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Political Research in the Digital Age
Rogers, R.A.
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International Public Policy Review
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Rogers, R. (2014). Political Research in the Digital Age. International Public Policy Review, 8(1), 73-87.
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Political Research in the Digital Age
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R.A. Rogers
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FGw: Amsterdam School for Cultural Analysis (ASCA)
Year
2014
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UCL Department of Political Science
INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC POLICY REVIEW
INTERNATIONAL
PUBLIC
POLICY
REVIEW
June 2014 ◆ volume 8 ◆ nº 1
June 2014 ◆ volume 8 ◆ nº 1
WILL GERMANY
HELP FIGHT
HUMAN
TRAFFICKING?
CREATING
INTERNATIONAL
INSTITUTIONS
FIT FOR TODAY
2014:
THE
YEAR
IN REVIEW
A policy window to combat
legalised prostitution’s
unanticipated effects.
by Kristina Lunz
Institutional design must evolve
to cope with the realities
of global governance.
by Ian Goldin
The School of Public Policy
faculty reviews the year’s most
important events.
by Jonathan Kennedy,
Colin Provost
and Christine Reh
PAGE 31
PAGE 69
PAGE 97
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6/16/14 9:34 AM
CONTENTS
June 2014 ◆ volume 8 ◆ nº 1
Conflict and Post-War Development
5»
RWANDA’S LEGACY:
IMPLICATIONS FOR
THE CENTRAL
AFRICAN REPUBLIC
by Lara Macdonald
7»
25 »
by Stuart S. Yeh
by Kerri-Anne Drechsler
BUILDING A GLOBAL
INSTITUTION TO FIGHT
CORRUPTION AND
ADDRESS THE ROOTS
OF INSURGENCY
THE CENTRIPETALIST
APPROACH TO ELECTORAL
DESIGN: PREVENTING THE
RECURRENCE OF WAR
IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Institutional Design and Global Justice
32 »
WILL GERMANY
HELP FIGHT
HUMAN TRAFFICKING?
by Kristina Lunz
37 »
THE ROLE OF
INTERNATIONAL
INSTITUTIONS IN
GLOBAL INEQUALITIES
42 »
THE US PIVOT TO ASIA:
A SHOW OF BRAINS
OR BRAWN?
by Robert Johansen
by Aled Goddard
Environmental Governance
46 »
51 »
by Lucy Phillips
by Aydan Sarikaya
THE CHALLENGES OF
ARCTIC GOVERNANCE
CLIMATE SECURITY
AND THE RISK SOCIETY
Political Economy
54 »
WHAT’S IN
YOUR LATTE?
by Harriet Bradley
1
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57 »
63 »
by Musa Afolagbade Banwo
by Anouk van den Akker
FACTORS AFFECTING
THE POVERTY
REDUCTION POTENTIAL
OF MICROFINANCE
PREVENTION AND
DISRUPTION OF THE
ILLICIT FINANCIAL FLOWS
OF SOMALI PIRATES
International Public Policy Review ◆ June 2014
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Special Features
69 »
73 »
89 »
by Ian Goldin
by Richard Rogers
by Steven Rathgeb Smith
CREATING
INTERNATIONAL
INSTITUTIONS
FIT FOR TODAY
POLITICAL
RESEARCH
IN THE
DIGITAL AGE
PUBLIC
POLICY AND
VOLUNTARY
ORGANIZATIONS
Spotlight on
95 »
THE UCL INSTITUTE OF GLOBAL GOVERNANCE
by Tom Pegram
School of Public Policy Faculty
97 »
2014 IN REVIEW
by Jonathan Kennedy, Colin Provost and Christine Reh
Calendar
101 »
POLICY & PRACTICE 2013–2014
International Public Policy Review ◆ June 2014
IPPR-0001_PolicyReviewJournal_July2014_FINAL_r4.indd 2
2
6/16/14 9:34 AM
◆ Special Features ◆
POLITICAL
RESEARCH
IN THE
DIGITAL AGE
by Richard Rogers
Professor of New Media and Digital Culture,
Department Chair of Media Studies at the
University of Amsterdam and Director
of the Digital Methods Initiative
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T
Introduction: Computational or digital turn?
here is currently a debate at hand over aligning political and social
research with the digital age (boyd and Crawford 2012). How to
cope with the challenges the Internet and the digital, including
newly available online data, bring to research? Concomitant with
the rise of the term Big Data, certain methods and tools appear
to drive research as well as the complex of what could be called
the programmatic agenda, e.g., special issues of journals, funding calls,
conference titles, lecture series and so forth. For some, it has been termed
the computational turn, meaning the importation of computer science
techniques into social research practices (Berry 2011). More dramatically,
that turn supposedly comes with paradigm-rending consequences such
as pattern-seeking supplanting interpretation (Savage and Burrows 2007;
Watts 2007; Lazer et al. 2009). Another, subtly different means of phrasing
the arrival of the stickered laptops and hacking workshop culture could
be the digital turn, where the study of digital culture informs research
that makes use of online data, software and visualizations. To make this
distinction between the computational and the digital turns is also a means
of resisting a monolithic, or unitary, understanding of the changing nature
of research in the digital age (Lovink, 2014). More specifically, there are
variegated approaches across the digital humanities, e-social sciences as well
as digital media studies that could be seen as having distinctive ontological
and epistemological commitments and positionings. Here I briefly situate
and discuss a series of digital research practices called cultural analytics,
culturomics, webometrics, altmetrics and digital methods, providing
short examples of what they could offer in terms of political research
(Manovich 2011; Michel et al. 2010; Priem et al. 2010; Rogers 2013). First,
each may be differentiated according to their preferred materials as well
as methodological outlook, which I have previously described in terms of
working with the digitised (materials and methods), the natively digital or
some combination (see also Rogers 2009). Second, instead of translating
political research practices for the web (e.g., searching for the public
sphere in forums, striving to locate public debate in the comment space
or undertaking online surveying and polling), the invitation issued by the
digital turn is more experimental, and perhaps interdisciplinary. How to
repurpose the computational and digital techniques for political studies?
Finally, I concentrate on a new space for political expression (Facebook),
and briefly put forward an analytics approach to studying engagement, a
typical concern in political research that is operationalized as a digital
method combining counting and interpretation.
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Digitised, Natively Digital or Some Combination
o begin, an ontological distinction may be made between the materials
“of the medium” and those that have migrated to it (Blood 2007).
Blogs, considered of the web, are in this rendering natively digital,
whereas a scanned book, made available through Google Books, is a digital
newcomer, or digitised material. Another conceptual means of making the
distinction are webpages that cannot be printed, but rather screen-grabbed
only (Latour 2004). The distinction between the natively digital and the
digitised also may be applied to methods. There are those methods that
have been migrated to the web, such as online surveys, and those written
for it, such as Google’s PageRank (privileging one website over another in a
ranking) or Facebook’s EdgeRank (privileging friends over others in terms
of closeness). Approaches in digital research thus may be arrayed in terms
of which materials are the preferred data (digitised or born-digital) and
where the methods are situated (emulated or native) (see table below).
T
Table One: Situating five approaches
to digital humanities and e-social
sciences according to their preferred
data and method types.
Method
Digitised
Natively
Digital
Digitised
▶ Culturomics*
▶ Cultural Analytics*
▶ Altmetrics
Natively
Digital
▶ Webometrics
▶ Digital Methods
Data
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Digital research five ways
ver the past decade the methods and techniques developed for digital
research (using both digitised as well as online data) have been
couched in a variety of descriptors, with notions of analytics, metrics,
-nomics or methods appended, providing rather different emphases in
what is being measured. Analytics is most closely associated with the
platform industries (Google, YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, Adobe
and others), connoting pattern recognition in (user) data. One captures
and analyses user (interaction) data, populating dashboards and other
interfaces with visualizations aiming to provide “actionable insights,”
as the software company Adobe phrases it (Adobe 2014). Metrics are
standards of measurement and take their nomenclature from counting
techniques in library and information science, including bibliometrics and
scientometrics. One is concerned with such measures as impact, salience,
and resonance, meaning not only the brute force, but its relative strength
and endurance. The choice of the suffix -nomics is perhaps furthest from
online industry-science relations, and refers to law, as in the laws of nature,
connoting fundamental discovery or basic pursuits. It has in common
with the term “methods” a more open-ended epistemology. However one
goes about the study, and with whichever approach, methods emphasize a
procedure or research protocol with steps. When described as such, digital
methods could cover the range of procedures to study digital materials,
not merely online methods for studying web data, as I come to after a brief
discussion of cultural analytics, culturomics, webometrics and altmetrics,
providing means to rework each for political research.
Cultural analytics, the first of the named approaches in digital
humanities, often uses as its materials digitised collections, such as the
covers of a tone-setting magazine like Time or the oeuvre of an artist.
It has a preferred piece of software, ImagePlot, which groups images
according to formal properties, including hue and saturation. It may be
used to make chronologies, such as of the images made of the Gezi Park
protests in Istanbul in May and June 2013. Using the technique, one notes
the transformation of Turkey’s so-called “tree revolution,” where, as one
eyewitness explained it, “the conversion of public space into private space
explain[s] why the occupation of Gezi Park is not just meant to save trees,
but to save Turkey’s democracy” (see Figure One ong page 81.) (Turkey
EJOLT Team 2013). Green imagery gradually declines, yielding to images
of protesters being pepper-sprayed and more generally to rights fights.
Culturomics, a second digital humanities approach, queries
Google’s collection of digitised books (via the Google Ngram Viewer)
O
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for words, thereby displaying cultural or societal trends, most robustly
from English-language books published between 1800 and 2000, though
there are collections of books from other languages, too. The outputs are
keyword graphs, showing frequency of mentions over time. In technique
and visual style, the graphing echoes the earlier Google Insights tool,
which showed the incidence of keywords users sought in search queries.
Searches may be political, for particular queries may land on right-leaning
or left-leaning websites. For example, in the run-up to the American
presidential elections in 2012, users who queried for “obamacare” landed
predominantly on right-leaning websites, and for “obama student loan
forgiveness” on left-leaning sites (see Figure Two on page 83) (Borra and
Weber 2012). Keyword query analysis may also include users’ geolocation,
thus inviting work on the use of terms by geography. One could consider
geolocating hate speech (via queries for particular language) and
observing its steadiness or fluctuation longitudinally.
In the e-social sciences, webometrics are citation analysis methods
using web links (mainly) as if they were academic citations, where a
link is treated as an endorsement or impact metric (Thelwall et al. 2005).
Webometric approaches are built into software such as IssueCrawler and
VOSON that crawl websites, locate linking and visualize relationships
as network graphs, thereby showing the characteristics of the network,
including the centrality or peripherality of one or more specific actors. It
may also show an online strategy, as depicted in the IssueCrawler network
graphs made of Barack Obama’s online campaign in 2008 (Venturini 2010).
The exceptional star shape of the network is caused by the campaign’s
strategy of linking (see Figure Three on page 84). The core of the
network is formed by barackobama.com and its subsites, such as latinos.
barackobama.com, faith.barackobama.com and students.barackobama.
com. The periphery consists mainly of social media sites about Obama,
and features his pages on LinkedIn, Facebook, Flickr, etc. The network
also crowds out other websites, thereby displaying not the grassroots, new
media campaigning style employed by Howard Dean in 2004 (which
allowed users to create their own narratives during sponsored meet-ups),
but rather a stay-on-message approach (Rogers 2005).
Altmetrics inverts traditional scientometrics, counting citations
of academic work that appear not in published journals, but rather in
blogs, on Twitter or in other online spaces. Counting (and interpreting)
references in social media is part of a larger analytical approach to the
substance and source commitments of a topical, issue or ideological
network, e.g., on Facebook or Twitter. For example, one may note the top
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referenced content (in this case most linked-to webpages) by Ministrylevel Dutch civil servants on Twitter. It was found that civil servants tend
to follow news, politicians and new media and political trend-watchers,
as opposed to citizens, who are absent (see Figure Four on page 85). The
work that is most referenced, moreover, concerns civil servant use of new
media as well as innovative online campaigns and initiatives, meaning the
content shared is self-referential and medium-related, in the first instance,
rather than otherwise topical.
As mentioned above, some may employ the term digital methods
to cover the entirety of the digital turn techniques described above, or,
increasingly, “mainstream” research techniques (Venturini 2010). More
specifically, it refers to repurposing online devices and platforms (such
as Google searches, Facebook and Wikipedia) for social and political
research that would often have been otherwise improbable. Among
DIGITAL METHODS ENCOURAGE A SOCIOLOGICAL
OUTLOOK OR IMAGINATION ABOUT RESEARCH
OPPORTUNITIES THAT EXIST IN ONLINE CULTURE.
the tools developed is the so-called Lippmannian device, a Google
Scraper that detects bias or leaning of an actor on the basis of the type
of keyword mentions (see Figure Five on page 86). Thus one may query
a set of climate change websites for mention of the names of climate
change skeptics, thereby finding skeptic-friendly actors (as well as
watchdog sites that also follow and mention them). In the above case,
Google is repurposed as a research machine rather than its typical use as
a consumer information appliance.
Conclusion: Following the medium as a starting point for
digital research
igital Methods, either generally or more specifically as the practice of
repurposing devices, are not just toolkits or operating instructions
for software packages; they deal with broader questions about
how to do research online. They encourage a sociological outlook or
D
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imagination about research opportunities that exist in online culture
by following the medium rather than asking it to do one’s disciplinary
bidding. One case in point, by way of conclusion, is the study of political
activism. One could critique the rise of slacktivism or clicktivism, online
activities that require little in the way of commitment but give one the
feeling of having done something for the cause. Alternatively, one might
study how liking, sharing and commenting on particular content show
engagement, thereby studying (for instance) which videos or photos
are currently animating anti-Islam groups and pages in Facebook (see
Figure Six on page 87). The study of engagement borrows here from
an analytics framework that captures clicks as well as comments, and
identifies the content that animates, opening up opportunities for further
interpretation. Here the call is to rely at the outset on medium activity
measures and ask what might be learned from them. •
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Sources
Ackland, Robert. 2013. Web Social Science: Concepts,
Data and Tools for Social Scientists in the Digital Age.
London: Sage.
Adobe. 2014. “Adobe Analytics.” last modified May
2, 2014, http://www.adobe.com/solutions/digitalanalytics.html, accessed May 2, 2014.
Baetens, Tom, Tom Juetten, Jan Maessen, Erik
Borra, and Richard Rogers. 2013. De Uitzondering
op de Regel: Over Ambtenaren in de Openbaarheid.
The Hague: Ministry of Internal Affairs / Emma
Communicatie.
Berry, David M. 2011. “The Computational Turn:
Thinking About the Digital Humanities.” Culture
Machine 12: 1-22.
Blood, Rebecca. 2002. “Introduction.” In We’ve Got
Blog: How Weblogs Are Changing Our Culture, edited
by John Rodzvilla, ix-xiii. Cambridge, MA: Perseus.
Borra, Erik and Ingmar Weber. 2012. “Political Insights:
Exploring Partisanship in Web Search Queries.” First
Monday 17. http://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/
article/view/4070/3272, accessed May 2, 2014.
boyd, danah and Kate Crawford. 2012. “Critical
Questions for Big Data: Provocations for a Cultural,
Technological, and Scholarly Phenomenon.”
Information, Communication & Society 15: 662-679.
Foot, Kirsten A. and Steven M. Schneider. 2006. Web
Campaigning. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Krippendorff, Klaus H. 2012. Content Analysis: An
Introduction to its Methodology. London: Sage.
Latour, Bruno. 2004. “Paris: Invisible City.” http://
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May 2, 2014.
Lazer, David, Alex Pentland, Lada Adamic, Sinan Aral,
Sinan, Albert-László Barabási, Devon Brewer, Nicholas
Christakis, Noshir Contractor, James Fowler, Myron
Gutmann, Tony Jebara, Gary King, Michael Macy, Deb
Roy and Marshall Van Alstyne. 2009. “Computational
Social Science.” Science 323: 721-723.
Manovich, Lev. 2011. “Trending: The Promises and the
Challenges of Big Social Data.” http://www.manovich.
net/DOCS/Manovich_trending_paper.pdf, accessed
May 2, 2014.
Michel, Jean-Baptiste, Yuan Kui Shen, Aviva Presser
Aiden, Adrian Veres, Matthew K. Gray, The Google
Books Team, Joseph P. Pickett, Dale Hoiberg, Dan
Clancy, Peter Norvig, Jon Orwant, Steven Pinker,
Martin A. Nowak and Erez Lieberman Aiden. 2011.
“Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of
Digitised Books.” Science 331: 176-182.
Priem, Jason, Dario Taraborelli, Paul Groth and
Cameron Neylon. 2010. “alt-metrics: a manifesto.”
http://altmetrics.org/manifesto/, accessed May 2, 2014.
Rogers, Richard. 2005. “Old and New Media:
Competition and Political Space.” Theory and Event
8 https://muse.jhu.edu/journals/theory_and_event/
v008/8.2rogers.html, accessed May 2, 2014.
Rogers, Richard. 2009. The End of the Virtual.
Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
Rogers, Richard. 2013. Digital Methods. Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press.
Savage, Mike and Roger Burrows. 2007. “The Coming
Crisis of Empirical Sociology.” Sociology 41: 885-899.
Thelwall, Mike, Laura Vaughan and Lennart Björneborn.
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81-135. Medford, NJ: Information Today.
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Venturini, Tommaso. 2012. “Building on Faults: How to
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Figure One: Image characterization of top images returned from Google Images, query [Gezi] according to
“save the trees” (green outlines) or “bring down the government” (red fills), June 2013. (cc) Digital Methods
Initiative, Amsterdam, 2013.
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5/29
5/30
5/31
Social media is used to gather support.
Several prominent people join the protests.
Police raid the encampments. Support is
gathered through social media.
Second police raid, water cannons and tear
gas used, barricades set up, first arrests and
detentions. First victim.
6/3
Television game show Kelime Oyunu breaks
the media silence and supports protesters.
Third victim.
6/6
6/7
6/8
6/9
Fifth victim.
AKP supporters welcome Erdoğan, who had
just come back from a visit to Africa.
Protests continue on Taksim Square with
support of major Istanbul football clubs.
Erdoğan declares that “patience has its
limits,” referring to the Gezi protests.
6/11
6/12
6/13
Police enter Taksim Square after a
10-day detente.
Erdoğan raises the possibility of a
referendum after meeting with
protesters’ representatives.
The mothers’ chain protest takes place.
6/10
6/5
Fourth victim (Police Commissioner
Mustafa Sari).
6/4
6/2
Second victim (Ethem Sarisülük).
6/1
5/28
5/27
5/26
Peaceful protests start. The image of
the "woman in red" appears in the news.
PHOTO TIMELINE OF THE 2013
PROTESTS IN TURKEY, 5/25–7/2
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6/18
Silent protest imitates and supports
Erdem Gündüz, the “standing man.”
6/30
Massive march, football team fans
join the protest.
7/2
7/1
6/29
6/28
6/27
6/26
6/25
6/24
6/23
6/22
6/21
6/20
Demonstrations in Taksim Square and in
Ankara against the release of police officer
Ahnet Sahbaz. Suppression of protesters.
Protesters throw flowers at the police;
police attacks. Mass demonstrations
around Turkey.
6/17
Protest grows, becomes national.
6/19
6/16
Protests and police violence continue.
6/15
6/14
Figure Two: Political Insights, Yahoo! Labs, showing right-leaning and left-leaning queries related to Obama,
2011. Source: Borra and Weber, 2012.
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Figure Three: Issuecrawler graph of interlinking among Obama-related websites, 2008.
Source: Issuecrawler.net, © Govcom.org Foundation, 2008, published in Krippendorff, 2012.
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twitter.com/barackobama
pride.barackobama.com
students.barackobama.com
democrats.org
dailykos.com
migente.com/barack_obama
youtube.com/barackobama
asianave.com/barack_obama
link.brightcove.com
eventful.com/barackobama
eons.com/barackobama
mydd.com
mybatanga.com/barackobama
myspace.com/barackobama
enviros.barackobama.com
blackplanet.com/barack_obama
veterans.barackobama.com
my.barackobama.com
faith.barackobama.com
tribes.barackobama.com
women.barackobama.com
glee.com/barack_obama
store.barackobama.com
linkedin.com/in/barackobama
factcheck.barackobama.com
barackobama.com
go.barackobama.com
latinos.barackobama.com
flickr.com/photos/barackobamadotcom/
brightcove.com
presby.facebook.com/barackobama
registrationbyworkingassets.com
faithbase.com/barack_obama
Betsy Sinclair
11 Mar 2008 - 05:13
11 Mar 2008 - 07:00
off
page
2
2
33
Note that http://www.registrationbyworkingassets.com
is the Rock the Vote voter registration widget.
Joe Biden
Hillary Clinton
Chris Dodd
John Edwards
Dennis Kucinich
Al Gore
Mike Gravel
Barack Obama
Bill Richardson
myspace.com/barackobama - 18
my.barackobama.com - 17
barackobama.com - 16
youtube.com/barackobama - 16
flickr.com/photos/barackobamadotcom/ - 16
democrats.org - 15
twitter.com/barackobama - 15
store.barackobama.com - 15
registrationbyworkingassets.com - 15
factcheck.barackobama.com - 15
eventful.com/barackobama - 15
link.brightcove.com - 15
brightcove.com - 15
migente.com/barack_obama - 15
mybatanga.com/barackobama - 15
linkedin.com/in/barackobama - 15
eons.com/barackobama - 15
blackplanet.com/barack_obama - 15
faithbase.com/barack_obama - 15
presby.facebook.com/barackobama - 15
asianave.com/barack_obama - 15
glee.com/barack_obama - 15
latinos.barackobama.com - 14
veterans.barackobama.com - 14
students.barackobama.com - 14
women.barackobama.com - 14
enviros.barackobama.com - 14
go.barackobama.com - 14
pride.barackobama.com - 14
tribes.barackobama.com - 14
faith.barackobama.com - 14
dailykos.com - 8
mydd.com - 5
Seed URLs
http://www.joebiden.com
http://www.hillaryclinton.com
http://www.chrisdodd.com
http://johnedwards.com
http://kucinich.us
http://www.algore.com
http://www.gravel2008.us
http://www.barackobama.com
http://www.richardsonforpresident.com
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Actor Rankings
(by inlink count from core network and periphery)
Map generated from Issuecrawler.net
by the Govcom.org Foundation, Amsterdam.
Co-Link Map Details
Author:
Crawl Start:
Crawl End:
Privilege Starting Points:
Co-link Analysis Mode:
Iterations:
Crawl Depth:
Node Count:
Democratic Presidential Candidates
Figure Four: Extended follow-follower network of Dutch Ministry-level civil servants, March, 2013.
Data captured by TCAT, DMI Amsterdam, and Visualization by Gephi. Source: Baetens et al., 2013.
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Figure Five: Climate change skeptics’ presence in the leading climate change websites, according to google.com,
July 2007. Source distance analysis by the Google Scraper, aka the Lippmannian Device. (cc) Digital Methods
Initiative, Amsterdam, 2007.
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Figure Six: Most engaged with content in European counter-jihadist networks on Facebook, January 2013.
Product of “What does the Internet add? Studying extremism and counter-jihadism online,” International
Workshop and Data Sprint, (cc) Digital Methods Initiative, Amsterdam, 2013.
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