'Little B
Japanese Am
in WOI
•
Japanese-American sisters on trial for treason" news file photo
Accompanying text reads:
"ACME TELEPHOTO NEW YORK BUREAU ACME TELEPHOTO
JAPANESE-AMERICAN SISTERS ON TRIAL FOR TREASON
DENVER, Col. -- The death penalty may be imposed upon these three California-born
Japanese sisters if they are convicted of treason in thier current trial here. The three, Mrs.
Billie Shitara Tanigoshi (walking), Mrs. Florence Shivze Otani (upper left), and Mrs Tsuro
"Toots" Wallace (below) are charged with having aided two German prisoners of war,
Corporals Heinrich Haider and Herman August Loescher to escape from a Trinidad, Col.,
internment camp last October. The Germans are witnesses in the current trial.
SEE PRESS WIRES
Credit "Acme Telephoto" blr 8/8/44 NY Bureau": United Press International
12
t
On February 16, 1960
a special agent of the Fe
Beach, California, home..
a $1,000 fine assessed aga
"Toots," along with her sis
sisters), were found guilty
escaping from the Trinidal
Billie and Flo received t
$1,000 fines while Tsuruk
year sentence and the $1,(
in the Federal ReformatoI
The agent described Tsuru
feelings that the governme
to be such a great length (
The Shitara sisters' arres
conspiracy to commit trea
Colorado during World \\
nation during the war. 7 1
among individuals, groups
in an atmosphere of cultur
Southeastern Colorado his
The government, media, a
other nonwhite people of
Robert Koehler has an MA in Cull
in Mexican American Studies frol
Divinity School and is currently cc
ethnic history, Japanese American i
\
,
,
'Little Benedict Arnolds in Skirts':
Japanese American Women and Treason
in World War II Colorado!
By
Robert Koehler
photo
rELEPHOTO
lliASON
upon these three California-born
:urrent trial here. The three, Mrs.
Otani (upper left), and Mrs Tsuro
~ two German prisoners of war,
~ to escape from a Trinidad, Col.,
s in the current trial.
~
Press International
On February 16, 1960, fifty-year-old Tsuruko Endo Wallace met
a special agent of the Federal Bureau of Investigation at her Long
Beach, California, home. The agent came to request Mrs. Wallace pay
a $1,000 fine assessed against her in 1944. 2 Mrs. Wallace, nicknamed
"Toots," along with her sisters Billie and Florence or "Flo" (the Shitara
sisters), were found guilty of aiding two German prisoners of war in
escaping from the Trinidad, Colorado, prisoner of war camp in 1943.
Billie and Flo received twenty-month federal prison sentences and
$1,000 fines while Tsuruko, the supposed ringleader, received a two­
year sentence and the $1,000 fine. 3 Tsuruko served eighteen-months
in the Federal Reformatory for Women at Alderson, West Virginia. 4
The agent described Tsuruko expressing "considerable surprise and ill
feelings that the government should come to her after what she termed
to be such a great length of time."5 Tsuruko promptly paid the fine. 6
The Shitara sisters' arrest and trial for treason, and conviction for
conspiracy to commit treason, was the first, and only, treason trial in
Colorado during WorId War II and only the third treason trial in the
nation during the war. 7 The Shitara story is a history of allegiances
among individuals, groups ofpeople, and the American nation surfacing
in an atmosphere of cultural conflict. These loyalty conflicts permeate
Southeastern Colorado history and explain social relations in the region.
The government, media, and American public labeled the Shitaras, and
other nonwhite people of Southeastern Colorado, disloyal, based on
Robert Koehler has an M.A. in Cultural Anthropology from Colorado State University, an M.A.
in Mexican American Studies from San Jose State University, and an M.T.S. from Harvard
Divinity School and is currently completing a PhD. His research interest includes Colorado's
ethnic history, Japanese American internment, and Wilburite Quakerism.
13
their race and ignored their loyalty to the United States.
Allegiance is loyalty, or the obligation ofloyalty, given by individuals
and groups of people to a nation, sovereign, or cause. Allegiance is
also a tie that binds individuals and groups of people to a government,
in return for the protection and benefits that government provides
them. Loyalty, the basis of allegiance, is the "willing and practical and
thorough-going devotion of a person to a cause,,,g nation, or sovereign.
Loyalty manifests itself in action and has an intense emotional tone. 9
Loyalty is both internal, or personal, and external, or socially acted upon,
and noticeable to individuals in their thoughts and observable to others
in their outward actions. lO Loyalty is "among the noblest of virtues ...
and disloyalty the basest of crimes."l! When loyalty becomes action,
it transforms into allegiance. Harnessed loyalty fosters an allegiance
that is a more intense and purposefully acted upon bond than loyalty.
Individuals often give their loyalty freely and receive rewards, such as
physical protection, in return. Loyalties with reward are "expressed
as constructive, adaptable, positive acts of support."!2 When loyalties
occur through coercion, they involve punishing processes such as the
loss of autonomy in an individual's choices and selection of actions.
They are restricted in their actions by the limits placed on them by those
whom they have given their loyalty. Loyalties with punishing aspects
are rigid, involve defensive behavior, and can change to disloyalty
more rapidly than loyalties with rewards. 13 When disloyalty becomes
action, allegiances shift among competing individuals, peoples, and
nations. Political scientist Martin Grodzins claims that society "rests
upon loyalties: upon attitudes and actions directed at supporting groups,
ideas, and institutions ...Loyalties are a part of every individual's life"
and organize the individual's existence. !4
According to Grodzins, loyalty to the American nation during World
War II had four possible meanings, or disloyalties, specific to Japanese
Americans. First, loyalty to the United States required that Japanese
Americans relinquish their demand for equal status in American
society. To do so, Grodzins argues that Japanese Americans had to
express disloyalty to their demand for equal status and citizenship in
U.S. society. Japanese Americans had to accept secondary citizenship
without complaint. Second, Japanese American loyalty to the United
States required disloyalty to
loyalty to the U.S. that mighl
to Japan or, more often, 10)
American loyalty to the U.
life. Japanese American loy;
policies of relocation, such
them "enemy aliens." In 0
the U.S. required disavowinl
placed upon them. By gi\
joining the military and wo
war effort, Japanese Americ
that sought to label them disl
was on restricting individu
American society outside tb
the relocation centers to join
farms, they were rejecting tl
and rejecting the War Reloc
as disloyal.
Finally, Japanese Americ
Japanese culture. Japanese.
American culture and shUl
Americans expected people
dress as "Americans," eat AI
to embrace American cultur
who identified with Japane!
practicing Buddhism, were
culture and fully assimill
assimilation was impossible
and media focused on Japan,
but also nationality, was cen
Americans in American so
corresponding disloyalty, ex
is applicable to other nonwh
gave their loyalty to the U.S
demand for equal treatment a
to their families' and peop
14
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"~'
nited States.
loyalty, given by individuals
~n, or cause. Allegiance is
of people to a government,
that government provides
le "willing and practical and
ause,,,g nation, or sovereign.
an intense emotional tone. 9
emal, or socially acted upon,
hts and observable to others
)ng the noblest of virtues ...
ilen loyalty becomes action,
oyalty fosters an allegiance
ted upon bond than loyalty.
Lnd receive rewards, such as
with reward are "expressed
'support."12 When loyalties
shing processes such as the
:es and selection of actions.
nits placed on them by those
llties with punishing aspects
d can change to disloyalty
I When disloyalty becomes
g individuals, peoples, and
1S claims that society "rests
irected at supporting groups,
:1 of every individual's life"
nerican nation during World
lyalties, specific to Japanese
tates required that Japanese
equal status in American
Japanese Americans had to
ml status and citizenship in
Lccept secondary citizenship
erican loyalty to the United
States required disloyalty to family. Japanese Americans had to express
loyalty to the U.S. that might be in stark contrast to their parents' loyalty
to Japan or, more often, loyalty to Japanese culture. Third, Japanese
American loyalty to the U.S. required disloyalty to relocation center
life. Japanese American loyalty to the U. S. required their not accepting
policies of relocation, such as Americanization programs that labeled
them "enemy aliens." In other words, Japanese American loyalty to
the U.S. required disavowing the very labels the government and public
placed upon them. By giving their allegiance to the U.S., through
joining the military and working on farms and in factories to aid the
war effort, Japanese Americans were disloyal to the relocation centers
that sought to label them disloyal. Relocation centers' ideological focus
was on restricting individuals labeled disloyal from participating in
American society outside the centers. When Japanese Americans left
the relocation centers to join the military or to work in factories and on
farms, they were rejecting the notion of their being disloyal to the U.S.
and rejecting the War Relocation Authority's (WRA) labeling of them
as disloyal.
Finally, Japanese American loyalty to the U.S. required disloyalty to
Japanese culture. Japanese Americans had to wholeheartedly embrace
American culture and shun anything related to Japanese culture. IS
Americans expected people of Japanese ancestry to become Christian,
dress as "Americans," eat American-style food, speak only English, and
to embrace American culture without complaint. Japanese Americans
who identified with Japanese culture, such as speaking Japanese and
practicing Buddhism, were supposed to turn their backs on Japanese
culture and fully assimilate into American culture.
However,
assimilation was impossible because the American government, public,
and media focused on Japanese Americans as Japanese. Not only race,
but also nationality, was central to World War II discourse on Japanese
Americans in American society. Grodzins' concept of loyalty and
corresponding disloyalty, except for disloyalty to relocation center life,
is applicable to other nonwhite people of Southeastern Colorado. They
gave their loyalty to the U.S. but found they had to be disloyal to their
demand for equal treatment and citizenship in American society, disloyal
to their families' and people, and disloyal to their people's cultural
15
heritage. Historical analysis of Southeastern Colorado has neglected
examining the dramas of allegiances, or loyalty and disloyalty, played
out in periods of intense cultural conflict in the region.
The Shitara story dispels the belief that Southeastern Colorado is
devoid of history and opens a door to understanding the region's rich
history of cultural conflict in which themes of personal, group, and
national allegiance are deeply intertwined and recurring. These themes
are not new undercurrents in Southeastern Colorado history, or national
history, but part of the essential fabric of those histories. History is
composed of stories of allegiances made and broken among nations,
peoples, and individuals. History is the tale of how and why nations,
peoples, and individuals gave their loyalty, or were disloyal, to other
nations, peoples, and individuals. The stories of allegiances made and
allegiances broken is the story of American history, of Southeastern
Colorado history, and of the Shitara sisters. The Shitara sisters' story
is one of many buried and forgotten allegiance stories of Southeastern
Colorado and the history of that region must undergo exhumation.
Allegiance stories developed in a region of once thriving small
towns and parched farmlands of the dry, barren, wind-swept plains
of Southeastern Colorado that now have bleak neighborhoods thinly
dotted with abandoned homes and farmhouses. These skeletons 100m
over the landscape like ghosts of once prosperous days. The population
declined dramatically over the past fifty years, so many towns no longer
operate gas stations, restaurants, or grocery stores. Tourists quickly
drive through towns, once "gas station communities" where motorists
stopped to fill their cars' thirsty gas tanks and purchase snacks, on their
way to more populated destinations. Tourist attractions with histories
elaborately portrayed in television and film, such as the gunslinger
streets of Dodge City, Kansas, and its infamous Boot Hill, lure them
away from the bleak dusty streets of Southeastern Colorado.
The barren plains are returning Southeastern Colorado to frontier
status in number of people and appearance of the landscape. Houses
and farms give way to a returning desolateness in which weeds and
sagebrush copiously sprout in the once well-ploughed and irrigated fields
and in the expanding cracks of the deserted sidewalks and abandoned
driveways. Abandoned houses, once occupied by families, dreams,
and history now haunt the la
desolate farmland. Empty ho
pits, bulldoze the houses, all
histories decompose, forgottt
are battling a malaise over 1
the bright lights of Denver i
Colorado returns to frontier
crops up. The empty spaces
grave and forgotten. It is tim
to understand why America c
the social atmosphere that Ie
The Shitara sisters' story
made and broken in Southei
Southeastern Colorado over
and shattered in a climate of
Bent's Fort, built in the 18~
a creation of, allegiances c:
people, Indian tribes, gove
groups. The reprehensible
150 innocent Cheyenne, An
and children was the resul
the Cheyenne and Arapaho
and white individuals repre
allegiances and cultural conl
history resurface in the sto~
trial for aiding two Germ
Trinidad, Colorado Prisone:
The Shitara sisters' arres
to the United States, the An
German soldiers they purp
emphasized allegiances ml
also by the German POW
coverage of allegiances IT
Bureau of Investigation til
files shows the FBI was 0
Shitara sisters and the Gerr
16
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5tern Colorado has neglected
oyalty and disloyalty, played
.n the region.
hat Southeastern Colorado is
.derstanding the region's rich
mes of personal, group, and
and recurring. These themes
Colorado history, or national
,f those histories. History is
~ and broken among nations,
tale of how and why nations,
ty, or were disloyal, to other
>ries of allegiances made and
ican history, of Southeastern
rs. The Shitara sisters' story
:iance stories of Southeastern
1st undergo exhumation.
gion of once thriving small
" barren, wind-swept plains
bleak neighborhoods thinly
)Uses. These skeletons loom
iperous days. The population
ars, so many towns no longer
~ry stores. Tourists quickly
'mmunities" where motorists
llld purchase snacks, on their
nst attractions with histories
Hm, such as the gunslinger
llmous Boot Hill, lure them
eastern Colorado.
eastern Colorado to frontier
e of the landscape. Houses
lteness in which weeds and
ploughed and irrigated fields
:d sidewalks and abandoned
:upied by families, dreams,
':
and history now haunt the landscape and pose a fire hazard to the dry
desolate farmland. Empty houses await burial by farmers who dig large
pits, bulldoze the houses, and bury the remains. Both memories and
histories decompose, forgotten in shallow graves. Residents claim they
are battling a malaise over the plains that lure sons and daughters to
the bright lights of Denver and Colorado Springs. 16 As Southeastern
Colorado returns to frontier status, the question of the region's history
crops up. The empty spaces tell a story that has been bulldozed into a
grave and forgotten. It is time to exhume, examine, and study that story
to understand why America decided to bury the story and to understand
the social atmosphere that led to the burial of these allegiance stories.
The Shitara sisters' story continues the recurring tale of allegiances
made and broken in Southeastern Colorado. The dry barren plains of
Southeastern Colorado overflow with a history of allegiances formed
and shattered in a climate of cultural conflict. Southeastern Colorado's
Bent's Fort, built in the 1830s by the Bent brothers, created, and was
a creation of, allegiances among individuals with Mexico, Mexican
people, Indian tribes, governments, and with individuals from these
groups. The reprehensible 1864 Sand Creek massacre of more than
150 innocent Cheyenne, Arapaho, white, and mixed-race men, women,
and children was the result of allegiances made and broken among
the Cheyenne and Arapaho, individual Indians, the U.S. government,
and white individuals representing the government. These currents of
allegiances and cultural conflict in Southeastern Colorado and American
history resurface in the story of the Shitara sisters' 1944 Denver treason
trial for aiding two German prisoners-of-war in escaping from the
Trinidad, Colorado Prisoner of War camp.
The Shitara sisters' arrest and trial placed into question their allegiance
to the United States, the American people, Japanese Americans, and the
German soldiers they purportedly aided. Media coverage of the trial
emphasized allegiances made and broken not only by the sisters, but
also by the German POWs. Obscured by the sensationalized media
coverage of allegiances made and broken lay the forgotten Federal
Bureau of Investigation files. An exhumation of these long neglected
files shows the FBI was obsessed not only with the allegiances of the
Shitara sisters and the German POWs, but obsessed with the allegiances
17
of the police officers who arrested the POWs and of the reporters and
one of the Denver newspapers, the Rocky Mountain News, that covered
the trial. Nearly all actors in this drama of allegiances had their loyalty
to the U.S., the FBI, and the American people questioned. The Shitara
drama of allegiances took place on a stage of cultural conflict involving
issues of race, nationality, and gender. The sisters' allegiances were
particularly suspect in the eyes of the FBI, the newspapers, and the
American public because of their ancestry. The Shitara's Japanese
ancestry alone was proof to the nation, as it was for all Japanese
Americans, of their being Japanese, and therefore disloyal enemy aliens.
This illustrates the complexity of allegiances. Japanese Americans were
overwhelmingly U.S. citizens who gave their allegiance to the U.S.,
while at the same time, America saw them as the enemy. Japanese
Americans could not prove their allegiance to the U.S. no matter how
many Japanese American soldiers died in the war effort or how many
worked in factories and on farms supporting the war effort and living
under more severe restrictions than non-Japanese Americans.
The Shitara sisters' gender was another factor in the questioning of
their allegiances. The newspapers and prosecutor argued the women
were disloyal to their husbands and engaged in sex, hence adultery, with
German prisoners of war, though there is no proof that any sex took
place. They were disloyal women because they had engaged in sexual
affairs with enemies of the American people. The sisters were traitors
to the nation and to their husbands. Furthermore, the newspapers and
prosecutor claimed the women were weak in resisting the German
POWs' wooing. The sisters' race, nationality, and gender were central
in their conviction for conspiracy to commit treason.
The Shitara sisters' story began at the Granada Relocation Center
for Japanese American internment during World War II. The Granada
Center, known as Camp Amache, was located on the southern fringes of
the small town of Granada, Colorado. The Center was a few miles south
of the Arkansas River, the border between Mexico and the U.S. until the
end of the Mexican-American War with the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo. 17 Therefore, the Center was located in what was once Mexico
and claimed by the Republic of Texas (1836-1845). Rebellious Texans
reneged on their allegiance to Mexico and won independence in 1836
only to join the expanding U.
from Mexico, to the Republi,
need for allegiances to be m,
The region had a rich his
made and broken long before
began. Approximately seve
Fort, built in either 1834 or
and Indian peoples and cultu
Charles and William Bent an
the lucrative Santa Fe merch
Company.21 Charles Bent 1
married the Cheyenne Owl'
lucrative allegiances with M
William's marriage formed,
peoples. Cerain St. Vrain, "
Bent, who declined Mexic
landowners through their loy
Mexico's Governor of the N
Bent and Cerain St. Vrain in
land grants totaling over se
brother Marcellin, and Willi
George, would join the reo,
St. Vrains were French nobl
and as punishment for their;
major Indian trading post an
was then the western U.S.
Colonel Stephen WattsKear
American War. 27 The creati
negotiating the cultural con
we cannot know for sure, it
U.S. military to use the fort
allegiance to the U.S.
Themes of allegiance 1
Both the Bents and Shitru
periods when the region w,
encountered conflict amor
18
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•\
IWS and of the reporters and
'vlountain News, that covered
~ allegiances had their loyalty
)ple questioned. The Shitara
of cultural conflict involving
['he sisters' allegiances were
BI, the newspapers, and the
ry. The Shitara's Japanese
as it was for all Japanese
:refore disloyal enemy aliens.
~s. Japanese Americans were
their allegiance to the U.S.,
~m as the enemy. Japanese
:e to the u.s. no matter how
the war effort or how many
ing the war effort and living
panese Americans.
r factor in the questioning of
'osecutor argued the women
:l in sex, hence adultery, with
no proof that any sex took
~ they had engaged in sexual
lIe. The sisters were traitors
ermore, the newspapers and
ik: in resisting the German
ity, and gender were central
It treason.
Granada Relocation Center
World War II. The Granada
~d on the southern fringes of
~enter was a few miles south
1exico and the U.S. until the
~ 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe
:d in what was once Mexico
>-1845). Rebellious Texans
won independence in 1836
iii
only to join the expanding U.S.A. in 1845. 18 Texans' allegiance shifted
from Mexico, to the Republic of Texas, to the U.S.A., emphasizing the
need for allegiances to be malleable during cultural conflict.
The region had a rich history of cultural conflict and of allegiances
made and broken long before World War II and the Shitara sisters' story
began. Approximately seventy-five miles west of Amache is Bent's
Fort, built in either 1834 or 1836. 19 At the fort, American, Mexican,
and Indian peoples and cultures mixed. 20 The fort was the brainchild of
Charles and William Bent and Cerain St. Vrain, who became partners in
the lucrative Santa Fe merchant trade, and formed the Bent & St. Vrain
Company.21 Charles Bent married a Mexican woman 22 and William
married the Cheyenne Owl Woman. 23 Charles Bent's marriage created
lucrative allegiances with Mexican trading partners and Mexico while
William's marriage formed allegiances with Indian trading partners and
peoples. Cerain St. Vrain, who became a Mexican citizen, and Charles
Bent, who declined Mexican citizenship, became major Southwest
landowners through their loyalties to, and alliance with, Manuel Armijo,
Mexico's Governor of the New Mexico territory. Armijo aided Charles
Bent and Cerain St. Vrain in accumulating the rights to one-sixth oftwo
land grants totaling over seven million acres. 24 Years later, Cerain's
brother Marcellin, and William Bent's half Cheyenne sons Robert and
George, would join the renamed Bent, St. Vrain & Company.25 The
St. Vrains were French noblemen driven from France by the revolution
and as punishment for their allegiance to the King. 26 The fort became a
major Indian trading post and merchant route between Mexico and what
was then the western U.S. Bent's Fort served as a staging ground for
Colonel Stephen Watts Kearney's Army of the West during the Mexican
American War.27 The creation of diverse allegiances aided the Bents in
negotiating the cultural conflicts of Southeastern Colorado. Although
we cannot know for sure, it seems the Bents and St. Vrain allowed the
U.S. military to use the fort during the war against Mexico to show their
allegiance to the U.S.
Themes of allegiance bind the Bents and Shitara sisters together.
Both the Bents and Shitaras lived in Southeastern Colorado during
periods when the region was culturally and racially diverse. The Bents
encountered conflict among, and between, whites, the varied Indian
19
populations, Mexicans, and in their relationships with these groups
and the u.s. government. The Shitaras encountered conflicts between
white Americans and Japanese Americans and the manner in which the
government, American public, and media responded to conflicts, such
as the government's World War II internment policies for Japanese
Americans and the media's stereotyping of Japanese Americans as
enemy aliens. The Bents and Shitaras formed loyalties and allegiances
in difficult political and social climates in which their actions and
allegiances were continually under question because of their race or
the race of those to whom they gave their allegiance. The government
labeled the Bents and Shitaras disloyal when labeling individuals
and groups of people the Bents and Shitaras gave their allegiance to
"disloyal." The Bents were disloyal to the U.S. because they befriended
enemies ofthe nation, Indians and Mexicans. The Shitaras were disloyal
because they befriended enemies of the nation, German prisoners of
war, and disloyal due to their Japanese ancestry. At the same time,
the Bents and Shitaras could never prove their allegiance to the U. S.
The Bents and Shitaras could continually expend their energy claiming
allegiance to the U.S. but no matter how strong the authenticity of their
claims, the government and nation would not accept that authenticity or
their claims of loyalty as valid. The Bent's Indian and Mexican wives
and mixed-blood children were visible symbols of their disloyalty to
the nation as was the Shitaras' race a visible symbol of their disloyalty.
However, there are more stories of allegiance in Southeastern
Colorado that resonate with the Shitara story. ForexampIe, approximately
45 miles northwest of Granada is the Sand Creek Massacre site. The
massacre was one of the most brutal events in American history.28
In 1864, while Union General William Tecumseh Sherman was
marching to Atlanta in a bloody war of allegiances between North and
South,29 Colonel Chivington, a Methodist Episcopal preacher,30 and
the First Colorado U.S. Volunteer Cavalry were brutally slaying more
than one hundred and fifty Cheyenne and Arapaho, mixed blood, and
white men, women, and children in a surprise attack near Big Sandy
Creek. 31 Colonel Chivington believed the attack would demonstrate his
allegiance to the Union, elevate him to Brigadier General, and serve
as a "stepping stone for a seat in Congress."32 Chivington expected
rewards for demonstrating hi!
massacre so outraged the na
and a military commission he
"Colorado's greatest military
. governor. "33
and unseated Its
by Captains Silas S. Soule ar
allegiance to commanding 0
weapons during the massaCl
Cramer protested the attack 4
and Chivington threatened S(
the massacre,35 while Chivin~
Cramer charged that Chivinl
Because of his testimony aga
hearing, Soule was shortly tt.
was the Provost Marshal.38 :
of Soule's assassins, Charle:
escape, an unknown individt
room. 39 Though we cannot k
punishment for his disloyalt)
Echoes from themes ofall
in the Shitara sisters' story.
Chief Black Kettle, who atte:
his people and whites, raised
camp in a failed attempt to t
of the U.S. flag that flew ov
internment center in Southe
and massacre took place un<
Greenwood had given the fl:
no harm would ever come tc
over his camp and the flag v
Black Kettle attached a SIr
waved the flags back and fc
under the flags telling them 1
hurt them." 40 Chivington's·
Cheyenne, Arapaho, mixed
and Cramer watched in hor
20
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~._-" ..'" -·,'.1~,._~",.,"<,_,,_
"
ltionships with these groups
ncountered conflicts between
; and the manner in which the
l responded to conflicts, such
mment policies for Japanese
~ of Japanese Americans as
med loyalties and allegiances
: in which their actions and
tion because of their race or
'allegiance. The government
I when labeling individuals
aras gave their allegiance to
U.S. because they befriended
lS. The Shitaras were disloyal
nation, Gennan prisoners of
ancestry. At the same time,
;: their allegiance to the U.S.
expend their energy claiming
trong the authenticity of their
not accept that authenticity or
's Indian and Mexican wives
ymbols of their disloyalty to
lIe symbol of their disloyalty.
~ allegiance in Southeastern
r. Forexample,approximately
ld Creek Massacre site. The
vents in American history.28
n Tecumseh Sherman was
llegiances between North and
st Episcopal preacher,30 and
y were brutally slaying more
I Arapaho, mixed blood, and
'Prise attack near Big Sandy
attack would demonstrate his
~rigadier General, and serve
~SS."32 Chivington expected
rewards for demonstrating his allegiance to the Union. Nevertheless, the
massacre so outraged the nation that two congressional investigations
and a military commission hearing were held resulting in the disgrace of
"Colorado's greatest military hero (Chivington) in the eyes ofthe nation,
and unseated its governor."33 Reports to high-ranking military officers
by Captains Silas S. Soule and Joseph A Cramer, who disavowed their
allegiance to commanding officer Chivington and refused to fire their
weapons during the massacre, led to the investigations. 34 Soule and
Cramer protested the attack on "peaceful Indians" before the massacre
and Chivington threatened Soule with hanging for refusing to fire during
the massacre,35 while Chivington saw Soule as "an enemy and a threat."36
Cramer charged that Chivington "should be hung" for the massacre. 37
Because of his testimony against Chivington at the military commission
hearing, Soule was shortly thereafter gunned down in Denver where he
was the Provost MarshaP8 Lieutenant James D. Cannon captured one
of Soule's assassins, Charles A Savier, who later escaped. After the
escape, an unknown individual poisoned Cannon, who died in his hotel
room. 39 Though we cannot know for certain, it seems Soule's death was
punishment for his disloyalty to Chivington and loyalty to the U.S.
Echoes from themes ofallegiance at the Sand Creek massacre resonate
in the Shitara sisters' story. During the massacre, Southern Cheyenne
Chief Black Kettle, who attempted for years to maintain peace between
his people and whites, raised a U.S. flag on the longest lodge pole in the
camp in a failed attempt to end the massacre. The flag is reminiscent
of the U.S. flag that flew over Camp Amache, the Japanese American
internment center in Southeastern Colorado. Injustices of internment
and massacre took place under both flags. Indian Commissioner AB.
Greenwood had given the flag to Black Kettle telling Black Kettle that
no harm would ever come to him or his people as long as the flag flew
over his camp and the flag would be "respected as a symbol of peace."
Black Kettle attached a smaller white flag beneath Old Glory. He
waved the flags back and forth and encouraged his people to join him
under the flags telling them to not "be afraid, that the soldiers would not
hurt them." 40 Chivington's Volunteers continued to fire on the helpless
Cheyenne, Arapaho, mixed-bloods, and whites while Captains Soule
and Cramer watched in horror. Black Kettle survived, as did his son­
21
in-law George Bent (son of William Bent), only to die at the Washita
River in November 1868, at the hands of General George Armstrong
Custer's 7th Cavalry.41 George Bent was so beloved by Black Kettle
that Black Kettle gave his allegiance to George and took "him into his
lodge to guide him as he would his own son."42 Three of William Bent's
mixed-blood children, staying with their mother's friends and relatives
at the camp during the time of the massacre, survived. 43 Black Kettle's
attempt to show his people's allegiance to the U.S. was in vain, as was
the Shitara sisters' attempts to show their allegiance eighty years later.
Many years before the Sand Creek massacre, Cheyenne subchief
One-Eye (know as Och-I-Nee and as Lone Bear) saved the life of
William Bent when he had a serious throat infection. Bent came to
trust One-Eye to such an extent that One-Eye was the only person
allowed to treat the Bent family's illnesses. One-Eye even treated the
illnesses of George Bent when he was a child. 44 Loyalties between
the men became allegiances through acts of devotion to each other.
William gave his allegiance to One-Eye because One-Eye had saved
him and his son. These actions demonstrated One-Eye's dedication to
the Bents and William reciprocated by putting into action his loyalty to
One-Eye and the Cheyenne. William attempted to talk Chivington out
of war with the Cheyenne. "For the sake of his mixed-blood children
and the Cheyenne people" he tried to convince Chivington that "the
war the army now waged against the Cheyennes was wrong and must
be stopped." Chivington ignored William's pleas and "voiced his
opposition to racial mixing and said that Bent was nothing but a lowly
'squawman. "'45 One-Eye turned traitor to his people and to William
when he gave his allegiance to the U.S. Army. He agreed to be a spy
for the U.S. military for "$125.00 and a month ofrations."46 One-Eye
was a "trusted member of the Council of Forty" and reported to the U.S.
soldiers on warrior movements. One-Eye made his decision to change
allegiances during a stressful period of cultural conflict.
One-Eye found himself in a difficult social and political climate
in which Indians sought varied strategies for their survival and that of
their people. We do not know the reason why One-Eye betrayed his
people, but we can surmise a possible explanation. One-Eye may have
given his allegiance to the U.S. because he believed war would only
lead to Indian defeat and ful
cooperation with the U.S. A
He had a difficult decision t
to his people or to the U.S
soldiers rewarded One-Eye
Creek,47 Significantly, One
Woman) who married John
Ameo'ne Amache and the I
became the first Commissi<
State legislator. Present-d.
Camp Amache, where the S
These stories of allegiar
in the empty spaces of Sout
the Sand Creek massacre ir
the twentieth-century with t]
three Japanese American sis
buried except for one para~
Prisoners of War in Americ
and treason in Ann Howard
fictional recount of life in ,
story is an archaeological di,
within Southeastern Colora<
After the December 7,
U.S. government, public, ar
ancestry might be potential
fears led to public and con~
a program to limit the mO\
Because of these growin~
signed Executive Order 90(
Lieutenant General John L.
and to remove people from
of Executive Order 9066,
"enemy alien problem" in 1
Roosevelt signed Executiv
Authority (WRA) to impler
Americans from restricted;
1
22
\
"
_ _............
t), only to die at the Washita
f General George Annstrong
; so beloved by Black Kettle
reorge and took "him into his
11."42 Three ofWilliam Bent's
nother's friends and relatives
re, survived. 43 Black Kettle's
I the U.S. was in vain, as was
allegiance eighty years later.
nassacre, Cheyenne subchief
,one Bear) saved the life of
'Oat infection. Bent came to
ne-Eye was the only person
~s. One-Eye even treated the
i child. 44 Loyalties between
:s of devotion to each other.
because One-Eye had saved
'ated One-Eye's dedication to
tting into action his loyalty to
:mpted to talk Chivington out
: of his mixed-blood children
mvince Chivington that "the
~yennes was wrong and must
,am's pleas and "voiced his
Bent was nothing but a lowly
to his people and to William
\rmy. He agreed to be a spy
nonth of rations."46 One-Eye
'orty" and reported to the U.S.
: made his decision to change
[tural conflict.
: social and political climate
for their survival and that of
n why One-Eye betrayed his
>lanation. One-Eye may have
he believed war would only
J
lead to Indian defeat and further suffering. One-Eye may have chosen
cooperation with the U.S. Army to save his life and the lives of others.
He had a difficult decision to make and whether he gave his allegiance
to his people or to the U.S., the result was the same. Chivington's
soldiers rewarded One-Eye for his allegiance by killing him at Sand
Creek. 47 Significantly, One-Eye was the father of Ameo'ne (Walking
Woman) who married John Prowers in 1861 and took the Indian name
Ameo'ne Amache and the English name Amy Prowers. John Prowers
became the first Commissioner of Bent County and a Territorial and
State legislator. Present-day Prowers County includes Granada and
Camp Amache, where the Shitara sisters' story began.
These stories of allegiance and cultural conflict, oft-buried houses
in the empty spaces of Southeastern Colorado history, do not end with
the Sand Creek massacre in 1864. Stories of allegiance continue into
the twentieth-century with the World War II Denver treason trial of the
three Japanese American sisters, the Shitaras. Their story has remained
buried except for one paragraph in historian Arnold Krammer's Nazi
Prisoners of War in America48 and a brief mention of Japanese women
and treason in Ann Howard Creel's The Magic of Ordinary Days,49 a
fictional recount of life in World War II Southeastern Colorado. This
story is an archaeological dig that uncovers a story, a house, buried deep
within Southeastern Colorado's forgotten history.
After the December 7, 1941, Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the
U.S. government, public, and media feared that Americans of Japanese
ancestry might be potential saboteurs and disloyal to the U.S. 50 These
fears led to public and congressional calls for the government to enact
a program to limit the movement of Americans of Japanese ancestry.
Because of these growing concerns, President Franklin Roosevelt
signed Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, authorizing Army
Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt to establish restricted military areas
and to remove people from their homes in those areas. 51 Upon issuance
of Executive Order 9066, the already heightened concern over the
"enemy alien problem" in the nation increased.52 On March 18, 1942,
Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9102, creating the War Relocation
Authority (WRA) to implement evacuation, forced removal of Japanese
Americans from restricted areas. Executive Order 9102 resulted in the
23
military removing all individuals of Japanese ancestry from the West
Coast. 53 Japanese Americans had to abandon their homes and businesses
and the army shipped them by heavily guarded trains to assembly
centers. The best known assembly center was at the Santa Anita
horse track where Japanese Americans lived in horse stalls converted
for human dwelling. 54 A few months later, Japanese Americans were
shipped by train to one often relocation centers. Trains to Granada took
three days and Japanese Americans generally could not leave the trains
at any time. Armed military guards rode on top of each train car and
guards surrounded train depots at each stop.55 The manner in which the
military implemented the Executive Orders illustrates the army's belief
that Japanese Americans were disloyal. Neither Executive Order 9066
nor Executive Order 9102 made any mention ofrace or ethnicity.56
In June 1943, Lieutenant General DeWitt claimed Japanese
American "loyalties were unknown" and "the continued presence of a
large, unassimilated, tightly knit racial group, bound to an enemy nation
by strong ties of race, culture, custom and religion along a frontier
vulnerable to attack constituted a menace which had to be dealt with."57
DeWitt also claimed that since there was no evidence of sabotage by
Japanese Americans that alone was proof that Japanese Americans
were saboteurs. 58 DeWitt, and other military leaders, believed Japanese
Americans were biding their time until an opportune moment arose to
engage in sabotage. 59 More than two-thirds of Japanese Americans,
such as the Shitaras, were U.S. citizens and the majority had never
been to Japan, were not members of a "Japanese" religion, and had no
ties to Japan or Japanese culture except through Japanese ancestry.60
The only country they knew was the U.S., to which they pledged
their allegiance. Only 6,128 of the approximately 120,000 Japanese
Americans forcibly removed to War Relocation Centers renounced their
U.S. citizenship61 and asked to return to Japan. 62 Japanese Americans
such as Gordon Hirabayashi,63 Minoru Yasui,M and Fred Korematsu 65
challenged the legality of the Executive Orders, forced removal, and
internment in relocation centers, and claimed they were loyal citizens,
but the U.S. Supreme Court affirmed the constitutionality of exclusion
and internment. 66 Japanese Americans gave their allegiance to a nation
that promised the rights of citizenship, but the very act of relocation
24
illustrates how the U.S. ren
Americans full citizenship.
Approximately ten thOl
Shitaras, were forcibly relc
one of ten centers for Japar
desolate areas of the West,
parcels of real estate."68 1
peaceful internment camps,
of fear, frustration, anger
The government implemen
Japanese Americans aboU'
educated Japanese America
of Japanese Americans had 1
knew. The sisters remained
internees because they delil
Amache," until the War ReI
in 1943. The government·
the centers to work in agl
locations, and began enlistil
February 1943.71 The all-Ja
Tearn would demonstrate
the highest casualty rate of
The government rewarded 1
awarding the 442 nd the mosl
Approval to leave the I
requirements. Male and
questionnaire in which the t
27 and 28: "Are you willinl
States, in combat duty, v
unqualified allegiance to t1
any form of allegiance to 1
government, power, or orga
questions was required for
relocation centers to work.
the person was disloyal
service. 73 Japanese Americ
\
~'-~.-:_
C
lese ancestry from the West
mtheir homes and businesses
guarded trains to assembly
Iter was at the Santa Anita
ved in horse stalls converted
:r, Japanese Anlericans were
ilters. Trains to Granada took
lIly could not leave the trains
on top of each train car and
).55 The manner in which the
'S illustrates the anny's belief
[either Executive Order 9066
lon of race or ethnicity.56
DeWitt claimed Japanese
"the continued presence of a
up, bound to an enemy nation
Il1d religion along a frontier
which had to be dealt with. "57
no evidence of sabotage by
of that Japanese Americans
ry leaders, believed Japanese
l opportune moment arose to
irds of Japanese Anlericans,
and the majority had never
panese" religion, and had no
through Japanese ancestry.60
1.8., to which they pledged
'Oximately 120,000 Japanese
ation Centers renounced their
apan. 62 Japanese Americans
asui,64 and Fred Korematsu 65
Orders, forced removal, and
ned they were loyal citizens,
~onstitutionality of exclusion
Ie their allegiance to a nation
ut the very act of relocation
illustrates how the U.S. reneged on that promise and denied Japanese
Americans full citizenship.
Approximately ten thousand Japanese Americans, including the
Shitaras, were forcibly relocated to the Granada Relocation Center,
one of ten centers for Japanese American internment located in bleak
desolate areas of the Western U.S. 67 often referred to as "worthless
parcels of real estate."68 The Granada Center was one of the most
peaceful internment camps, but at best, the camp had an atmosphere
of fear, frustration, anger, resentment, and physical discomfort. 69
The government implemented "Americanization" programs to teach
Japanese Americans about American culture.70 The government
educated Japanese Americans about the country in which the majority
of Japanese Americans had been born and the only country the majority
knew. The sisters remained at the center, renamed "Camp Amache" by
internees because they delighted in the legend of the "Indian princess
Amache," until the War Relocation Authority altered internment policy
in 1943. The government then allowed Japanese Americans to leave
the centers to work in agriculture and industry in approved "safe"
locations, and began enlisting Japanese Americans into the military in
February 1943. 71 The all-Japanese American 442 nd Regimental Combat
Team would demonstrate their allegiance to the U.S. by suffering
the highest casualty rate of any American regiment in World War II.
The government rewarded the 442 nd for their allegiance to the U.S. by
awarding the 442nd the most decorations of any unit in the war. 72
Approval to leave the camps hinged upon internees meeting two
requirements. Male and female internees had to complete a long
questionnaire in which the two most important questions were numbers
27 and 28: "Are you willing to serve in the armed forces of the United
States, in combat duty, wherever ordered?" and "Will you swear
unqualified allegiance to the United States of America and...forswear
any form of allegiance to the Japanese emperor, or any other foreign
government, power, or organization?" Answering "yes" to both loyalty
questions was required for military service and clearance to leave the
relocation centers to work. A "no" answer to either question indicated
the person was disloyal and ineligible for relocation or military
service. 73 Japanese American men and women had to answer "yes" to
25
both questions. Though women could not serve as combatants, they
were encouraged to serve in the Women's Army Corps (WAC) as
typists and stenographers. Still, Japanese American women were the
only American women required to agree to be combatants. Answering
"yes" to the allegiance questions was not the only requirement for those
desiring work in industry or on farms outside the centers.
The War Relocation Authority required that internees have a job
and housing before exiting the centers. The Shitara sisters answered
"Yes" to the loyalty questions. The sisters pledged their allegiance to
the U.S. The WRA then found them employment on the Winger Farm
outside Trinidad, Colorado, near a German prisoner-of-war camp.74 The
sisters accepted the work assignment because they desired to prove their
allegiance to the U.S. by working on the farm. In 1944, Toots would
tell the Rocky Mountain News. "We wanted to help national defense­
That's why we were working on a farm near Trinidad."75 Ironically, the
government placed the sisters, Japanese Americans the nation perceived
as enemy aliens and as disloyal, in close proximity to captured enemy
soldiers. The sisters worked alongside German POWs assigned to the
farm. 76 The government's assignment of the Shitaras to the Winger
farm would have surprising consequences.
On October 18, 1943, the U.S. Army notified the FBI that six German
prisoners escaped from the Trinidad POW camp.77 The prisoners:
Heinrich Bente, Julio E. Hoffman, Heinz Eckold, Heinrich Haider,
Hermann Loescher, and Martin Bazkes, "could have escaped October
eleventh, twelfth or fourteenth," though they were not discovered
missing until October 18th •78 Heinrich Haider and Hermann Loescher
gave varying dates for their escape, ranging from October l4th79 to
October 16 th •80 The men escaped through a hole in the barbed-wire fence
surrounding the camp.8} Haider and Loescher had become acquainted
with the Shitara sisters while working on the Winger farm. Haider
admitted he was not on the Trinidad "work crew" assigned to the farm,
but answered with another man's name who did not want to work on the
farm. Loescher sent notes to the sisters asking them for help in escaping
and Haider claimed to have talked with the women about aiding their
escape. 82 The POWs claimed the women gave them clothing, food, road
maps, and picked them up outside Trinidad and drove them to Wagon
Mound, New Mexico. 83 "
Loescher three photos: two
with Haider. 84 Haider and
Mexico Police Chief Nol
Albert H. Hathaway, and
drinking beer at the Three
Haider and Loescher told t
we are going to Los Ange
Hofmann, Eckold, and Ba
Office at Raton, New M
capture. 87 A significant p
the escape was German PC
Hofmann was a Chilea
his German father. While
arrested and imprisoned hi
Hofmann, under duress, ga
Army. Hofmann reported
the Shitara sisters' involve
sisters may have gone unn
ofHaider and Loescher's fi
gave the FBI details on s
had built several months 1
tunnel was one hundred an
wide, extending from one
sixty-five feet beyond the
installed electric lighting it
about the tunnel at least tw
authorities ignored his infc
from the camp between S
of the POWs used the tull
going under the camp's ba
In reporting to the FJ
was disloyal to Germany
his allegiance to the FBI
difficult allegiance decisic
few options. The Chilean
26
r------~--------------------
\
\
·_·--'--"O~""""""'~
'-.~." ~"
....
,--.'~.
,
>t serve as combatants, they
l'S Army Corps (WAC) as
American women were the
) be combatants. Answering
le only requirement for those
tde the centers.
ed that internees have a job
[he Shitara sisters answered
'S pledged their allegiance to
loyment on the Winger Farm
prisoner-of-war camp.74 The
lse they desired to prove their
farm. In 1944, Toots would
ed to help national defense­
if Trinidad."75 Ironically, the
nericans the nation perceived
proximity to captured enemy
erman paws assigned to the
f the Shitaras to the Winger
tified the FBI that six German
)W camp.?? The prisoners:
lZ Eckold, Heinrich Haider,
'could have escaped October
I they were not discovered
lider and Hermann Loescher
~ing from October l4th79 to
hole in the barbed-wire fence
:cher had become acquainted
n the Winger farm. Haider
Ie crew" assigned to the farm,
o did not want to work on the
:ing them for help in escaping
lle women about aiding their
ave them clothing, food, road
ld and drove them to Wagon
Mound, New Mexico. 83 When the men and women parted, Toots gave
Loescher three photos: two of POW Bazkes with Billie and one of Toots
with Haider. 84 Haider and Loescher were captured by Las Vegas, New
Mexico Police Chief Nolan Utz, New Mexico State Police Captain
Albert H. Hathaway, and an unidentified FBI agent while casually
drinking beer at the Three Moon Tavern in Watrous, New Mexico. 85
Haider and Loescher told the arresting officers "We are Canadians, and
we are going to Los Angeles" before admitting their identity.86 Bente,
Hofmann, Eckold, and Bazkes voluntarily surrendered to the Sheriff s
Office at Raton, New Mexico shortly after Haider and Loescher's
capture.87 A significant player in the Shitara sisters' arrest for aiding
the escape was German POW Julio Hofmann.
Hofmann was a Chilean national who visited Germany in 1938 with
his German father. While in Germany, Hofmann claimed the Gestapo
arrested and imprisoned him until he agreed to join the German Army.
Hofmann, under duress, gave his allegiance to Germany and the German
Army. Hofmann reported to the FBI on the details of the escapes and
the Shitara sisters' involvement with Haider and Loescher. The Shitara
sisters may have gone unnoticed if Hofmann had not informed the FBI
ofHaider and Loescher's friendship with the Shitaras. In total, Hofmann
gave the FBI details on six escapes and on an escape tunnel paws
had built several months prior to Haider and Loescher's escape. The
tunnel was one hundred and fifty feet long, five feet deep, and three feet
wide, extending from one of the officer's compounds to approximately
sixty-five feet beyond the fence surrounding the camp. The paws had
installed electric lighting in the tunnel. 88 Hofmann told camp authorities
about the tunnel at least two months prior to October 15, 1943, but camp
authorities ignored his information. 89 While there were eleven escapes
from the camp between Sept. 5, 1943 and November 17, 1943, none
of the paws used the tunnel in their escapes. 90 Hofmann escaped by
going under the camp's barbed-wire fence, as did other escapees. 91
In reporting to the FBI about the escapes and tunnel, Hofmann
was disloyal to Germany and the Trinidad German paws and gave
his allegiance to the FBI and the U.S. However, Hofmann made his
difficult allegiance decisions in a climate in which he had no allies and
few options. The Chilean Hofmann was neither German nor American.
27
The Gestapo forced Hofmann to serve in the German Army and as result
of coercion; Hofmann became a prisoner of war in a camp in a foreign
land. Hofmann was a foreigner in Germany forced into a foreign army
(German) and then captured and sent to a foreign nation (the US.A.) and
imprisoned with foreigners (German paWs) by foreigners (Americans).
Hofmann gave his loyalty to whoever could benefit him the most. He
became a German soldier to survive, and we can speculate that he gave
his allegiance to the FBI and US. to survive in the POW camp among
Germans paws that may have been hostile toward him. According to
the FBI, Hofmann felt "bitter against the Germans, and feels no loyalty
toward them, and as a consequence had proved a valuable informant in
this case."92 Hofmann requested the FBI "intercede for him in order that
he not be returned to Germany at the end of the war, in view of the fact
that he fears some form of reprisal on account of his having furnished
the above information."93 Hofmann, like One-Eye, shifted allegiances
to gain personal benefits. Hofmann and One-Eye sought to improve
their chances for survival and freedom. Nevertheless, the government
seems to have used Hofmann and One-Eye for the information they
could provide and expressed little concern for their safety. The US.
Army murdered One-Eye during the Sand Creek Massacre and there is
no record that the FBI did more than move Hofmann to another POW
camp. Hofmann is an important player in the Shitara allegiance story
because of the information he provided on the tunnel and on the ability
of paws to escape from the Trinidad POW camp at will. Escapes from
the POW camp were relatively easy and did not require outside help.
The aid purportedly given by the Shitara sisters to Haider and Loescher
was insignificant.
According to Historian Arnold Krammer, Axis prisoner escapes
from American POW camps during World War II were "generally
motivated by factors far less sinister than the compulsion to rape,
pillage, or sabotage."94 To show their allegiance to their country,
soldiers were to resist their captors and attempt escape. Prisoners had a
legal right to attempt escape provided for under the Geneva Convention
of 192995 and could not face criminal charges for escape attempts. 96
Soldiers' oaths of service encouraged them to resist their captors and
escape. 97 The German government told prisoners, through offices of
the International Red ero
take every opportunity to
Loescher initially argued 1
and out of their duty as S(
escaped to return to Germ~
refused to sign statements'
would imply doubt as to th(
followed a general protoC(
attempt escape and, thereb~
requirement to attempt esc
prisoner escapes from the 1
Less fit men generally
were serving in the oversee
to escape from POW camp
by the ease with which esc,
and Loescher, often workel
and from which escape was
planning. Sixty-five pen
under, or over POW camp
work sites. 101 Haider and
barbed-wire fence and thei:
Loescher later escaped fron
on June 4, 1944 103 and was
Apparently, Haider and Lc
Trinidad POW camp withol
The Shitara sisters' ail
in Haider and Loescher's (
arrest and police captured t]
reasonable to believe that if!
to Germany, and to fight ag
intent in leaving the countr:
$11.50 on them and denied 1
The FBI could not determil
money but the prisoners cla
brought it into the POW can
the prosecution "not to rna
28
-_......-----­
---------------.....
'.
\
Ie German Army and as result
)f war in a camp in a foreign
:ly forced into a foreign army
)reign nation (the U.S.A.) and
s) by foreigners (Americans).
lid benefit him the most. He
we can speculate that he gave
ive in the POW camp among
lIe toward him. According to
3ermans, and feels no loyalty
roved a valuable informant in
'intercede for him in order that
of the war, in view of the fact
count of his having furnished
: One-Eye, shifted allegiances
I One-Eye sought to improve
Nevertheless, the government
Eye for the information they
:rn for their safety. The U.S.
f Creek Massacre and there is
,ve Hofmann to another POW
in the Shitara allegiance story
n the tunnel and on the ability
W camp at will. Escapes from
l did not require outside help.
sisters to Haider and Loescher
mmer, Axis prisoner escapes
'orId War II were "generally
han the compulsion to rape,
: allegiance to their country,
tempt escape. Prisoners had a
under the Geneva Convention
:harges for escape attempts. 96
tern to resist their captors and
prisoners, through offices of
the International Red Cross and the American War Department, "to
take every opportunity to escape."98 After their capture, Haider and
Loescher initially argued they escaped out of allegiance to Germany
and out of their duty as soldiers, though they would later argue they
escaped to return to Germany to fight the Nazis. Haider and Loescher
refused to sign statements "demanded of criminals and such documents
would imply doubt as to their honor as soldiers."99 Haider and Loescher
followed a general protocol of war that required prisoners of war to
attempt escape and, thereby, prove their allegiance to their nation. The
requirement to attempt escape, however, does not explain the ease of
prisoner escapes from the Trinidad POW camp.
Less fit men generally guarded American POW camps as fit men
were serving in the overseas military. This encouraged Axis prisoners
to escape from POW camps. Prisoners were further tempted to escape
by the ease with which escape was possible. Prisoners, such as Haider
and Loescher, often worked on agricultural sites with little supervision
and from which escape was simple. 100 Escapes rarely involved elaborate
planning. Sixty-five percent of escapes were by getting through,
under, or over POW camp fences and thirty percent by simply leaving
work sites. 101 Haider and Loescher escaped by cutting a hole in the
barbed-wire fence and their escape went unnoticed for several days. 102
Loescher later escaped from the Camp Campbell, Kentucky POW camp
on June 4, 1944 103 and was recaptured by the army on June 15, 1944. 104
Apparently, Haider and Loescher could have easily escaped from the
Trinidad POW camp without the aid of the Shitara sisters.
The Shitara sisters' aid seems to have been of little importance
in Haider and Loescher's escape. Haider and Loescher did not resist
arrest and police captured them casually drinking beer in a tavern. It is
reasonable to believe that iftheir motivation for escaping were allegiance
to Germany, and to fight against the Allies, they would have been more
intent in leaving the country. When arrested, Haider and Loescher had
$11.50 on them and denied that the Shitara sisters gave them any money.
The FBI could not determine where Haider and Loescher obtained the
money but the prisoners claimed they found the money and secretively
brought it into the POW camp. Before the trial began, the FBI informed
the prosecution "not to make any reference to the money which they
29
said they had smuggled into their prison camp."105 The FBI did not
want the Trinidad camp security to look more inept in the media than
shown by the numerous and well-publicized escapes. Even Toots, in
an interview with the Rocky Mountain News during the treason trial,
claimed, "German prisoners have been escaping right and left from
the camp at Trinidad. I suppose we're to be held responsible for those
escapes, tOO."106 Loescher not only did not connect the Shitaras to the
money but also defended them during the trial.
Loescher demonstrated his allegiance to the Shitara sisters by
attempting to intervene in their punishment. Significantly, Loescher sent
a letter to Judge J. Foster Symes "requesting leniency for the Japanese
women."107 Loescher offered, "to accept for them any punishment
which might be given them in a trial of their case." Loescher "felt that
he and Haider were much guiltier than they ... and felt that the Japanese
subjects, who in his opinion were less guilty than he, should not have to
pay for their offense."108 Loescher wrote:
Sir! As you now have got my statement I profit by
the opportunity to give the following to your notice:
When my comrade Haider spoke to the two Japanese
women (Toots and Billie) for the first time about our
escape plans they both objected vividly. "There is no
good in escaping for you," they said. "Wait for the war's
end; be patient; keep your health; don't play with your
life," was their advice. They pointed out a lot of dangers
and circumstances making a flight nearly impossible.
But being regardless resolved to realize the escapade
we tried to persuade the women. We had to take many
troubles by words and by letter to change their mind.
Finally we succeeded. I think it therefore reasonable to
consider us the more guilty part, not the seduced women.
Without our urgent persuasions they would never have
agreed. Please regard that matter of fact! The thought of
our helpers being punished is a very bitter one. Is there
really no way for us to milder a possible penalty or to
take any influence to the verdict?
I commend this affair to your generosity.
Hermann Loescher 109
The sisters, though the
the media they did not aic
was to the U.S. "We are lli
"The husband of one of my
overseas, and a brother of
induction physical examina
the Shitara story, Black K
during the Sand Creek Mas~
of Southeastern Colorado r
given to the U.S. during pei
Black Kettle nor the Shitan
Haider and Loescher's cla
against Germany would alsl
The prisoners claimed
the Nazis. During the tria
Denver Post as "bespectac1l
professed their hatred of ~
Haider professed he was "a
underground, beaten, abuse
camp, from which he was m
be drafted into the army."112
statement that I escaped frorr
back and fight for Germany.
or Czechoslovakian Legion
know that if the Nazis shoul<
the Gestapo arrested him 01
Austria, after he signed "a p
against Hitler."113 Haider v.
camp on November 17, 19,
until captured in North Afric
time. 114
Loescher's argument diJ
"was no longer a soldier. ~
and a man is no longer a Sl
Haider and Loescher proch:
against Germany and their 0
30
\
\
\.\
m camp."IOS The FBI did not
( more inept in the media than
cized escapes. Even Toots, in
News during the treason trial,
1 escaping right and left from
to be held responsible for those
not connect the Shitaras to the
le trial.
lllce to the Shitara sisters by
~nt. Significantly, Loescher sent
~sting leniency for the Japanese
cept for them any punishment
'their case," Loescher "felt that
they... and felt that the Japanese
;Uilty than he, should not have to
te:
my statement I profit by
111 owing to your notice:
)ke to the two Japanese
the first time about our
:d vividly. "There is no
said. "Wait for the war's
lth; don't play with your
.inted out a lot of dangers
flight nearly impossible.
to realize the escapade
n, We had to take many
er to change their mind.
it therefore reasonable to
:, not the seduced women.
s they would never have
er offact! The thought of
l very bitter one. Is there
~ a possible penalty or to
;t?
lur generosity.
Hermann Loescher t09
." .\
The sisters, though they did not testify during the trial, swore to
the media they did not aid the prisoners' escape and their allegiance
was to the US. "We are not disloyal," Toots said after the conviction,
"The husband of one of my sisters is in the United States Army, serving
overseas, and a brother of ours has his notice to report for his pre­
induction physical examination."11O Approximately eighty years before
the Shitara story, Black Kettle proclaimed his allegiance to the U.S.
during the Sand Creek Massacre. These stories from the desolate plains
of Southeastern Colorado resonate with similar themes of allegiances
given to the US. during periods of cultural conflict. However, neither
Black Kettle nor the Shitaras had their allegiance to the US. accepted.
Haider and Loescher's claims of allegiance to the American cause
against Germany would also fail.
The prisoners claimed they escaped to return to Europe to fight
the Nazis. During the trial, Haider and Loescher, described by The
Denver Post as "bespectacled Germans" and as "two Nazi supermen,"
professed their hatred of Nazis. III According to The Denver Post,
Haider professed he was "a bitter anti-Nazi, a member of the Austrian
underground, beaten, abused and kicked in a German concentration
camp, from which he was mysteriously, and unexplainably, released to
be drafted into the army."112 Haider told the prosecutor, "I object to the
statement that I escaped from the Trinidad prison camp so that I might go
back and fight for Germany. I escaped so that I might join the Austrian
or Czechoslovakian Legion and fight against the Hitler gang. For I
know that if the Nazis should win, I would be hanged." Haider claimed
the Gestapo arrested him on November 17, 1938, in his native Linz,
Austria, after he signed "a paper calling upon our countrymen to arise
against Hitler."'13 Haider was released from a German concentration
camp on November 17, 1940, and then served in the German Army
until captured in North Africa in May 1943, after being wounded a third
time. 114
Loescher's argument differed from Haider's in that he argued he
"was no longer a soldier. You take his arms and his company away
and a man is no longer a soldier, but one who cries for freedom."lls
Haider and Loescher proclaimed allegiance to the Allies in the war
against Germany and their only desire in escaping was to fight against
31
"the Nazis." This put into question the validity of the treason charge
against the Shitaras. If the defense could have presented Haider and
Loescher as escaping to join the Allied cause, then the sisters would
have been aiding the war effort and not treasonous. Defense Attorney
Kenneth Robinson argued, "the theory of treason is not possible under
the circumstances, in view of the fact that the three women merely were
releasing prisoners to fight against an enemy of the United States."116
The aid the sisters may have given Haider and Loescher in escaping
does not alone explain the sisters' conviction for conspiracy to commit
treason.
The sisters' conviction was not only due to their aiding in the POWs'
escape, but their enemy alien identity. Relocation increased public
sentiment that individuals of Japanese descent, of which more than two­
thirds were American citizens, were potential saboteurs. Americans
did not differentiate between Japanese Americans and the Japanese the
Allies were fighting in the Pacific. As a result, the public perceived
Japanese Americans as disloyal enemy aliens. The sisters came under the
jurisdiction of the U.S. Alien Enemy control unit after leaving the camp
to work on the Winger Farm. ll7 After Haider and Loescher's escape,
the FBI forced the Shitara sisters to return to Camp Amache in October
1943, while the U.S. Attorney's office sought a secret indictment. I 18 The
U.S. Alien Enemy control unit kept track ofthe sisters and asked the FBI
to send any information or "subversive implication on the part either of
alien Japanese or of Americans of Japanese ancestry who have been
released under War Relocation Authority procedures."119 Contradicting
the U.S. Alien Enemy control unit, Amache Camp Director James
Lindley said all individuals of Japanese ancestry released to work in
the Trinidad area "were found to be loyal" before charges were brought
against the sisters. 12o The government had to clear up one major issue
before the sisters' trial began.
The U.S. State Department delayed the arrest and trial of the sisters
while negotiating prisoner exchanges with Japan. Japan would return
captive American soldiers to the U.S. in exchange for Japanese and
Japanese American internees who sought repatriation to Japan. These
individuals of Japanese ancestry gave their allegiance to Japan often due
to bitterness from the relocation experience. The U.S. Attorney General
32
. I
"had instructed that all proSt
the time being."121 The "S1
repatriation exchanges with
time the Spanish Embassy v
Japanese nationals in the Un
on whether they would agrl
The Denver Post, the trial c
Gripsholm had not left Jap:
exchanged between the Uni1
before the Gripsholm reach
hands. To try this case, in tha
which the American govern
arrest of the Shitaras did nc
neutral port and the U.S. A
not interfere with prisoner
arrest would interfere with,
indicates the sisters, who VI
in the U.S., were viewed b~
Americans. Like Black Ket1
earlier, they could not be ")
their race, enemy alien lab
their conspiracy conviction.
The FBI officially arres
them with suspicion ofcons]
Their trial, as previously n
United States during World
during the war. The trial n
Americans in U.S. history.
one of the most extraordina
it has attracted national int
War II,126 but because of th
the anti-Nazi element, and 1
the most unusual."127 The
changed their story thougl
against the sisters was sev
of Haider and Loescher a
\
"
he validity of the treason charge
:ould have presented Haider and
ed cause, then the sisters would
ot treasonous. Defense Attorney
y of treason is not possible under
hat the three women merely were
l enemy of the United States.""6
hider and Loescher in escaping
iviction for conspiracy to commit
y due to their aiding in the POWs'
ty. Relocation increased public
descent, ofwhich more than two­
potential saboteurs. Americans
~ Americans and the Japanese the
As a result, the public perceived
aliens. The sisters came under the
:ontrol unit after leaving the camp
~r Haider and Loescher's escape,
tum to Camp Amache in October
sought a secret indictment.! 18 The
.ck ofthe sisters and asked the FBI
e implication on the part either of
apanese ancestry who have been
rity procedures."1l9 Contradicting
Amache Camp Director James
ese ancestry released to work in
Iyal" before charges were brought
it had to clear up one major issue
:d the arrest and trial of the sisters
. with Japan. Japan would return
S. in exchange for Japanese and
Jght repatriation to Japan. These
their allegiance to Japan often due
ience. The U.S. Attorney General
"
"had instructed that all prosecutions of Japanese subjects be held up for
the time being."12! The "State Department was trying to effect more
repatriation exchanges with the Japanese government and at the present
time the Spanish Embassy was conducting a survey of the treatment of
Japanese nationals in the United States in order that Japan might decide
on whether they would agree to further exchanges." 122 According to
The Denver Post, the trial delay occurred because "the exchange ship
Gripsholm had not left Japan with the last group of Americans to be
exchanged between the United States and the Nipponese. It was weeks
before the Gripsholm reached a neutral port, and came into American
hands. To try this case, in that period, was fraught with dangers-dangers
which the American government did not wish to face."123 The official
arrest of the Shitaras did not take place until the Gripsholm reached a
neutral port and the U.S. Attorney General was sure the arrest would
not interfere with prisoner exchanges. The belief that the Shitaras'
arrest would interfere with American and Japanese prisoner exchanges
indicates the sisters, who were American citizens and had lived only
in the U.S., were viewed by the government as "Japanese" and not as
Americans. Like Black Kettle, One-Eye, and even Amache eighty years
earlier, they could not be "American" due to their race. Once arrested,
their race, enemy alien label, and gender would be central factors in
their conspiracy conviction.
The FBI officially arrested the sisters on May 9, 1944,124 charging
them with suspicion of conspiracy to commit treason and with treason. 125
Their trial, as previously mentioned, was the third for treason in the
United States during World War II and the first, and only, in Colorado
during the war. The trial represented the first treason trial of Japanese
Americans in U.S. history. The Denver Post proclaimed the trial " ...
one of the most extraordinary cases ever tried in American history, and
it has attracted national interest. It is the third treason trial of World
War II,126 but because of the Japanese-American aspect and because of
the anti-Nazi element, and the legal problem this inspires, it is certainly
the most unusual."127 The sisters denied aiding the escape and never
changed their story though they refused to testify.128 Key evidence
against the sisters was several Conoco maps found in the possession
of Haider and Loescher at the time of their arrest. FBI fingerprint
33
analysts found Billie's and Toots's fingerprints on a Conoco map of
California-Nevada. 129 However, fingerprint analysis showed more than
half a dozen FBI agents' fingerprints on the same map. 130 Furthermore,
the German POWs entered and exited the Shitara house on the Winger
farm at their own free will and according to Winger, the German POWs
had "free reign" to go wherever they wanted. 131 Again, Haider did not
have a work assignment on the Winger farm but answered to another
man's name when the work crew went to the farm each day and he, or
Loescher, could have taken the maps from the Shitara house without
the sisters' knowledge. Billie's and Toots's fingerprints would have
been on the maps if the POWs took them from the Shitara house. The
jury overlooked this alternative possibility of how Billie's and Toots's
fingerprints came to be on the maps. The FBI files and court records
do not indicate why the jury overlooked this alternative or if the
composition of the jury and their possible prejudices factored in the
sisters' conviction.
A jury of the Shitara sisters' peers took little time in reaching a
verdict. The jury consisted of, according to the Rocky Mountain News,
"12 average men."132 "Only one of those called said he was prejudiced
"against the Japanese as such" and was dismissed from jury service. 133
The Denver Post described the jury as "twelve typical American
citizens selected to pass upon the fate of the three Japanese American
women on trial."134 The jury consisted of all white men, and seven
jury members had relatives in the U.S. Army.135 The jury acquitted the
sisters of treason, but convicted them of conspiracy to commit treason,
and Judge Symes sentenced Billie and Flo to twenty-months in prison
and a $1,000 fine while Toots, the alleged ringleader,136 received a two­
year prison sentence and a $1,000 fine. Each of the women had a child,
so Toots asked Judge Symes if she could serve the sentence of one ofher
sisters, in addition to her own sentence, so that at least one sister would
be free to look after their children. 137 Toots displayed her allegiance
to her sisters by the request. Judge Symes denied the request. 138 The
jury alone is not responsible for the conviction. The media played a
major role in sensationalizing the trial and representing the women to
the public, and possibly to the jury, as disloyal.
The Denver Post and Rocky Mountain News convicted the women
34
in the court of public opini
sensationalizing coverage (
They placed "Jap" in nearly
to the sisters' "Oriental" all
Mountain News described tl
"sharp black eyes."I40 Wi
the object of racial voyeur
Rocky Mountain News desc
Dame tackle than an evacu
William's racial features gi
that William stand so the
audiences "were surprised t
Oriental cast is lacking in I
as having "Anglo-Saxon bl
with his physical features b
member, but I know Negro
of the country tOO."I44 Toc
conjecture.
Toots's first husband, ~
Toots remarried to Virgil
and the court and newspaJ
of a Japanese woman and a
Virgil's marriage to a Japar
dramatized the courtroom
public's perception of the v
The newspapers height
the relationship between tl
called the relationship bet"
claimed the women were l
District Attorney Ivor O. 1
the German POWs were"
now about to tell, even thm
whom they made love go to
courtroom descriptions of
disloyal to their husbands.
he searched Haider: one of
ingerprints on a Conoco map of
:rprint analysis showed more than
::m the same map.130 Furthennore,
.the Shitara house on the Winger
ng to Winger, the Gennan POWs
wanted. 131 Again, Haider did not
;er farm but answered to another
It to the fann each day and he, or
, from the Shitara house without
Toots's fingerprints would have
lem from the Shitara house. The
)ility of how Billie's and Toots's
The FBI files and court records
ooked this alternative or if the
Issible prejudices factored in the
:rs took little time in reaching a
ing to the Rocky Mountain News,
ose called said he was prejudiced
as dismissed from jury service. 133
y as "twelve typical American
: of the three Japanese American
ted of all white men, and seven
. Army.135 The jury acquitted the
of conspiracy to commit treason,
1 Flo to twenty-months in prison
ged ringleader, 136 received a two­
. Each of the women had a child,
ld serve the sentence of one of her
~, so that at least one sister would
Toots displayed her allegiance
,ymes denied the request. 138 The
::onviction. The media played a
1and representing the women to
disloyal.
ztain News convicted the women
in the court of public opinion and contributed to the guilty verdict by
sensationalizing coverage of the arrest and trial to titillate the public.
They placed "Jap" in nearly all news headlines and continually referred
to the sisters' "Oriental" and "Japanese" physical features. The Rocky
Mountain News described the sisters as "young Oriental women"139 with
"sharp black eyes."140 William Tanigoshi, Billie's husband, became
the object of racial voyeurism and speculation. During the trial, the
Rocky Mountain News described William as looking "more like a Notre
Dame tackle than an evacuee of Japanese ancestry."141 Speculation on
William's racial features gained center stage when the court requested
that William stand so the audience could see him. The courtroom
audiences "were surprised that Tanigoshi is of Japanese ancestry, as the
Oriental cast is lacking in his rugged face."142 William was described
as having "Anglo-Saxon blood."143 William reacted to the fascination
with his physical features by stating, "It's tough to be a racial minority
member, but I know Negro soldiers are having a hard time in some parts
of the country tOO."I44 Toots's husband also became a focus of racial
conjecture.
Toots's first husband, Tom Endo, a fishennan, was lost at sea but
Toots remarried to Virgil Cleo Wallace. 145 Virgil was a white man,
and the court and newspapers were fascinated with the intennarriage
of a Japanese woman and a white man. 146 The newspapers implied that
Virgil's marriage to a Japanese woman was "suspect." The newspapers
dramatized the courtroom racialization of the trial and fed into the
public's perception of the women as enemy aliens incapable ofloyalty.
The newspapers heightened the sensationalization by focusing on
the relationship between the women and prisoners. The prosecutors
called the relationship between the women and prisoners "sexual," and
claimed the women were unfaithful to their husbands. Assistant U.S.
District Attorney Ivor O. Wingram's opening statement detailed how
the Gennan POWs were "men who 'kissed' and, having kissed, were
now about to tell, even though the telling might mean that the women to
whom they made love go to the gallows."147 The newspapers embellished
courtroom descriptions of the women as not only unfaithful, but also
disloyal to their husbands. Police Chief Utz found three photos when
he searched Haider: one of Toots with Heinrich Haider and two photos
35
of Billie with Martin Bazkes. 148 The newspapers published the innocent
photographs of the Germans hugging the women and with their arms
around them. The photos first appeared in The Denver Post on October
24, 1943, and referred to the photos in the news story as "petting parties"
and "the German and lap girl are shown wrapped in each other's
arms, engaging in a kissing fest."149 "Snapshots that formed part of
the investigation showed these young women in warm and cooperative
embrace with the Nazi non-coms."150 On August 8, 1944, The Denver
Post referred to the photos as showing "passionate love making."151 The
Denver Post claimed, "These pictures ... were printed in the Post and
started the investigation which resulted in the trial."152 They used the
caption "Allies in Arms"153 and headlines such as "Love Tryst Photos
Introduced in Denver Treason Trial"154 and "German Prisoners Spooned
With lap Girls in Trinidad"155 to exaggerate courtroom events. Toots
denied there was any "lovemaking" between the sisters and the POWs.
She argued the photos were made in fun and that "Yes, I stood beside
one of the Germans and he put his arm around me, but I don't see any
harm in that."156 The newspaper referred to the sisters as "girls," though
Billie was 32 years old, Flo was 33 years old, and Toots 34 years old.
Large city newspapers across the country sensationalized the case, but
their coverage was more limited. The Washington Post referred to the
case as a "'Little Axis' Drama Near Colorado Camp" and the photos as
"love scenes."157 The newspapers supplied the public with racialized and
sexualized portrayals of enemy aliens who were disloyal to their country
and their husbands. Federal jury trials did not require sequestering, so
jurors most likely read newspaper accounts of the trial and it is likely
that these accounts influenced the verdict. 158 The government not only
questioned the sisters' allegiances during the trial, but the allegiances of
the police officers who arrested Haider and Loescher.
An interesting aspect of the FBI investigation into the arrest of
Haider and Loescher was the FBI's questioning of the allegiances of
Las Vegas, New Mexico Police Chief Nolan Utz and New Mexico
State Patrolman Albert H. Hathaway. Chief Utz searched Haider and
Loescher and found three photographs of which one showed Toots with
Heinrich Haider and the two of Billie with Martin Bazkes. 159 Utz did
not inform the unidentified FBI agent present at the escaped POWs
36
arrest of the photographs.
"if anything had been take!
the negative."l60 Utz "had l
Hathaway upon finding th
to keep them for themseh
the investigating FBI agent
local Las Vegas newspaper,
individual embracing a lapa
the Denver POSt."162 Chief 1
crossed, inasmuch as the Edi
had forwarded these photog
Utz originally gave the phOl
Optic editor got hold ofther
Utz said, "He did not reali
military standpoint, and ha~
in giving the pictures to his
investigating FBI agent de
cooperative."166 Neverthele
wary of the law enforcemel1
and notified the El Paso Spe<
favorable comments concen
you to personally discuss wi
handling ofthe case.... The
be particularly cautious in
these officers to prevent a •
and Hathaway's allegiance
even though Hathaway reas
the U.S. Navy. 168 The FBI v
allegiance, but in the alle~
News 'reporters during the t
The FBI questioned the
News' reporters during thl
advised the bureau that dUril
during the cross examinatio
is testifying for the Govern
substance he explained it We
\
"'-~.
" . - ,.•"-< •••;...•-,' ..
'~,
,ewspapers published the innocent
~ the women and with their arms
~d in The Denver Post on October
the news story as "petting parties"
shown wrapped in each other's
"Snapshots that formed part of
women in warm and cooperative
On August 8, 1944, The Denver
."passionate love making."151 The
~s ... were printed in the Post and
ed in the trial."152 They used the
lines such as "Love Tryst Photos
4 and "German Prisoners Spooned
ggerate courtroom events. Toots
letween the sisters and the POWs.
fun and that "Yes, I stood beside
m around me, but I don't see any
red to the sisters as "girls," though
rears old, and Toots 34 years old.
mtry sensationalized the case, but
e Washington Post referred to the
~olorado Camp" and the photos as
Jlied the public with racialized and
who were disloyal to their country
Is did not require sequestering, so
:counts of the trial and it is likely
:dict. 158 The government not only
lng the trial, but the allegiances of
~r and Loescher.
I investigation into the arrest of
questioning of the allegiances of
ief Nolan Utz and New Mexico
. Chief Utz searched Haider and
s of which one showed Toots with
e with Martin Bazkes. 159 Utz did
:nt present at the escaped POWs
arrest of the photographs. In fact, the agent asked Utz and Hathaway
"if anything had been taken from the prisoners" and they replied "in
the negative."16o Utz "had determined that he and State Police Officer
Hathaway upon finding the photographs in question" had "decided
to keep them for themselves."161 Chief Utz subsequently informed
the investigating FBI agent that a friend of his on the Daily Optic, a
local Las Vegas newspaper, "asked him for the picture of the unknown
individual embracing a Japanese girl, which subsequently was printed in
the Denver Post." 162 ChiefUtz advised the agent "he had been double­
crossed, inasmuch as the Editor ofthe Daily Optic, Mr. Walter T. Vivian,
had forwarded these photographs to the Denver Post for publication. 163"
Utz originally gave the photographs to a friend and somehow the Daily
Optic editor got hold of them and sent the photos to The Denver Post. 164
Utz said, "He did not realize the significance of the pictures from a
military standpoint, and had he known of the consequences of his act
in giving the pictures to his friend he would not have done so. "165 The
investigating FBI agent described Utz and Hathaway as "extremely
cooperative."166 Nevertheless, FBI Director John Edgar Hoover was
wary of the law enforcement officials' allegiance to the FBI and nation
and notified the EI Paso Special Agent in Charge (SAC), "In view ofyour
favorable comments concerning these officers, authorization is given to
you to personally discuss with them their actions in connection with the
handling ofthe case.... The bureau is still of the opinion that you should
be particularly cautious in your future dealings and associations with
these officers to prevent a recurrence of the instant situation."167 Utz
and Hathaway'S allegiance to the FBI and U.S. remained questionable
even though Hathaway reasserted his allegiance to the U.S. by joining
the U.S. Navy. 168 The FBI was not only interested in the police officers'
allegiance, but in the allegiances of the Rocky Mountain News and
News' reporters during the trial
The FBI questioned the loyalty of the Rocky Mountain News and
News' reporters during the Shitara trial. FBI agent RP. Kraemer
advised the bureau that during the trial, on August 9, 1944, "an attorney,
during the cross examination of one of the German prisons of war who
is testifying for the Government, asked him what the Gestapo was. In
substance he explained it was' something like the FBI, but more brutal. '
37
However, the press which is covering this trial almost verbatim today
reports that he remarked it was 'something like the FBI, but not quite
as brutal. "'169 Hoover demanded to know if the statement was correct
or if the Rocky Mountain News intentionally misstated the prisoner's
words to represent the FBI in a negative light. 170 The quotation was
correct in the Rocky Mountain News when checked against the court
reporter's transcription of court proceedings. U.S. Attorney Thomas
J. Morrissey and the court reporter "expressed the opinion that Haider
was very confused and excited, and that he undoubtedly mis-stated
himself."171 Morrissey was convinced that what Haider actually meant
to say, "was that the FBI and the Gestapo were similar in that they are
engaged in intelligence work, but that the Gestapo was more brutal than
the FBI."l72 FBI Agent R.P. Kraemer was not convinced and informed
Hoover that, "From the manner in which the Rocky Mountain News
handled the reporting of the trial of this case, there is some doubt in
my mind as to the sincerity of the expressed friendship of this paper for
the Bureau." Kraemer noted, "The Bureau may be assured that I shall
watch this matter very closely and take all proper steps to protect the
bureau's interests so far as this newspaper is concerned. It is observed
that one of the articles gives the by-line of JACK FOSTER, whereas
the others are not signed. Efforts will be made to obtain necessary
information concerning FOSTER and his feelings for the Bureau."l71
After the Rocky Mountain News reverified the quotation, the issue of the
News' allegiance was resolved and never again mentioned in FBI letters
and memorandums. 174 The final day of the sisters' trial was the most
dramatic and illustrated the centrality of allegiances in the case.
On the final day of the trial, prosecuting attorney Morrissey held up
the photo of Toots and Haider and argued the women betrayed the U.S.
and gave their love, their allegiance, to the German paws. Morrissey
stated, "It is, I say, the old, old story of woman. It is the things that
passeth understanding. They are the way ofthe bird in the air, the way
of the serpent upon the rock, the way of a ship at sea-and the way of
a man with a maid."175 Morrissey argued, "Love-Love! Fie on love!
I say these women are traitors-traitors! I say fie on love and fie on
sympathy. These were married women. If this be American love, God
help us-God help our democracy."176 Morrissey concluded, "These
women-these traitors ... were not true to their husbands nor, gentlemen
of the jury, were they true
traitors-little Benedict At
After the trial "Judge ~
he wanted to emphasize tl
and had received an impart
and Black Kettle, the Shi
government and the nation
they claimed allegiance to .
have been. During times 0
their loyalty questioned bU1
never prove their loyalty 1
these periods of obsession
and whites who intermarri,
disloyal. During World "
reached a furor that miff<
witch hunts of the 1950s,
of disloyalty as the Bents
race, intermarriage with no]
nonwhite people, and publ
of their loyalties prevented
eyes of the nation. Denial c
their being American becal
nation of an individual's al
and acknowledgment of inc
disloyal and an enemy aliet
and the Bent brothers, rerr
subjected to social and polit
the complicated choices the
realities they lived. In myri,
predecessors of the dry wi
history are similar to and d
their allegiance to the U.S.,
them as traitors. However
Southeastern Colorado coul
government, and people a(
38
'-­
..
\.
//
g this trial almost verbatim today
ething like the FBI, but not quite
mow if the statement was correct
ntionally misstated the prisoner's
ative light. 170 The quotation was
~ when checked against the court
:eedings. U.S. Attorney Thomas
expressed the opinion that Haider
i that he undoubtedly mis-stated
d that what Haider actually meant
!itapo were similar in that they are
:the Gestapo was more brutal than
r was not convinced and informed
~hich the Rocky Mountain News
this case, there is some doubt in
>ressed friendship of this paper for
3ureau may be assured that I shall
ake all proper steps to protect the
paper is concerned. It is observed
·line of JACK FOSTER, whereas
,vill be made to obtain necessary
ld his feelings for the Bureau."173
i.fied the quotation, the issue of the
~ver again mentioned in FBI letters
, of the sisters' trial was the most
, of allegiances in the case.
~cuting attorney Morrissey held up
gued the women betrayed the U.S.
to the German paws. Morrissey
y of woman. It is the things that
way of the bird in the air, the way
{ of a ship at sea-and the way of
gued, "Love-Love! Fie on love!
tors! I say fie on love and fie on
en. If this be American love, God
'176 Morrissey concluded, "These
e to their husbands nor, gentlemen
of the jury, were they true to the United States of America. Traitors,
traitors-little Benedict Arnolds in skirts."177
CONCLUSION
After the trial "Judge Symes remarked, after passing sentence, that
he wanted to emphasize that the Japanese sisters are American sisters
and had received an impartial trial."178 However, like the Bent brothers
and Black Kettle, the Shitara sisters could not be Americans. The
government and the nation treated them as disloyal no matter how often
they claimed allegiance to the U.S. or how earnest their allegiance may
have been. During times of cultural conflict all people seemed to have
their loyalty questioned but the Shitaras, Bents, and Black Kettle could
never prove their loyalty to the U.S. like white individuals. During
these periods of obsession with allegiances, men and women of color
and whites who intermarried with people of color, were perceived as
disloyal. During World War II, when the obsession with allegiances
reached a furor that mirrored the oncoming McCarthy communist
witch hunts of the 1950s, Japanese Americans were the focal point
of disloyalty as the Bents and Black Kettle were in their era. Their
race, intermarriage with nonwhites, mixed race children, allegiances to
nonwhite people, and public, government, and media misperceptions
of their loyalties prevented them from being loyal Americans in the
eyes of the nation. Denial of their allegiance to the U.S. was denial of
their being American because citizenship requires acceptance by the
nation of an individual's allegiance. Without the nation's acceptance
and acknowledgment of individual's allegiance the individual remains
disloyal and an enemy alien. The sisters, like Black Kettle, One-Eye,
and the Bent brothers, remained disloyal enemy aliens. They were
subjected to social and political forces that denied them allegiance, and
the complicated choices they made allowed them to mediate the harsh
realities they lived. In myriad ways, the Shitara sisters and their disloyal
predecessors of the dry windswept plains of Southeastern Colorado
history are similar to and different from Benedict Arnold. They gave
their allegiance to the U.S., like Benedict Arnold, and the nation saw
them as traitors. However, unlike Benedict Arnold, these traitors of
Southeastern Colorado could never have the acceptance of the nation,
government, and people accorded Benedict Arnold because of their
39
race and the allegiances they made with Indians, Mexicans, and other
nonwhite people.
The Shitara sisters, "little Benedict Arnolds in skirts," could not be
traitors because America never accepted them as American and the nation
never accorded them the honor and hero status given Benedict Arnold
before he purportedly betrayed the embryonic nation. The Shitaras, Bent
brothers, Black Kettle, One-Eye, and Amache lived in Southeastern
Colorado during periods of cultural conflict and contestation. They
formed allegiances to mediate these cultural conflicts, but the American
government and people viewed their allegiances as disloyalty. The
public, government, and media convicted the sisters of conspiracy to
commit treason based on misperceptions of their loyalties. The Shitara
sisters, like the individuals in prior Southeastern Colorado allegiance
stories, could not win. The government sentenced the Shitaras to prison
for their alleged disloyalty while U.S. soldiers murdered One-Eye and
Black Kettle. William Bent, out ofloyalty to the Cheyenne and Arapaho,
attempted to mediate with the army to protect them but failed. These
loyalty conflicts permeate Southeastern Colorado history and explain
the complex social relations that pervade the region's history. The
buried history of Southeastern Colorado possesses a myriad of "little
Benedict Arnolds" and through examining their stories, the region's
history of conflict and cultural contestation is exhumed.
Endnotes
This article would not have b
Jared Orsi of the Colorado Sta
2
U.S. Department of Justice ["l
hereafter], Interview Report, 1
1960, Bureau File #LA 93-191
PA request" hereafter].
3
United States District Court
Florence Shine Otani, Tsuruk
4
Letter from Wanda M. Hunt, (
to Author, Dec. 19,2005.
5
USDOJ, FBI, Interview Repor
6
USDOJ, FBI, Ascertaining Fi
TEW file, FOIfPA request.
7
n.a., "Jap Treason Trial Starts.
8
John H. Schaar, Loyalty in Am
9
Ibid., 3.
10 Ibid., 4
11
Ibid., v.
12 HaroldGuetzkow,"TheAdapt
in G.N.D. Evan, ed., Allegia;
1969),174.
13 Ibid.
14 Morton Grodzins, The Loyal
Treason (Chicago, 1956),5-6.
15
Ibid.. 105-131.
16 Robert Sanchez, "Plains Gro
Denver and the West section.
17 David Lavender, "Bent's Fo
Fogelberg, eds., Western VoiCt
18
Ibid., 196.
19
Ibid., 195.
20
Stephen G. Hyslop, Bound)
Conquest, 1806-1848 (Norm~
21
Lavender, "Bent's Fort and N
22 Ibid., 197.
40
\.
\
\
\
ndians, Mexicans, and other
nolds in skirts," could not be
:m as American and the nation
;tatus given Benedict Arnold
[lic nation. The Shitaras, Bent
nache lived in Southeastern
[lict and contestation. They
al conflicts, but the American
egiances as disloyalty. The
l the sisters of conspiracy to
)f their loyalties. The Shitara
~eastern Colorado allegiance
ntenced the Shitaras to prison
diers murdered One-Eye and
to the Cheyenne and Arapaho,
otect them but failed. These
:olorado history and explain
e the region's history. The
possesses a myriad of "little
llg their stories, the region's
n is exhumed.
Endnotes
This article would not have been possible without the valuable insights offered by Dr.
Jared Orsi of the Colorado State University History Department.
2
U.S. Department of Justice ["USDOJ" hereafter], Federal Bureau ofInvestigations ["FBI"
hereafter], Interview Report, Tsuruko Endo Wallace file ['TEW file" hereafter], Feb. 18,
1960, Bureau File #LA 93-1918, Freedom ofInformation and Privacy Acts Request ["FOIl
PArequest" hereafter].
3
United States District Court ["USDC" hereafter], Judgment and Commitment papers,
Florence Shivze Otani, Tsuruko Wallace, and Billie Shitara Tanigoshi, Aug. 18, 1944.
4
Letter from Wanda M. Hunt, Chief, FOIlPA Section, USDOJ, Federal Bureau of Prisons,
to Author, Dec. 19,2005.
5
USDOJ, FBI, Interview Report, TEW file, Feb. 18, 1960.
6
USDOJ, FBI, Ascertaining Financial Ability, Bureau File # 93-21948, April 25, 1960,
TEW file, FOI/PA request.
7
n.a., "Jap Treason Trial Starts Here Today," Rocky Mountain News, Aug. 7, 1944.
8
John H. Schaar, Loyalty in America (Westport, CN: Greenwood Press, 1982 [1957]),3.
9
Ibid., 3.
10 Ibid., 4
11
Ibid.. v.
12 Harold Guetzkow, "The Adaptiveness of Loyalty Depends Upon the Nature of the Source,"
in G.ND. Evan, ed., Allegiance in America: The Case of the Loyalists (Reading, MA,
1969), 174.
13 Ibid.
14 Morton Grodzins, The Loyal and the Disloyal: Social Boundaries of Patriotism and
Treason (Chicago, 1956),5-6.
15
Ibid., 105-131.
16 Robert Sanchez, "Plains Grow More Lonesome," The Denver Post, March 16, 2006,
Denver and the West section.
17 David Lavender, "Bent's Fort and Manifest Destiny," in Steven Grinstead and Ben
Fogelberg, eds., Western Voices: 125 Years of Colorado Writing (Golden, CO, 2004),185.
18
Ibid., 196.
19
Ibid., 195.
20 Stephen G. Hyslop, Bound for Santa Fe: The Road to New Mexico and the American
Conquest, 1806-1848 (Norman, OK, 2002). 225.
21
Lavender, "Bent's Fort and Manifest Destiny," Ibid., 194 and 195.
22 Ibid., 197.
41
52 Miller Freeman, testimony hef(
Defense Migration, Washingtol
General), testimony before tI
Defense Migration, Washingtc
Without Trial: Japanese Ameri
23 David Fridtjof Halaas and Andrew E. Masich, Haljbreed: The Remarkable True Story of
George Bent-Caught Between the Worlds of the Indian and the White Man (Cambridge,
MA, 2004), 23.
24 Lavender, "Bent's Fort and Manifest Destiny," 199.
25 Ibid., 195.
53 Grapes, Japanese American In
26 Ibid., 193.
27 Ibid., 202-203.
54 Robert Harvey, Amache: The 5
World War II (New York, 2004
28 Jerome A. Greene, Washita: The U.S. Army and the Southern Cheyenne. 1867-1869
(Norman, OK, 2004), 4.
55
56 Jerry Kang, "Thinking Throug
T. Nakanishig, eds., Asian Ami
29 Gary L. Roberts and David Fridtjof, "Written in Blood: The Soule-Cramer Sand Creek
Massacre Letters," in Steven Grinstead and Ben Fogelberg, eds., Western Voices: 125
Years of-Colorado Writing (Golden, CO, 2004), 320.
57 Lieutenant General John L.
Washington, D.C., June 5, 19,
West Coast, 1942, Washington
30 Halaas and Masich, Haljbreed, 120.
31
Roberts and Fridtjof, Washita, 321 and 322.
32 Ibid., 323.
33 Ibid.
r
36 Halaas and Masich,Haljbreed, 147.
58 Jerry Stanley,! Am an Americl
65. Peter Irons, ed., Justice L
Cases (Middletown, CN, 1989
59 Ibid.
34 Ibid., 321, 325, and 327.
35 Ibid., 324 and 325.
\
60 Roger Daniels, Concentration
York, 1972), 104.
\
61
37 Roberts and Fridtjof, Washita, 324.
t•
38 Ibid., 320.
1I
39 Ibid., 335.
I
I
40
41
Greene, Washita, 26 and Thorn Hatch, Black Kettle: The Cheyenne Chief Who Sought
Peace but Found War (Hoboken, NJ, 2004),147 and 156.
Ibid., 72-73.
~
rI
[
!
Ibid.. 2.
This number includes Japam
prohibited from becoming m
deliberately excluded Asians
congress allowed Chinese irnr
naturalization of Filipinos an<
would naturalization be possi
Daniels, Prisoners Without Tn
88.
42 Halaas and Masich, Haljbreed, 109.
62 Diane Yancey, Life in a Japan
43 Lavender, "Bent's Fort and Manifest Destiny," 204.
63
44 Halaas and Masich, Haljbreed, 44.
64 Yasui v. United States, 320 U.
45
65
Korematsu v. United States, 3
46 Greene, Washita, 145 and 164.
66
Kang, "Thinking Through Int
47 Ibid., 164.
67
Peter Irons, Justice Delayed,
68
Michi Nishiura Weglyn, Yeal
Camps (Seattle, 1996),84.
Ibid., 121.
48
Arnold Krammer, Nazi Prisoners of War in America (New York, 1996). 128.
49
Ann Howard Creel, The Magic of Ordinary Days (New York, 2001)
50 Walter Lippman, "The Fifth Column on the Coast," Los Angeles Times, Feb. 12,1942.
51
42
Grapes, Bryan J., ed. Japanese American Internment Camps (San Diego, 2001),191.
Michael L. Cooper, Fighting for Honor: Japanese Americans and World War II (New
York, 2000), 7-8.
Hirabayashi v. United States,
69 Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farm
California, 1919-1982 (Ithac
70 Francis McCollum Feeley, A
Science and the Japanese A"
\
fbreed: The Remarkable True Story of
dian and the White Man (Cambridge,
52 Miller Freeman, testimony before the U.S. House Select Committee Investigating National
Defense Migration, Washington, D .c., Feb. 21 , 23, 1942. Earl Warren (California Attorney
General), testimony before the U.S. House Select Committee Investigating National
Defense Migration, Washington, D.C., Feb. 21, 23, 1942. Tetsuden Kashima, Judgment
Without Trial: Japanese American Imprisonment During World War 1/ (Seattle, 2003).
53 Grapes, Japanese American Internment Camps, 191.
54 Robert Harvey, Amache: The Story of Japanese American Internment in Colorado During
World War 1/ (New York, 2004), 41-42.
the Southern Cheyenne, 1867-1869
,lood: The Soule-Cramer Sand Creek
·ogelberg, eds., Western Voices: 125
J.
55 Ibid., 72-73.
56 Jerry Kang, "Thinking Through Internment: 12/7 and 9/11," in Russell C. Leong and Don
T. Nakanishig, eds., Asian Americans on War and Peace (Los Angeles, 2002), 56.
57 Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt to Chief of Staff, U.S. Army, War Department,
Washington, D.C., June 5, 1943 in DeWitt, Final Report: Japanese Evacuation from the
West Coast, 1942, Washington, D.C., 1943, vii.
58 Jerry Stanley, I Am an American: A True Story ofJapanese Internment (New York, 1994),
65. Peter Irons, ed., Justice Delayed: The Record of the Japanese American Internment
Cases (Middletown, CN, 1989), 17.
59 Ibid.
60 Roger Daniels, Concentration Camps U.S.: Japanese Americans and World War 1/ (New
York, 1972), 104.
Ie: The Cheyenne Chief Who Sought
d 156.
I
62 Diane Yancey, Life in a Japanese American Internment Camp (San Diego, 1998), 84.
63 Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81 (1943).
64 Yasui v. United States, 320 U.S. 115-<1943).
65 Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944).
66 Kang, "Thinking Through Internment," 56.
67 Peter Irons, Justice Delayed, 105.
(New York, 1996), 128.
~ew
York, 2001)
Los Angeles Times, Feb. 12, 1942.
~ent
~
61 This number includes Japanese not born in the United States and, therefore, legally
prohibited from becoming naturalized U.S. citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1870
deliberately excluded Asians from those who could be naturalized citizens. In 1943,
congress allowed Chinese immigrants to become naturalized. In 1946, congress allowed
naturalization of Filipinos and Asian Indians. Not until the 1952 McCarran-Walter Act
would naturalization be possible for all Asians including Japanese immigrants. Roger
Daniels, Prisoners Without Trial: Japanese Americans in World War II (New York, 1993),
88.
Camps (San Diego, 200l), 191.
Americans and World War 1/ (New
68 Michi Nishiura Weglyn, Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America's Concentration
Camps (Seattle, 1996),84.
69 Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place: A Japanese American Community in
California, 1919-1982 (Ithaca, 1983), 120.
70 Francis McCollum Feeley, America's Concentration Camps During World War 1/: Social
Science and the Japanese American Internment (New Orleans, 1999), 17-38.
43
71 Jerry Stanley, I Am an American, 65. Peter Irons, Justice Delayed, 66. Erica Harth, ed.,
Last Witnesses: Reflections on the Wartime Internment ofJapanese Americans (New York,
2001),284.
72
Stanley, I Am an American, 65. Peter Irons, Justice Delayed, 195. Wendy Ng, Japanese
American Internment During World War II: A History and Reference Guide (Westport,
CN,2002).
87 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum f
Hoover, Nov. 10, 1943, TEW f
88 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from SA
Hoover, Nov. 9,1943, TEW fil
89 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum fr
Nov. 10, 1943, TEW file, FOIIJ
73 Stanley, I Am an American, 67. Wendy Ng, Japanese American Internment During World
War II. Yancey, Life in a Japanese American Internment Camp, 78.
USDOJ, FBI, Letter from SP
Hoover, Nov. 9,1943, TEW fil
74 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to Special Agent in Charge
["SAC" hereafter] Denver. TEW file: Japanese Evacuee Granted Leave from a War
Relocation Center, July 26, 1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request.
90 USDOJ, FBI, Special Messa:
Roosevelt's Special Assistant 1­
75 n.a., "Three Jap-U.S. Sisters Aren't Traitors But Loyal Americans, Eldest Says," Rocky
Mountain News, May 11, 1944.
76 "Jury Quickly Chosen in Denver Treason Trial of Jap Women," The Denver Post, August
7,1944.
77 USDOJ, FBI, Memo from FBI Denver to Directors El Paso, Oklahoma City, Dallas,
San Antonio, Kansas City, Salt Lake City, and Denver, Oct. 18, 1943, TEW file, FOI/PA
request.
78 USDOJ, FBI, Memo from FBI EI Paso to Directors Denver, Oklahoma City, Dallas, San
Antonio, Kansas City, Phoenix, and Salt Lake City Denver, Oct. 19, 1943, TEW file, FOIl
PA request, and Memorandum for the Attorney General from FBI Director John Edgar
Hoover, Oct. 23, 1943.
79 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FBI Agent D.M. Ladd to FBI Director John Edgar
Hoover, Nov. 10, 1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request, 1.
80 USDOJ. FBI, Letter from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to Assistant Attorney General
Tom C. Clark, Nov. 6,1943, TEW file, FOI/PA request, 3.
81
Ibid., 14 and "Jury Quickly Chosen in Denver Treason Trial of Jap Women," The Denver
Post, Aug. 7, 1944.
82 Ibid.
83 Ibid. and USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI Denver Nicholson to Director and SAC EI Paso,
Nov. 3, 1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request, 3.
91 Ibid.
92 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum fr,
Edgar Hoover, Nov. 9,1943, T
93 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum fr
Nov. 10,1943, TEW file, FOIl
94 Arnold Krammer, Nazi Prisonl
95 Ibid.
96
n.a., "3 U.S. -Jap Sisters Faci
May 10,1944,5.
97 Ibid.
98 Ibid., 115-116.
99 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum j
Hoover, Nov. 10, 1943, TEW j
USDOJ, FBI, Case File # 100­
100 Ibid., 116.
101 Ibid., 120.
102 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum'
Hoover, Nov. 10, 1943, TEW I
103 USDOJ, FBI, FBI File numbel
84 Ibid., 18.
104 USDOJ, FBI, FBI File numbel
85 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to SAC EI Paso, Oct. 29,
1943, TEW file, FOI/PA request and "Jury Quickly Chosen in Denver Treason Trial of Jap
Women," The Denver Post, Aug. 7, 1944. n.a., "Two Fugitives Nazi Prisoners Caught at
USDOJ, FBI, Case File number
Watrous, N.M.," The Denver Post, Oct. 19, 1943, n.p.
100-3198, Nov. 3,1943, TEW file, FOI/PA request, 1-14,12.
105 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI
PA request.
86 n.a., "Two Fugitives Nazi Prisoners Caught at Watrous, N.M.," The Denver Post, Oct. 19,
1943, n.p.
106 n.a., "Three Jap-U.S. Sisters J
Mountain News, May II, 19~
107 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum f
general Tom C. Clark, Nov. I~
108 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from D
Hoover, Nov. 9, 1943, TEW fi
44
,,
\
ustice Delayed, 66. Erica Harth, ed.,
nt ofJapanese Americans (New York,
. Delayed, 195. Wendy Ng, Japanese
rory and Reference Guide (Westport,
87 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FBI Agent D.M. Ladd to FBI Director John Edgar
Hoover, Nov. 10.1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request, 1.
88 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from SAC Denver GA. Nicholson to FBI Director John Edgar
Hoover, Nov. 9,1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request, 1-2, 1.
89 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to Attorney General,
Nov. 10. 1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request.
e American Internment During World
ment Camp, 78.
USDOJ, FBI, Letter from SAC Denver GA. Nicholson to FBI Director John Edgar
Hoover, Nov. 9, 1943, TEW file, FOI/PA request, 1-2, 1.
r Hoover to Special Agent in Charge
lvacuee Granted Leave from a War
.request.
90 USDOJ, FBI, Special Message from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to President
Roosevelt's Special Assistant Harry L. Hopkins, Nov. 17.1943, TEW file, FOIlPArequest.
3yal Americans, Eldest Says," Rocky
lp Women," The Denver Post, August
lrs El Paso, Oklahoma City, Dallas,
ver, Oct. 18,1943, TEW file, FOIlPA
: Denver, Oklahoma City, Dallas, San
)enver, Oct. 19, 1943,TEWfile, FOIl
meral from FBI Director John Edgar
91
Ibid.
92 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from Denver FBI SAC G.A. Nicholson to FBI Director John
Edgar Hoover, Nov. 9, 1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request.
93 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to Attorney General,
Nov. 10,1943, TEW file, FOI/PA request.
94 Arnold Krammer, Nazi Prisoners of War in America, 115.
95
Ibid.
96
n.a.. "3 U.S. -Jap Sisters Facing Treason trial in Aid to Nazis." Rocky Mountain News,
May 10.1944,5.
97 Ibid.
98 Ibid., 115-116.
L Ladd to FBI Director John Edgar
Hoover to Assistant Attorney General
.e st,3.
ion Trial of Jap Women," The Denver
99 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FBI Agent D.M. Ladd to FBI Director John Edgar
Hoover, Nov. 10, 1943, TEW file. FOIlPArequest, 3.
USDOJ, FBI, Case File # 100-3674. Oct. 30, 1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request, 1-32,3 .
100 Ibid., 116.
101 Ibid., 120.
:holson to Director and SAC El Paso,
102 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FBI Agent D.M. Ladd to FBI Director John Edgar
Hoover, Nov. 10,1943, TEW file, FOIlPArequest, 3.
103 USDOJ, FBI, FBI File number 100-3674, June 6,1944, TEW file, FOIIPArequest, 1-7,2.
104 USDOJ, FBI, FBI File number 100-3674, July 7.1944, TEW file, FOIlPA request, 1-4,2.
Hoover to SAC El Paso, Oct. 29,
:hosen in Denver Treason Trial of Jap
10 Fugitives Nazi Prisoners Caught at
p. USDOJ, FBI, Case File number
1-14,12.
if
lUS,
N.M.," The Denver Post, Oct. 19,
105 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI, L.B. Nichols to M.A. Jones, May 8, 1944, TEW file, FOIl
PArequest.
106 n.a., "Three Jap-U.S. Sisters Aren't Traitors But Loyal Americans, Eldest Says," Rocky
Mountain News, May 11, 1944.
107 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to Assistant Attorney
general Tom C. Clark, Nov. 15,1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request.
108 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from Denver SAC G.A. Nicholson to FBI Director John Edgar
Hoover, Nov. 9, 1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request.
45
109 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from Hermann Loescher to Judge 1. Foster Symes, Nov. 5, 1944,
TEW file, FOIlPA request. USDC, Letter from Hermann Loescher to Judge J. Foster
Symes, Nov. 5,1944.
110 n.a., " 3 U .S.-Jap Sisters Aren't Traitors But Loyal Americans, Eldest Says," Rocky
Mountain News, May 11,1944,1.
111 n.a., "German Says Jap Girls Wanted To Help Allies," The Denver Post, Aug. 8, 1944, 1
and 3.
112 Ibid.
113 Ibid.
114 Ibid.
129 USDOJ, FBI, Special Messa!
November 25,1943, TEW filt
USDOJ, FBI, FBI Fingerprinl
FOl/PA request.
USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI
Tom C. Clark, Nov. 29, 1943,
130 USDOJ, FB I, Letter from FBI
TEW file, FOliPA request.
131 Jack Foster, "Treason Trial r::
Mountain News, Aug. 14,194
115 Ibid.
132 n.a., "German's Testimony St
1944,5 and 18.
116 n.a., "German's Testimony Stuns Treason Trial Court," Rocky Mountain News, Aug. 8,
1944,5 and 18.
133 Ibid.
117 USDC, FBI, Alien Enemy Control Unit, Memorandum from Alien Enemy Control Unit
Director Edward J. Ennis to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Oct. 29,1943, TEW file,
FOl/PA request.
134 n.a., "Jury Quickly Chosen ir
Aug. 7,1944,1 and 5.
135 Ibid.
118 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from J.K. Mumford to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Dec.
8, 1943, TEW file, FOl/PA request.
136 n.a., "Jap Girls Given Terms in
1 and 5.
119 USDOJ, FBI, Alien Enemy Control Unit, Memorandum from Alien Enemy Control Unit
Director Edward J. Ennis to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Oct. 29,1943, TEW file,
FOl/PA request.
137 n.a., "3 Jap Sisters Sentenced i
n.a., "3 U.S. -Jap Sisters Faci
May 10,1944,5.
120 USDOJ, FBI, Alien Enemy Control Unit, Memorandum from Alien Enemy Control Unit
Director Edward 1. Ennis to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Oct. 29, 1943, TEW file,
FOl/PA request.
138 Ibid.
121 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FBI FL Welch to Mr. Ladd, Jan. 8, 1944, TEW file,
FOIlPA request.
USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to Denver SAC, Jan. 8, 1944.
TEW file, FOIlPA request.
122 Ibid.
123 n.a., "Three Jap Girls Convicted of Plot to Commit Treason," The Denver Post, Aug. 11,
1944,1 and 3.
124 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from Duffey to FBI Denver, May 9,1944, TEW file, FOIlPA request.
125 USDOJ, FBI, FBI Teletype, May 3, 1944, TEW file, FOl/PA request.
USDOJ, FBI, File number 100-3674, May 12,1944, TEW file, FOIlPA request.
126 n.a., "Jury Quickly Chosen in Denver Treason Trial of Jap Women," The Denver Post,
Aug. 7,1944,1 and 5.
127 n.a., "German's Testimony Stuns Treason Trial Court," Rocky Mountain News, Aug. 8,
1944,5 and 18.
128 USDOJ, FBI, Case File Number 100-3674, Nov. 17,1943, TEW file, FOI/PA request.
46
139 n.a., "3 U.S. -Jap Sisters Fad
May 10,1944,5. JackFoster
Rocky Mountain News, Aug. 9
140 n.a., "Mate of Jap Woman Ace
News, May 12,1944, n.p.
141 Ibid.
142 Jack Foster, "Three Jap-U.S. S
Mountain News, Aug. 12, 19~
None of Jap-U.S. Sisters Testil
143 Jack Foster, "Three Jap-U.S. ~
Mountain News, Aug. 12, 194<
144 Jack Foster, "Treason Trial D
Mountain News, 5 and 14.
145 USDOJ, FBI, FBI File numbe
2. n.a., "3 U.S.-Jap Sisters Fa
May 10,1944,5.
~
\
,\
Jdge J. Foster Symes, Nov. 5, 1944,
ermann Loescher to Judge J. Foster
129 USDOJ, FBI, Special Message from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to SAC Denver,
November 25,1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request.
USDOJ, FBI, FBI Fingerprint Report number 100-238592-20, Nov. 22, 1943, TEW file.
ral Americans, Eldest Says;' Rocky
FOI/PA request.
s," The Denver Post, Aug. 8,1944,1
USDOJ, FBI. Letter from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to Assistant Attorney General
Tom C. Clark, Nov. 29,1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request.
130 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to SAC Denver, Nov. 27,1943,
TEW file, FOIlPA request.
131 Jack Foster, "Treason Trial Defense Closes: None of Jap-U.S. Sisters Testifies," Rocky
Mountain News. Aug. 14, 1944,5 and 14.
132 n.a., "German's Testimony Stuns Treason Trial Court," Rocky Mountain News, Aug. 8,
1944,5 and 18.
uft," Rocky Mountain News, Aug. 8,
dum from Alien Enemy Control Unit
gar Hoover, Oct. 29, 1943, TEW file,
133 Ibid.
134 n.a.. "Jury Quickly Chosen in Denver Treason Trial of Jap Women," The Denver Post,
Aug. 7, 1944,1 and 5.
135 Ibid.
:;'}3I Director John Edgar Hoover, Dec.
136 n.a., "Jap Girls Given Terms in Prison and $1 ,000 Fines," The Denver Post, Aug. 18,1944,
1 and 5.
Idum from Alien Enemy Control Unit
137 n.a., "3 Jap Sisters Sentenced in Treason Plot," Rocky Mountain News, Aug. 12.1944, n.p.
n.a., "3 U.S. -Jap Sisters Facing Treason Trial in Aid to Nazis," Rocky Mountain News,
May 10, 1944,5.
gar Hoover, Oct. 29, 1943, TEW file,
Idum from Alien Enemy Control Unit
gar Hoover, Oct. 29, 1943, TEW file,
138 Ibid.
to Mr. Ladd, Jan. 8, 1944, TEW file,
139 n.a.. "3 U.S. -Jap Sisters Facing Treason Trial in Aid to Nazis," Rocky Mountain News,
May 10,1944,5. Jack Foster, "Love Tryst Photos Introduced in Denver Treason Trial,"
Rocky Mountain News, Aug. 9, 1944,5 and 11.
Hoover to Denver SAC, Jan. 8, 1944,
140 n.a., "Mate of Jap Woman Accused as Traitor Says He'll Stick By Her," Rocky Mountain
News, May 12, 1944, n.p.
141 Ibid.
Treason," The Denver Post, Aug. 11,
ay 9,1944, TEW file, FOI/PA request.
, FOIIPA request.
, TEW file, FOIlPA request.
al of Jap Women," The Denver Post,
uft," Rocky Mountain News, Aug. 8,
142 Jack Foster, "Three Jap-U.S. Sisters Convicted of Plotting Treason to Ask Retrial;' Rocky
Mountain News, Aug. 12, 1944,5 and 18. Jack Foster, "Treason Trial Defense Closes:
None of Jap-U.S. Sisters Testifies," Rocky Mountain News, 5 and 14.
143 Jack Foster, "Three Jap-U.S. Sisters Convicted of Plotting Treason to Ask Retrial, Rocky
Mountain News, Aug. 12, 1944,5 and 18.
144 Jack Foster, "Treason Trial Defense Closes: None of Jap-U.S. Sisters Testifies," Rocky
Mountain News. 5 and 14.
145 USDOJ, FBI, FBI File number 100-3674, Oct. 25,1942, TEW file, FOI/PA request. 1-7,
2. n.a., "3 U.S.-Jap Sisters Facing Treason trial in Aid to Nazis," Rocky Mountain News,
May 10, 1944,5.
,1943, TEW file, FOI/PA request.
47
146 USDOJ, FBI, Individual Record Tsuruko Wallace, Oct. 25, 1942, TEW file, FOI/PA
request.
147 n.a., "Jury Quickly Chosen in Treason Trial of Jap Women, The Denver Post. Aug. 7,
1944, I and 5.
163 Ibid.
164 Ibid., 3.
165 Ibid., 4.
166 Ibid.
148 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from SAC GA. Nicholson to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Dec.
27,1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request.
167 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI
1943, TEW file. FOI/PA reque
149 n.a., "Gennan Prisoners Spooned with Jap Girls in Trinidad," The Denver Post, Oct. 24,
168 USDOJ, FBI, FBI File number
1943,3.
150 n.a., "3 U.S.-Jap Sisters Facing Treason Trial in Aid to Nazis," Rocky Mountain News,
May 10, 1944,5 and 7.
151 n.a., "Gennan Says Jap Girls Wanted To Help Allies," The Denver Post, Aug. 8, 1944, 1
and 3.
152 n.a., "Jury Quickly Chosen in Denver Treason Trial of Jap Women. The Denver Post, Aug.
7,1944,1 and 5.
153 Ibid.
154 Jack Foster, "Love Tryst Photos Introduced in Denver Treason Trial," Rocky Mountain
News, Aug. 9, 1944,5 and 11.
155 n.a., "Gennan Prisoners Spooned with Jap Girls in Trinidad," The Denver Post, Oct. 24,
1943,3.
169 USDOJ. FBI, Memorandum fi
file, FOI/PA request.
USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum fi
Aug. 10, 1944, TEW file, FOL
Testimony Stuns Treason Trial
170 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum fi
Communications Section, Aug
171 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from SAC
FBI Director John Edgar Hom
172 Ibid., 1.
173 Ibid.,4. See also: USDOJ,FB
Edgar Hoover, Aug. 12,1944,
156 n.a., "3 Jap-U.S. Sisters Aren't Traitors But Loyal Americans, Eldest Says," Rocky
Mountain News, May 11, 1944, n.p.
USDOJ, FBI, Letter from R. H.
12, 1944, TEW file, FOIlPA regl
157 n.a., "5 Jap Women held in Probe of Nazi Prisoners' 'Petting,'" The Washington Post,
Morning Edition, Oct. 28, 1943, n.p.
USDOJ, FBI, Letter from JP. M
158 William C. Mathes and Edward J. DeVitt, Federal Jury Practice and Instructions: Civil
and Criminal (St. Paul, MN, 1965).
159 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from EI Paso, Texas SAC D. A. Bryce to FBI Director John Edgar
Hoover, Nov. 4,1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request, 1-4,1. See also: USDOJ, FBI, Letter
from EI Paso, Texas SAC D. A. Bryce to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Nov. 4,1943,
TEW file, FOIlPA request, 1-4. n.a., "German Prisoners Spooned with Jap Girls in
Trinidad," The Denver Post, Oct. 24,1943,3.
USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FL. Welch to Mr. Ladd , Nov. 6, 1943, TEW file, FOIl
PA request, 1-4.
USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI I:
1944, TEW file, FOIIPA reque
174 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum fro
175 n.a., "Jap Girl's Fate Put Up to
Aug. 10, 1944, 1 and 4.
176 Ibid.
177 Ibid.
178 n.a., "Jap Girls Given Terms in
1944,1 and 5.
USDOJ, FBI, Letter from EI Paso, Texas SAC D. A. Bryce to FBI Director John Edgar
Hoover, Dec. 2,1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request.
160 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from EI Paso. Texas SAC D. A. Bryce to FBI Director John Edgar
Hoover. Nov. 4, 1943, TEW file, FOI/PA request, 1-4, I. See also: USDOJ, FBI, Letter
from EI Paso, Texas SAC D. A. Bryce to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Nov. 4, 1943.
TEW file, FOIIPA request, 1-4, 3.
161 Ibid .. 2.
162 Ibid.
48
-._----------~------------i
!
\
lce, Oct. 25, 1942, TEW file, FOIlPA
163 Ibid.
164 Ibid .. 3.
Jap Women, The Denver Post, Aug. 7,
165 Ibid., 4.
166 Ibid.
FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Dec.
I)
in Trinidad," The Denver Post, Oct. 24,
I
Aid to Nazis," Rocky Mountain News,
Hies," The Denver Post, Aug. 8, 1944, 1
ial of Jap Women, The Denver Post,Aug.
Denver Treason Trial," Rocky Mountain
167 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to EI Paso SAC, Dec. 28,
1943, TEW file, FOI/PA request.
168 USDOJ, FBI, FBI File number 100-3198, Oct. 25,1942, TEW file, FOIlPArequest, 1-3,3.
169 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from J.K. Mumford to FBI D.M. Ladd, Aug. 8, 1944, TEW
file, FOIlPA request.
USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FBI D.M. Ladd to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover,
Aug. 10,1944, TEW file, FOIlPA request. The quote appeared in n.a., "German's
Testimony Stuns Treason Trial Court." Rocky Mountains News, Aug. 8, 1944,5 and 18.
170 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to USDOJ
Communications Section, Aug. 11, 1944, TEW file, FOIlPA request.
171 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from SAC R.P. Kramer to FBI Assistant Director D.M. Ladd and
FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Aug. 11,1944, TEW file, FOIlPA request, 1-4, 1.
172 Ibid., 1.
: in Trinidad," The Denver Post, Oct. 24,
~oyal
Americans, Eldest Says,"
Rocky
ioners' 'Petting,''' The Washington Post,
Tal Jury Practice and Instructions: Civil
D. A. Bryce to FBI Director John Edgar
st, 1-4, 1. See also: USDOJ, FBI, Letter
irector John Edgar Hoover, Nov. 4,1943,
iill Prisoners Spooned with Jap Girls in
173 Ibid.,4. See also: USDOJ, FBI, Letter from SAC R.P. Kramer to FBI Director John
Edgar Hoover, Aug. 12, 1944, TEW file, FOIlPA request.
USDOJ, FBI, Letter from R. H. Cunningham to FBI Assistant Director D.M. Ladd, Aug.
12, 1944, TEW file, FOIlPA request.
USDOJ. FBI, Letter from J.P. Mohr to Mr. Glavin, no date, TEW file, FOIIPArequest.
USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to Denver SAC,Aug. 31,
1944, TEW file, FOIIPA request.
174 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from L.B. Nichols, Aug. 16, 1944, TEW file, FOIlPA request.
175 n.a., "Jap Girl's Fate Put Up to Jury as Treason Arguments End," The Denver Post,
Aug. 10, 1944, I and 4.
176 Ibid.
177 Ibid.
) Mr. Ladd ,Nov. 6,1943, TEW file, FOIl
178 n.a., "Jap Girls Given Terms in Prison and $1,000 Fines," The Denver Post, Aug. 18,
1944.1 and 5.
D. A. Bryce to FBI Director John Edgar
t.
D. A. Bryce to FBI Director John Edgar
1-4, 1. See also: USDOJ, FBI, Letter
lirector John Edgar Hoover, Nov. 4,1943,
~st,
49