MENDEL AND MODELS
Explore the Course Web Site
http://fire.biol.wwu.edu/trent/trent/Biol321index.html
Lecture Materials are available on the course
web site
http://fire.biol.wwu.edu/trent/trent/321LectureIndex.html
BUT, neither the posted course
materials or the textbook will
substitute for coming to class -See cautionary comments
on web page
1
ª ª ª
GENETIC TERMINOLOGY
ª ª ª
Essential to the mastery of genetics is a
thorough knowledge and understanding
of the vocabulary of this science. New
terms will be introduced and defined
routinely in the lectures.
☞ You are required to know all terms
defined in lecture.
2
CLASS PARTICIPATION AND THE 3 X 5 CARDS THAT
YOUR INSTRUCTOR CARRIES WITH HER
• No points are allocated specifically for class
participation BUT: if you have a borderline grade
at the end of the quarter, and you attended lectures
consistently, were an active class participant and
your performance on quizzes and exams has steadily
improved, I will “bump” you up to the higher grade.
• A borderline grade means that you were within 1
percentage point of the grade cutoff.
• To help me learn who you are and to encourage
student participation during lecture, I will call on
students (at random) using a deck of 3X5 cards.
Each card has the name of a student and his/her
photo. When I call your name, you will
automatically get a check mark (ü) if you are in
attendance. You will then be responsible for
addressing whatever question is at hand.
3
Options for responding to the question
1. Always best: a correct or mostly correct answer
(üanother check mark)
2. Also OK: a serious but incorrect answer – which
often can be a useful starting point for a
discussion (ü also gets a check)
3. Another option: decline and wait for a different
question later in the lecture (no check mark but
no black mark either…)
Best approach—try to answer question even if you are
unsure of your answer. At the end of the quarter, students
who have lots of check marks will be considered good
class participants
4
In the 19th century Mendel articulated the fundamental
laws of heredity that apply to all eukaryotic organisms
Many biologists in Mendel’s time were interested in
heredity, but Mendel succeeded in elucidating these basic
rules of heredity where others failed
è What experimental strategies (still in use today) did
Mendel use to discover the basic laws of heredity?
5
What experimental strategies (still in use
today) did Mendel use to discover the basic laws
of heredity?
• Inspired choice of an appropriate Model
Organism
• Use of modern scientific methodology and
careful quantitative analysis of his data:
Mendel collected and examined large
numbers of progeny from each genetic cross
and repeated his experiments to determine if
the same results were consistently obtained
• Used a simple symbolism to represent abstract
hereditary determinants (genes and alleles)
• Applied the basic rules of probability to
explain his data (progeny phenotypes and
ratios)
6
We can’t
study all
organisms, so
we single out
a collection of
“model”
organisms to
study
What do we mean by the term model
organism?
What does this term imply about the research
done on this organism or about the knowledge
gained from studying this organism?
Note: this question is not asking about specific
features that make good model organisms
7
model system:
a label we apply to species that we
http://www.dnalc.org/ddnalc/resources/model_organisms.html
(i) study in detail
(ii) use as a basis for constructing a
general understanding of how biological
processes work
8
What are the favorite model
organsims of geneticists?
1. Start with the classic and still trendy
multicellullar eukaryote?
2. Classic and still trendy single-celled
eukaryote ?
Hint:
3. Trendy, classy, and approaching classic
(Nobel winning animal)?
4. Not classic yet, but a very trendy weedy
plant?
5. Classic prokaryotic model?
9
Some Favorite Eukaryotic Model Organisms
Drosophila
melanogaster
Caenorhabditis
elegans: freeliving roundworm
Saccharomyces
cerevisiae: bakers
and brewers yeast
Arabidopsis
thaliana: small
flowering plant in the
mustard family
What question comes to mind when you
view these organisms?
10
This is a seemingly funky collection of
organisms….
Why have these particular organisms
been picked by geneticists for intensive
study?
Speculate on what features would make a
good model organism for a geneticist:
11
Features of good models
• can be raised in the lab easily and
inexpensively
• produce large numbers of progeny (why
is this important?)
• short generation time
• phenotypic variants are readily available
• some aspect of the habit or life-cycle of
the organism lends itself to scientific
inquiry
• an element of serendipity has entered
into the choice of some models
Model Organisms Guides
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/model/index.html
http://www.nih.gov/science/models/
http://www.loci.wisc.edu/outreach/text/model.html
12
model system:
a label we apply to species that we
(i) study in detail
(ii) use as a basis for constructing a
general understanding of how biological
processes work HUH?
Okay so HOW or WHY can what we
learn about worms or flies or a plant tell
us about how a human functions or what
kinds of genes we have?
13
We can justify the use of these organism based
on practical arguments (limited time, space,
money, etc.)
But how do we establish the biological
(theoretical) credibility for using studying these
organisms
This argument is based on knowledge of history
of life on earth
In other words, why is a fly or a worm a
credible model system for other organisms?
Why do biologists care so much about the
genome projects of non-human animals?
14
Because of our common evolutionary lineage, all
organisms share fundamental biological processes
that are controlled by genes that are conserved
among distantly related organisms
15
Figure 19-22 (9th edition of IGA) The distribution of human proteins according to
the identification of significantly related proteins in other species. Note that about
1/5 of human proteins have been identified only within the vertebrate lineage
whereas, at the other extreme, 1/5 have been identified in all of the major branches
of the evolutionary tree.
Original Source: Figure 38 from Nature 409: 902 Feb 15, 2001 Initial
Sequencing and Analysis of the Human Genome
Vertebrate only: 22% of human genes are vertebrate specific (interestingly, the
Nature paper did not parse out mammalian specific genes for this figure)
Vertebrates and other animals: 24% are found in invertebrates as well as
vertebrates
No animal homology: 1% not found in other organisms
Animals and other eukaryotes: 32% are also found in “non-animal” eukaryotes
which would include -----?
Euks and proks: 21% of human genes are shared with eukaryotic and prokaryotic
organisms
Prokaryotic only: <1% of human are also found in prokaryotes and other
vertebrates but not in other eukaryotes (huh?)
16
Using the common pea as a model organism,
Mendel elucidated basic principles of
inheritance that could be applied to all
eukaryotic organisms
One of the reasons that Mendel’s experiments were so
successful is that he chose an appropriate organism to
work with:
• After investigating and discarding other candidates, Mendel
chose the pea plant Pisum sativum for practical reasons.
• Peas are cheap and easy to propagate
• They have a relatively short reproductive cycle. This
facilitated the collection of data from a large number of plants
• Reproduction of the pea plant can be artificially manipulated
• A large number of different varieties of this species were
available from the local “seedsmen”.
So how did Mendel actually approach his study of
hereditary determinants?
17
If you are a molecular geneticist, you know you are looking
at a gene when you examine a stretch of DNA and see that it
codes for protein and has a promoter in front of it
>gi|455025|gb|U01317.1|HUMHBB Human beta globin region on
chromosome 11
TCTTATTTGTGTAATAAGAAAATTGGGAAAACGATCTTCAATATGCTTACCAAGCTG
TGATTCCAAATATTACGTAAATACACTTGCAAAGGAGGATGTTTTTAGTAGCAATTT
GTACTGATGGTATGGGGCCAAGAGATATATCTTAGAGGGAGGGCTGAGGGTTTGAA
GTCCAACTCCTAAGCCAGTGCCAGAAGAGCCAAGGACAGGTACGGCTGTCATCACT
TAGACCTCACCCTGTGGAGCCACACCCTAGGGTTGGCCAATCTACTCCCAGGAGCAG
GGAGGGCAGGAGCCAGGGCTGGGCATAAAAGTCAGGGCAGAGCCATCTATTGCTTA
CATTTGCTTCTGACACAACTGTGTTCACTAGCAACCTCAAACAGACACCATGGTGCA
CCTGACTCCTGAGGAGAAGTCTGCCGTTACTGCCCTGTGGGGCAAGGTGAACGTGG
ATGAAGTTGGTGGTGAGGCCCTGGGCAGGTTGGTATCAAGGTTACAAGACAGGTTT
AAGGAGACCAATAGAAACTGGGCATGTGGAGACAGAGAAGACTCTTGGGTTTCTGA
TAGGCACTGACTCTCTCTGCCTATTGGTCTATTTTCCCACCCTTAGGCTGCTGGTGGT
CTACCCTTGGACCCAGAGGTTCTTTGAGTCCTTTGGGGATCTGTCCACTCCTGATGCT
GTTATGGGCAACCCTAAGGTGAAGGCTCATGGCAAGAAAGTGCTCGGTGCCTTTAG
TGATGGCCTGGCTCACCTGGACAACCTCAAGGGCACCTTTGCCACACTGAGTGAGCT
GCACTGTGACAAGCTGCACGTGGATCCTGAGAACTTCAGGGTGAGTCTATGGGACC
CTTGATGTTTTCTTTCCCCTTCTTTTCTATGGTTAAGTTCATGTCATAGGAAGGGGAG
AAGTAACAGGGTACAGTTTAGAATGGGAAACAGACGAATGATTGCATCAGTGTGGA
AGTCTCAGGATCGTTTTAGTTTCTTTTATTTGCTGTTCATAACAATTGTTTTCTTTTGT
TTAATTCTTGCTTTCTTTTTTTTTCTTCTCCGCAATTTTTACTATTATACTTAATGCCTT
AACATTGTGTATAACAAAAGGAAATATCTCTGAGATACATTAAGTAACTTAAAAAA
AAACTTTACACAGTCTGCCTAGTACATTACTATTTGGAATATATGTGTGCTTATTTGC
ATATTCATAATCTCCCTACTTTATTTTCTTTTATTTTTAATTGATACATAATCATTATA
CATATTTATGGGTTAAAGTGTAATGTTTTAATATGTGTACACATATTGACCAAATCA
GGGTAATTTTGCATTTGTAATTTTAAAAAATGCTTTCTTCTTTTAATATACTTTTTTGT
TTATCTTATTTCTAATACTTTCCCTAATCTCTTTCTTTCAGGGCAATAATGATACAAT
GTATCATGCCTCTTTGCACCATTCTAAAGAATAACAGTGATAATTTCTGGGTTAAGG
CAATAGCAATATTTCTGCATATAAATATTTCTGCATATAAATTGTAACTGATGTAAG
AGGTTTCATATTGCTAATAGCAGCTACAATCCAGCTACCATTCTGCTTTTATTTTATG
GTTGGGATAAGGCTGGATTATTCTGAGTCCAAGCTAGGCCCTTTTGCTAATCATGTT
CATACCTCTTATCTTCCTCCCACAGCTCCTGGGCAACGTGCTGGTCTGTGTGCTGGCC
CATCACTTTGGCAAAGAATTCACCCCACCAGTGCAGGCTGCCTATCAGAAAGTGGTG
GCTGGTGTGGCTAATGCCCTGGCCCACAAGTATCACTAAGCTCGCTTTCTTGCTGTC
CAATTTCTATTAAAGGTTCCTTTGTTCCCTAAGTCCAACTACTAAACTGGGGGATATT
ATGAAGGGCCTTGAGCATCTGGATTCTGCCTAATAAAAAACATTTATTTTCATTGCA
ATGATGTATTTAAATTATTTCTGAATATTTTACTAAAAAGGGAATGTGGGAGGTCAG
TGCATTTAAAACATAAAGAAATGAAGAGCTAGTTCAAACCTTGGGAAAATACACTA
TA
18
But, how do you know that you are
“looking” at a gene if you are a classical
geneticist and don’t know the molecular
language of DNA?
How did Mendel identify the existence
of a gene?
19
In classical genetic methodology, the existence of a
gene controlling a trait is inferred from phenotypic
variation between individual organisms or groups of
organisms
In other
words, using
traditional
genetic
methodology,
a gene is
defined by
specific
phenotypic
differences.
20
A large number of different lines or varieties of peas
were available to Mendel from his local “seedsmen.”
• For each trait, his lines exhibited one of two alternative
variations or forms. For example, for the trait of flower
color, each of Mendel’s lines were true-breeding for
either purple flowers or white flowers.
• These lines then differed with respect to the phenotype
of flower color.
• Note that some of the phenotypes that Mendel
examined are properties of the peas (seeds) and others
are properties of the plant.
• This variation in phenotype provided Mendel with the
raw material for his classical genetic studies
21
Mendel was
clever enough to
choose a model
organism that
facilitated the
artificial
manipulation of
its reproduction
Reproduction of the pea plant can be artificially manipulated
• In the pea plant the male and female reproductive parts are present in
the same flower and are enclosed in a compartment which prevents
pollination from outside sources.
• So accidental fertilization by foreign pollen can not easily occur in
this organism.
• Pea plants will self-pollinate unless the anthers of the flower are
removed by the experimenter before they release pollen.
• self-pollinate = self = self-fertilize: pollen from a given flower
fertilizes the ovules from the same flower or from a different flower
on the same plant
• Mendel was able to artificially cross-pollinate (= cross) two different
pea plants by removing the immature anthers from the flowers of one
plant and then dusting it with pollen taken from a flower on another
plant
22
Before starting his experimental analysis, Mendel
subjected his different varieties of pea plants to a
two year trial to confirm that he was working with
true-breeding or pure lines.
What is a true-breeding line and why is it
important?
23
• Truebreeding line: a pure line, when selfed or
cross-pollinated within the same breeding line,
will only give rise to progeny identical to the
parents.
• This important step demonstrated that the outcome
of selfing (or crossing within) the various strains
was predictable and consistent.
• Therefore, deviations following cross-pollination
between different strains would be scientifically
significant.
24
What were the questions about heredity that Mendel’s
research addressed?
What are the basic mechanisms of heredity? The
question is so broadly phrased that it must be broken
down into a series of more specific questions in order to
be approached in a logical, systematic way:
• Do males and females contribute equally to the
appearance of their offspring?
• Are parental traits irreversibly blended in the offspring?
• Are there basic rules, which can be described
mathematically, for the transmission of hereditary
elements from one generation to another?
The first two questions reflected the confusing thinking
about heredity that existed in the mid-19th century
25
The third question reflects Mendel’s training in physics
and mathematics:
• 19th Century physics attributed everything in nature to
the action of a small number of laws, the starting point
of which was the existence of certain indivisible
patterns of matters
• The laws of nature were written in the language of
mathematics and the task of the researcher was to
discover the existence and activity of these indivisible
particles of matter
Crosses and data on BOARD
26
Inheritance of a single trait: round or wrinkled
seeds
♦ Parental: Mendel crossed a true-breeding line
that had round seeds with a true-breeding line with
wrinkled seeds
♦ F1 (for first filial) generation: All of the progeny
seeds resulting from this cross were round.
[Subsequent generations are indicated as F2, F3,
and so on.]
♦ Reciprocal: Mendel then did a reciprocal cross
and obtained the same result. What was the
significance of the results of the reciprocal
crosses?
27
♦ Mendel planted the F1 seeds and allowed the F1 plants
to self-pollinate
♦ In this F2 generation, he observed
♦ Discrete classes of round and wrinkled seeds. No seeds
of intermediate phenotype were observed.
♦ 5474 round and 1,850 wrinkled seeds, which represents
a ratio of round: wrinkled equal to 2.96 to 1.
♦ This is essentially a 3 to 1 ratio.
In other words, about 3/4 of the F2 seeds were round and
1/4 were yellow.
28
29
♦ Mendel had made the striking observation that
even though the wrinkled form had disappeared in
the F1 generation, it reappeared in the F2
generation.
♦ THERE WAS NO IRREVERSIBLE BLENDING
OF THE TRAITS
♦ To describe this result, he designated the round
phenotype as the dominant phenotype since it
appeared in the F1 and the wrinkled phenotype as
recessive.
30
Mendel repeated these experiments with the six
other traits and obtained similar results:
1. The results of reciprocal crosses were the same
2. One form of the trait was always dominant. The
F1 progeny only showed the dominant trait and
did not exhibit any intermediate phenotype.
3. In the F2 generation, the ratio of plants with the
dominant and recessive phenotypes was 3 to 1.
31
FROM THESE AND OTHER DATA
♦ Mendel proposed that the hereditary determinants for
each trait are discrete and do not become blended
together in the F1, but maintain their integrity from
generation to generation.
♦ Mendel also proposed that, for each trait examined, the
pea plant contains two copies of the hereditary
determinant (gene) controlling the trait, one copy
coming from each parent
32
Write up genotypes of crosses
MENDEL USED A SIMPLE SYMBOLISM TO CONNECT THEORY AND
OBSERVATIONS.
♦ Mendel developed a simple symbolism to show how his principle of
segregation could be used to explain his observations.
♦ He designated the genotype or genetic composition of a given pea
plant in the following manner.
♦ Each pair of genes, was symbolized by a different letter.
♦ The dominant form of the gene was indicated by an upper-case letter
and the recessive form by a lower-case letter.
♦ These alternative forms of a gene are called alleles.
♦ Returning to the experiments on seed form, the dominant round allele
is designated by R and the recessive wrinkled allele by r (Figure 4).
♦ The genotype of the true-breeding parental round line is RR
indicating that it carries two copies of the round allele in each cell.
♦ Such pure lines are said to be homozygous (homo -meaning
“identical”) for the round allele.
♦ The genotype of the parental wrinkled line is rr indicating it is
homozygous for the recessive wrinkled allele.
♦ The F1 round progeny contain a dominant allele for round contributed
by the round parent and a recessive allele for wrinkled contributed by
the wrinkled parent.
♦ The F1 plants are Rr or heterozygous (hetero- meaning “different”)
for the two different alleles.
33