 1 от 21.01.2005
С ост а вит ели:С а ф он ова Н . В.
Черн икова С.Н .
Пособие п од готовлен о н а ка ф ед ре а н глий ского язы ка ф а ку льт ет а ром а н огерм а н ской ф илологии Ворон еж ского госу д а рст вен н ого у н иверсит ет а
Р еком ен д у ет сяд ляст у д ен т ов вт орого ку рса ф а ку льт ет а геогра ф ии и
геоэкологии
3
Да н н ое у чебн ое п особие п од гот овлен о н а ка ф ед ре а н глий ского язы ка ф а ку льт ет а ром а н о-герм а н ской ф илологии Ворон еж ского госу д а рст вен н ого у н иверсит ет а . Он о п ред н а зн а чен о д ля ст у д ен т ов вт орого ку рса д н евн ого от д елен ия
ф а ку льтет а геогра ф ии и геоэкологии, обу ча ющ ихся п о сп ециа льн ости п рирод оп ользова н ие.
Цель п особия –ра звит ие у м ен ия говорен ия н а осн ове чт ен ия т екст ов п о
сп ециа льн ости. Да н н а я цель д остига ет ся в п роцессе решен ия след у ющ их за д а ч:
совершен ст вова н ие у м ен ий чит а т ь ин оязы чн ы й сп ецтекст , исп ользу яра зличн ы е
ст ра т егии чтен ия (п росм отровое, п оисковое, д ет а льн ое); ра звит ие лексических
н а вы ков; ра звит ие н а вы ков д иа логической речи и п роф ессион а льн оориен т ирова н н ы х у м ен ий м он ологической речи н а м а т ериа ле т екст ов п о п роф ессион а льн ой т ем а т ике.
Пособие сост оит из 8-м и у роков, ка ж д ы й из кот оры х им еет след у ющие
ра зд елы : п ред текст овы е у п ра ж н ен ия; т екст ы п о п роф ессион а льн ой т ем а т ике;
у п ра ж н ен ия, вы п олн яем ы е в п роцессе чт ен ия; п ослет екст овы е у п ра ж н ен ия, н а п ра влен н ы е н а п роверку п он им а н ия п рочит а н н ого; блок лексических у п ра ж н ен ий , н а п ра влен н ы х н а овла д ен ие п роф ессион а льн ой т ерм ин ологией ; а т а кж е
блок у п ра ж н ен ий н а обсу ж д ен ие ин ф орм а ции, п олу чен н ой изтекст а .
4
UNIT I
WATER: THE ELIXIR OF LIFE
Question Time
Discuss the following question.
“ What would our planet be like if it were not for water?”
Time for Reading
I. Read the text and choose the best answer (a, b or c).
1) Paragraph I is mostly about:
a) the wonders of water;
b) water as the most wonderful substance on the Earth;
c) properties of water.
2) Paragraph II is mostly about:
a) how water possesses a high heat capacity;
b) how water has conditioned the Earth’s climate;
c) how seas, oceans act as heat accumulators.
3) Paragraph III is mostly about:
a) water gradually turns into ice;
b) the cold of outer space penetrated into the Earth;
c) the water vapor acts like a layer of cotton wool.
4) Paragraph IV is mostly about:
a) the unique role of water in nature;
b) water’s ability to form a strong surface film;
c) how life originated in primeval seas.
II. Find in the text the following information.
1) Water created life on the Earth;
2) water as a common thing on the planet;
3) water possesses a high heat capacity;
4) water’s latent heat of melting and evaporation is extremely high.
THE SUBSTANCE TO WHICH OUR PLANET
OWES ITS EXISTENCE
(I) When an astronomer trains his telescope at one of the planets neighboring
the Earth, he always wonders about the presence of water and oxygen there. His
interest is quite natural: should they exist in any quantity on the planet life there
might be expected somehow to resemble ours. It is water that brought our Earth into
existence, developed it to its present state, and created life. Above all these, water is
the most wonderful substance on the Earth and the more we learn about it the more
we marvel at it. Hardly anybody has ever speculated on the remarkable properties of
water, and no wonder: we encounter water everywhere; it is a common thing on our
planet. Three quarters of the Earth’s surface is covered by water, with about one fifth
of the land covered with solidified water (ice and snow); clouds of water vapor and
tiny drops always shroud a good half of that land, where there are no clouds watervapor is always present in the air. That is how common water is on our planet: it
5
constitutes as much as seventy-one per cent of the human body. And common things
are never regarded as wonderful. Its very commonplaceness, however, is
extraordinary. No other substance is more abundant on the Earth and none occurs in
three states at the same time: solid, liquid and gaseous.
(II) Water has conditioned the Earth’s climate. But for water our planet would
have cooled long ago and all life would have disappeared. Water possesses a high
heat capacity. When warmed it absorbs much heat, and cooling it loses it. Oceans,
seas, and other reservoirs on our planet, as well as atmospheric vapor act as heat
accumulators: in warm weather they absorb heat, and when it is cold they give it off,
so warming the air and all surrounding space.
(III) Nonetheless the Earth would freeze in the long run if it were not for
another of water’s remarkable properties. It is common knowledge that almost all
substances contract on cooling, but water expands. If it contracted, ice would be
heavier than water and would sink. All the water would gradually turn into ice and
the Earth would be left with a very light mantle of a gaseous atmosphere containing
no water vapor. The cold of outer space would long ago have penetrated the Earth but
for its warm coat. This coat is the atmosphere which surrounds our planet, the water
vapor acting like a layer of cotton wool. Over deserts where water vapor is scarce the
coat is full of holes. Thus unprotected, the Earth is fiercely heated by the sun in
daytime and cools off completely overnight. That is why temperature fluctuations in
the desert are so great.
(IV) Water has one more extraordinary characteristic: its latent heat of melting
and evaporation is extremely high. It is only due to this that life is possible in a hot
climate. Only by evaporating water (i.e. giving off a large amount of heat) can
animals and men maintain their body temperature several degrees lower than that of
the ambient atmosphere. The role of water in nature is unique because life would be
impossible without it. Life originated in primeval seas from the substances dissolved
in them. Ever since then chemical reactions have been occurring in every cell of all
animals and plants between the dissolved substances. Perhaps the least known among
the remarkable properties of water is its ability to form an extremely strong mutual
attraction of molecules in the upper most layers. Its surface tension is strong enough
to support things which seemingly should not float.
Did You Get It?
I. Correct the following sentences.
1) Water constitutes as much as 70 per cent of the human body.
2) It is common knowledge that all substances contract on cooling.
3) Three quarters of the earth’s surface is covered by water, with about one
forth of the land is covered by solidified water.
4) Over deserts where water vapor is scarce the coat is not full of holes.
5) Only by evaporating water can animals and men maintain their body
temperature several degrees higher than that of the ambient atmosphere.
6) Life originated in shallow seas from the substances dissolved in them.
II. Answer the questions.
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1) Who wonders about the presence of water and oxygen on the planets
neighboring the Earth?
2) What brought our Earth to existence?
3) Why is water the most wonderful substance on the earth?
4) What part of the Earth surface is covered by water?
5) What percentage of the human body does water constitute?
6) Water occurs in three states at the same time: solid, liquid and gaseous,
doesn’t it?
7) What substance has conditioned the earth’s climate?
8) What does water possess?
9) What reservoirs act as heat accumulators?
10) What substances on the Earth contract on cooling?
11) What is the coat of the Earth?
12) How does water vapor act on the planet?
13) Where is atmosphere full of holes?
14) Where is the Earth fiercely heated by the Sun?
15) What one more extraordinary characteristic does water have?
16) How can animals and men maintain their body temperature?
17) Why is the role of water unique in nature?
18) Where did life originate?
19) What remarkable properties of water do you know?
20) What forms an extremely strong surface film?
Words, Words, Words…
I. Complete the word combinations below by adding an appropriate noun
from the box. Some can combine with more than one noun.
• substance
• state
• coat
• thing
• capacity
• fluctuations
• water
• accumulators
• temperature
• vapor
• properties
• reactions
• drops
• mantle
• film
• body
• atmosphere
• tension
1. heat ______________
2. ambient ___________
3. solidified __________
4. remarkable _________
5. warm _____________
6. surface __________
7. wonderful __________
8. water _____________
9. chemical _________
10. body _________
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
atmospheric _________
common _________
human _________
light _________
liquid _________
tiny _________
solid _________
temperature _________
gaseous _________
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II. Find words in the text that mean the following. The number of the
paragraph is given to help you.
regarded as (I)
dissolved in (IV)
tension (IV)
resemble (I)
conditioned (II)
contract (III)
light heat capacity (II)
exist in (I)
scarce (III)
III. Study the words and word combinations in the box.
• solid
• dissolve
• abundant
• vapor
• surface film
• constitute
• originate
• solidified
• liquid
• expand
• evaporation
• gaseous
• heat capacity
• chemical reactions
Which words describe:
a) a common thing on the planet;
b) the properties of water;
c) the role of water in nature.
IV. Find the following in the text.
1) a noun meaning “being present in a place”
2) a phrasal verb meaning “send out” (smoke, vapor)
3) a verb meaning “be real”
4) a verb meaning “ be the components of”
5) a noun meaning “state of”
6) an adjective meaning “more than enough”
7) an adjective meaning “concerned with nature”
8) a noun meaning “warmth, hotness”
9) a phrasal verb meaning “become calm”
10) an adjective meaning “very small”
V. Match up the words with their definitions.
1. property
• particular kind of matter
2. surface
• make or become larger
3. evaporate
• take in (liquid, heat, light)
4. ability
• the fact of owing or being owned
5. scarce
• outside of any object
6. substance
• capacity or power to do something physical
or mental)
7. originate
• remove liquid from a substance
8. capacity
• have as a cause or beginning
9. absorb
• possibility of holding, containing, learning
10. contract
• take place, happen
11. expand
• make a way into or through
12. fluctuate
• make or become smaller or shorter
13. occur
• not available in sufficient quantity
14. penetrate
• move up and down
Time to Talk
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I. Work in pairs. Discuss the following question.
How has water conditioned the Earth’s climate?
II. Think about your attitudes to such things as:
a. the presence of water on the Earth;
b. the characteristics of water;
c. the role of water in nature.
UNIT II
WATER RESOURCES: A GLOBAL CRISIS?
Question Time
I. Opinion Survey.
In class organize a survey “ The world's biggest water problem in the
future”.
An interviewer: your job is to ask your group mates what the world’s biggest
water problem will be. They should select an answer from the table below.
Summarize the results of the survey completing the table below. Share the results
with the group and the teacher.
Drinking
Water systems There won't
Problem We will not Water will
have
be too
water will (infrastructure) be major
enough
polluted
be unsafe.
will break
water
water
down
problems
Student
Student 1
Student 2
Student 3
etc.
Total
II. Discuss in pairs the following.
Are there any signs of water crisis in the region where you live?
I.
Time for Reading
Skim through the article from the on-line magazine and say under
what headline the author:
a. mentions the recommended basic water requirement per person per day;
b. states that 97% of liquid freshwater is stored underground;
c. predicts that by 2025 two-thirds of the world’s people will be facing
water stress;
d. describes diseases caused by dirty water;
e. dwells upon the usage of water in the world;
f. remarks that water is not distributed evenly over the Earth’s surface;
g. touches upon a problem of water pollution;
h. thinks that malaria is the biggest killer;
i. doubts that there is any progress as far as water supply and sanitation
provision are concerned;
9
WATER CRISIS ALREADY HERE
•
•
•
•
•
•
BASICS
On our blue planet 97.5% of the water is saltwater, unfit for human use.
The majority of freshwater is beyond our reach, locked into polar snow and
ice.
Less than 1% of freshwater is usable, amounting to only 0.01% of the Earth’s
total water.
Even this would be enough to support the world’s population three times over,
if used with care.
However, water – like population – isn’t distributed evenly. Asia has the
greatest annual availability of freshwater and Australia the lowest. But when
population is taken into account the picture looks very different. For instance,
the Congo River and its tributaries account for about 30 % of the entire African
continent's annual runoff, but the watershed contains only 10 % of Africa's
population.
Throughout much of the developing world the freshwater supply comes in the
form of seasonal rains. Such rains run off too quickly for efficient use. India,
for example, gets 90 % of its annual rainfall during the summer monsoon
season, which lasts from June to September. For the other eight months the
country gets barely a drop.
WHERE’S IT GOING?
Our increasing thirst is a result of
growing population, industrial
development and the expansion of
irrigated farming. In the past 40
years, the area of irrigated land has
doubled.
SIGNS OF STRESS
• By the mid-1990s, 80 countries
home to 40% of world population
encountered
serious
water
shortages. Worst affected are
Africa and the Middle East.
• In Metro Manila, capital of the
Philippines, for instance, there was
a time when the water agency
issued a call for public prayer to
ask Almighty God for the rains to
come. Even during the rainy
season, supply of potable water is
still inadequate.
• By 2025 two-thirds of the world’s
people will be facing water stress.
People without access
to a safe water supply, 2000 (in mil.)
Region
Rural Urban Total
Africa
256
44
300
Asia
595
98
693
Latin America
49
29
78
and the
Caribbean
Oceania
3
0
3
Europe
23
3
26
North America
0
0
0
World
926
174
1,100
• The only ray of hope is that the
growth in actual use of water has been
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The global demand for water will
have grown by over 40% by then.
slower than predicted.
IN SICKNESS AND HEALTH
Dirty water is the cause of numerous diseases, but improving hygiene and
sanitation are equally important in order to curb water-related diseases.
Parasites
Diseases of contamination Insect-related diseases
Cholera is only one of a
Malaria, borne by water- Found in 76 countries,
great many waterborne or
breeding mosquitoes, is
schistosomiasis kills some
water-related illnesses. The the biggest killer, causing 200,000 people every year
diarrhoeal diseases alone
about 2 million deaths a
After a peak in the late
kill about four million
year, including more than 1980s, guinea-worm
people a year, of whom 80 a million young children, infections have been
% are children. Just being
a large proportion of them declining as water sources
able to wash one’s hands
in Africa.
are better monitored.
with soap and water can
reduce diarrhoea by 35%.
NEEDING AND GETTING
Population using the least amount of
The recommended basic water
water
requirement per person per day is 50
Country
Liters of water used
litres. But people can get by with about
per person per day
30 litres: 5 litres for drinking and cooking Gambia
4.5
and another 25 to maintain hygiene. The
Mali
8.0
reality for millions comes nowhere near.
Somalia
8.9
By contrast the average US citizen uses
Mozambique
9.3
500 litres per day, while the British
Uganda
9.3
average is 200.
Cambodia
9.5
Tanzania
10.1
People in rural areas are four times more Progress?
likely than those in cities to have no safe Viewed in percentage terms both water
supply of water. The urban poor are less supply and sanitation provision have
likely than the well-off to be connected to improved in the last decade.
mains water supplies and pay on average However, the actual number of people in
12 times more per litre.
need has barely changed due to the rise in
world population.
TAPPING GROUNDWATER
Some 97% of liquid freshwater is stored underground in aquifers. People, especially
in rural areas, are increasingly dependent on groundwater –up to 2 billion people, a
third of the world’s population, rely on it.
Aquifers are most severely depleted
Drinking Groundwater
Region
% of
People served in parts of India, China, the US,
North Africa and the Middle East. It
drinking
(millions)
can take centuries for aquifers to
water from
recharge, so the world is currently
groundwater
11
Asia-Pacific
Europe
Latin
America
United
States
Australia
Africa
World
32
75
29
1,000 to 2,000
200 to 500
150
51
135
15
no data
3
no data
1,500 to 2,000
running a groundwater overdraft of
200 billion cubic metres a year.
Pollution is a major problem,
resulting from human and farm
animal waste, naturally occurring
toxins, as well as the over 10 million
different synthetic chemicals in use
today.
Did You Get It?
I. Match the beginning of a sentence in column A with an ending in column
B to produce a statement which is true according to the text.
A
B
(a) Saltwater
(i) do not have access to a safe water supply
(b) Water
(ii) use groundwater as drinking.
(c) The area of irrigated land
(iii) is unfit for human use.
(d) Dirty water
(iv) use water for drinking, cooking and
maintaining hygiene.
(e) People
(v) and many others are water-born diseases.
(f) Cholera and diarrhoea
(vi) has doubled in the past 40 years.
(g) About 1,000 million people (vii) causes many diseases.
in the Asia-Pacific region
(h) About 300 million people in (viii) is distributed unevenly over the surface.
Africa
II. Answer the following questions.
1) Where is most freshwater situated?
2) How much of freshwater is usable?
3) What spheres do people use freshwater?
4) What parts of the world are considered as worst affected by water shortage?
5) How many people will be facing water stress by 2025?
6) What are the water-related or water-borne diseases?
7) What measures can reduce diarrhoea by 35%?
8) How much water can people get by with?
9) What country do the people use the least amount of water?
10) How many people in the world rely on groundwater?
11) Where are aquifers of groundwater severely depleted?
12) What are the sources of water pollution?
III. Match the figures in column A with their corresponding explanation in
column B.
A
B
(a) 10 million
(i) the amount of saltwater on the Earth
(b) 2 billion
(ii) people dependent on groundwater
(c) 1980s
(iii) the amount of water an average British uses per day
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(d) 97.5%
(e) 80 %
(f) 70%
(g) 200
(iv) different synthetic chemicals in use today
(v) a peak of the guinea-worm infections
(vi) the amount of children killed by diarrhea
(vii) the amount of freshwater used in agriculture
Words, Words, Words...
I. Find in the text words and word combinations which mean the following.
to check and to control; to make twice as great or as many; to meet or be faced
with (something bad, esp. a danger or a difficult situation); to add water to an aquifer;
the controlled application of water for agricultural purposes through manmade
systems to supply water requirements not satisfied by rainfall; water that flows or
seeps downward and saturates soil or rock, supplying springs and wells; large
underground pipes carrying a public supply of water; happening every year or once a
year; a poisonous substance; drawing upon groundwater; the water that is provided
and treated for a particular area; exaggerated usage of groundwater; a smaller river or
stream that flows into a larger river or stream; the land area that drains water to a
particular stream, river, or lake.
II. Complete the following table of the corresponding nouns and verbs. Use
a dictionary if needed. Make sure that you know the meaning of each
word.
Nouns
Verbs
demand
?
provision
?
supply
?
deplete
?
requirement
?
expansion
?
infect
?
use
?
III. Match up the word combinations from the column A with their
explanation from the column B. Use these expressions in the sentences of
your own.
A
B
• beyond one’s reach
• to trust, to have confidence
in;
• to account for
• to represent numerically;
• to take into account
• a very small bit of hope;
• ray of hope
• to manage to survive;
• to get by
• because of, caused by;
• due to
• impossible to reach;
• to run off
• to flow off, to drain;
• to rely on
• to give proper consideration
to a fact, situation, when
making a decision.
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IV. Fill in the numbered gaps with the words below.
Caught between growing __(1)___ for fresh water on the one hand and limited
and increasingly polluted ___(2)______ on the other, many countries face difficult
choices. Finding solutions requires responses at local, national, and international
levels.
The challenge is how to __(3)___ the Earth's limited store of freshwater,
conserve its use, and improve how it is managed. To do this, management decisions
must be based on __(4)____ of the cycle of water.
In an effort to spur action to __(5)___ the coming crisis, the UN General
Assembly plans to proclaim the period 2005-2015 as the International Decade for
Action, “Water for Life” .
International co-operation is possible and practicable. In November 1999, for
example, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sudan agreed upon a strategy for the __(6)___
development of the Nile water.
Governments can develop national water management __(7)___ that help to
improve supply and also to manage demand better. Key strategies include regulation
of water depending on its end use, watershed __(8)____, and appropriate __(9)___.
The nations must share technology, __(10)___ and goodwill to manage the earth's
scarce fresh water so that deserts bloom, lakes do not die and wells do not dry.
• meet
• sustainable
• supplies
• demand
• policies
• understanding • pricing
• protect
• resources • management
Time to Talk
I. Expressing your opinion.
“ If the world fought for oil in the 20th century, the war will be about water in
the 21st century.”
Do you agree with this statement? Using information from the texts, give
reasons to support your opinion. Present 3-5 min. talk.
II. Opinion Survey: How would you handle water crisis?
In your group organize an opinion survey “What measures would you use to
handle water crisis?” Complete the table below and summarize the result of the
survey. Share the results with the teacher and the group mates. What measures are the
most popular/the least popular in your group?
Possible Answers Great idea, Pretty good
Only a
Bad idea, I
I'd use it
idea
fair idea wouldn't use it
Measures
a) Mandatory
restrictions on
water use
b) Find new water
supplies (build a
reservoir, new
wells)
c) Raise the price of
14
water
d) Cut back/stop new
developments
e) Encourage water
conservation
f) Buy water from
another
city/country
Total
UNIT III
WHY WATER DOES WHAT IT DOES
Question Time
I. Work in pairs. Here are some "maybe true/maybe false" water
properties. See if you know the real water facts.
• Water contracts when it freezes.
• Water has a high surface tension.
• Condensation is water coming out of the air.
• More things can be dissolved in sulphuric acid than in water.
• Rainwater is the purest form of water.
• Sea water is slightly more alkaline (the pH value is higher) than most
natural fresh water.
• Raindrops are tear-shaped.
II. Make sure that you know the meaning of the following international
words.
• elastic
• to absorb
• hydrosphere
• film
• organisms
• planet
• organisms
• to regulate
• topographic
• phenomenon
• cubic
• effectively
• gravity
• neutral pH
• kilometre
• carbon dioxide
• gas
• substance
• massive
• sulphur dioxide
• liquid
• redistribution
• physical
• oceans
• process
• Celsius
• energy
• chemical
• condensation
• temperature
Time for Reading
Read the text and fill the numbered gaps with the sentences (A-J).
A. This phenomenon also causes water to stick to the sides of vertical structures
despite gravity's downward pull.
B. Because water has a high specific heat, it can absorb large amounts of heat
energy before it begins to get hot.
15
C. When water freezes it expands rapidly adding about 9 % by volume.
D. This feature plays an important role in the redistribution of heat energy in the
Earth's atmosphere.
E. Most animals and plants contain more than 60 % water by volume.
F. These properties are
G. This range allows water to remain as a liquid in most places on the Earth.
H. It is able to dissolve a large number of different chemical compounds.
I. More than 70 % of the Earth's surface is covered with it.
J. Water in a pure state has a neutral pH.
PROPERTIES OF WATER
We live on a planet that is dominated by water.____(1)____________.
Scientists estimate that the hydrosphere contains about 1.36 billion cubic kilometres
of this substance mostly in the form of a liquid that occupies topographic depressions
on the Earth.
Water is also essential for life. Water is the major constituent of almost all life
forms._____(2)__________. Without water life would probably never have
developed on our planet.
Water has several other unique physical properties.____(3)_________:
• Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required
to change the temperature of a substance.______(4)__________. It also means
that water releases heat energy slowly when situations cause it to cool. Water's
high specific heat allows for the moderation of the Earth's climate and helps
organisms regulate their body temperature more effectively.
• ____(5)________. As a result, pure water is neither acidic nor alkaline. Water
changes its pH when substances are dissolved in it. Rain has a naturally acidic
pH of about 5.6 because it contains natural derived carbon dioxide and sulphur
dioxide.
• Water conducts heat more easily than any liquid except mercury. This fact
causes large bodies of liquid water like lakes and oceans to have essentially a
uniform vertical temperature profile.
• Water exists as a liquid over an important range of temperature from 0 - 100°
Celsius. ______(6)__________.
• Liquid water is a universal solvent._____(7)_______. This feature also enables
water to carry solvent nutrients in runoff, infiltration, groundwater flow, and
living organisms.
• Water has a high surface tension . In other words, water is adhesive and elastic,
and tends to aggregate in drops rather than spread out over a surface as a thin
film.____(8)_________. Water's high surface tension allows for the formation
of water droplets and waves, allows plants to move water and dissolved
nutrients from their roots to their leaves, and the movement of blood through
tiny vessels in the bodies of some animals.
• Water is the only substance on Earth that exists in all three physical states of
matter: solid, liquid, and gas. Massive amounts of heat exchange are
incorporated in the changes of state._______(9)________. In terms of heat
16
being transferred into the atmosphere, approximately 3/4 of this process is
accomplished by the evaporation and condensation of water.
• The freezing of water causes it to expand.____(10)__________. Fresh water
has a maximum density at around 4° Celsius. Water is the only substance on
this planet where the maximum density of its mass does not occur when it
becomes solidified.
Did You Get It?
I. Answer the following questions
1. How much of the Earth’s surface is covered with water?
2. What is the most widespread form of water?
3. Why is water so important?
4. Name the properties of water.
5. What is specific heat?
6. What role does specific heat play?
7. Is pure water acidic or basic?
8. When does water change its pH?
9. What chemical compounds does rain have?
10. What liquid conducts heat most easily?
11. Why does water exist as a liquid in most places?
12. Does water have high or low surface tension?
13. What is the importance of water’s high surface tension?
14. What are the three physical states of matter that water can exist in?
15. What happens to water when it freezes?
16. When does fresh water have a maximum density?
II. Say what statements are true and what ones are false. Comment on
the true statements and correct the false ones.
1. Water is the main element of almost all life forms.
2. Water has low specific energy.
3. Water in pure state is acidic.
4. Rain water has a naturally acidic pH of 5.6.
5. Large bodies of water have a uniform vertical temperature profile.
6. Water can dissolve a large number of chemical compounds.
7. Water tends to spread out over a surface as a thin film.
8. Water’s high specific heat is the cause of the formation of water
droplets and waves.
9. The changes of state are incorporated with huge amounts of heat
exchange.
10. When water freezes it expands rapidly adding about 9% by weight.
11. Salt water has a maximum density at about 4º Celsius.
III. What do the following chemical formulas stand for?
• H2O
• O2
• CO2
• Hg
• SO2
IV. What is the significance of the following numbers and statistics found
in the text.
17
a) 60
c) 0-100
e) 9
b) 5.6
d) ¾
f) 4
Words, Words, Words…
I. Match up and explain the meaning.
• specific
• vapour
• temperature
• depressions
• chemical
• pull
• surface
• compounds
• gravity
• heat
• groundwater
• profile
• water
• flow
• topographic
• tension
II. Match up the words or word-combinations with their definitions.
1. hydrosphere
a. the great body of salt water that covers
about ¾ of the earth’s surface
2. liquid
b. characteristics
3. solid
c. the physical part of the universe
consisting of solids, liquids and gases
4. evaporation
d. when warm water vapour or steam
turns into small drops of water
5. properties
6. matter
e. mass of water that is found in, on and
over the surface of the Earth
f. a liquid that is able to dissolve other
substances
7. solvent
g. a substance that stays the same shape
whether it is in a container or not
8. condensation
h. when a liquid changes from a liquid
state to a gas state
9. ocean
i. a substance which is not a solid or a
gas, which flows, is wet, and has no
fixed shape
III. Complete the following text with the words below.
Water has a very simple ____(a)_____. This structure consists of two hydrogen
atoms bonded to one ____(b)______. The nature of the atomic structure of water
causes its molecules to have unique ___(c)______. The hydrogen side of the water
molecule has a slight ____(d)________. On the other side of the molecule a negative
charge exists. This molecular polarity causes water to be a powerful
___(e)______and is responsible for its strong ____(f)_______.
When water makes a physical phase change its molecules arrange themselves
in distinctly different patterns. The pattern taken by water when it is frozen causes its
18
volume ___(g)______ and its density to decrease. Expansion of water at freezing
allows ice ____(h)________on top of liquid water.
Water in the form of a gas is highly charged with ___(i)_______. This high
energy state causes the molecules to be always moving reducing the likelihood of
bonds between individual molecules from forming.
• electrochemical properties
• oxygen atom
• to expand
• positive charge
• to float
• solvent
• surface tension
• energy
• atomic structure
IV. Read and translate words with the same roots.
To freeze –freezing –frost - frozen;
to expand –expanding - expansion;
to dissolve –dissolved - solvent;
to conduct - conductor;
to condense - condensation;
to evaporate –evaporation - vapour;
to solidify –solidified - solid.
V. Match up the words with opposite meaning.
• to release
• to get cool
• to contract
• to absorb
• to get hot
• to spread out
• to aggregate
• alkaline
• acidic
• to expand
Time to Talk
Work in pairs.
Discuss with your partner in what way water is different from other
liquids.
UNIT IV
THE WATER CYCLE
Question Time
I. Speaking.
Using the information from the text below and the diagram, answer the
following questions.
1. What reservoir holds most of the water supply?
2. How much is the freshwater supply?
3. Where is freshwater located?
4. How much freshwater do surface-water reservoirs provide?
5. What role does the hydrologic cycle play in the water supply of our planet?
19
Water is a limited non-renewable resource. A fixed amount of some 1,400
million cubic kilometres exists on the planet, which can be neither increased nor
decreased. Of all the water on Earth, only a small amount is available for us to use.
It's true! 96.5% of the Earth's water supply is salt water and only 2.8% is fresh
water! That 2.8% is divided like this:
• 0.76% is groundwater (we can use some of this water)
• 0.0132% is in lakes and streams (we can use some of this water)
• 1.74% is in glaciers and icecaps
• 0.001% is water vapour
Considering so little of the water on earth is drinkable to people, it is amazing
the supply has survived as long as it has. The hydrologic cycle continues to move
water and keep sources fresh. It is estimated that 100 million billion gallons a year
are cycled through this process. Without this process life on Earth would be
impossible. We need it to sustain us and for all of our life processes to function.
Without water life would not be possible on the Earth.
Diagram 1. Earth's Water Supply
II. Match up the words or word-combinations with their definitions.
a) precipitation
i. the volume of water that passes a given
location within a given period of time,
usually expressed in cubic feet per second
b) aquifer
ii. huge mass of ice, formed on land by the
compaction and crystallization of snow, that
moves very slowly down slope or outward
due to its own weight
c) runoff
iii. water stored underground in rocks and in the
pores of geologic materials that make up the
Earth's crust
d) infiltration
iv. flow of water from the land surface into the
subsurface
e) transpiration
v. rain, snow, hail, sleet, dew, and frost
f) groundwater
vi. that part of the precipitation, snow melt, or
irrigation water that appears in uncontrolled
surface streams, rivers, drains or sewers
20
g) glacier
h) reservoir
i) discharge
vii. process by which water that is absorbed by
plants, usually through the roots, is
evaporated into the atmosphere from the
plant surface, such as leaf pores
viii. a geologic formation that is water bearing. A
geological formation or structure that stores
and/or transmits water, such as to wells and
springs
ix. a pond, lake, or basin, either natural or
artificial, for the storage, regulation, and
control of water
Time for Reading
Read the text and put the paragraphs (1-8) in the correct order.
THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
(1) Shallow groundwater is taken up by the roots of plants and is transpired
from leaf surfaces back into the atmosphere. Transpiration is the movement of water
through a plant to the atmosphere. Some water infiltrating into the ground goes
deeper and replenishes aquifers, which store huge amounts of freshwater for long
periods of time. Over time, this water keeps moving, some of it reenters the ocean,
where the water cycle begins or ends.
(2) The hydrologic cycle is a model that describes the storage and movement
of water between the biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and the hydrosphere. Water
on this planet can be stored in any one of the following reservoirs: atmosphere,
oceans, lakes, rivers, soils, glaciers, snowfields, and groundwater. Water moves from
one reservoir to another by way of processes like evaporation, condensation,
precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration, transpiration, melting, and groundwater
flow.
(3) Precipitation can be defined as any deposit in liquid or solid form that
develops in a saturated atmospheric environment and generally falls from clouds. A
number of different precipitation types are classified by meteorologists including
rain, freezing rain, snow, ice pellets, snow pellets, and hail. In certain locations on the
Earth, acid pollutants from the atmosphere are deposited in dry and wet forms on the
Earth’s surface. Scientists generally call this process acid deposition.
(4) Rising air currents takes the vapor up into the atmosphere, where cooler
temperatures cause the vapor to condense into clouds. Air currents move clouds
around the globe, cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as
precipitation.
(5) Not all runoff flows into rivers. Much of it soaks into the ground as
infiltration. Infiltration is the movement of water from precipitation into the soil
layer. Some of this water stays close to the land surface and can seep back into
surface water bodies and the ocean as groundwater discharge. Some groundwater
finds openings in the land surface and emerges as freshwater springs.
(6) Some precipitation falls as snow and can accumulate as ice caps and
glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years. Snowpacks in warmer
21
climates often melt when spring arrives, and the melted water flows overland as
snowmelt. Most precipitation falls back into the oceans or onto land, where, due to
gravity, the precipitation flows over the ground as surface runoff.
(7) The water cycle has no starting point. But, let us begin with the oceans,
since that is where most of Earth's water exists. The sun, which drives the water
cycle, heats water in the oceans, which evaporates as vapor into the air. Evaporation
is movement of free water to the atmosphere as a gas. It requires large amounts of
energy. Water vapour in the atmosphere is commonly referred to as humidity.
(8) Runoff is the surface flow of water to areas of lower elevation. At the
global scale, runoff flows from the landmasses to the oceans. The Earth’s continents
experience runoff because of the imbalance between precipitation and evaporation. A
portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys with streamflow towards the oceans. Runoff
and groundwater seepage accumulate and are stored as freshwater in lakes.
Did You Get It?
I. Answer the following questions.
1. What is the hydrologic cycle?
2. What are the reservoirs water can be stored in?
3. Name the processes that move water from one reservoir to another.
4. Does the water cycle have a beginning?
5. What drives the water cycle?
6. What form does water evaporate into the air?
7. How much energy does evaporation require?
8. What causes the vapor to condense into clouds?
9. What is the precipitation?
10. Where can some precipitation as snow accumulate?
11. What happens to most precipitation?
12. What is runoff?
13. What season does melted water flow as snowmelt?
14. When can ground water emerge as freshwater springs?
15. What is infiltration?
16. What parts of plants take part in transpiration?
II. Say what statements are true and what ones are false. Comment on the
true statements and correct the false ones. Use the following words to
express your agreement or disagreement.
Agreement
Disagreement
I think so.
I don’t think so.
I believe so.
I am afraid not.
I suppose so.
I hardly think so.
That’s right.
On the contrary.
I agree.
I don’t quite agree here.
That goes without saying.
Same here.
1. Atmosphere is a place where most of the Earth's water exists.
2. The force that drives the water cycle is the moon.
22
3. Water in ice caps and glaciers can be stored frozen for decades.
4. The cause of runoff on the continents is the imbalance between
precipitation and condensation.
5. Runoff and ground-water seepage accumulate and are stored in freshwater
lakes.
6. All runoff flows into rivers.
7. Deep ground water is taken up by the roots of plants and is transpired from
leaf surfaces back into the atmosphere.
III. Complete the statements below according to the information in the text.
a) The hydrologic cycle is the storage and movement of water between
___________.
b) Water on the Earth is stored in the following reservoirs _____________.
c) The processes that move water from one reservoir to another are
_________.
d) Water vapour in the atmosphere is called _________.
e) _______ and _________ are the two processes that move water from the
Earth’s surface to its atmosphere.
f) Meteorologists classify precipitation as ____________.
g) Globally runoff _____________.
h) Some ground water finds openings in the land surface and_____________.
i) Transpiration is the movement of water ____________.
j) Aquifers store ____________.
k) Acid deposition is a process when acid pollutants ____________.
IV. Say what parts of water cycle the letters A-F on the arrows stand for.
ABCDEF-
Words, Words, Words…
I. Match up and explain the meaning.
1) land
a) vapour
2) groundwater
b) caps
3) freshwater
c) surface
23
4) hydrologic
d) currents
5) ice
e) springs
6) surface
f) seepage
7) air
g) runoff
8) acid
h) deposition
9) water
i) cycle
II. Find in the text words and word combinations expressing the following:
• the top layer of earth, which plants can grow in;
• the part of a plant that grows completely or partially under the ground;
• the process when something changes from a solid to a liquid, usually
because it has been heated;
• a series of events or processes that is repeated again and again;
• the amount of moisture in the air;
• to crash violently;
• a scientist studying the weather conditions;
• frozen rain drops which fall as little hard balls of ice;
• a substance that pollutes;
• the natural force by which objects are attracted to each other;
• height above sea-level;
• the season between winter and summer;
• a place where water comes up naturally from the ground;
• to fill up again;
• the direction of the current of water.
III. Read and translate the words with the same roots.
to deposit- deposits-deposition;
to store- stored-storage;
to move- moving- movement;
to melt- melted- snowmelt;
to seep- seepage;
to transpire-transpiration.
IV. Complete the following table.
Positive degree
Comparative degree Superlative degree
deeper
?
?
warmest
?
?
shallower
?
?
low
?
?
cooler
?
?
large
?
?
drier
?
?
wettest
?
?
saturated
?
?
V. Using the words below fill the gaps in the text.
The hydrologic cycle takes place in the ___(1)______ which contains all the
water in the atmosphere, in and on the earth. The ___(2)_______ is the movement of
24
water through this hydrosphere. The process begins with condensation. Condensation
occurs when the temperature of the air or earth __(3)_______. So when the air cools
enough, water vapour has to condense on particles in the air to form __(4)______. As
clouds form, winds move them across the globe, spreading out the ___(5)_____.
When the clouds can't hold the moisture, they __(6)_____ it in the form of
precipitation, which can be snow, rain, hail, etc. The next three stages: infiltration,
runoff, and evaporation occur __(7)_____. Infiltration occurs when precipitation
___(8)______ into the ground. If precipitation occurs faster than it can infiltrate the
ground, it becomes __(9)______. Runoff remains on the surface and flows into
streams, rivers, and eventually large bodies such as lakes or the ocean. Infiltrated
groundwater moves __(10)______ as it recharges rivers and heads towards large
bodies of water. As both of these processes are happening, the power of the
___(11)______ is driving this cycle by causing evaporation. Evaporation is the
change of ___(12)______ water to a vapour. Warm air __(13)_______ into the
atmosphere and becomes the vapour involved in condensation.
• liquid
• rises up
• hydrosphere
• sun
• changes
• cycle
• release
• clouds
• similarly
• simultaneously
• seeps
• runoff
• water vapour
Time to Talk
I. Note-taking and speaking.
a) Read the text “ The Hydrologic Cycle” again and draw a diagram of the
natural water cycle.
b) Using your notes tell about the hydrologic cycle.
II. Questions for further thought...
1. What would happen to the planet if the hydrologic cycle stopped
functioning? What would happen to societies as the supplies of water
diminished? Would our planet die?
2. What would happen if the polar icecaps melted and the hydrologic cycle
couldn't keep water levels stable? Where would we go as water levels rose
out of control?
3. Could we ever use the ocean to supplement or water once freshwater
disappears? What ways could the oceans be used to provide us with a
source of water?
UNIT V
WATER POLLUTION
Question Time
Discuss the following question in groups.
What do you know about water pollution in your region? Is it a serious
problem? What is the water quality in the reservoir? Who is to blame as far as the
situation with reservoir is concerned?
25
Time for Reading
Which of the following words and word combinations would you expect to
find in a text with the title “ Water pollution: natural and manmade”. When you
check your choices against the text, give paragraph references for any and make
sure you understand the words.
quality
health
water supplies
colour problems
to cause
people-made
nature
river
wild animals
reservoirs
law
toxic
safe
fish
construction
pesticides
earthquake
facilities
sewage
WATER POLLUTION: NATURAL AND MANMADE
(A) "Clean water", "pure water", "clear water" are some of the terms we use in
describing water of good quality. But what do they mean? Pure water, two parts
hydrogen and one part oxygen, is great in a laboratory but not for plants and animals.
Scientists have found out that water from most streams in their natural state contains
the proportions of dissolved minerals necessary for human.
(B) Water is never entirely pure in nature. Water picks up a broad range of
elements as it (i) moves through its cycle of evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
and percolation on its (ii) way back to stream, lake, or sea. From the air, water picks
up dissolved oxygen and other gases. As water passes through the rocks and soil,
minerals are dissolved into it. Some materials are filtered out, but others (iii) remain
in solution and are carried along with the water wherever it goes. Generally the
deeper the water sinks into the ground, the more minerals and other materials it
contains.
(C) Differences in mineral contents of water accounts for the way it (iv) looks,
tastes, and smells. Sulphur compounds are a problem in the Bear Creek area of
northern Alabama, giving water a bad odour at certain time of the year. At both
Normandy, in middle Tennessee, and Bear Creek, the water naturally contains
troublesome amounts of iron and manganese. This pollution, if not removed by the
water treatment plant, causes colour problems in household water supplies. Natural
occurrences, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides, can cause
severe pollution of lakes and streams. Large populations of wild animals can also
contribute to high levels of bacteria in a stream, under certain conditions.
(D) The activity of people can be a source of pollution also. Just about
everything people do causes some pollution. When fuels are burned, they (v) produce
smoke and gases of various kinds. These gases and smoke eventually come back to
earth and find their way into the water somewhere. There are also ashes or other
residues from the burning process that become waste and can contaminate water
supplies. Even the facilities designed to deal with wastes can become sources of
pollution. Municipal wastewater treatment plants, industrial treatment facilities,
septic tanks, landfills, and incinerators often are sources of water pollution.
Accidental spills of toxic or hazardous material are another source of sometimes
severe water pollution. Other sources of people-made pollution include pesticides and
26
fertilizers used in agriculture, surface mining, forestry practices, and construction
activities. The operation of dams and reservoirs can also cause problems when the
water released from dams is low in oxygen content. This (vi) causes problems for
fish and other aquatic life downstream.
(E) Many millions of dollars have been spent on facilities that reduce the
pollution caused by human activity. Plants have been built to make the water we
drink safe, to cut down on wastewater pollution, and to clean up industrial wastes.
Laws and regulations have been established to force cities and industries to clean up
their (vii) wastewater before it (viii) is returned to a stream or lake. Still more
millions have been spent to clean up polluted waterways in the nation.
Did You Get It?
Text Organization
I. Choose a headline for each paragraph.
Headline
paragraph
(a) What is done about water pollution?
(b) What does water pick up from the nature?
(c) Natural pollution of water?
(d) Human activity as a source of pollution?
(e) Does pure water exist at all?
II. What do the following pronouns refer to in the text?
(i) it (paragraph B)
(v) they (paragraph D)
(ii) its (paragraph B)
(vi) This (paragraph D)
(iii) others (paragraph B)
(vii)their (paragraph E)
(iv) it (paragraph C)
(viii) it (paragraph E)
III. Say whether the following statements are true or false and give the
paragraph number to show where the information comes from. Correct
the false statements.
1) Pure water consists of two parts oxygen and one part hydrogen.
2) Pure water is useful for plants and animals.
3) Water from most streams in their natural state contains the proportions of
dissolved minerals harmful for human health.
4) Usually the water that sinks deeply into the ground contains many minerals.
5) Sulphur compounds in the Bear Creek area of northern Alabama give water
a bad taste.
6) Natural occurrences and large populations of wild animals can cause severe
pollution of lakes and streams.
7) Pesticides and fertilizers used in agriculture do not pollute water supplies.
8) Many thousands of pounds have been spent on facilities that reduce the
pollution caused by human activity.
9) The operation of dams and reservoirs causes problems for fish and other
aquatic life downstream.
IV. What facilities designed to deal with waste are mentioned in the text?
1) municipal
wastewater a) an area designated to receive solid
treatment plant
wastes, such as municipal solid waste
27
(household trash), construction debris,
and sludge from sewage treatment and
other processes;
2) industrial treatment facilities
b) a tank used to detain domestic wastes to
allow the settling of solids prior to
distribution to a leach field for soil
absorption;
3) septic tank
c) an apparatus, such as a furnace, for
burning waste;
4) landfill
d) a facility designed to receive the
wastewater from domestic sources and
to remove materials that damage water
quality and threaten public health and
safety;
5) incinerator
e) the mechanisms and processes used to
treat waters that have been contaminated
by man's industrial or commercial
activities prior to its release into the
environment or its reuse.
V. What elements are expressed by the following chemical formulas?
• Mn
• O2
• S
• H
• Fe
VI. Read the text again and complete the following table.
Sources of natural
Sources of manmade
water pollution
water pollution
1.
1.
2.
2.
3.
3.
etc.
etc.
Words, Words, Words…
I. Match up, give the paragraph number where this word combination
comes from and explain the meaning.
• pure
• life
• dissolved
• occurrences
• mineral
• minerals
• sulphur
• contents
• natural
• water
• volcanic
• pollution
• water
• mining
• accidental
• supply
• surface
• eruptions
• manmade
• spills
28
• aquatic
• compounds
II. Complete the following table of the corresponding nouns and verbs. Use
a dictionary if needed. Make sure that you know the meaning of each
word.
Nouns
Verbs
solution
?
to contain
pollution
?
occurrence
?
to build
?
to smell
?
waste
?
activity
?
treatment
?
to
taste
?
III. Find in the text words and word combinations which mean the following:
a wall or a bank built across a river to keep back water; to make do something;
the science of planting and caring for large areas of trees; a natural or chemical
substance that is put on the land to make crops grow better; to make impure or bad by
mixing in dirty or poisonous matter; things such as buildings, services, etc., that are
useful or help to do something; material that is used for producing heat or power by
burning or by atomic means; domestic; a sudden fall of earth or rocks down a hill,
cliff, etc; to take action about; concerning a city, a town; a stretch of water, e.g. of a
river, which ships and boats can move on; a living thing that has leaves and root, and
grows usu. in earth, esp. the kind smaller than trees; a factory or other place where an
industrial process is carried out; a smell, esp. an unpleasant one; what is left after
some event, or process; water that has been used in homes, industries, and businesses
that is not for reuse unless it is treated; the movement of water through the openings
in rock or soil.
IV. Complete the following sentences using the correct words from the box
in the grammatical form required. (Note that there is one extra word.)
human activity
wastes
use
nutrients
ways of living
growth
dumping
untreated sewage
water bodies
discolouring
unfit
a. Every body of water - even ones not touched by any _______ - receives
some ________.
b. Bacteria ______ oxygen in the water to break down wastes and to turn them
into ________ for other marine plants and animals.
c. Most water pollution stems from advances in ________ and from the
______ of population.
d. Years of _____ chemicals, traces of metals, _______, and heated water into
water bodies have weakened water's ability to clean itself and to support
life.
29
e. In ________ with heavy pollution, another form of bacteria breaks down
wastes, giving off bad smells, ________ the water, and generally making
water ________ for living things.
V. Use the words from the box to fill in the numbered gaps.
The vulnerability of the White Sea __(i)______ is highlighted by the following
fact. In the early 1990s, hundreds or may be even thousands of tons of __(ii)___ and
other marine life were washed ashore at the Dvina Bay, forming an orange wall that
extended for dozens of kilometers along the surf edge. Ecologists cited possible
causes of the disaster: leakage of mustard gas containers that had been buried in the
__(iii)___in the 1940s; the sinking of a __(iv)___ near the city of Severodvinsk in
December 1989; a tanker accident in the Kandalaksha Bay; the fall of a rocket;
radioactive or chemical ___(v)__ of the water area, and the dumping of __(vi)___.
New studies showed that only one-tenth of starfish living in shallow water had
been killed, which could not be described as an ___(vii)___ disaster. It was simply
part of a natural maritime __(viii) ___ . The amount of starfish thrown on the shore
by storm points to the richness of the marine __(ix)___.
a) ecological
f) submarine
g)
contamination
b) life cycle
h) ecosystem
i)
sewage
c) resources
j) starfish
k)
sea bed
Time to Talk
Prepare 3-5 min. talk about types of water pollution and measures the
nations are taking to deal with it. Use information from the text and on-line
resources.
UNIT VI
WATER USES
IRRIGATION WATER
Time for Reading
I. Read the text and find information about:
a) the amount of water on the planet;
b) a great variety of water uses;
c) efficient use of irrigation water.
II. What is this text about? Choose the best answer.
a. water assumes a variety of forms;
b. a very small amount of water can be used by man;
c. the supply of water is not infinite;
d. in a complex society water is put to a great variety of uses;
e. storage of water in reservoirs may cause considerable losses through
evaporation;
f. water tends to be very consumptive;
g. irrigation waters are of crucial importance.
IRRIGATION WATERS
30
The total amount of water contained in our planet is constant and invariable
and can neither be increased or diminished. It assumes a variety of forms, such as the
oceans, moisture vapour, fresh water, lake water of varying degrees of salinity, and
ice. As most of this water is locked away in the oceans, snowfields, ice caps and
glaciers, only a small proportion is available in a form readily usable by man.
Moreover, a great deal of the water in and on the land is polluted by minerals or by
industrial waste and so frequently rendered unusable.
Of the water contained in the oceans, a very small proportion daily changes its
form and composition and is moved to the land, where it can be used by man and
from where it returns to the oceans.
It is clear therefore that although a great deal of water is available for use by
man, the supply is not finite. While it is likely that the quantity of usable water will
be increased by such technological developments as desalinisation and the creation of
artificial precipitation, it is certain that for some time to come by far the greater
proportion of our water supplies will be derived primarily from surface run-off and to
a lesser extent from subterranean sources. In a complex society, water is put to a great
variety of uses: for irrigating crops, for the generation of hydroelectricity, for
recreation, for canals and waterways, for controlling pollution, and as a source of
food. In one way or other, all these uses are interdependent. For example, the
construction of a modern dam promotes irrigation, the generation of hydroelectricity,
flood control and recreation. Frequently, however, the uses of such natural resources
as water may be to some degree competitive and mutually exclusive. Thus a choice
must sometimes be made between one use and another. The diversion of water from a
stream for irrigation or for drinking may impair navigation and power uses
downstream by decreasing stream level and flow, and may create pollution problems.
Individual excessive pumping of underground water supplies may cause a general
lowering of the water table with inhibiting effects on other uses of water, while the
storage of water in reservoirs may cause considerable losses through evaporation.
Of these competing uses, water for irrigation is perhaps the most important, as
it is essential for the survival of many people in many parts of the world. Unlike the
other uses of water, it tends to be very consumptive. That is to say, it interferes
substantially with the hydrologic cycle of evaporation, rainfall and run-off; this effect
is mainly due to heavy losses by evaporation. In addition, the return flow of irrigation
water to rivers and canals after use does not contain the same quality of water which
was originally applied to the field. It is almost always altered by varying degrees of
mineral concentration and organic matter and may be unfit for some uses without
ameliorating treatment. For these reasons, efficient and effective conservation of
irrigation waters are of growing and crucial importance.
Did You Get It?
I. Say whether the following statements true or false. Correct false ones.
1) The total amount of water contained in our planet is constant and can not
be diminished.
2) A great deal of water on the land is polluted by man.
31
3) The greater proportion of our water supplies is derived from subterranean
sources.
4) In a complex society water is put to a great variety of uses: for generation
of electricity, recreation and a source of food.
5) Individual excessive pumping of underground water supplies causes a
general lowering of the water table.
6) Of all competitive uses, water for irrigation is perhaps the most important.
7) Water does not interfere substantially with the hydrologic cycle of
evaporation.
8) Water is always altered by varying degrees of mineral concentration.
II. Answer the questions.
1) What forms does water assume?
2) What proportion of water is locked away in the oceans, snowfields, ice
caps and glaciers?
3) What part of water can be used by man?
4) How will the quantity of usable water be increased?
5) In what society is water put to many uses?
6) What does the construction of a modern dam promote?
7) What is the cause of decreasing stream level and flow?
8) What may cause considerable losses through evaporation?
9) Why is the water for irrigation essential for the survival of many people in
the world?
10) Why does water tend to be consumptive?
11) Does irrigation water contain the same quality of water after use?
12) What water is always altered by varying degrees of mineral
concentration and organic matter?
Words, Words, Words...
I. Match the words on the left with the meaning on the right.
1. constant
a. vital
2. invariable
b. man-made
3. available
c. actual
4. usable
d. accessible
5. artificial
e. unchangeable
6. considerable
f. stable
7. essential
g. important
8. substantial
h. marked
9. crucial
i. fit for use
II. What is the difference in meaning between the following:
• proportion / part
• fresh water / drinking water
• complex society/advanced society • minerals / natural resources
• contain / hold in
• industrial waste / domestic waste
• lock in / lock away
• primarily / mainly
• move to / move on
• reservoir / body of water
32
• stream / spring
• apply to / apply for
• flow / flood
• unfit / unusable
• water table / water level
III. Find the following expressions in the text. What do they mean? Use them
in the sentences of your own.
1. a great deal of
2. pollution problems
3. be used by
4. storage of water
5. technological developments
6. interfere with
7. be derived from
8. efficient use
IV. Match up the words with their definitions.
1. precipitation
a) level below which the ground is filled with
water;
2. supply
a) make or become different;
3. irrigate
a) give or provide something needed or asked
for;
4. diversion
a) fall of snow, rain, etc.;
5. flow
a) live or exist longer than
6. water table
a) the act of turning something aside or giving
it a different direction;
7. survival
a) construct reservoirs, canals for the
distribution of water to fields;
8. alter
a) move along or over as a river does.
V. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the words in brackets.
1) Irrigation in New Zealand is much more ______ than in Australia.
(limited)
2) It is hoped that the scheme will eventually support a population _______
largely on agriculture. (base)
3) ______ agriculture is also very limited in Libya. (irrigate)
4) At present India’s _______ areas of irrigated land are in the Northern
Plain. (large)
5) The project will ______ provide irrigation to 3-6 million acres annually.
(eventual)
6) Four main types of irrigation are _______ used in China (common)
7) It is clear that careful planning ________ the success of a large-scale
irrigation project. (ensure).
8) In Western Europe irrigation is very largely ________ in character.
(supplement)
9) Egypt is an example of traditional peasant irrigation _______. (farm)
VI. Complete the following text with the words below. Put only one word in
each gap.
1. deprivation
2. irrigate
3. replenish
4. purely
5. shorelines
6. annually
7. fulfill
8. abundance
When the Aral Sea was whole, its surface waters evaporated as much as one
meter __(a)___ throwing up a volume of vapor that successfully deflected currents of
33
cold air to higher altitudes where they drifted to the distant Pamir Mountain to __(b)_
its glacier system. And from these eternal glaciers rivers flowed.
The Aral Sea was created by two important rivers, the Syr in the north and the
Amu in the south. As long as man can remember, farmers on the banks of both have
drawn off necessary amounts of water to __(c)___ their fields. But at no time did this
__(d)__ lower the level of the great lake by more than three meters before seasonal
rains could replenish it.
Until its deliberate destruction commenced, the Aral’s __(e)___ remained firm
and were surrounded by land sufficiently fertile to support one-fourth million
hectares of forest. Reeds in great __(f)___ supplied all the material for the production
of cellulose and carton.
All of these advantages to the nation were to change or be lost in the early
1960s when a plan called for as much cotton production as the nature of the region
could support, through healthy or unhealthy practices. “Cotton at any cost,” became
the cry, and the wreckers went to work to __(g)___ it.
To irrigate the massive area plowed for cotton, both the Aral’s rivers were
heavily tapped. In ancient times they had been known for the __(h)__ of their waters,
but this too would soon change. The cotton plan did succeed in increasing acreage
from the customary 3,000,000 hectares to about 7,000,000.
Time to Talk
Work in pairs. Make up dialogues discussing:
a. A great deal of water is used by man.
b. The diversion of water from a river or lake may create pollution problems.
UNIT VII
GROUNDWATER
Question Time
Speaking. Look at the diagram below and answer:
• Where is grounwater used most?
• What category uses the least amount of groundwater?
Time for Reading
34
Read the text and say where you are likely to find a text like this. Prove
your answer.
• In a text book;
• in a scientific magazine;
• in an encyclopedia.
GROUNDWATER
(A) Groundwater is any water found below the land surface. It (i) is a longterm reservoir of the natural water cycle, as opposed to short-term water reservoirs
like the atmosphere and fresh surface water. It (ii) is naturally replenished from
above, as surface water from precipitation, streams, and rivers infiltrates into the
ground. The study of the distribution and behavior of groundwater is hydrogeology.
(B) Groundwater is found in aquifers, in the pore spaces of rocks, in
unconsolidated sediments, as permafrost, and as soil moisture. Groundwater flows to
the surface naturally at springs and seeps and can form oases or swamps. It (iii) may
also be tapped artificially by the digging of wells.
(C) Groundwater is often contained in aquifers, which (iv) are layers of
permeable material that channel the groundwater's flow. Aquifers can be confined or
unconfined. If a confined aquifer follows a downward grade from a recharge zone,
groundwater can become pressurized as it (v) flows. This can create artesian wells
that (vi) flow freely without the need of a pump. The top of the upper unconfined
aquifer is called the water table, where water pressure is equal to atmospheric
pressure. The region between the land surface and the water table is called the
unsaturated zone. Within the this zone water is held to soil particles by adhesion and
in pore spaces by capillary action.
(D) Groundwater is a highly useful and abundant resource, but it does not
renew itself rapidly. If groundwater is extracted intensively from water wells, as for
irrigation in arid regions, it may become depleted. The most evident problem that
may result from this (vii) is a lowering of the water table beyond the reach of existing
wells. Wells must consequently be deepened to reach the groundwater; in some
places in India, the water table has dropped hundreds of feet due to overextraction.
(E) A lowered water table may, in turn, cause other problems such as
subsidence. The film of groundwater around particles of an aquifer of unconsolidated
sediment actually holds the particles apart, and the removal of this water will
compact the sediment. Thus the aquifer is permanently reduced in capacity, and the
surface of the ground may also subside. The city of New Orleans, Louisiana is
actually below sea level today, and its (viii) subsidence is partly caused by removal
of ground water under it (ix). In the coastal areas, a lowered water table may induce
sea water to reverse the flow toward the sea. Sea water moving inland is called a
saltwater intrusion. Alternatively, salt from mineral beds may leach into the
groundwater.
(G) Not all groundwater problems are caused by overextraction. Pollutants
dumped on the ground or in landfills may leach into the soil, and work their (x) way
down into aquifers. Movement of water within the aquifer is then likely to spread the
35
pollutant over a wide area, making the groundwater unusable. Areas of karst
topography on limestone bedrock are especially vulnerable to surface pollution.
Did You Get It?
Text Organization.
I. Which paragraph contains information about
a. saltwater intrusion?
b. problems caused by lowered water table?
c. types of aquifers?
d. problems caused by spreading of pollutants?
e. place where groundwater can be stored?
II. What do the following pronouns and adjectives stand for?
It (i) paragraph A
that (vi) paragraph C
It (ii) paragraph A
this (vii) paragraph D
It (iii) paragraph B
its (viii) paragraph E
which (iv) paragraph C
it (ix) paragraph E
it (v) paragraph C
their (x) paragraph G
III. Match the beginning of a sentence in column A with an ending in column
B to produce a statement which is true according to the text.
A
(a) Groundwater
(b) Aquifers, the pore spaces of
rocks, unconsolidated sediments
(c) An aquifer
(d) In the water table
(e) Hydrogeology studies
(f) The water table in India
(g) Movement of polluted water
within the aquifer
(h) New Orleans
B
(i) the distribution and behavior of groundwater.
(ii) has dropped hundreds of feet due to
overextraction.
(iii) flow freely without the need of a pump.
(iv) is actually below sea level.
(v) are the places where groundwater is stored.
(vi) makes the groundwater unusable.
(vii) is any water found below the land surface.
(viii) is a layer of permeable material that
channel the groundwater's flow.
(i) Artesian wells
(ix) water pressure is equal to atmospheric
pressure.
IV. Say whether the following statements are true or false and give the
paragraph number to show where your information came from.
Statement
i. The top of the upper unconfined aquifer is
called the water table.
ii. Groundwater renews itself quickly.
iii. Subsidence of New Orleans is caused only
by removal of ground water under it.
iv. Unnconsolidated sediments are known as
permafrost and as soil moisture.
True/false
# Paragraph
36
v. Groundwater may be tapped by the digging
of wells.
vi. Grounwater is a short-term reservoir of the
water cycle.
vii. Groundwater is a scarce resource.
viii. Groundwater can form springs, oases or
swamps.
ix. They distinguish between two types of
aquifers.
x. All groundwater problems are caused by
overextraction.
xi. Within the unsaturated zone is held to soil
particles by capillary action and in pore
spaces by adhesion.
xii. In arid regions groundwater is used for
irrigation intensively.
V. Using information from the text, complete the following table.
Groundwater problem
Caused by
1. Lowering of the water table. 1.
2.
2.
etc.
etc.
Words, Words, Words...
I. Match up and explain the meaning.
• short-term
• table
• permeable
• moisture
• water
• sediments
• artesian
• pressure
• confined
• reservoir
• unsaturated
• well
• atmospheric
• beds
• mineral
• material
• unconsolidated
• aquifer
• soil
• zone
II. Find in the text words and word combinations which mean the following.
Action in a particular way; to make a hole by taking away the earth; to direct;
the state or action of sticking together or to something; (of land) having so little rain
as to be very dry and unproductive; to remove, to take out; to get rid of, to abandon; a
type of rock containing calcium and other substances; the main stretch of solid rock
in the ground supporting all the soil above it; a very small opening; an area of land
which is always full of or covered with water; a land that is permanently frozen to a
great depth, even though the surface may slightly thaw in the summer; a place where
water can be taken from underground; not protected, weak; having the air pressure
inside not much lower than the pressure on the Earth; absorbent (adj).
37
III. Complete the following table of corresponding nouns and verbs (most
can be found in the text). Make sure you know the meaning.
Noun
Verb
removal
?
to extract
?
distribution
?
behaviour
?
to channel
?
irrigation
?
to create
?
pressure
?
movement
?
adhesion
?
to subside
?
IV. Find words and expressions in the text with the opposite meaning to
those listed below and give the paragraph.
Word or expression
Words or expression # paragraph
meaning the opposite
a) bottom
b) not very much
c) artificially
d) upward
e) temporarily
f) slowly
g) rare, scarce
h) rising
V. Fill in the gaps with the words from the box. Note that one word is extra.
A spring is a water resource formed when the side of a hill, a valley bottom or
other excavation intersects a flowing body of groundwater at or below the local water
table, below which the subsurface material is __(i)_____with water. A spring is the
result of an __(ii)____ being filled to the point that the water overflows onto the land
surface. ___(iii)___ may be formed in any sort of rock, but are more prevalent in
__(iv)___ and dolomite. Water from springs usually is remarkably __(v)___. Water
from some springs, however, may be "tea-colored." This is caused by ground water
coming in __(vi)____ with naturally occurring minerals, like iron. Thermal springs
are ordinary springs except that the water is __(vii)____ and, in some places, hot,
such as in the bubbling mud springs in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. Many
thermal springs occur in regions of recent __(viii)__ and are fed by water heated by
contact with hot rocks far below the surface. Also, warm springs can even coexist
with __(ix)_____, as in Greenland.
• saturated
• icebergs
• contact
• clear
• limestone
• aquifer
• warm
• well
• volcanic activity
• springs
38
Time to Talk
Tell about groundwater, its usage and importance.
UNIT VIII
•
•
•
•
•
WATER STORAGE IN ATMOSPHERE
AND OCEANS
Question Time
Try to guess the meaning of the following words.
membrane
• reactor
• salt
process
• mechanical
• atmosphere
distillation
• method
• chemicals
condense
• presence
• equilibrium
mass
• ion
• transportation
•
•
•
•
ocean
direct
potential
pressure
Time for Reading
I. Read the text and match the headings with the paragraph number.
a) Precipitation water from the atmosphere.
b) Methods of artificial precipitation.
c) Method of producing fresh water.
II. Give as much information as you can about:
a) advantages of water contained in the oceans;
b) transportation and distribution of water to places where it is most
needed;
c) the air upsets the equilibrium and causes precipitation;
d) applicable methods of bringing about artificial precipitation.
ATMOSPHERIC WATER AND OCEANS
(i) Atmospheric water or water vapor has two major advantages over water
contained in the oceans: it is to be found everywhere above the land surface and it is
free of salt. For these reasons, it has been said that “he who finds the key to
precipitating water from the atmosphere solves part of one of the most difficult tasks
in supplying water to needing areas, that of transportation and distribution” .
Unfortunately, no large-scale, successful, economic method has yet been devised to
tap this water supply and direct it to places where it is most needed. Or a serious
initial obstacle lies in the fact that clouds are not necessarily water-bearing and may
be “dry” . If they do contain water vapor, one of two things may happen to it. It may
either dry out or condense and fall as rain or snow.
(ii) The most that we have been able to do is to cause a particular humid cloud
- one that would almost certainly sooner or later have precipitated –to shed its
moisture at a time and place of our choosing. This achieved in one of two ways. The
first involves the “seeding” of clouds from aeroplanes or rockets with small particles
of various chemicals, which under auspicious circumstances cause water droplets to
39
form and precipitation to take place. The second method is to create artificial
convection currents by heating a large air mass near the ground. The air thereupon
rises rapidly into the cloud, upsets the equilibrium, and causes precipitation. Some
local successes have been achieved by these methods, but both are expensive and
both depend upon the presence of water-filled clouds, something which can not, as
yet, be ensured. Other, more widely applicable methods of brining about artificial
precipitation may one day be devised, but that day is still distant.
(iii) The oceans remain by far the largest potential source of water and together
with the inland seas contain 92, 7 per cent of the earth’s water. This water could be
made potable if its saline content were reduced from about 35,000 parts per million to
500 parts per million or less. We have known for a long time that it is possible to
produce freshwater by heating saltwater and so promoting distillation. It is only
recently, however, that such processes have been developed on anything like a large
scale. A number of processes are currently in use, of which the most promising are
“flash” distillation and reverse osmosis. The former is based on the heating of brine
and the reduction of pressure, which causes the liquid “to flash” into the steam. This
process has been developed by British scientists, using gas-cooled nuclear reactors to
supply the power, and it is generally agreed that for some time to come it will be the
most economic source of desalted water. Reverse osmosis uses semi-permeable
membranes which permit the passage of water but do not allow salt ions to pass
through. Each of these processes depends upon the use of energy, which may be
thermal, mechanical or solar.
Did You Get It?
I. Answer the questions.
1) What water has two main advantages?
2) What water can be found above the land surface?
3) What method has not devised yet?
4) What does a serious initial obstacle lie in?
5) What do the first and second methods involve?
6) In what way does the air cause precipitation?
7) Why are these methods very expensive?
8) What is the largest potential source of water?
9) How can water be made potable?
10) How can we produce freshwater?
11) What processes are currently in use?
12) What processes are the most promising?
13) How does reverse osmosis use semi-permeable membranes?
14) What does each of these processes depend on?
II. Decide if these statements are true or false.
1) The first method involves “planting” of clouds from planes or rockets
with small particles of various chemicals.
2) The second method is to create artificial convection currents by cooling
a large air mass near the ground.
3) Clouds are necessarily water-bearing.
40
4)
5)
6)
7)
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Atmospheric water is free of salt.
The inland seas remain the largest potential source of water.
It isn’t possible to produce fresh water by heating salt water.
The most that we have been able to do is to cause a particular waterbearing cloud.
Words, Words, Words…
Find words in the text that have the following meanings.
1) think of
2) take up
3) damp
4) to be suitable
5) to be disturbed
6) show clearly
7) hotness
8) subject matter
9) stream of water
10) ability to do or act
11) very small bit
12) free from the moisture
13) let fall
Match up the words with their definitions.
1) promote
a) give or provide something needed or
asked for;
2) distillation
b) flowering plant’s elements of life from
which another plant can grow;
3) vapor
c) making liquid into gas and then making
the gas into liquid;
4) seeding
d) making or becoming smaller;
5) solve
e) find the answer to the problem;
6) contain
f) a gaslike form of a liquid, such as mist
or steam, often caused by a sudden
change of temperatures;
7) supply
g) have or hold within itself;
8) reduction
h) give higher position or rank.
Correct mistakes in the sentences.
1. This process which has no beginning and no end is been known as the
hydrologic cycle.
2. This cyclical movement of water is divisible into the three main stages.
3. Each of these process suffer from the disadvantages that the cost of
desalination is very high.
4. It is desalinated water used almost exclusively for drinking.
5. Some countries signed the agreement to undertake joint research into the
possibilities of using the atomic energy to desalinate salt water.
6. This total global evaporation is exactly balance by the total precipitation.
Find in the text the derivations of the following words. Make as many
words as possible of the same roots.
• atmosphere
• presence
• to achieve
• salt
• pressure
• to reduce
• success
• ocean
• to develop
• economy
• mechanics
• to cool
41
• rain
• to precipitate
V. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the words in brackets.
1. This process which has no beginning and no end is known as the _______
cycle. (hydrology)
2. It _______ a gigantic system operating in and on the land and oceans of
the earth. (comprise)
3. This cyclical movement of water is ________ into three main stages.
(divide)
4. It will be seen, therefore, that the hydrological cycle is completed in these
ways; water which _______ in the oceans, sooner or later _______ to
them. (begin, return)
5. In the second stage of the cycle the air masses _______ the water vapor
are suddenly cooled. (contain).
6. It _______ that something like 80,000 cubic miles of water are evaporated
each year from the oceans. (estimate).
7. These areas have a marked seasonal ______ of rain. (short)
8. This total global evaporation is ________ balanced by the total
precipitation. (exact)
VI. Use the words from the box to fill in the gaps.
(A) Evaporation from the oceans is the primary mechanism supporting the
___(i)___ portion of the water cycle. After all, the large surface area of the oceans
(over 70 percent of the Earth's surface is covered by the oceans) __(ii)___ the
opportunity for such large-scale evaporation to occur. On a global scale, the amount
of water evaporating is about the same as the amount of water __(iii)___ to the Earth
as precipitation. This does vary __(iv)___, though. Evaporation is more __(v)___
over the oceans than precipitation, while over the __(vi)___, precipitation routinely
exceeds evaporation. Most of the water that evaporates from the oceans falls back
into the oceans as __(vii)___. Only about 10 percent of the water __(viii)__ from the
oceans is transported over land and falls as precipitation. Once evaporated, a water
molecule spends about 10 __(ix)___ in the air. The process of evaporation is so great
that without precipitation, runoff, and __(x)___from aquifers, oceans would become
nearly empty.
• surface-to-atmosphere
• prevalent
• precipitation
• delivered
• geographically
• land
• evaporated
• provides
• discharge
• days
Time to Talk
Work in pairs.
Discuss the following statement.
The water cycle is the movement of water from earth to the air and back
again to earth by the processes of evaporation, condensation and precipitation.
42
С п исок исп ольз
ованной лит ер ат ур ы
Р есур сы И нт ер нет а:
http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/mearth.html
http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8m.html
http://www.peopleandplanet.net
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page
http://www.unep.org/vitalwater/index.htm
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/teachers/ks3science.shtml
http://www.epa.gov/teachers/bkg-index.htm
http://interactive2.usgs.gov/learningweb/explorer/topic_water_links.asp
43
Сост а вит ели: ст. п р. Са ф он ова Н ин а Ва сильевн а
п р. Черн икова Светла н а Н икола евн а
Р ед а кт ор: Б у н ин а Т .Д.
44