Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 (2002) 567±588
www.elsevier.com/locate/jseaes
Permian of Southeast Asia: an overview
Henri Fontaine
8 alleÂe de la Chapelle, 92140 Clamart, France
Received 15 October 2000; accepted 14 June 2001
Abstract
Permian rocks are widely distributed throughout Southeast Asia. Because of the tropical±equatorial climate the rocks are commonly
deeply weathered and covered by dense vegetation over much of the region. Elsewhere, Permian rocks are well exposed and easy to access,
particularly where limestone outcrops have weathered to form spectacular, castellated, tower karst. Many limestone outcrops, containing
abundant fusulinaceans, were early recognized to be of Permian age, but many outcrops without fusulinaceans, erroneously assigned to the
Permian, were found subsequently to be of Triassic age, and more careful studies have established the Permian age of rocks of other
lithologies. It is now recognized that different depositional environments are represented by the Permian deposits in various parts of the
region. Massive limestones, widespread throughout the region, represent extensive carbonate platforms; local occurrences of thick bedded
cherts indicate deposition in deep marine environments, coal, bauxite and clastic sediments with vertebrate remains in North Vietnam and
Laos indicate deposition in a continental environment, and pebbly mudstones in Myanmar, Peninsular Thailand, northwest Malaysia and
Sumatra, are considered to have been formed in a glacial environment. Volcanic rocks are absent in northwest Peninsular Malaysia and
Peninsular Thailand, but are extensively developed in North Vietnam, Sumatra, the eastern Malay Peninsula and Timor. Fossils, representing
many fossil groups, are often proli®c in Permian sediments, with fusulinaceans, for example, occurring in astronomical numbers in many
limestone outcrops. Age-diagnostic fossils demonstrate that the whole of the Permian is represented in different areas of Southeast Asia.
Fossil faunal and ¯oral assemblages have been used to establish climatic conditions and environments of deposition, to de®ne distinct crustal
blocks and to provide the basis for reconstructing the palaeogeography during Permian times. q 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights
reserved.
Keywords: Volcanic rocks; Permian; Limestone; Fossils; Environments; Bauxite
1. Introduction
For more than a century, research on the Permian has
been carried out almost continuously in Southeast Asia.
Much of this work has been the routine work of systematic
geological mapping, often not leading to studies that are
more detailed. This steady progress has been punctuated
by occasional bursts of activity aimed at resolving particular
problems. New data are still continually being obtained. The
Permian of Southeast Asia has been found to show a multitude of facets. It is by no means homogeneous from China to
Timor, as Fromaget claimed in 1931. It has also been
discovered that the Permian was not a time of complete
tectonic quiescence, as was previously assumed by some
geologists. In addition, it is now possible to look at the
whole span of the Permian Period in several parts of Southeast Asia.
Since the 1970s, the geological history of Southeast Asia
has been reviewed in the context of plate±tectonic theory.
E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Fontaine).
Southeast Asia is presently considered to be made up of an
amalgamation of allochthonous continental terranes rifted
from Gondwana. The history of Gondwana dispersion and
Asian accretion (IGCP Project 321; Metcalfe, 1995) is
complex and still a subject of some contention. Other papers
of this publication will be focused on this problem.
2. First steps in the study of the Permian of Southeast
Asia
As early as 1875, fusulinaceans were discovered in limestones in Central Sumatra; they were considered to be of
Carboniferous or Permian age (Verbeek, 1875). Fusulina
verbeeki was described by Geinitz in 1876 and became
the type species of genus Verbeekina Staff 1909, a presently
important Guadalupian genus. Volz (1904) introduced the
genus Sumatrina, another important marker of the Guadalupian.
In the same way, the ®rst Permian fossils found in other
areas of Southeast Asia were commonly assigned to the
1367-9120/02/$ - see front matter q 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 1367-912 0(01)00076-1
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H. Fontaine / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 (2002) 567±588
Carboniferous, to the Carboniferous and Permian, or to the
`Anthracolithic'. As early as 1856, limestone was described
exposed near Moulmein in Myanmar. Later on, fossils indicating a Permo-Carboniferous age were identi®ed in these
rocks. In the Shan States, the upper part of the `Plateau
Limestone', a name given by La Touche in 1908, yielded
fossils, which were considered belonging to an age corresponding to the middle and upper parts of the Productus
Limestone, previously described from the Salt Range. The
word `Permian' is surprisingly absent from the titles of
almost all the studies published on Myanmar up to the
present day. During short periods of ®eldwork in southern
Vietnam and western Cambodia in 1869 and 1870, Petiton
failed to recognize the Permian, although he visited the
Permian limestones of the Hatien area. These limestones
were assigned either to the Devonian or to the Silurian.
Fusulinaceans were discovered in Cambodia for the ®rst
time in 1912. As early as 1896, vertebrates (Dicynodon)
were found in Laos near Luang Prabang; initially, they
were assigned to the base of Triassic, but they actually
belong to Upper Permian. This was the ®rst discovery of
Permian continental beds in Southeast Asia. These vertebrates have been the subject of recent study. New specimens of Dicynodon have been found, and the history of
the previous studies has been summarized (Battail et al.,
1995). Fusulinaceans collected from limestone in the
same area were studied by Douville (1906); they
included Sumatrina and, what will be called a few
years later, Verbeekina.
In 1899, fossils were collected from limestone at Khao
Sak in the Chon Daen District, central Thailand (Fig. 1). The
following year, they were studied by Newton at the British
Museum. This palaeontologist identi®ed a foraminifer as
Valvulina bulloides Brady, indicating a Carboniferous age.
Valvulina bulloides is presently the type species of genus
Globivalvulina, a genus ranging from Middle Carboniferous
to the end of the Permian. The Khao Sak limestone is actually Permian in age (Fontaine and Salyapongse 1999).
Before the end of the 19th century, rich fossil assemblages started to be discovered in Permian limestones,
marls and subordinate shales, associated with volcanic
rocks in Timor. These fossil assemblages consisted of fusulinaceans, corals, sponges, bryozoans, brachiopods,
bivalves, gastropods, ammonoids, trilobites and echinoderms. Ammonoids and crinoids attracted special attention.
The fossils were considered to constitute the richest Permian
fauna in the world. The fauna was actively studied during
the ®rst half of the 20th century and the results were
published in many papers. As a result of these studies a
series of books, Palaontologie von Timor was published
between 1915 and 1929. Six distinctive faunal zones were
recognized in the Permian of Timor (Marks, 1956).
At the beginning of the 20th century, many fossils were
collected from limestones, widely distributed in Cambodia,
Laos and Vietnam (Fig. 2). They showed some similarities
with fossils of the `Productus Limestone' earlier described
Fig. 1. Thailand. A great part of Northeast Thailand is covered by Mesozoic
continental strata and does not display Permian outcrops.
from the Salt Range in Pakistan. In comparison, which did
not pretend to be precise, the term Productus Limestone
began to be used in geological papers on Cambodia, Laos
and Vietnam. In reality, the term was not sharply de®ned,
but was used as a synonym of Permo-Carboniferous, or
more commonly, restricted to the `Uralian' and `Permian'.
In a palaeontological paper, mainly concerned with brachiopods, Mansuy (1913) proposed that the faunas of the Salt
Range were peculiar, because they had lived under particular conditions in `relative geographical isolation'. He
concluded that the faunas of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam
were not similar to those of the Salt Range; on the contrary,
they showed more af®nity (Mansuy, 1913; 1916), or at the
most equal af®nity (Mansuy, 1914), with the Ural faunas.
Deprat, before arriving at Hanoi in 1909, already had an
opportunity to study some fusulinaceans from Greece. In
Hanoi, he started almost immediately to carry out research
on these fossils, getting samples from Cambodia, Laos,
Vietnam and Yunnan (China). He wrote the ®rst paper on
this research as early as 1911. From 1911 to 1915, he
published four thick memoirs. Colani (1924) gave some
additional information on fusulinaceans collected mainly
from northern Vietnam (Pho Binh Gia, Dong Van and
Muong The areas), more rarely from Cambodia and
Yunnan. Fusulinaceans became a popular group for study
by geologists working in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam.
With the evolution of the research in these countries, the
H. Fontaine / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 (2002) 567±588
term Productus Limestone came to be used for limestones rich in brachiopods (with Productus), and also
rich in fusulinaceans. It was alternatively called `Fusulinacean Limestone' and there were no more references
to the Salt Range.
Fromaget (1931) considered that the limestone of central
Laos (Cammon Province) was the best example of the
Productus Limestone, because it was delimited by two
unconformities. In these outcrops, the limestone ranged
from Upper Moscovian to Permian age. However, the
palaeontological evidence was not very strong; the boundary between the Uralian and the Permian was arbitrary. The
base of the Permian was marked by the appearance of
Neoschwagerina (Fromaget, 1931). The Uralian included
all the present Lower Permian and the Upper Permian
(Lopingian) was ignored. Fromaget (1931) was surprised
that he did not ®nd traces of glaciations, similar to that
known in Gondwanaland. Later on, the term Productus
Limestone was practically abandoned. Saurin (1956)
divided the marine Permian of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam into four parts: Sakmarian, Artinskian, Kungurian and
Kazanian.
569
3. Palaeontology, biostratigraphy, palaeogeography
After 1960, geological publications started to show
palaeobiogeographical differences in Southeast Asia, even
if there was no mention of these differences. For instance,
the fusulinaceans of Central Thailand were studied more
actively because of their abundance and high diversity, in
contrast to the fusulinaceans of Peninsular Thailand. On the
other hand, in Peninsular Thailand, brachiopods were
mainly studied. The history of the Southeast Asian Permian
appeared to become increasingly complex.
Although the Middle Permian was recognized very
quickly over large areas of Southeast Asia (Toriyama et
al., 1975), in 1975 the Lower Permian (Asselian±Sakmarian) and especially the Upper Permian (Wuchiapingian and
Changhsingian) were still rather poorly known. At that time,
the boundaries between the Permian and Carboniferous or
Triassic were commonly considered to be marked by marine
regressions, depositional breaks or unconformities.
In this paper, only shallow marine and continental sediments shall be considered. The sub-division of the Permian
used follows the proposals of the International Commission
on Stratigraphy (Jin, 1996). It is slightly different from the
sub-division proposed by Leven (1981) and adopted by
Fontaine (1986c). The Lower Permian or Cisuralian is
considered to extend from the Sphaeroschwagerina zone
to the Brevaxina and Misellina zones. The Middle Permian
or Guadalupian ranges from the Cancellina, Armenina and
Praesumatrina zones to the Lepidolina zone. The Upper
Permian or Lopingian corresponds to the Colaniella and
Palaeofusulina zones.
4. Permian of Thailand
Fig. 2. Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. Main Permian exposures.
In 1960, limestone widely distributed all over Thailand
(Table 1) was called the Ratburi Limestone. It was considered to be of Permo-Carboniferous age. Some fusulinaceans, corals and brachiopods had been found at a few
localities in southern, central and northern Thailand. They
did not provide strong biostratigraphical information. It was
considered that the age of the Ratburi Limestone was impossible to be de®ned precisely. In the Stratigraphic Lexicon
(CNRS, Paris, 1956), Sethaput concluded: ªComprehensive
studies of fossil faunas through a number of sections are
needed before any attempt can be made to distinguish faunal
zones or to correlate the whole, or parts of the Ratburi
Limestone, with the late Paleozoic rocks of neighboring
regionsº. This proposal by a high-ranking geologist was
very in¯uential. Subsequently, intensive research was
undertaken in the ®eld and in laboratories. At the
outset, the research was focused mainly on the limestones and Bunopas (1983, p. 40) for example, considered
that the ªPermian rocks are dominantly limestonesº. This
remark has to be slightly moderated as the result of more
recent research.
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H. Fontaine / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 (2002) 567±588
Table 1
Summary of the data on the Permian of Thailand
4.1. Peninsular Thailand
Permian limestone is widely distributed in Peninsular
Thailand, where it is called the Ratburi Limestone, a term
presently limited to the limestone of this area, which is
different from other limestones in Thailand. However, it
extends to the southwards into northwest Peninsular Malaysia (Fig. 3) and northwards into eastern Myanmar. It has
been studied especially in the Phatthalung, Phangnga,
Chumphon, Bang Saphan, Prachuabkhirikhan, Phetburi,
Ratburi, Kanchanaburi and Thong Pha Phum areas (Yanagida, 1970; Waterhouse and Piyasin, 1970; Grant, 1976;
Bronnimann et al., 1978; Waterhouse et al., 1981; Fontaine
and Suteethorn, 1988; Fontaine, 1986b; 1989; IngavatHelmcke, 1993; Baird et al., 1993; Dawson et al., 1993;
Ueno et al., 1996; Fontaine et al., 1998b; Archbold, 1999).
The Ratburi Limestone ranges in age from late Early to
late Middle Permian, that is to say from Artinskian±
Kungurian to Midian. Locally, it extends up into the
Wuchiapingian; for instance, Colaniella has been found at
Tham Ling in the Phangnga area (Ingavat-Helmcke, 1993).
The upper part of the limestone is locally dolomitic and not
well dated. Fusulinaceans play a minor role in the Permian
of Peninsular Thailand. Although Asselian fusulinaceans
have been reported in the Chumphon area (IngavatHelmcke, 1993), they actually appear referable to younger
taxa (Ueno et al., 1996). The Sakmarian age suggested by
Sakagami (1969) for the limestones of Prachuabkhirikhan
appears unlikely, following the study of more abundant
material from the same localities (Fontaine and Suteethorn,
1988).
Peculiar foraminifera have been reported from Peninsular
Thailand. The porcellaneous pillared Shanita and the
strange Rectostipulina with angular shape have been
found at several localities from Kanchanaburi to Trang,
whereas the fusulinacean Eopolydiexodina is known so far
only in Kanchanaburi Province (Fontaine and Suteethorn,
1988; Ingavat-Helmcke, 1993; Dawson et al., 1993). Coral
faunas of Peninsular Thailand are different from those
known from the other parts of Thailand (Fontaine and
Suteethorn, 1988; Fontaine, 1989). Brachiopods are in
abundance at many places.
The Ratburi Limestone is underlain by shale and sandstone.
This sequence (Kaeng Krachan Group or Phuket Group, similar to the Singa Formation of Northwest Peninsular Malaysia),
ranges from Carboniferous to Lower Permian and is Late
Sakmarian in age at its top (Waterhouse et al., 1981). It is
characterized by the presence of pebbly mudstone containing
a cool water brachiopod fauna, considered Late Asselian±
Early Sakmarian in age (Waterhouse, 1982; Shi and Archbold,
1998). In Peninsular Thailand, at Pak Meng 30 km west
of Trang, a small collection of continental plants
consisting of branchlets of Walchia has been found
15 m below the base of the Ratburi Limestone
(Fontaine, 1986c). This occurrence has only limited
phytogeographical signi®cance as Walchia is not associated
with other plants (Li and Shen, 1996).
Both in Peninsular Thailand and northwest Peninsular
Malaysia, there was a complete absence of volcanism
during the Permian.
4.2. Western Thailand
The Permian is exposed in a few areas in western Thailand, but has not been extensively studied. The Permian
rocks include shale, siltstone, sandstone, calcareous
H. Fontaine / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 (2002) 567±588
571
Fig. 3. Peninsular Malaysia or West Malaysia. In East Malaysia, Permian is known only in a single small area of Sarawak.
sandstone and limestone. Along the road from Mae Sot to
Umphang, 40 km south of Mae Sot, shale is very rich in
fossils: bryozoans and brachiopods with a few trilobites
(Fontaine et al., 1988). Limestone yields the most important
fossils. Ingavat and Douglas (1981) have reported the occurrence of Monodiexodina in limestone and calcareous sandstone near Ban Mae Ka Sa, 20 km northeast of Mae Sot, at
Lang Sang in Tak area and west±southwest of Mae Sariang.
At Doi Pha Daeng east of Mae Sot, the limestone contains
Neoschwagerina, Afghanella, Sumatrina, Kahlerina and
other fusulinaceans indicating a Murgabian age (Fontaine
and Suteethorn, 1988). Neoschwagerina also occurs
between Tha Song Yang and Mae Sariang in a limestone
outcrop otherwise poor in fossils (Fontaine and Suteethorn,
1988). Near Umphang south of Mae Sot, a limestone
outcrop contains Neoschwagerina, Sumatrina and Pseudodoliolina, indicating a Murgabian age (Ingavat, 1984).
4.3. Northwest Thailand
The part of Thailand to the northwest of Chiang Mai has
been considered to belong to the same tectonic block as
Peninsular Thailand, but displays different sediments and
fossils. Limestone is widespread, and ranges in age from
Lower Carboniferous to end-Permian (Fontaine et al.,
1993b). It is locally rich in fusulinaceans of Early to Late
Permian age. It contains such genera as Sphaeroschwager-
ina, Neoschwagerina, Verbeekina, Sumatrina and Afghanella. Smaller foraminifera include Hemigordiopsis.
Corals have also been found, and consist of solitary, fasciculate: Waagenophyllum and massive Rugosa: Multimurinus (Fontaine et al., 1993b; Flugel, 1997). Many of these
taxa are either poorly known or unknown in Peninsular
Thailand.
4.4. Northern Thailand
The Permian is well-documented in some areas of northern Thailand, and is apparently complete, from Asselian to
Changhsingian.
The Late Permian (Huai Thak Formation) has been
studied extensively at Doi Pha Phlung, northeast of
Lampang, after the discovery of late Late Permian (Changhsingian) faunas. Foraminifers consist of Palaeofusulina,
Colaniella, Gallowayinella, Reichelina and other genera
(Sakagami and Hatta, 1982; Ueno and Sakagami, 1991).
Brachiopods are characterized by the abundance of Oldhamina; they are close to the Lopingian fauna of south China
(Waterhouse, 1983). Ammonoids include Paratirolites,
Tapashanites and Pseudogastrioceras (Ishibashi and Chonglakmani, 1990; Ishibashi et al., 1997). Palaeofusulina has
been found in another area 13 km southwest of Phrae (Ingavat, 1984). It possibly occurs 20 km west of Amphoe Wiang
Sa south of Nan (Hahn and Siebenhuner, 1982).
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H. Fontaine / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 (2002) 567±588
Northeast of Lampang at Ban Cham Ka and southeast of
Lampang at Phra That Muang Kham, limestone contains
Colaniella and fasciculate corals. It appears to belong to
the Wuchiapingian (Fontaine and Vachard, 1988). In the
Nan area north of Tha Wang Pha, Colaniella is again
present in a small limestone outcrop between Ban Song
Kwae and Chiang Klang (new data). Permianella, a
Wuchiapingian brachiopod, has been found between the
Colaniella locality and Tha Wang Pha (Yanagida (and a
research group) 1988).
The Middle Permian is not strongly documented in
Lampang area, but is currently being studied in the Nan
area. East-southeast of Nan at Doi Pha Buang, a Midian
limestone is very rich in diverse fossils, including large
fusulinaceans such as Colania, Yabeina and Lepidolina
(new data). North of Nan at Doi Pha Sing and Doi Pha
Toob, limestone contains fusulinaceans, fasciculate (Pseudohuangia) and massive (Wentzelella) corals (new data).
The fusulinaceans indicate an age ranging from Artinskian
to Kubergandian.
Lower Permian (Asselian±Sakmarian) has been
described from the Kiu Lom Dam in the Lampang area
(Ingavat, 1984; Fontaine and Vachard, 1988). Asselian
and Sakmarian are unknown so far in Nan area.
4.5. Central Thailand
In Central Thailand, the Permian is represented in castellated limestone hills, which are widely distributed from
Saraburi to Phetchabun and Uthai Thani. The limestones
range mainly from the Misellina zone to the Colania
zone; they have been divided into ten biozones (Ingavat et
al., 1980). They are rich in algae and fusulinaceans, which
Fig. 4. Sumatra. Although the Permian is not very widespread in this island,
some exposures are very interesting from different points of view. Black
squares represent Permian localities.
have been actively studied. Diverse corals are sporadically
abundant. Older Permian limestones, as old as Asselian,
have been described at a few localities in the Khao Somphot
area northeast of Saraburi and in the area south of Phetchabun. Marine beds, younger than the Colania douvillei zone,
are so far unknown in Central Thailand.
About 50 km south±southwest of Phetchabun in the
Nong Phai area at Khlong Wang Ang, fragments of fossil
plants were collected from black shale. Eight species were
identi®ed and considered to be of Cathaysian af®nity,
although they include species of Glossopteris and Palaeovittaria, suggesting some migration from Gondwana
(Konno, 1964). This migration was a problem. Later on, a
new study was carried out in the ®eld and laboratory. Only a
Cathaysian ¯ora was found, without any connection with
Gondwana. This ¯ora is closer to the Jambi Flora of Sumatra (Fig. 4) than to the typical Gigantopteris ¯ora (Asama,
1966). Fossil wood has been reported from the same area,
with an identi®cation of a specimen as Dadoxylon (Chonglakmani and Fontaine, 1990).
4.6. Nam Duk Basin
The elongated N±S trending Nam Duk Basin separates
Central Thailand from Northeast Thailand. From bottom to
top, it displays deep marine to shallow marine and marginal
marine sediments, widely exposed along the Lomsak±
Chumphae Highway, where the outcrops have been actively
studied by Helmcke and his collaborators. The Nam Duk
Basin has been considered the eastern external zone of a
vast Variscan orogen (Helmcke and Kraikhong, 1982;
Helmcke, 1982; Helmcke and Lindenberg, 1983; Helmcke
et al., 1985). It is actually located between Central Thailand
or the Khao Khwang Platform and Northeast Thailand or the
Pha Nok Khao Platform (Wielchowski and Young, 1985).
This present geographical distribution is explained by a
displacement, caused by a N±S trending strike-slip fault
(Helmcke, 1994). From another point of view, it is dif®cult
not to think of a locally developed intracontinental basin,
during an extensional event, including the rifting of western
Bac Bo in Vietnam. However, the Nam Duk Basin displayed
important shoals during the Permian, especially at its eastern margin along the Pha Nok Khao Platform. According to
a current study, limestone is more than 600 m thick in Khao
Tham Yai area, north of the Lomsak±Chumphae Highway.
It is very rich in diverse fossils: algae with green algae,
fusulinaceans in abundance, proli®c corals in the lower
part and brachiopods. These fossils indicate a shallow
marine environment. The limestone ranges from Murgabian
to Late Midian; it contains Lepidolina at its top (Fontaine
and Salyapongse, 2001). It appears to be overlain by black
shale, and then, by a relatively small body of limestone,
which contains foraminifera, but without fusulinaceans so
far, and might belong to the Triassic (Fontaine and Salyapongse, 2001).
H. Fontaine / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 (2002) 567±588
573
4.7. Northeast Thailand
4.8. East Thailand
The Permian is widely distributed in northeast Thailand,
and consists of shale, sandstone and mainly limestone,
deposited on the `Pha Nok Khao Platform'. The limestone
is called the Nam Maholan Formation in the Loei area and
the Pha Nok Khao Formation in the Chumphae area. These
two formations are apparently identical. They are locally
rich in fossils: algae, foraminifera, corals, brachiopods
and, locally, trilobites. They range from Asselian to Middle
Murgabian (Yanagida, 1966; 1976; Igo, 1972; 1974;
Kobayashi and Hamada, 1979; Fontaine and Suteethorn,
1992; Ueno et al., 1993; 1995; Fontaine et al., 1994a, b;
Charoentitirat and Ueno, 1999). They overlie the Carboniferous conformably, and the boundary between the two
systems appears to be locally in limestone (Fontaine and
Suteethorn, 1995; Charoentitirat and Ueno, 1999). In the
Khorat Plateau, under the Mesozoic continental cover,
Permian limestone ranges from Late Wolfcampian to
Guadalupian (Wordian). It is an important gas-bearing
rock and has been studied carefully. Several depositional
sequences have been recognized (Kozar et al., 1992).
West of the road from Chiang Khan to Loei and Wang
Saphung, the Permian is less rich in fossils and is a continuation of the Nam Duk Basin. Its lower part corresponds to a
relatively deep marine facies and consists mainly of shale and
chert; Sakmarian±Artinskian limestone occurs in Nam Piang
Din Waterfall area to the south (new data). Its upper part is
shallow marine (with limestone rich in Codonofusiella at
Khao Pha Phung and Khao Pha Bao Pha Sao; new data) to
continental. Along the highway from Loei to Dan Sai (9 km),
black shale with thin interbeds of sandstone contains a typical
Cathaysian Gigantopteris ¯ora. Sixteen species have been
identi®ed (Asama et al., 1968).
The Lower Permian has not so far been documented in
eastern Thailand. However, Permian limestone is widespread,
and forms large hills along the Cambodian (Table 2) border. It
is an extension of the Permian limestone known in the western
part of Cambodia. It is rich in diverse assemblages of fossils:
algae, foraminifera with Lepidolina and locally Colaniella,
corals (fasciculate and massive Rugosa), and brachiopods.
These limestones are of Midian, and very locally of Wuchiapingian age (Pitakpaivan and Ingavat, 1980; Fontaine
and Salyapongse, 1997; Fontaine et al., 1997).
To the west near the road from Chanthaburi to Sakaeo (or
Sra Kaeo), Permian exposures consist of chert, silici®ed
shale and relatively small bodies of limestone. The limestone is commonly less rich in fossils and sometimes
appears to form exotic blocks. At several localities, it
belongs to Kubergandian, at rare localities to Murgabian
and in a few places to the Midian (Fontaine and Salyapongse, 1997; Fontaine et al., 1997).
Further to the west, Permian exposures are rare, and are
known near Chonburi (very poorly dated limestone 7 km
south of Chonburi), near Sri Racha (limestone lens in
shale assigned to a Kubergandian±Murgabian age) and
near Klaeng (very interesting limestone and shale). In the
Klaeng area, shales are locally rich in Leptodus and limestone contains a rich assemblage of foraminifera, including
Palaeofusulina, Reichelina and Colaniella. These shales
and limestone, clearly belonging to the Upper Permian,
are overlain by Triassic limestone (Fontaine et al., 1999b).
Table 2
Summary of the data on the Permian of Vietnam and Cambodia
5. Myanmar
Permian exposures are widespread in Eastern Myanmar
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H. Fontaine / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 (2002) 567±588
(Eastern Highlands). Bender (1983) recognized two different tectonic units, the Karen±Tenasserim Unit (probably
extending to the north as the West Kachin Unit) to the
west and the East Kachin±Shan Unit to the east. The
Karen±Tenasserim Unit consists of the Mergui (or Taungyo) Series, composed of shales, pebbly mudstones and
sandstones, and of the Moulmein Limestone, which contains
Shanita and Hemigordiopsis south±southeast of Mandalay.
This unit is similar to the Phuket Group and the Ratburi
Limestone of Peninsular Thailand. The East Kachin±Shan
Unit covers very large areas. It is mainly built up of limestone, the Plateau Limestone, and corresponds to a marine
shelf region. The upper part of this limestone has been
considered Permo-Carboniferous in age, but few fossils
have been studied so far. Some Permian fusulinaceans
such as Pseudoschwagerina might suggest similarities
with the limestones of adjacent Northwest Thailand; if
this is the case, a large region covering Northwest Thailand
and Northeast Myanmar displays faunas similar to those of
Central Thailand, or more widely, to those of the Indochina
Block.
6. Laos
In Laos, the Permian is widespread from Phong Saly in
the north to Saravan in the south. At different localities, it is
marine, marine and continental or completely continental.
In most northerly Laos, in the Phong Saly area, important
continental deposits, with coal seams, not exceeding 1 m in
thickness, are known along Nam Ou River, a tributary of the
Mekong. They seem to span all the Permian and are underlain by Carboniferous black shale. They have yielded plant
imprints at Sop Pong and at Bun Tai, localities respectively
north and south of Phong Saly. These plants were tentatively
identi®ed in the past (Fromaget, 1933), but have been
studied more recently, in 1977, by Vozenin-Serra and
found to include Gigantopteris.
The Permian is widespread, but discontinuously exposed
between Nam Ou River and the Myanmar border. It is
composed of shale, sandstone, prominent limestone, and
volcanic rocks (andesite). It crops out along the lower valley
of Nam Ou River up to Muong Ngoi 100 km north±northeast of Luang Prabang. To the west, it extends to Con Tagne
and to Na Mo about 125 km, respectively northwest and
north±northwest of Luang Prabang. Limestone is locally
rich in fossils, which have been studied in a few areas, for
instance near Con Tagne or along the Nam Ou River. The
Permian has been mentioned in other places of northwest
Laos, but not always with strong palaeontological evidence.
Near Luang Prabang, the Permian is extensively exposed;
it extends to Van Vieng 100 km, south of Luang Prabang. It
is rich in limestone containing diverse fossils: algae, foraminifera, corals, brachiopods, and bivalves. Among the
identi®ed fossils, it is possible to mention some fusulinaceans (Neoschwagerina, Verbeekina, Sumatrina and Pseu-
dodoliolina) and some corals (Pseudohuangia, Ipciphyllum,
Laophyllum, Multimurinus). These fossils suggest strongly a
Guadalupian age. Locally, older fossils have been collected
and indicate ages as old as `Sakmarian' (Saurin, 1956).
Northeast of Luang Prabang, shales exposed at the western
side of the Phu Loi massif contain Middle Permian ammonoids. Near Luang Prabang, terrigenous sediments become
prominent above the Guadalupian limestone. At ®rst, they
are marine deposits, with brachiopods (Leptodus and others)
and trilobites. Later, they become continental and contain a
coal seam, 1 m thick, as well as plant imprints and remains
of Dicynodon. Near Ban Sang, northwest of Luang Prabang,
green sandstone has yielded a few fragments of reptile
bones, possibly suggesting another occurrence of continental Upper Permian in northern Laos.
In the Plain of Jars, in the Xieng Khouang and Ban Ban
areas (Tran Ninh), volcano-terrigenous sediments and limestone are exposed and build up the Khang Khay Formation.
They do not contain very rich faunas. Some foraminifers
(with fusulinaceans), brachiopods, gastropods and bivalves
have been noticed. These fossils are rather poorly preserved,
but indicate mainly a Permian age.
In the Kamkeut and Thakkek areas (`Cammon Province'
of the past, presently divided into Bolikhamsay Province to
the north and Khammouan Province to the south), the
Permian is widely exposed and is locally very rich in fossils.
It was studied in the ®eld in 1912 and 1913 by Dussault
(1919) and from 1923 to 1927 by Fromaget (1927). Fusulinaceans have been studied by Deprat (1913a, b) and Colani
(see Fromaget, 1927). Brachiopods were described by
Mansuy (1913). This fauna considerably stands in contrast
to the correlative faunas of Peninsular Thailand, and is indicative of tropical waters (Waterhouse, 1987). The studies
have been more important in the Kamkeut area, where
Deprat (1915) introduced a new stratigraphic unit, the
`Cammonian'.
In the Saravan area, Permian sediments consisting of
limestones, shales, siltstones, sandstones and tuffaceous
rocks overlie Carboniferous shale and sandstone
containing coal seams (Hoffet, 1933; Komphasouk et
al., 1986). The limestones have not been studied in
detail. They display a horizon rich in diverse algae
and foraminifera. The fusulinaceans clearly indicate
two biozones of the Kubergandian: the Misellina
confragaspira zone of Early Kubergandian age and the
Maklaya saraburiensis zone of very early Late Kubergandian (Fontaine et al., 1999a).
7. Cambodia and South Vietnam (Nam Bo)
Cambodia and the most southerly part of Vietnam display
similar exposures of Permian, but more widespread in
Cambodia than in South Vietnam (or Nam Bo).
Gubler (1935a, b), carried out research, limited to southern and western Cambodia, where the Permian is widely
H. Fontaine / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 (2002) 567±588
exposed. Gubler (1935a) suggested that the Permian was
delimited by an underlying Hercynian unconformity, and
an overlying unconformity, marked by a thick conglomerate
in many places. A transition from Permian to Triassic without a break was described as possibly occurring in a few
small areas, for instance in Kompong Speu area. Limestone
was the prominent deposit with some interbeds of clastic
rocks, siliceous shales and cherts. Gubler (1935b) collected
diverse fossils: algae, foraminifera (with fusulinaceans in
abundance), corals, sponges, bryozoans, brachiopods,
bivalves, gastropods, ammonoids, trilobites and a ®sh
tooth. He distinguished three horizons in the Cambodian
Permian: (1) beds with Neoschwagerina craticulifera, (2)
beds characterized by N. multiseptata (presently Lepidolina
multiseptata), and (3) beds rich in brachiopods. Later on,
some of the Permian fossils (gastropods, Oldhaminids, foraminifera) collected by Gubler in the 1930s were studied by
other geologists (Delpey, 1940; 1941; 1942; Termier, 1959;
Nguyen, 1979).
From 1960 to 1981, ®eldwork was carried out by several
geologists in different areas of Cambodia and South Viet
Nam. New fossils were collected and studied (Saurin, 1959;
1962; 1965; Le, 1959; Tran, 1961; Fontaine, 1961; 1967;
Ishii and Nogami, 1964; Ishii et al., 1969; Nguyen, 1970,
1979; Nguyen, 1970; Ishii and Murata, 1974; Nguyen,
1981). A good section ranging from Murgabian to Midian
was described near Sisophon in West Cambodia; it overlies
andesitic rocks (Saurin, 1959; Fontaine, 1961; Ishii et al.,
1969). Fossil wood was collected from the base of the Lepidolina zone of this section (Serra, 1966; Vozenin-Serra,
1977) from a horizon containing bauxite. Misellina and
Praesumatrina were found in limestone at Phnom Sup
Trup 45 km northeast of Sisophon, and this limestone was
assigned clearly to the Permian for the ®rst time (Saurin,
1965); it is the oldest well-dated Permian limestone of
Cambodia. Murgabian±Midian limestone exposures, with
fusulinaceans and corals, were discovered in Treng area,
about 75 km south of Sisophon (Fontaine, 1964).
In southern Cambodia, fusulinaceans from Phnom Cau
Lan were identi®ed and included Yabeina and Lepidolina
(Saurin, 1958). Algae and corals were described for the ®rst
time at many localities of Cambodia and Vietnam (Nguyen,
1970; Fontaine, 1961; 1967).
In South Vietnam, algae, fusulinaceans and corals
were almost unknown before 1959; they were the
subject of some studies (Le, 1959; Fontaine, 1969;
Nguyen, 1970; Nguyen, 1970; Vu Khuc et al., 1984).
Colaniella and Reichelina were discovered in Kompong
Trach area of eastern Cambodia; Palaeofusulina was
found in Kampot area of eastern Cambodia and along
the Saigon River north-northeast of Tay Ninh in the
western part of South Vietnam (Ta Thiet Limestone).
Accordingly, Wuchiapingian and Changhsingian were
con®rmed for the ®rst time in Cambodia and South
Vietnam (Nguyen, 1979; Nguyen, 1982). Although the
middle and upper parts (Kubergandian to Changhsin-
575
gian) are presently known in Cambodia and South Vietnam, there is no information on the lower part of the
Permian.
8. North Vietnam
The Permian is widespread in North Vietnam (Bac Bo); it
is restricted to a few areas in Central (Trung Bo) and South
(Nam Bo) Vietnam, as recently shown by Nguyen et al.
(1989) and Vu Khuc et al. (2000). A detailed bibliography
of the geology of Vietnam has been published recently (Vu
Khuc et al., 1998).
8.1. North Vietnam (Bac Bo): northern and littoral Bac Bo
In northern and littoral Bac Bo, the Permian is known
from Pho Bang to the west, through the Cao Bang and
Lang Son areas, to Ha Long Bay in the east. It is complete
from Asselian to Changhsingian. It is conformably overlain
by Triassic shale belonging to the Lang Son Formation
(Phan , 1986; Phan and Dickins, 1995). Asselian to Midian
limestones are common. They conformably overlie Carboniferous sediments, rich in limestone, with which they form
the Bac Son Formation. The Permian limestones are rich in
fusulinaceans, and the whole sequence contains diverse
fossils: algae, smaller foraminifera, corals, brachiopods,
trilobites and others. These fossils have been studied by
different authors (Deprat, Colani, Mansuy, Patte, Saurin,
Fontaine, Nguyen, Le Hung) over many papers; the results
of their studies have been partially summarized in a book
(Duong et al., 1980).
In northern Bac Bo, the Upper Permian or Dong Dang
Formation overlies the Bac Son Formation with an unconformity. It is largely different from the underlying Bac Son
Formation. Its lower part consists of shale and siltstone
containing anthracite lenses and bauxite beds. The bauxite
represents an economic resource; it indicates a hot, humid
climate during its formation. The upper part of the Dong
Dang Formation is a black siliceous limestone containing
Palaeofusulina. The Dong Dang Formation is equivalent to
Wuchiapingian and Changhsingian. Palaeofusulina is
widely distributed at the top of the north Bac Bo Permian.
Samples from the Lang Son Province where this genus was
®rst discovered have been studied by Nguyen (1974) and
have improved our knowledge of this genus.
Towards the east in littoral Bac Bo, the Upper Permian is
richer in terrigenous sediments with thin coal seams.
8.2. North Vietnam: western Bac Bo
In western Bac Bo, the Permian is again widespread, but
differs in the presence of thick volcanic rocks. Important
rifting activities have been suggested during the Permian
in that region (Le, 1982; Tran, 1986).
The Permian limestones and the conformably underlying
Carboniferous limestones make up the Da Mai Formation.
576
H. Fontaine / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 (2002) 567±588
They extend from Lai Chau, Son La to Thanh Hoa. Along
the Da River limestone is less developed. The Permian
mainly consists of shale, sandstone and basalt, and is
described as the Ban Diet Formation.
Basalts, tuff, shale and sandstone unconformably overlie
the Da Mai Formation; they are called Cam Thuy Formation. The basalts correspond to the Omeishan basalts of
eastern Yunnan and western Guizhou in China. The Cam
Thuy Formation is conformably overlain by the Yen Duyet
Formation. The lower part of this formation is composed of
shale, locally with coal seams, and argillaceous limestone; it
has yielded brachiopods, which have been the subject of a
recent paper (Shi and Shen, 1998), and some plant imprints
including Gigantopteris. The upper part of the Yen Duyet
Formation is a black to gray limestone containing Palaeofusulina.
Along the Da River, the Upper Permian basalts are
thicker than elsewhere. In the associated shale and sandstone, plant fossils occur and include Lobatannularia and
Gigantopteris.
8.3. Central Vietnam (Trung Bo)
The Permian is not extensively developed in Central Vietnam. Northwest of Dong Hoi, the Quy Dat and La Khe areas
display the largest Permian exposures in Trung Bo. Carboniferous and Permian limestones are widespread. They are
assigned to the Muong Long Formation. The Permian limestones range in age from Asselian to Murgabian.
Shale and sandstone exposed along a stream 2 km southwest of Cam Lo in Quang Tri Province are fossiliferous.
They contain Permian brachiopods (Fontaine, 1960; Tran,
1962), which are most likely of Wuchiapingian age (Shi and
Shen, 1998).
In the southern part of Trung Bo, northwest of Ban Me
Thuot, the Dak Lin Formation is composed of shale, siltstone, sandstone and intermediate to acidic volcanics, with
limestone lenses at the top containing Verbeekina (Phan,
1991; 1993; Phan and Dickins, 1995), but is not widely
exposed.
9. Malaysia
9.1. Northwest Peninsular Malaysia
In northwest Peninsular Malaysia, Permian sediments are
known in three areas with different sedimentary sequences:
(1) Perlis and northern Kedah, to the north; (2) the Kinta
Valley in Perak, to the south; and (3) central Kedah, to the
east (Fig. 3).
In Perlis and northern Kedah, the Permian consists of an
important limestone (Chuping Limestone) overlying the
Singa and the Kubang Pasu Formations, clastic formations,
Permian in age at their top and corresponding to two different sedimentological facies, more sandy in the Kubang Pasu
Formation. Fossils were collected from a few localities
during geological mapping (Jones et al., 1966; Jones,
1979). They consisted of algae, foraminifera, brachiopods,
bryozoans and molluscs. Bryozoans from Pulau Jong, a
small island of Langkawi Archipelago, were studied by
Sakagami (1963). Later on, other studies were carried out.
In Perlis, fusulinaceans from calcareous sandstone near
Bukit Wang Pisang have been identi®ed as Monodiexodina,
indicating a late Early Permian age (Basir and Koay, 1990;
Basir, 1991). They are the oldest fusulinaceans of northwest
Peninsular Malaysia.
From Bukit Mata Air, Middle Permian foraminifera and
algae have been reported, whereas foraminifera and algae
from Bukit Manek indicate only a Permian age, without
more precision (Fontaine and Vachard, 1988). Early
Permian (Sakmarian) brachiopods have been collected
from pebbly mudstones of the upper part of the Singa
Formation at two localities (Kilim and Batu Asah) in Langkawi Island. They have been compared with faunas of periGondwanan `Cimmerian' terranes, in particular with faunas
of Peninsular Thailand, and even the faunas of Australia
(Shi et al., 1997). A few bryozoans have been collected
from the Singa Formation at Bukit Durian in Langkawi
Island (Basir et al., 1992).
In the Kinta Valley in Perak, the Permian is composed
mainly of limestone (Nam Loong Beds and H.S. Lee Beds).
The H.S. Lee Beds contain more diverse faunas (Suntharalingam, 1968). At the H.S. Lee Mine, fusulinaceans
include Misellina claudiae in the upper part of the limestone
and Pseudofusulina kraffti in the lower part (Ishii, 1966b),
as well as Cancellina (Maklaya) ex gr. pamirica Leven,
according to samples stored at the Geological Survey of
Malaysia (Fontaine and Ibrahim, 1994). These fusulinaceans point to a Kungurian age, with possible extension to
the top of Artinskian and the base of Kubergandian. Ammonoids indicate a similar age (Lee, 1980). A fasciculate
Rugosa (Waagenophyllum) and two solitary Rugosa (Iranophyllum and Pavastehphyllum) have been identi®ed (Jones
et al., 1966). A well-preserved alga has been described
(Elliott, 1968). A rich gastropod fauna (52 genera, 91
species) includes many specimens unknown outside Malaysia (Batten, 1972; 1979; 1985). Very large bivalves (Alatoconchidae) occur (Runnegar and Gobbett, 1975; Yancey
and Boyd, 1983; Yancey, 1985). From a 4.5 m thick horizon
of the Nam Loong Beds, Early Permian (Sterlitamakian,
Sakmarian Stage), brachiopods have been reported (Shi
and Waterhouse, 1991); they share elements with Gondwana and moderately with the Urals. From the northern
end of Gunung Kanthan, a locality of the northern part of
Kinta Valley, Metcalfe (1981) isolated Lower Permian
(Wolfcampian) conodonts from a condensed sequence
ranging from Early Devonian to Early Permian. The Kinta
Valley Permian is rather different from the Permian of Perlis
and Kedah States.
In central Kedah, the Semanggol Formation is made of
chert, shale, sandstone and conglomerate. It is mainly Triassic in age and contains Daonella and Halobia in its upper
H. Fontaine / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 (2002) 567±588
part. Its lower part or the `Chert Member' consists of chert
and silici®ed shale with rare occurrences of small limestone
lenses. It is a deep-sea facies, very different from the
Permian to the west. It has yielded Middle and Late Permian
radiolarians (Sashida et al., 1993; 1995; Spiller and
Metcalfe, 1995a; Basir, 1996).
In Selangor, 40 km south of Kuala Lumpur, an ammonoid
(Agathiceras) has been found in argillaceous rocks. This
fossil suggested a Lower to Middle Permian age (Abdullah
Sani, 1985). This interesting result unfortunately remains
the only record from Selangor.
9.2. East Peninsular Malaysia
Shallow marine Permian sediments of eastern Peninsular
Malaysia are known from many localities in Kelantan,
Pahang, Negeri Sembilan, Terengganu and Johor. They
range possibly from Sakmarian, certainly from Artinskian
to Changhsingian in age, but Asselian has not been recorded
up to now. A few plant fragments have been found in south
Kelantan at Sungai Chiku (Edwards, 1926; Fontaine, 1990)
and at Sungai Berok (Umar Hamzah, 1995); they are not
dated precisely and seem to belong to the Upper Carboniferous-Lower Permian.
Along the road from Kuala Lumpur to Kuantan, two
localities east of Mentakab are very well known: (1) Bukit
Kepayang quarry at Kampung Awah, displaying limestone
embedded in andesite; (2) Jengka Pass showing a section of
shale and limestone exposed in a road cutting. These localities are rich in diverse fossils (algae, foraminifera, corals,
bryozoans, brachiopods and bivalves), which have been
studied by several authors (Cummings, 1965; Gowda,
1965; Ichikawa et al., 1966; Ishii, 1966a; Igo, 1967;
Sakagami, 1973; Nakazawa, 1973; Kato and Ezaki, 1986;
Fontaine, 1986c; Fontaine et al., 1988). They belong to the
Guadalupian (Late Murgabian±Early Midian).
At Jengka Pass, the upper part of the section consists of
shale and sandstone, containing 24 species of Upper
Permian plants including Gigantopteris and Lobatannularia, showing Cathaysian af®nities (Konno and Asama,
1970). Three other localities are known in the Jengka Pass
area. From Sungai Jengka, 2 km southwest of Jengka Pass,
Cummings (1965) identi®ed Neoschwagerina and Padangia, indicating a Middle Guadalupian age. At Sungai
Pahang, 20 km south±southeast of Jengka Pass, drillholes
investigating the foundations for a bridge bottomed in fossiliferous limestone belonging to Murgabian (Fontaine et al.,
1994a, b). Limestone exposed near Mengapur 35 km northeast of Jengka Pass is locally fossiliferous; it is of Murgabian age (Basir and Che, 1991; Fontaine et al., 1994a, b).
To the southeast of Mentakab, a new Permian rock unit,
the Bera Formation, has been introduced recently for a
sequence of mudstone, shale, siltstone and sandstone, with
subordinate conglomerate (Leman et al., 2000). Fossils
consist of brachiopods, cephalopods, trilobites, bivalves,
gastropods, fusulinaceans and plants. Brachiopods (17
577
species including lyttoniids in the highest strata) and cephalopods (with predominant Agathiceras) are associated with
fragments of a plant belonging to Taeniopteris (Sone and
Leman, 2000; Sone et al., 2001). A Middle Permian age has
been proposed for the Bera Formation, which is considered
unconformably overlain by Triassic strata.
In North Pahang, the Permian has been described from
several localities. From Sungai Atok, Permian fusulinaceans
and corals have been collected; they include Verbeekina (in
abundance), Sumatrina annae, Kahlerina and others (Igo,
1964), indicating a Murgabian±Midian age. Brachiopods,
bivalves, bryozoans, corals and a trilobite were found in
shale at Sungai Spia and indicated a late Middle Permian
age (Igo, 1964). Changhsingian faunas, including foraminifera Reichelina, Colaniella, Palaeofusulina and others,
were collected from Gua Panjang (a limestone hill) 12 km
south of Merapoh and from a few localities of the lower
basin of Sungai Kenong east of Kuala Lipis (Fontaine et
al., 1994a, b). Near and south of Gua Panjang, many
Upper Permian (Changhsingian) brachiopods were
collected from shale; they included Leptodus, Oldhamina,
Haydenella and 40 other species (Leman, 1993; 1994). In
the Lower Changhsingian beds between Kuala Lipis and
Merapoh, a Lobatannularia ¯ora is associated with brachiopods, in particular with Oldhamina decipiens (Leman, 1993,
p. 211). Brachiopods were collected from shale in Kuala
Lipis area and included genus Leptodus (Jones et al.,
1966). Near Raub, interbedded siltstones, mudstones and
limestones have yielded a conodont (Neogondolella rosenkrantzi Bender and Stoppel) indicating a Late Guadalupian±
Dzhul®an age; a structural discontinuity is mentioned
between these sediments and the Triassic Semantan Formation (Metcalfe, 1993).
From Sungai Pertang area in Negeri Sembilan, limestone
samples collected by the Geological Survey of Malaysia are
rich in Colania, indicating an Early Midian age (Fontaine et
al., 1994a, b).
Kelantan is probably the most interesting state of Malaysia
because of an apparently continuous section, from Middle
Carboniferous to Triassic, in the southeastern part of the
state. Permian sediments have been found at many localities
along Sungai Lebir, Sungai Aring, Sungai Relai, Sungai Paloh,
Sungai Badong and other smaller rivers. They contain diverse
fossils of which foraminifera and brachiopods have been identi®ed. The Permian fossils belong to several horizons from
Sakmarian to Changhsingian (Cummings, 1965; Jones et al.,
1966; Aw, 1972 published in 1990; Aw et al., 1977; Yanagida
and Aw, 1979; Fontaine, 1990). Asselian has not been identi®ed and might correspond to a marine regression and to beds
with continental plants. Lepidolina occurs at Sungai Aring but
is unknown elsewhere in Malaysia up to now. This genus
indicates a Late Midian age. In the southwestern part of Kelantan, Permian sediments occur at a few localities along Sungai
Galas and Sungai Nenggiri in Gua Musang area. Murgabian
foraminifera have been found in a sample collected from
Sungai Wah.
578
H. Fontaine / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 (2002) 567±588
In Terengganu, in the past, Carboniferous rocks were
considered very widespread. The Permian was known
certainly only at Bukit Biwah (Cummings, 1965). Recently,
the same locality has been the subject of new studies (Kato
and Ezaki, 1986; Fontaine et al., 1988). In addition, the
Permian has been identi®ed at Bukit Taat, a hill near
Bukit Biwah (Fontaine, 1990). Furthermore, limestone,
largely concealed by Quaternary alluvium in the Sri Bandi
area, has been unearthed during the extension of an oil palm
plantation. It is an important deposit as it contains rich
faunas indicating a late Early Permian (Artinskian±Kungurian) age (Fontaine et al., 1998a).
In Johor, limestone was discovered in two areas: (1) in a
mine hole near Sungai Lenggor; and (2) in the Sungai Sedili
area (Rajah, 1970). The limestone of Sungai Lenggor is
somewhat crystalline, and has been doubtfully assigned to
the Permian, without a study of the fossils. In Sungai Sedili
area, limestone (Sungai Sedili Limestone) is widely exposed
on the southeastern slopes of Gunung Sumalayang 17 miles
from Kota Tinggi. It is the most southerly limestone locality
so far found in Peninsular Malaysia. It is embedded in a
thick series of argillaceous rocks including also lava and
tuff. It contains a fusulinacean assemblage indicating a
time interval corresponding to the Misellina Zone and to a
slightly older age (Igo et al., 1979). From the Gunung
Blumut area, 25 km northwest of Gunung Sumalayang,
Konno et al. (1970) described the `Linggiu Flora' including
Lobatannularia, Gigantopteris and other genera.
9.3. East Malaysia
In east Malaysia (Table 3), the Permian is known only in a
small area of Sarawak south of Kuching near Terbat, at
Gunung Selabor and along the Kedup River, near that localTable 3
Summary of the data on the Permian of Malaysia
ity. It is part of the Terbat Formation, made of prominent
limestone and subordinate shale. Fossils occur and are
locally in moderate abundance. Foraminifera and conodonts
have been studied (Krekeler, 1932; 1933; Cummings, 1955;
1961; Sanderson, 1966; Metcalfe, 1985; Fontaine, 1990).
They indicate a Carboniferous to Permian age. An Early
Permian age corresponding to the Pseudoschwagerina
zone was suggested by Cummings (1955; 1961). Asselian,
especially Middle±Upper Asselian, has been clearly recognized (Vachard in Fontaine, 1990). The limestone extends
upwards into younger stages, as indicated by two samples
containing Langella, a foraminifera suggesting probably a
Kungurian age.
10. Indonesia and the island of Timor
10.1. Sumatra
After suggestions, in the 1920s, of Late Permian and
Late Carboniferous ages for a sedimentary sequence in
the Jambi area of central Sumatra (Table 4), an Early
Permian age was de®nitely established by Thompson
(1936). This Early Permian (Asselian±Sakmarian) is
known in Sumatra only in Jambi area, in the valleys
of Sungai Mesumai and Sungai Merangin. Algae and
fusulinaceans (Pseudoschwagerina, Darvasites and
others) are in abundance (Fontaine and Vachard, 1984;
Fontaine and Gafoer, 1989). Corals have been found at
four localities in the valley of the Mesumai River and
include Kepingophyllidae (Fontaine, 1986a; Fontaine
and Gafoer, 1989). This Lower Permian sequence is
composed of shale, sandstone, limestone, tuff and volcanic rocks (commonly intermediate). It contains some
H. Fontaine / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 (2002) 567±588
579
Table 4
Summary of the data on the Permian of Sumatra area
continental interbeds with thin coal lenses, plant
imprints and fossil wood. In 1925, a rich ¯ora was
discovered in Jambi area in the valleys of the tributaries
of the Merangin River. It consisted of 35 genera and 86
species with 2 species of Gigantopteris (Jongmans and
Gothan, 1935). No trace of a Gondwana ¯ora was found
(Jongmans, 1937). Later on, no typical species of the
Gigantopteris Flora were recognized in the Jambi Flora,
probably because of a difference in age (Asama, 1966).
Fossil wood is locally in abundance. A few specimens
from Telok Gedang along the Merangin River have
been studied by Vozenin-Serra (Fontaine et al., 1986c;
Fontaine and Gafoer, 1989). They do not show growth
rings and suggest a tropical climate. The bases of tree
trunks, complete with roots, have been found in their
original place. Marine Middle Permian (Murgabian)
sediments are exposed to the south in the Sungai
Tembesi area and to the north in the Batang Tabir area.
South of the Jambi area in South Sumatra, the Permian is
known only at Bukit Pendopo, a limestone hill in Palembang
Province. This limestone is not very rich in fossils.
However, it contains fusulinaceans consisting of Cancellina, Armenina asiatica Leven, Neoschwagerina simplex
Ozawa and others (Nguyen, in Fontaine and Gafoer,
1989). These fossils indicate a Late Kubergandian±Early
Murgabian age.
In the Padang Highlands of Central Sumatra, Middle
Permian is exposed at several localities. Guguk Bulat is
a small limestone hill 3.5 km to the northwest of Singkarak Lake. The limestone is bedded and about 150 m
thick. It is very rich in diverse fossils: algae, foraminifera, corals, sponges, gastropods, and brachiopods. After
some remarks in older publications, it was the subject
of an important study (Lange, 1925). Almost one
hundred fossil species were described. Recently, it has
been visited again (Fontaine, 1982; 1983; Fontaine and
Gafoer, 1989). Corals are diverse and in abundance.
They include taxa common on the Southeast Asian
mainland, such as Ipciphyllum and Multimurinus. The
limestone of Guguk Bulat is Late Murgabian to Early
Midian in age. Southeast of Guguk Bulat near Silung-
kang, 16 km east of Solok, the Middle Permian is well
exposed. It is composed of limestone, massive or
bedded, overlain by shale containing brachiopods. The
limestone is not very fossiliferous.
In the northern part of Central Sumatra, north of Lubuksikaping in the Muarasipongi area, a few fusulinaceans,
corals and bryozoans have been observed. They indicate a
Middle Permian age.
In northern Sumatra, the Permian is not widespread. It has
not been actively studied. Middle Permian (Situtup Limestone) is known 40 km northwest of Takengon, a town on
the western side of Tawar Lake. In Laubuluh area, few
fossils have been found. In addition, a formation (Bohorok
Formation) similar to the Singa Formation of Malaysia has
been recognized.
The Upper Permian has not yet been identi®ed in
Sumatra.
10.2. Belitung
The Permian occurs in the basement rocks of Belitung, a
small island to the east of Sumatra. It consists of shale,
sandstone and chert. It has yielded a few fossils belonging
to Lower Permian (Archbold, 1983).
10.3. Island of Timor
Timor has a complicated geology. However, the sedimentary sequences are relatively easy to correlate from the west
to the east. Bird and Cook (1991), working in West Timor,
even adopted the formation names de®ned in East Timor.
The oldest sedimentary rocks encountered to date are of
Permian in age. They consist of shale, siltstone, sandstone
and, locally, limestone and marl. They correspond almost to
the whole of the Permian. The limestones have been characterized by the abundance of a certain group of fossils and
may be called, for instance, `cephalopod limestone' or
`crinoid limestone'.
Although the Permian of Timor is characterized by an
abundance of fossils, it is different from other parts of
Southeast Asia. Fusulinaceans display a low diversity.
They have not attracted paleontologists and only four
580
H. Fontaine / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 (2002) 567±588
short papers have been published. The ®rst paper mentioned
only 10 species after the study of important material from 17
collections of samples. Fusulinaceans have not been used
for dating. Cephalopods, occurring in abundance in shale
and limestone at many localities, have been preferred. Many
corals have been collected and the literature concerning
them is impressive (Gerth, 1921; 1926; Koker, 1924;
Heritsch, 1937; Wang, 1947; Hehenwarter, 1951; SchouppeÂe and Stacul, 1955; 1959; Fedorowski, 1974; 1986). The
coral fauna is actually poor; it consists mainly of solitary
Rugosa without dissepiments and of some Tabulata. Other
corals are very rare massive Rugosa. Genera such as Ipciphyllum and Pseudohuangia, which are common in Central
Thailand, Laos or Cambodia, have never been reported from
Timor.
In his study of Eastern Timor, Audley-Charles (1968, p.
43±44) described limestones of the Maubisse Formation
as ªexceptionally rich in reef faunas and debrisº. Fusulinaceans are not given in the list of these faunas, although
a following paragraph gives a few names of fusulinaceans
taken from the earlier study of Nogami (1963). Ten coral
species are mentioned; they are only solitary corals without dissepiments. The diversity of the coral fauna is very
low compared with the faunas of Central Thailand. Fusulinaceans and corals are especially mentioned in this paper
because they are immediate indicators of the climate. Other
fossils must not be forgotten: bivalves, gastropods, cephalopods, echinoderms, trilobites and, in particular, brachiopods; see the bibliography of Skwarko and Yusuf (1982)
and a recent paper of Archbold and Barkham (1989) on
brachiopods.
10.4. Irian Jaya
Irian Jaya is far away from the Southeast Asia mainland and has been considered to be the northeastern part
of the supercontinent of Gondwana. Here the Permian
shows more af®nities with the Permian of Australia.
Although it is locally rich in fossils, it does not contain
fusulinaceans, fasciculate or massive corals (Rugosa) for
certainty. Brachiopods are common fossils. They were
reported for the ®rst time as early as 1911. Since then,
they have been mentioned in several papers and, since
the paper of Archbold (1981), they have been more
actively studied. They are `remarkably similar to those
from the Ratburi Limestone of Thailand' and suggest a
geographical proximity of Thailand and Irian Jaya
during the Permian (Archbold et al., 1982; we must
understand that the authors do not refer to whole Thailand, but only Peninsular Thailand). These faunas have
also some links with brachiopods of Western Australia
and Timor (Archbold et al., 1982). Plant fossils from
Irian Jaya belong largely to the Gondwana Flora and
include Glossopteris and Gangamopteris. The Permian
extends to the east, from Irian Jaya to Papua New
Guinea, where limestone containing smaller foramini-
Fig. 5. Western part of the Philippines. Permian exposures do not occur in
the other parts of the Philippines.
fera has been known since 1950, and to the west,
maybe to Misool Island where unfossiliferous rock has
been found under the well-dated Mesozoic (Middle?±
Upper Triassic to Cretaceous).
11. Philippines
The Permian is known only in the western part of the
Philippines (Fig. 5). Before 1980, it had been found in
three areas. At the southwestern part of Carabao Island,
a small island between Tablas and Panay Islands, a
limestone hill contains Middle Permian fusulinaceans,
which were observed for the ®rst time by Andal
(1966). In the southern part of Mindoro, fusulinaceans
were reported from limestone pebbles belonging to a
conglomerate younger than Permian. In northwestern
Palawan, limestone containing fusulinaceans was found
at Bacuit Bay and in small neighbouring islands (Minilog, Matinloc and Dilumacad); it was called the Minilog
Formation and was assigned to a Middle Permian age
(Hashimoto and Sato, 1973).
In the 1980s, Permian limestone was found at small
islands of the Calamian Archipelago south of Tara Island;
at Malemeglemeg and Botulan Islands, algae and foraminifera were recovered and indicated an Upper Guadalupian
age. At Getche Island near Botulan Island, limestone is
almost barren of fossils; it might belong to Permian or
Early Triassic. In addition to that, new information was
provided on Carabao Island (Fontaine, 1986c). In conclusion, only Middle Permian has been recorded from the
Philippines.
H. Fontaine / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 (2002) 567±588
12. Some Permian problems
12.1. Deep marine sediments
In the past, studies of the Permian sedimentary rocks were
commonly restricted to shallow marine and continental
facies containing diverse and large fossils. Cherts and
other siliceous sediments, poor in large fossils, were
commonly ignored. They are locally associated with bodies
of serpentinised ma®c and ultrama®c rocks and are
commonly thought to be of deep-sea origin. In the past,
they were regarded mostly as of Lower to Middle Paleozoic
in age. During the last 15 years, they have been actively
studied because they provide interesting information on
terrane con®guration and the tectonic development of
Southeast Asia. They allow the recognition of sites of
former oceans or oceanic branches and to establish the duration of oceanic conditions.
Research has been focused on radiolarians of a few areas
of Thailand. Devonian to Triassic radiolarians have been
identi®ed in the Chiang Mai±Fang area. Lower and Upper
Permian radiolarians have been found in the Nan area. In the
Pak Chom area of Loei Province, radiolarians appear to be
only of an Upper Devonian to Lower Carboniferous age.
Middle Permian to Triassic radiolarians have been recovered from the Sa Kaeo±Trat area (Caridroit et al., 1992;
Caridroit, 1993; Sashida et al., 1993; 1997; 1998; Sashida
and Igo, 1992; 1999). Other areas remain to be studied, for
instance the Nakhon Sawan area in Central Thailand (Khao
Gob Cherts of Bunopas, 1981).
In Peninsular Malaysia, Devonian to Permian radiolarians
have been observed in cherts of the Bentong±Raub suture
zone. Lower±Middle Permian radiolarians have been recovered in Pos Mering area in southwest Kelantan. Middle
Permian to Triassic radiolarians occurs in the Semanggol
Formation (Spiller and Metcalfe, 1995a,b; Sashida et al.,
1995).
According to their different stratigraphical ranges, the
cherts were probably not deposited in the same ocean, but
in a main ocean and smaller temporary branches.
12.2. Permian±Triassic and Carboniferous±Permian
boundaries
In the past, the Permian boundaries were said to correspond, in many places, to unconformities, or at least, to
breaks in sedimentation. They are presently better known
in many areas.
In Vietnam (Bac Bo), marine sedimentation is commonly
continuous from Upper Permian to Lower Triassic. In Vietnam (Nam Bo), the sequence has been recorded in a single
area, along the Saigon River (Nguyen, 1982). In Cambodia,
the recent discovery of Palaeofusulina in the eastern part of
the country (Nguyen, 1979) suggests that a similar sequence
may be present. In Thailand, marine sediments ranging from
Upper Permian to Lower Triassic have been found in the
581
northern (Sakagami and Hatta, 1982; Ishibashi and Chonglakmani, 1990; Ishibashi et al., 1994) and eastern (Fontaine
et al., 1999) parts of the country. In central Peninsular
Malaysia (Kelantan and Pahang), Upper Permian and Triassic appear to be in continuity in southern Kelantan (Aw et
al., 1977), at Sungai Kenong and in the Merapoh area in
northern Pahang (Fontaine et al., 1994a, b). In Northwest
Peninsular Malaysia (Perlis), the boundary between
Permian and Triassic seems to be conformable, and to lie
within dolomitic limestone. In the Southern Shan and Kayah
States of Myanmar, Anisian ammonites and conodonts have
been found in the top of the Upper Plateau Limestone. A
new stratigraphical unit, the Kondeik Limestone, has been
introduced. Furthermore, dolomitic limestone, the
Thigaungdaung Limestone, has been recognized as being
enclosed between the Kondeik Limestone and limestone
with Permian fusulinaceans. The Thigaungdaung Limestone
locally contains a few Triassic foraminifera; it has been
assigned to the Triassic, and possibly in part, to the Permian
(Gramann et al., 1972).
In Cambodia and South Vietnam (Nam Bo), the Carboniferous is paleontologically unknown. It has been identi®ed
only at the Pirates Archipelago (Hai Tac Islands), where
limestone pebbles of a conglomerate contain Serpukhovian
foraminifera. In Sumatra, Lower Carboniferous marine
sediments are certainly present, but there is no precise information on Middle±Upper Carboniferous beds. The Bohorok
Formation of North Sumatra with pebbly mudstones is
correlated with similar formations of Peninsular Malaysia
and Peninsular Thailand. In other areas of Southeast Asia,
continuous marine sedimentation has been recorded from
Carboniferous to Permian, for instance in North Vietnam
(West, North and littoral Bac Bo) and Central Vietnam or
Trung Bo (North of Dong Hoi). In Laos, Lower and Middle
Carboniferous are well known; the Upper Carboniferous has
not actually been proved by paleontological evidence, but
appears to occur. In Northeast Thailand, there is a continuous transition from Carboniferous to Permian, currently
being studied by T. Charoentitirat. In Central Thailand in
the Chon Daen area and east of Lam Narai, there is apparently no gap between the Carboniferous and Permian; Gshelian and Asselian have been recognized in the Khao
Somphot area. In eastern Peninsular Malaysia, Carboniferous sediments are common, but the transition to Permian is
poorly known. Kasimovian, Gshelian and Asselian have not
been identi®ed to date. In Sarawak, the boundary between
Carboniferous and Permian is within the Terbat Limestone.
12.3. Sea level changes/tectonic movements
In Southeast Asia, the Phong Saly area of northern Laos is
apparently an exception in displaying a complete Permian
sequence, consisting only of continental beds. Elsewhere,
the Permian is not so homogeneous.
In Laos (Luang Prabang area), Thailand (Loei area) and
Malaysia (Jengka Pass, Linggiu areas), continental
582
H. Fontaine / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 (2002) 567±588
sediments with plants and locally coal seams were deposited
above shallow marine units at the end of Middle Permian
and during Upper Permian. A small decrease in sea level,
local and maybe due to tectonic movements, was suf®cient
to result in a great lateral displacement of the shoreline,
because the shelf was shallow before this event.
In North Vietnam (Bac Bo), a disconformity/unconformity is characteristic of the base of the Upper Permian
(Lopingian). It is marked by the occurrence of bauxite and
clastic beds with plants and thin coal lenses.
The Permian limestones of Battambang-Sisophon area
display a red discontinuous interbed, rich in bauxite and
containing from 50 to 60% of Al2O3 (Saurin, 1963). Near
Sisophon, this red bed is up to 1.5 m thick; it is located
between limestone with Sumatrina and limestone with Lepidolina, and is older than the bauxite of North Vietnam. In
other areas of Cambodia, traces of desiccation and limited
emergence have been observed (Nguyen, 1979).
The marine environment disappeared early in Northeast
Thailand, apparently during the Murgabian. The Nam Duk
basin is an exception. The top of Khao Tham Yai limestone
contains Lepidolina, indicating a Late Midian age (Fontaine
and Salyapongse, 2001). The occurrence of Lepidolina is
unique, thus far, for Northeast Thailand, and even Central
Thailand where the highest marine beds belong to the Colania zone, of Lower Midian age.
In Amphoe Phra Phutthabat of Central Thailand, 19 km
north of Saraburi, a bed of argillaceous siltstone, 30 to
60 cm thick, is interbedded in limestone and contains fossil
plants in abundance. It is immediately overlain by limestone
with the fusulinaceans Neoschwagerina, Afghanella,
Verbeekina and others (Ingavat and Campbell, 1972).
At the end of Lower Permian, ammonoids turn out to be
relatively common. They have been found in abundance at
localities of Central Thailand (Amphoe Muak Lek and
Amphoe Phra Phuttabat). They show af®nities with faunas
from Pamir (Glenister et al., 1990; Ishibashi et al., 1997;
Zhou and Liengjarern, 1997). Is this occurrence due to a rise
in sea level?
At Khao Somphot, a limestone hill in Central Thailand, a
dolomitic horizon occurs above beds containing Pseudoschwagerina, an Asselian±Sakmarian fusulinacean.
The Lower Permian is so far unknown in Cambodia. In
Sumatra, it is marine with continental in¯uence.
During the Permian, Peninsular Thailand and northwest
Peninsular Malaysia (Shan±Thai or Sibumasu Block) differ
in the way their sedimentary sequences developed. These
sequences are clearly divided into: (1) clastic sediments at
the base of the Permian, (2) prominent limestone ranging
from the top of Lower Permian to the end of Middle
Permian, and even locally, to Wuchiapingian, (3) dolomite
irregularly present at the top of the Permian.
12.4. Pebbly mudstones: a glacial marine deposit (?)
Pebbly mudstones have been the subject of detailed
studies in Peninsular Thailand and northwest Peninsular
Malaysia, since 1978. They extend to eastern Myanmar
and probably to northern Sumatra. They characterize the
Shan-Thai (or Sibumasu) Block. They are poorly sorted
clastic sediments containing pebbles and even blocks in a
®ne-grained matrix. Some studies have favored a glacial
marine origin for these sediments. The larger clasts have
been considered dropstones rafted by marine ice (Stauffer
and Mantajit, 1981; Tantiwanit et al., 1983; Stauffer and
Lee, 1986; Waterhouse, 1987). In contrast with this opinion,
other authors have interpreted the pebbly mudstones as sediments deposited on a submarine slope with slumping and
mixing of sediments of different sizes (Mitchell et al., 1970;
Altermann, 1986; Dickins, 1992).
Paleontological peculiarities are added to the strangeness of the sediments. The pebbly mudstones contain a
cool-water brachiopod fauna in southern Thailand
(Waterhouse, 1982), but not typical cold-water Gondwanan elements such as Eurydesma, Atomodesma and
others (Dickins, 1985; 1992; Fang, 1994). Because of
the absence of this actual cold-water fauna in the Lower
Permian, it seems dif®cult to accept that the Shan-Thai
Block was still part of Gondwana during the Early
Permian. For brachiopod faunas, the changes in marine
provinciality during the Permian is considered a consequence of rifting away from Gondwana and drifting
towards Indochina and South China Blocks, or alternatively, a consequence of migration of climatic zones
(Shi and Archbold, 1995).
In the Ratburi and Chuping Limestones overlying the
pebbly mudstones, fusulinaceans play a subordinate
role, much less important than in central Thailand
(Fontaine et al., 1994a, b; Ueno et al., 1996). Peculiar
foraminifera (Shanita, Rectostipulina, Eopolydiexodina)
have been found in Peninsular Thailand (see above).
Corals are not proli®c and not diverse; they are different from those known to the east in central Thailand,
Cambodia and Laos (Fontaine et al., 1994a, b). In addition to that, the corals from the base of the Ratburi
Limestone display growth bands, whereas the corals at
the top of the limestone are devoid of bands (Fontaine
and Jungyusuk, 1997). The presence of growth bands
appears to indicate a seasonal climate with cold and
warm seasons. The absence of growth bands suggests
regular growth in a continuously warm climate.
Brachiopod faunas indicate also a progressive warming
during the Permian. According to the palaeontological
results, it appears that the climate was at least cool at
the beginning of the Permian (Waterhouse, 1982) and
progressively became warm during the rest of the
Permian (Shi and Archbold, 1995; Fontaine and
Jungyusuk, 1997). Even if there is some disagreement
on a glacial marine event, one must accept, at least,
that Peninsular Thailand and Northwest Peninsular
Malaysia are peculiar from a paleobiogeographical
point of view.
H. Fontaine / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 (2002) 567±588
12.5. Shrinking Permian limestone
Fusulinaceans are easily recognized and Permian limestones were rapidly recorded during geological mapping
surveys. Other limestones without fusulinaceans and poor
in fossils were assigned to the Permian because they were
exposed near Permian limestones, and were very similar to
these limestones; they were considered another facies of the
Permian. This assumption has been common in Southeast
Asia on land, and, offshore in boreholes (Fontaine et al.,
1990 and unpublished data) and on islands (Fontaine et
al., 1993). De Coo and Smit (1975) showed that Triassic
limestone is widely represented in Kodiang area in northwest Peninsular Malaysia, and a Triassic age was con®rmed
by a study of foraminifera (Gazdzicki and Smit, 1977). Later
on, Triassic fossils were found at several localities in the
Ratburi Limestone of Peninsular Thailand and the Chuping
Limestone of northwest Peninsular Malaysia. They have
been collected also from other limestone localities in eastern
Peninsular Malaysia, in Thailand (northern, central and
eastern parts of the country), and in southernmost Vietnam
in an island of the Hatien area.
12.6. Severe biotic crisis of the end of the Permian
This extinction event is easily recognized at several localities in Southeast Asia, even by people not specializing in
paleontology. Detailed information is not given in this
paper, only spectacular facts are mentioned: (1) Large fusulinaceans, easily visible with the naked eye, disappeared
abruptly at the end of the Midian. Before disappearing,
Lepidolina was already affected and displayed strange
forms of growth, indicating a tenacious response to adverse
conditions; (2) massive Rugosa also disappeared at the end
of the Midian; (3) other fusulinaceans and corals disappeared at the end of Changhsingian. Trilobites are not in
abundance at many Permian outcrops; their disappearance is
not immediately obvious.
Acknowledgements
The author is very grateful to the reviewers of this publication and is indebted particularly to Dr A.J. Barber for his
helpful suggestions.
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