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L a n g u a g e C o n t a c t and G r a m m a t ical C o h e r e n c e
Sp a n i s h an d Q u e c h u a in the W ayno of Sout h e r n P e r u
Pieter Muysken
U n i v e r s i t eit va n A m s t e r d a m
July 1990
F o r G l o r i a and G a b r i e l E s c o b ar
" W h e r e v e r me n h a v e t rodden
t h e y h a v e left b e h i n d a trail of song"
B r u c e Chatwin, The Songlines
- 160 -
When t w o l a n g u a g e s ystems c o me into contact with each other, the
p o s s i b i l i t i e s fo r in t e g r a t i o n of both systems, or p arts of these,
are l i m i t e d by t h e fact that the systems in themselves are more
or less coherent. A g r a m m a r is not a bag of tricks, an
u n o r g a n i s e d a s s e m b l y of individual expressions. Neit h e r is it a
m o n o l i t h i c block, however, as the mixing resulting from language
contact shows.
The m a j o r s t r u c t u r a l q u e stion then in language contact studies is
the n a t u r e and d e g r e e of the coherence of grammars. This c o m p l e x
issue i n v o l v e s a n u m b e r of s pec i f i c questions, which this p a p e r
will a d d r e s s b u t n o t a n s w e r fully. I approach these questions by
looking at a t y p e of b i l i n g u a l language use w h i c h is p a r t i c u l a r l y
rich in l a n g u a g e mixing: the texts of several hund r e d b i l i n g u a l
songs, s u n g d a n c e s actually, from Southern Peru, the s o - c a l l e d
wayno* s . T h e r e are d i f f e r e n t attractive aspects to the
i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h i s t y p e of material: in the first p l a c e t h e y
co n s t i t u t e b i l i n g u a l language d a t a that are i m m e diately a v a i l a b l e
(in the f o r m of published, r eas o n a b l y reliable tra n s c r i p t s by
e t h n o g r a p h e r s an d folklorists). In the second place we find, d u e
t o t he m o r e i n t e n s i v e appeal t o t h e p o e t i c and e x pressive
func t i o n s of language, more e x t reme cases of language m i x i n g than
in most i n s t a n c e s of o r d i n a r y d a i l y language use.
The songs c a n n o t b e seen as represen t a t i v e for that d a i l y
language u s e b ut f o r m as it were a view trough a m a g n i f y i n g glass
of the p o s s i b i l i t i e s c o n t a i n e d in language use.
F i n a l l y it is
po s s i b l e t o p l a c e t h e songs in a specific socio-cultural cont e x t
that can g i v e i n s i g h t into t h e sociolinguistic meaning of
language m i x i n g phenomena. [It should be stressed t h a t t hese
songs r e f l e c t p o p u l a r c u l t u r e rather than conscious literary
creation. M o s t a u t h o r s of w a yn o ' s are amateur musicians, and t h e y
rely on a c a n o n of themes, turns of phrase, expressions, that
they t r a n s f o r m fo r th e p u r p o s e of the p a r t i c u l a r song at hand. ]
There are a n u m b e r of o t h e r cases of language mixing in songs.
French a n d E n g l i s h c r e o l e (or related language forms) are m i x e d
in the c a l y p s o ' s of T r i n i d a d and St. Lucia. There is exte n s i v e
mixing in S p a n i s h - A r a b i c medieval poetry, and High- and LowGerman a r e m i x e d in m e d i e v a l p o e t r y from the Rhin e l a n d and the
L o w Countries. R i k B o e s c h o t e n pointed out to me that W e i n r e i c h
(1950) h a d w o r k e d on Y i d d i s h mixed songs, but I have not yet been
able t o f i n d t h i s contribution, written in Yiddish. The m u l t i t u d e
and d i v e r s i t y of b i l i n g u a l songs and poems in d i f f e r e n t languages
offers v e r y r i c h m a t e r i a l for a comparative study of b o t h the
g r a m m a t i c a l an d t h e s o c i o - c u ltural aspects of this type of
language mixing.
1. Q u e s t i o n s for r e s e a r c h
The c o m p l e x i s s u e of t h e coherence of languages can be a p p r o a c h e d
from a n u m b e r of perspectives. I will mention three.
1•1 The s o u rce o f t h e c o h e r en c e
Is c o h e r e n c e of l a n g u a g e s du e to t h e sociolinguistic fact t h a t
- 161 -
they f u n c t i o n as s y m b o l i c s ystems expr e s s i v e of t h e i n t e g r i t y of
speech c o mmunities, or is it due to res t r i c t i o n s i m p o s e d b y t h e
n a t u r e of g r a m m a r s as compu t ational systems and b y t h e h u m a n
speech p r o d u c t i o n and p e r c e p t i o n m e c h a n i s m ? The t y p e of m a t e r i a l
s t u d i e d h e r e a l l o w s one to make a distinction, in principle,
bet w e e n w h a t is p o s s i b l e and what is recurrent, and h e n c e b e t w e e n
co h e s i o n d u e t o soc i a l c o n v e n t i o n and cohe s i o n d u e t o p r o p e r t i e s
of t h e m e n t a l s y s t e m i n v o l v e d as such.
1.2 T h e d e m a r c a t i o n p r o b l e m
Is it p o s s i b l e to d i s t i n g u i s h d i f f e r e n t types of ’l a n g u a g e
mixing'’ or d i f f e r e n t levels at which languages i n t e r a c t (for
i n s t a n c e b o r r o w i n g and c o d e - s w i t c h i n g ) ? Some p e o p l e h a v e c l a i m e d
tha t b e c a u s e t h e e m p i r i c a l d a t a (for instance a t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f
r e c o r d e d b i l i n g u a l l a n guage use) do not always a l l o w s us t o m a k e
a d i s t i n c t i o n for each s i n g l e switch it is b e t t e r t o d r o p t h e
c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n borrowing and c o d e - s w i t c h i n g a n d
to s p e a k a b o u t 3interference' in general.
A l t h o u g h m a n y m o r e p h e n o m e n a are involved in t h e d e m a r c a t i o n
problem, I w i l l l imit m y s e l f t o the d i s t i n c t i o n w o r d
b o r r o w i n g / c o d e switching,
In the case of w o r d b o r r o w i n g f o r e i g n
words are a d o p t e d in the lexicon. In the case of code s w i t c h i n g
two g r a m m a r s and v o c a b u l a r i e s are used in p r o d u c i n g a s e n t e n c e or
a text.
On t h a t level of a b st r a c t i o n the d i s t i n c t i o n is clear,
and s u b s e q u e n t l y leads to t h e following d i a g n o s t i c c r i t e r i a (see
e.g. P o p l a c k & Sankoff, 1984):
(1)
borrowing
code-switching
n o t m o r e t h a n one w o r d
adaptation :
phonological
morphological
syntactic
+
+
f r e q u e n t use
+
r e p l a c e s own w o r d
+
r e c o g n i s e d as own w o r d
+
s e m a n t i c chan g e
+
O n t h e b a s i s of t h e s e c r i t e r i a it is easy to c h a r a r a c t e r i z e
a u t o o t .ie in (2 ) as a b o r r o w i n g :
(2)
W a t een t e g ek a u t o o t j e (pronounced:
W h a t a t e r r i f i c car.
[awto:ty@J)
It is o n l y o ne word, it is p r o n o u n c e d w i t h a D u t c h d i p t h o n g , it
has t h e D u t c h d i m i n u t i v e s u f f i x and the s p e c i f i c a l l y D u t c h
n e u t r a l gender. It is u s e d v e r y f r e q u e n t l y and it is w o r d u s e d
m o s t into o r d e r t o refer t o cars. It is p r o b a b l y r e c o g n i s e d as
D u t c h b y m o s t speakers, and though it has not u n d e r g o n e any
- 162 -
s e m a n t i c c h a n g e s t h a t could easily have been the case. There is
also a m o r e '’
F rench' pronunciation, however, the s l i g h t l y m o r e
posh [o:to:], b u t that fits perf e c t l y within the D utch
p h o n o l o g i c a l s y s t e m as well.
Compare in c o n t r a s t a s e n t e nce with code-sv,'itching such as (3):
(3)
Ze g e v e n n i e t ge- uh .. niet genoeg p o ur cette .ieun. .
.jeunesse
T h e y d o n o t g i v e enough for this . . . youth.
( r e c o r d e d in Brussels by J. Treffers; see Treffers, 1986,
forthcoming)
N e i t h e r m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y , nor phonologically, n o r s e m a n t i c a l l y the
Fre n c h f r a g m e n t h as become part of the Dutch lexicon.
W hile the
co n trast b e t w e e n (2) and (3) is clear both c o n c e p t u a l l y and
empirically, t h e r e turn out t o be lots of doubtful cases; I will
return t o t h i s i s s u e below.
1 •3 The c o n s t r a i nts prob l e m
Do c o n s t r a i n t s d u e to grammatical coherence hold for all t ypes of
language c o n t a c t ? O n e p o s s i b l e perspective could be that
c o d e - s w i t c h i n g is su b j e c t t o constraints but b o r r o w i n g is free.
Here I w i l l a r g u e th e opposite. In order to be able to m a i n t a i n
this t h e n o t i o n of b o r r o w i n g needs to be redefined, s plit up in a
number of c o m p o nents. Fu r t h e rmore it will need to be c l ear that
the w a y in w h i c h gr a m m a t i c a l coherence constrains the d i v e r s e
p h e n o m e n a of l a n g u a g e mixing is different.
Not all t y p e s of borrowing, and not all forms of c o d e - s w i t c h i n g
turn o u t t o occur. Perhaps it is possible to formulate
g r a m m a t i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s on both processes. In the l i t e r a t u r e we
can find a n u m b e r of prop o s a ls to this effect, but t h e s e are
g e n e r a l l y t h o u g h t of as being of a very diff e r e n t n a t u r e for both
processes.
For b o r r o w i n g c o n s t r a i n t s are often formulated in t e r m s of a
cat e g o r i a l h i e r a r c h y : words of one specific lexical c a t e g o r y can
be b o r r o w e d m o r e e a s i l y than those of another. An e x a m p l e of such
a h i e r a r c h y is (4), partly based on Haugen (1950):
( 4 ) N - A - V - P
- A d v - N eg - Conj - Pron - COMP - . . .
N = noun
A = adjective
V = verb
P = preposition
Adv = adverb
N e g = n e g a t i o n element
Conj = c o o r d i n a t i n g conjunction
Pron = pronoun
C O M P = s u b o r d i n a t i n g conjunction
Such h i e r a r c h i e s p r e d i c t that a noun such as F r ench au t o can be
bo r r o w e d m o r e e a s i l y than a conjunction such as que, and this
- 163 -
p re d i c t i o n h o l d s r e a s o n a b l y w e l l in the v e r y e x t r e m e cases. T h e
problem, however, with a h i e r a r c h y such as (4) is t h a t t h e r e is
no e x p l a n a t i o n g i v e n for the o r d e r of the lexical c a t e g o r i e s in
the h i e r a r c h i e s . In addition, t here are v e r y s t r i k i n g l a n g u a g e spe cific d e v i a tions, as it t u r n s out.
With r e g a r d to c o d e - s w i t c h i n g t here is m u c h less of a c o n s e n s u s
in t h e literature. There is a large n u m b e r of p r o p o s a l s in t h e
literature; I will limit m y s e l f to t h o s e f o r m u l a t e d in t e r m s of
linear a n d of str u c t u r a l constraints:
(5) a. linear: s w i t c h i n g is a llo w e d when t h e o r d e r s of b o t h
languages are r e s p e c t e d (Poplack, 1980);
b. s t r u c t u r a l : s w i t c h i n g is allowed w h e n t h e d e m a n d s of
g r a m m a t i c a l c o h e r e n c e of b o t h languages are r e s p e c t e d (DiSciullo,
M u y s k e n & Singh, 1986)
There is a p o s s i b i l i t y t o r e l a t e the c o n s t r a i n t s on b o t h
p r o c e s s e s of m i x i n g by a p p e a l i n g to the g e n e r a l g r a m m a t i c a l
noti o n of coherence. W h e n w e assume t h a t in t h e case of
c o d e - s w i t c h i n g p a r a d i g m a t i c a n d s y n t a g m a t i c r e l a t i o n s n e e d to be
m a i n t a i n e d as in (5b). In t h e case of b o r r o w i n g s y n t a g m a t i c
rel a t i o n s n e e d to be m a i n t a i n e d in t h e system, b e c a u s e e l e m e n t s
with v a l e n c y (verbs and p r e p o s i t i o n s ) can b e i n t e g r a t e d less
e a s i l y t h a n e l e m e n t s w i t h o u t v a l e n c y (nouns and a d j e ctives). The
p a r a d i g m a t i c r e l a t i o n s in t h e syst e m must b e m a i n t a i n e d so t h a t
fun c t i o n words, t h a t are d e f i n e d in t e r m s of a f e a t u r e s y s t e e m
(th i s / t h a t / t h e s e / t h o s e ) , can b e borr o w e d m o r e d i f f i c u l t l y t h a n
c o n t e n t w o r d s (cf. Muysken, 1981). The n o t i o n of c o h e r e n c e
enables us to explain, th e h i e r a r c h y in (4) and t o r e l a t e it t o
(5b). In addition, we can r e l a t e this to (5a) in so far as w o r d
order is d e t e r m i n e d b y coherence, for e x a m p l e if it is impo s e d b y
the d i r e c t i o n into which the v e r b assigns case.
2. Th e w a y n o
W a y n o ' s a r e sung and pla y e d b o t h in the t o w n s and in t h e c o u n t r y ­
side. It is p o p u l a r music, an d there are r a d i o s t a t i o n s t h a t
p r e d o m i n a n t l y t r a n s m i t wayno's. In fact t h e y f o r m a p e r v a s i v e
fe a t u r e of A n d e a n p o p u l a r c u l t u r e and are v e r y m u c h p a r t of t h e
b a g g a g e of p e a s a n t m i g rants t o large cities such as L i m a and
Arequipa. W a y n o lyrics o f t e n d e a l with r o m a n t i c love a n d its
d e s i l l u s i o n s , b u t also w i t h s o c c e r teams, local events, r e l i g i o u s
p r ac t i c e s , etc. The sung t e x t s are a c c o m p a n i e d b y a l i ttle
o r c h e s t r a of a b o u t five instruments, p a r t l y t r a d i t i o n a l Indian,
p a r t l y Spanish. Instruments include: drums, s t r i n g instruments,
flutes.
A t y p i c a l e x a m p l e of the t e x t of a w a y n o is t h a t of t h e v e r y w e l l
k n o w n V a l i c h a . of which I h a v e p r e s e n t e d t h e s e c o n d h a l f here,
p a r t of w h i c h is in Q u e c h u a a n d w h i c h ends in Spanish:
- 164 -
chay lisa p ’
asnari
s a p a n k a k w a r t ilkunataf
ninuchay, d ibiras
s a p a i lan t u k u n q a
that audacious girl,
all g arrisons
my child, truly,
she can h a n d l e b y h e r self
s a r a c h a parway, parwaschay, sarachay
corn flower, flower, cornlet,
t r i g u c h a iray, iraschay, triguschay
little w h e a t t h r a s h i n g floor,
h e r m o s a f l o r de la sierra
marvellous flower of t h e m o u n t a i n s
jilguero andino
Andean t h i stle finch
montes, quebradas
through valleys, slopes, ravines
cholita cusqueña
cholita from Cusco
que e s t a r a s h a c i e n d o ?
what w ould you be doing? #213
p o r valles,
This s t u d y is b a s e d on the collection g a t h e r e d and t r a n s c r i b e d by
the a n t r o p o l o g i s t - f o l k l o r i s t couple G l o r i a and Gabriel E s c o b a r
(1981), w h i c h includes 232 w a y n o ’
s that they label as Quechua,
and 111 t h a t t h e y label as Spanish. A l t h o u g h there are a n u m b e r
of other c ol l e c t i o n s , i ncluding Eoel P i n e d a (1959), Q u i j a d a J a r a
(1957), Holsrnann ( 1964), and Montoya, Montoya, and M o n t o y a
(1987), a n d in a d d i t i o n wayno*s are included in sources such as
d’
H a r c o u r t an d d ' H a r c o u r t (1925), Uhle and K e l m (1968), Argue d a s
(1949) an d F a r f a n (1952), n o n e of these sources matches E s c o b a r
and E s c o b a r (1981) in t h e c o m bination of completeness and
regional focus,
A p o t e n t i a l d r a w b a c k of the source I used is that no m u s i c is
given, o n l y lyrics, and relatively little etnographic information
is p r e s e n t e d r e g a r d i n g circumstances of performance, authors,
etc. S i n c e I feel c o m p e t e n t to deal only with some of the
g r a m m a t i c a l a s p e c t s of the material included, I accept t hese
limitations, and r efer the reader to the other sources listed.
Since I a m i n t e r e s t e d in e s tablishing nume r i c a l regularities, a
large s a m p l e is i m p o r t a n t to the research in the pres e n t paper. I
have c o n s i d e r e d c o m b i n i n g texts from several sources, but felt
that t h e n t h e geographical, sociolinguistic and e t n o graphic
h e terogeneity, a l r e a d y p r e s e n t in E s c o b a r and E s c o b a r (1981), of
the w a y n o ’s w o u l d b e c o m e to o large. T h e 'collection, w hich was p u t
tog e t h e r p r i m a r i l y on t h e b asis of esthetic criteria, is b a s e d on
a n u m b e r of sources:
- p r i n t e d co llections, often with a v e r y limited local
c i r c u l a t i o n as c a n c i o n e r o s , including Roel P i n e d a (1959), but
going b a c k t o t h e b e g i n n i n g of this century;
- m a n u s c r i p t c o l l e c t i o n s of earlier w ayno enthousiasts;
- t r a n s c r i p t s of live recordings, radio broadcasts, and records.
The aut h o r s a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t some of t h e songs m a y n o t orig i n a t e
- 165 -
t h a t t h e v ^ a v P ? r e a A b U V n a 1 1 c a s e s o n l y w a y no's are included
a r p f p i t t o hp Ìtìl Pe r f o r m r e p e a t e d l y at C u s c o fiestas and t h a t
f e l t t o be P a r t of the culture of the C u z c o region.
S o ?°}le;c't x °ri of w a y n o lyrics shows to w h a t extent Q u e chua and
S p a n i s h a r e i n t e r m i n g l e d with each o t h e r in the w a y n o ’s. Q u e c h u a
is t h e t r a d i t i o n a l language of a large part of the Indian peasant,
p o p u l a t i o n of t h e Andes, and Spanish is the colonial language,
n o w a l s o t h e p o l i t i c a l l y d o m i nant one.
T a b l e 1 is b a s e d on the first 100 w a y n o ’
s labelled ’
Q u e c h u a ’ by
E s c o b a r & E s c o b a r (1981):
35
Quechua
12
Q u e c h u a and Spanish a part in sepa r a t e couplets
20
Q u e c h u a and Spanish in a single coup l e t
3
Q u e c h u a and m i xed form apart
17
Q u e c h u a and mixed form in a s i n g l e couplet
13
Quechua,
TABLE 1
6 w ithout borr o w i n g
29 with borr o w i n g
Spanish,
and mixed form
L a n g u a g e U s e in the F irst 100 W a y n o ’
s L a b e l l e d Quechua
O f t h e 100 w a y n o ’s t h e r e were only s i x p u r e Quechua. In 29 cases
t h e Q u e c h u a c o n t a i n e d words b orrowed from Spanish, and in no less
t h a n 20 S p a n i s h and Q u e c h u a were used in a s i n g l e couplet.
F u r t h e r m o r e m a n y t e x t s contain s entences with such h eavy
b o r r o w i n g an d so m a n y gr a m m a t ical i r r e g u l a r i t i e s t h a t they cannot
b e c l a s s i f i e d u n a m b i g u o u s l y as e i ther Q u e c h u a and labelled ’
mixed
f o r m ’ here. I w i l l r e t u r n to the p h e n o m e n a involved shortly. A
s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e emerges for the w a y n o ’s labelled
■
’
S p a n i s h ’ b y E s c o b a r & Escobar. C o n s i d e r t a b l e 2:
81
S p a n i s h (with occasional e s t a b l i s h e d b o r r o w i n g s from
Quechua)
10
S p a n i s h w i t h Q u e c h u a zX address f orms
3
S p a n i s h w i t h interposed Q u e c h u a s e n t e n c e s
4
S p a n i s h w i t h Q u e c h u a e x c l a mations
6
S p a n i s h w i t h Q u e c h u a p h r ases
7
Q u e c h u a an d Spanish apart in s e p a r a t e couplets
TABLE 2
L a n g u a g e U s e in the 111 W a y n o ’s L a b e l l e d Spanish
- 166 -
H e r e th e i n p u t f r o m Q u e c h u a is clearly less than t h ere was input
f r o m S p a n i s h in t h e above category. Notice, however, t h a t the
c a t e g o r i s a t i o n b y E s c o b a r & E s c o b a r was ad h o c . The o n l y t h i n g we
ca n c o n c l u d e is t h a t way n o ' s labelled 'Spanish' by the
a n t h o l o g i s t s ar e m o r e f r e q u e n t l y p u r e l y Spanish than wayn o ' s
la b e l l e d 'Quechua' are p u r e l y Quechua. This a s y m m e t r y may reflect
t h e d o m i n a n t p o s i t i o n of Spanish over Quec h u a in P e r u v i a n
society.
It is c l e a r t h a t t h e w a y n o ' s form t h e expression of a b i l i n g u a l
culture, in w h i c h p r o c e s s e s of mixing play an important role. The
qu e s t i o n h e r e is h o w this m i x i n g occurs in the w a y n o ’s. From a
s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c p e r s p e c t i v e there has only been w o r k by
H a r t - G o n z a l e z (1979) r e g a r d i n g this form of p o p u l a r songs. F r o m
th e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e there is p a r t i c u l a r l y the
v a l u a b l e w o r k b y M a n n h e i m (1986a,b, 1987), to which I will return
below.
3. The P o e t i c s of B i l i n g u a l i t v
A n i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n at this point is to what extent p a r t i c u l a r
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the language sample involved, i.e. b i l i n g u a l
songs, p l a y a r o l e in d e t e r m i n i n g the type of language m i x i n g we
find. The a n s w e r is: considerably. Even a c u r s o r y e x a m i n a t i o n of
t h e m a t e r i a l s s h o w s t h a t th e contrast between Q u e c h u a and Spanish
is u s e d in v a r i o u s ways to create special p o e t i c effects. B e low
w e will r e t u r n in m u c h m o r e detail to c o de-switching and
borrowing; h e r e we will look at a series of p h e n o m e n a which
ca n n o t be c a t e g o r i z e d as o r d inary instances of either process.
A n u m b e r of b i l i n g u a l l i n g u i stic features of the wayn o ' s can be
re l a t e d t o t h e i r b e i n g a s p ecific linguistic genre:
3.1 The v o c a b u l a r y of r o m a n t i c love
T h e f irst t h i n g t h a t s trikes us when we cons i d e r the t y p e of
S p a n i s h v o c a b u l a r y b o r r o w e d and occurring in the segments of the
w a y n o ' s c l a s s i f i e d as Q u e c h u a is the large n u m b e r of items
re l a t i n g d i r e c t l y t o r o m a n t i c love and its trappings, t h e central
t h e m e of t h e wayno's. O f the 63 Spanish lexical items t h a t occur
in the Q u e c h u a t e x t s of 4 w a y no's or more, n o less t h a n 56 b e l o n g
t o the S p a n i s h v o c a b u l a r y a s so c i a t e d with romantic love. I have
ar r a n g e d t h e s e in five categories, and given the n u m b e r of
wa y n o ' s in w h i c h t h e y o ccur in parentheses.
F i r s t of all,
a l a r g e n u m b e r are self-explanatory:
(6) L o v e a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s
amur
(6)
amor
bida
(32)
vida
brasu
(13)
braso
love
life
(life b e fore I met you)
(our life together)
(my life without you)
arm .
(in your a r m s )
-
gusta­
glis tu
kadina
(4)
(5)
(4)
k a r iñu
(4)
(6 )
m u l a
nigra
fíifía/nifía
paris
samba
siñurita
sultira
sultiru
(U)
(8 )
(5)
(8 )
(5)
(13)
(6 )
167 -
(in t h e arms of another)
like
with pleasure
c h ain
(the c h a i n t h a t links us)
(the l i t t l e c h a i n I g a v e you)
carino
affection
mula
mule, c o n c u b i n e
negra
d a r k woman, b e l o v e d
niña
girl
* par, p a r e j a pair,, c o u p l e
samba
d a r k woman, b e l o v e d
señorita
soltera
maiden
soltero
bachelor
gustar
gusto
cadena
An i m p o r t a n t t h e m e is t he rendez-vous,
p a r e n t s of t h e girl:
(7) M e e t i n g y o u s o m e w h e r e
guitarra
(4)
guitarra
iskina
i s t r i 1 la
(6 )
esquina
estreila
kalli
ladu
(10)
(6 )
cal le
(4)
pasear
pi aza
s i l bar
tienda
tocar
pasiyaplasa
silbatinda
tukatupaura
wirta
(4)
(1 1 )
(4)
(4)
(6 )
(2 0 )
( 10)
(4)
la d o
topar
hora
huerta
o ften u n b e k n o w n s t t o the
guitar
(for t h e s e r e n a d e )
corner
star
(under t h e stars)
street
s ide
(on t h e o t h e r side)
(next t o t h e church)
g o out
square
whistle
store
play
(while s e r e n a d i n g )
(the b e l l s ring)
meet
hour
garden
L e s s p r o m i n e n t is a p o s s i b l e resu l t i n g wedding:
(8) G e t t i n g m a r r i e d
a n i l lu
(8)
dispusa(4)
kasadu
(5)
kasara(8)
kura
(5)
siñur kura
(4)
suygra
(5)
an i 11 o
desposar
casado
casar
cura
s e ñ o r cura
suegra
r ing
marry, b e t r o t h
married (mase.)
get married
priest
mister priest
mother-in-law
R a t h e r frequent, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , is r e j e c t i o n b y t h e b e l o v e d o n e
or c r uel d e c e p t i o n , w h i c h r e s u l t s in m i s e r y and d r i n k i n g :
(9) Sadne£
binu
of s e p a r a t i o n
(4)
vino
wine
- 168 -
bult a -
(13)
voltar
ingañakarsi1
kupa
maris
(6)
(6)
(4)
(6)
engañar
cárcel
copa
m ares
pa n t i y u n
(4)
p anteon
pasapubri
(52)
(14)
pasar
pobre
phaltasulusurti
tragu
(4)
(5)
(4)
(8)
faltar
solo
suerte
trago
tuma-
(18)
tomar
turn, return
(I return to m y village)
cheat, deceive
pris o n
cup
seas
(I cry seas over you)
g r aveyard
(where I meditate)
pass, go away
poor
(poor me)
be absent, be lacking
alone
fate
liquor
(the last resort)
d rink
There is v e r y c o m p l e x imagery, which is diff i c u l t to g r a s p for me
at this point., of v e g e t a t i o n al symbols, many of which involve
Qu e c h u a vo c a b u l a r y . The frequent Spanish words in this g r o u p are
in (10):
(10) Harvest,
durasnu
habas
kulur
lambran
man sari a
muradu
n aranxa
tribuí
trigu
fruit,
(7)
(5)
(4)
(4)
(10)
(6)
(7)
(4)
(9)
a n d flower symbols for love and
durasno
peach
lima beans
h a bas
c olor
color
(of flowers, skirt
lambran
kind of tree
apple
mansana
rnorado
violet
na r anja
orange
trébol
clover
t r i go
wheat
Seven h i g h l y f r e q u e n t items are not as d i r e c t l y related to the
theme of love, a l t h o u g h in m a n y cases they also have to do with
th e same t h e m e ( . . . w ould you rather love me or the farm owner
...?):
(11) O t h e r b o r r o w e d items t h a t occur in four or
as inda
(4)
h a c ienda
farm
duyñu
(4)
d u e ño
m ast e r
karru
(4)
carro
car
midiyu
(6)
m e d io
•nickle
ni
(7)
ni
neither
piru
(6)
pero
but
sabi(8)
saber
know
nor
In summary, t h e t h e m e of the w a y n o ’s has lead to a v e r y s p e c i f i c
language use, as fa r as b o r r o w i n g is concerned. Noti c e that
roman t i c l o v e as s u c h is not limited to Spanish c u l ture and
vocabulary; indeed, t h e r e is an extensive Q u e c h u a v o c a b u l a r y of
a f f e c t i o n a n d romance. The w a y that the t heme is treated in the
w a y n o ’s, however, is as if t h e r e has been a curious inversion:
- 169 -
surely e x c h a n g i n g rings and vows, w r i t i n g love letters,
serenading, c r y i n g u n d e r n e a t h w e e p i n g willows, v i s i t i n g t h e t o m b
stone of t h e b e l o v e d one, t h e se are themes d e r i v i n g f r o m the
Spanish r o m a n t i c tradition, t rea t e d in Q u e c h u a a n d t r a n s f o r m e d in
the p r o c e s s ( a l t h o u g h it remains to be e s t a b l i s h e d p r e c i s e l y
which S p a n i s h t h e m a t i c roots t h e w a y n o has and h o w t h e S p a n i s h
themes w e r e altered).
3.2 R e p l a c e m e n t of Q u e c h u a core v o c a b u l a r y in s e m a n t i c d o u b l i n g
The m o s t s t r i k i n g phenomenon, poetically, in t h e w a y n o ’s is w h a t
M a n n h e i m (1986a,b; 1987) has called ’s e m a n t i c d o u b l i n g ’: t h e u s e
of Q u e c h u a / S p a n i s h d o u b l e t s t hrough relexification. H e r e
the e q u i v a l e n t S p a n i s h form is preceded b y t h e Q u e c h u a form:
(12) y a c h a r a n k i t a q
sabirankitaq
if o n l y you knew
if only you knew #29
In (12) y a c h a - is t h e Q u e c h u a word for ’
k n o w ’ and sabi- the
Spa n i s h word. In t h e same vein s apa- in (13) is t h e Q u e c h u a w o r d
for ’
a l o n e ’ and s u l u - t h e S panish word. In b o t h c ases t h e S p a n i s h
word is u s e d m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y and s y n t a c t i c a l l y in t h e same w a y as
the Q u e c h u a word. Q u e c h u a s a p a - , for instance, c a n n o t be u s e d
wit h o u t p e r s o n inflection, and Spanish s u lu-, w h i c h o r d i n a r i l y
occurs b y itself, a l s o occurs with the f irst p e r s o n m a r k e r
( in
add ition t o a c c u s a t i v e -t a ) :
(13) s a p a - y - t a r i k u w a s h a s p a
sulu-y-ta rikuwashaspa
when you are s e e i n g m e a l o n e
when you are s e e i n g me a l o n e #62
Sem a n t i c d o u b l i n g - a k i n d of sema n t i c rhyme, M a n n h e i m argues,
since in Q u e c h u a p h o n o l o g i c a l rhyme is t r i v i a l g i v e n t h e rich
suffixal m o r p h o l o g y w h i c h allows one to m a k e e v e r y t h i n g r h y m e involves n o u n s as well as verbs. It is in no w a y l i m i t e d to
Q u e c h u a / S p a n i s h pairs; m a n y d oub l e t s indeed i n v o l v e t w o Q u e c h u a
nouns or verbs, and some even two Spanish b o r r owings.
I will f o c u s here, however, on the cases i n v o l v i n g a verb. W e s a w
in the p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n t h a t Spanish verbs such as s a b i - ’
know’
and p a s a - ’
pass, g o a w a y ’ are quite f r e q u e n t in the Q u e c h u a
segments of t h e w a y n o ’
s. To w h a t extent d o t h e y p a r t i c i p a t e in
s e m a n t i c d o u b l i n g ? A Spanish verb such as s a b i - ’k n o w ’, w h i c h
occurs in 8 w a y n o ’s, is always part of a doublet, t h e Q u e c h u a
v e r b y a c h a - preceding. Fo r v erbs w hich o c c u r in 3 w a y n o ’s or
less, however, t h e p i c t u r e is different:
no doublet
50
Spanish doublet
11
Quechua doublet
• 27
s or
T AB L E 3 D o u b l i n g w i t h S panish Verbs t h a t O c c u r in 3 W a y n o ’
Less
- 170 -
In c a l c u l a t i n g T a b l e 3 I h a v e been fairly liberal in coun t i n g
Qu e c h u a v e r b s as a doublet; often there was no direct m e a n i n g
corresp o n d en c e , n o t even in the sense that the first item was
less s p e c i f i c in m e a n i n g t h a n the second item, as M a n n h e i m
assumed t o b e t h e case. However, it may be that the sema n t i c
m a r k e d n e s s t h a t M a n n h e i m refers t o is but a specific inst a n c e of
a more g e n e r a l r e q u i r e m e n t t hat the second m e m b e r of t h e d o u b l e t
be m o r e m a r k e d t h a n the f irst one, and that being a b o r r o w i n g is
also a m a r k e d f e a t u r e of a lexical item.
The v e r b s w h i c h o c c u r in 4 wayno'’
s or more m e rit a c l o s e r
examination. As it turns out, they d i f f e r c o n s i d e r a b l y in the
extent t o w h i c h t h e y p a r t i c i p a t e in semantic doubling, w h i l e t h e
number of o c c u r r e n c e s with a Q u e chua doub l e t is c o n s i d e r a b l y
larger t h a n w i t h t h e first category.
no doublet
63
Spanish doublet
6
Quechua doublet
76
Q u e c h u a s e c o n d or third verb
31
Spanish second verb
4
TABLE 4 D o u b l i n g w i t h S p a n i s h Verbs that O c c u r in 4 W a y n o ’s or
More
Notice t h a t a n u m b e r of borrowings do not occur as the second
mem b e r b u t as t h e f i r s t m e m b e r of the doublet. If t h e r e a s o n i n g
given a b o v e c o n c e r n i n g the marked status of borr o w i n g s and
M a n n h e i m ’s a s s u m p t i o n about t h e unmarked status of the first
member of t h e d o u b l e t is correct, this s h ould be an i n dication of
i n t e g r a t i o n into Quechua. This seems correct, intuitively, for
t uma- ’
d r i n k ’ and t u p a - ’
m e e t ’, but perhaps n o t for s i l ba’
w h i s t l e ’. T h e s e t h r e e verbs, of Spanish origin, are s h o w n in
Table 5 t o o c c u r f r e q u e n t l y as the first m e mber of a d o u b l e t or
triplet.
In Table 5 t h e v e r b s are r o u g h l y ordered with respect t o t h e i r
having a Q u e c h u a d o u b l e t in the w a y n o ’
s:
borrowed verb
Q u e c h u a double
if of cases
sabi- ’
know’
yacha- ’
know’
8
b u l t a - ’r e t u r n ’
kuti- ’
return’
12
q h i pa-yu- ’stay b e h i n d ’ 1
- 171 -
pasa- ■
’
pass'
(bida p asa- ’l i v e ’
ri-pu- 'go away'
puri- ' w a l k ’
2nd ri-pu- 'go away'
2nd suwa- 's t e a l '
2nd chimpa- 'cross'
2nd puri- 'walk'
2nd llaki- ’
suffer'
2nd S sufri- 'suffer'
17
7)
33
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
p a s i y a - 'go out'
0
pu ri- 'walk'
2nd puri- 'walk'
1
2
1
s i l b a - 'whistle'
waqa- 5cry, weep, call'
S b ati- 'beat'
2nd muna- 'want'
3rd wayllu- 'love'
2nd willa- 'tell'
3rd qapari- 'cry'
2nd qapari- 'cry'
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
t u m a - 'drink'
0
uxya- 'drink'
mikhu- 'eat'
puri- 'walk'
ri- 'go'
2nd u xya- 'drink'
2nd hich ' a - 'pour'
2nd macha- 'get drunk'
2nd S fuma- 'smoke'
12
2
1
1
1
5
1
1
1
tupa-
0
riku- 'see'
may l li- 'taste'
chaya- 'reach'
puri- 'walk'
2nd tinku- 'meet'
2nd riku- 'see'
2nd S? parla- 'speak'
7
1
2
1
1
6
2
1
t u k a - 'play'
0
waqa- 'cry'
2nd w a q a - 'c r y ’
4
1
1
p h a l t a - 'lack'
0
pisi- 'lack'
2nd pisi- ' lack'
4
1
1
s i r b i - 'serve'
0
uywa- 'care for'
S k a sa d u 'married'
2
1
1
'meet'
O
- 172 -
dispusa-
gusta-
'betroth*
’like'
0
S k a sa r a - 'marry'
S k u mpana- 'accompany'
1
1
0
3
t a ki- 'sing'
1
m a c h a - 'get drunk'
1
2nd k a w s a r i c h i - ' r e v i v e ’ 1
0
4
D i s p a i l a ni- 'just talk' 1
2nd. S t r ayshuna- 'betr a y ' 1
kasara- 'marry
0
S k a s a d i t u 'married
8
1
T A B L E 5 D e t a i l e d A n a l y s i s of O c c u rrences of Doubling with S p a n i s h
V erb s t h a t O c c u r in 4 W a y n o ' s or More
0 = n o t p a r t of d o u b l e t
S = S p a n i s h origin
2 n d = s e c o n d m e m b e r of s ema n t i c d o u b l e t or triplet
3 r d = t h i r d m e m b e r of s e m a n t i c triplet
The r e a d e r m a y w o n d e r w h y a n u m b e r of cases have been c o u nted as
insta n c e s of s e m a n t i c d o u b l i n g even though t h e r e is v e r y little
s e m a n t i c r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the verbs involved, as with m a y 1 1 i'taste' and t u p a - 'meet'. The a n swer is that the parallel
s t r u c t u r e of t h e v e r s e s and t h e m o r p h o l o g y of the verbs
concerned, i m p o s e d s u c h an analysis:
(14) m a y u n apamusqa,
m i s k ’i naranxata,
the r iver b r o u g h t a s weet orange
m a n a m a v ì 1 ivkuspa, w a r m a n a y a n rayku,
not t a s ting it, b e c a u s e of its b e l o v e d
m a n a t u p a ykuspa, w a r m a n a y a n rayku.
not meet i n g it, b e c a u s e of its belo v e d
#106
W hat is s t i l l n e e d e d is a m u c h more prec i s e semantic analy s i s of
the v e r b s i n v o l v e d in t e r m s of semantic features.
B e f o r e l e a v i n g t h e s u b j e c t of semantic doubling, I shou l d p oint
out t h a t all v e r b s d i s c u s s e d are fully integrated m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y
and p h o n o l o g i c a l l y . T h e v e r b s a b i - 'know', for instance, which
n e v e r o c c u r s o u t s i d e of a s e m a n t i c doublet, has lost all of its
S p a n i s h i r r e g u l a r inflection. It can b e identified as
e t y m o l o g i c a l l y n o n - Q u e c h u a b e c a u s e of the b, but Q u e c h u a has now
m a n y b o r r o w i n g s w i t h t h a t c o n s o n a n t and is quite t o l e r a n t of it.
In (15) t h e a c t u a l f orms t h a t s a b i- takes in the texts are shown,
t o g e t h e r w i t h t h a t of its Q u e c h u a d o u b l e t y a c h a - ; the endi n g s are
always i d e n t i c a l :
-
173
-
(15) y a c h a / s ab i- 1 1 a-n-man 'if (s)he w ould know' #15
yacha/sabi-ra-nki-taq ’
you did know' #29
y a c h a / s a b i - r u - c h u n ’(s)he should k n o w ’ #34, #79
y a c h a / s a b i - n a - y rayku ’
b e c a u s e of m e knowing' #44
y a c h a / s a b i - y - 1 l a - w a n 'with k n o w l e d g e ’ # 1 2 0
y a c h a / s a b i - 1 l a - y ~ m a n 'if I o n l y knew' #152
y a c h a / s a b i - y - 1 la y a c h a / s a b i - y - m a n 'if k n o w n I h a d k n o w n #153
3.3 B i l i n g u a l p u n s
An interesting, t h o u g h not v e r y frequent f e a t u r e of t h e w a y n o ’s
is b i l i n g u a l punning. An example is (16):
(16) s i p i w a y s i p i w a y
[con h i l o d e pita]
ni q a n t a ni p i t a
hayk'aq munanaypaq
s t r a n g l e me, s t r a n g l e me
with a g a v e t h r e a d
so t h a t n e i t h e r y o u n o r a n y o n e
I ’ll e v e r love #1
H e r e S p a n i s h p i t a ’a g a v e ’ sounds t h e same as Q u e c h u a p i-ta
’
someone, accusative'.
An e x a m p l e g i v e n in th e introduction b y E s c o b a r and E s c o b a r is:
(17) k a s k a r i l l a s c h a y ,
maskarillaschay
my little peel, m y l i t t l e m a s k
sunquyki ukhupi maskarillaway
just look f o r me in y o u r h e a r t
#26
In t h e f i r s t line m a s k a r i l l as 'my little mask' is Spanish, and in
the s e c o n d l i n e rnaskari I laway 'just look for me' is Quechua.
S i m i l a r l y in t h e f o l l o w i n g example the v e r b s i r i r i - is Quechua,
me a n i n g 'lie down', and s irina- is Spanish 'serenade':
(18) h a k u c h u s i r i r i - y k u s u n
hakuchu sirina-ykusun
let's lie d o w n
l e t ’s sere n a d e #108
A s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t effect occurs when S p a n i s h w o r d s a r e m a d e to
sound a l i k e w h e n t h e y are adapted t o Q u e c h u a phon o l o g y , even
t h o u g h in S p a n i s h t h e y differ:
(19) ay p i s a p i s a c h a
tukuyu pisa
maytan pisakuni
qanwan kasqayta
oh p i e c e l i t t l e p i e c e
p iece of c o t t o n c loth
how m u c h it w e i g h s on me
to have b e e n w i t h y o u #11
H e r e p i s a in t h e f i r s t tw o lines is from S p a i s h piegLa 'piece',
while t h e v e r b E i s a - in th e t h ird line is f r o m S p a n i s h ß e s ä r
'weigh'. In a s l i g h t l y m o r e oblique fashion, ¿ s t i r a 'straw',
which d e r i v e s f r o m S p a n i s h estgra, in the f i r s t line, is r e c a l l e d
by the v e r b ¿ s t i r a - 'stretch', from Spanish estirar, in t h e
second line:
- 174 -
(20) P i r i s p a u s u s i n istira s umbriru
P e r e z ’daughter, a straw hat
Pill a r a q , mayllaraq, is tiraykusunki?
W h o ever will stretch you and w h e r e ?
#212
3. 4 H e a v y borrowing,_with Q u e c h u a d i m i n u t i v e suffixes
In s o m e w a y n o ' s f r a g m e n t s o c c u r in which almost all words h a v e
bee n borr o w e d , and it a ppears sometimes as if the Spanish
v o c a b u l a r y f o r m s a p o e t i c a l e l e ment b y itself:
(21) t r a g u c h a l l a y b i n u c h a l l a y
binti graduschallay
llakipipas phutipipas
kumpaniruschallay
my
of
in
my
little drink, m y wine
a little 20-proof
sadness and m i s e r y
best little friends #9
R e l a t e d t o t h i s is t h e b o r r o w i n g of pse u d o - f o r m s with Span i s h
syntax. In t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e the frame y e r ba d e . . ■ 'herb of'
is b o r r o w e d f r o m Spanish, b u t h ampitaqa 'medicine' is Q u e c h u a
again :
(22) y e r b a de h a m p i t a q a
t'ipisharan nispa
m e d i cinal herbs
she collects they say
3. 5 A l m o s t m e a n i n g l e s s Spanish
(23) is an e x a m p l e of c o r r e c t Spanish (with Quechua
p r o n u n c i a t i o n ) , but for the s ake of the internal rhyme s i n t u /
d u s int us w o r d s are u s e d with little meaning:
(23) a;/ d i b i r a s d i b i r a s
lu s i n t u d u s i n t u s
ay t r u l y t r u l y
I am s orry two hundred
S o m e t h i n g s i m i l a r we find in (24) - meaningless Spanish
q u a d r i s y l l a b i c l oanwords with the Q u e c h u a endings -cha
'dimin u t i v e ' and -y 'first person':
(24) k a r i t i l l a s c h a y
ispiguillaschay
karritiraschay
ispirillaschay
my
my
my
my
little
little
little
little
carts
spikes
roads
waits #9
It s e e m s as if t h e f o r m of t h e Spanish words starts leading its
own l i f e here.
F u r t h e r e x a m p l e s in c l u d e g o o d Spanish with f ully Q u e c h u a
p r o n u n c i a t i o n . Al l v o w e l s are ¿, u, or a, diphtongs are
s im p l i f i e d , e t c . :
(25) l a s i n t a m u r a d a
ki tinis kulur
as i y u k u n t i g u
nu puydu kirir
t h e p u rple ribbon
you that have colour
so I with you
I cannot love
- 175 -
3. 6 S u m m a r y
f a r t a t h ï ? t h p t -nntf^n C l U d S-T°n l y S O m e 0f t h e W a y S Ín WhÍ G h t he
see that
b l l l 5 S Y al ÍS m a d e u s e of Poetically. We
p e c i f i c t y p e of l a n g u a g e u s e h a s s i g n i f i c a n t
S ? ï ? e ™ n ? o S wH°+ th t tï p e , of m i x i n g found. In t he next s e c t i o n we
w i l l o e e t o w h a t e x t e n t t h e f a c t t h a t w e are d e a l i n g w i t h
b i l i n g u a l s o n g s here, r a t h e r t h a n w i t h o r d i n a r y conversation, has
c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e p a t t e r n of d i s t r i b u t i o n of b o r r o w i n g s and
v U Q 6 SWlT^Cu6S
,
4 • B o r r o w i n g in t h e w flvnn’s
T h e Q u e c h u a t e x t s in t h e w a y n o ' s are r e p l e t e w i t h words b o r r o w e d
f r o m S p a n i s h . G e n e r a l l y t h e w o r d s a r e f u l l y a d a p t e d to Q u e c h u a
m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y ( t h r o u g h a g g l u t i n a t i o n ) , and p h o n o l o g i c a l l y as
f a r as v o w e l s are concerned. Vowel clusters and consonant
c l u s t e r s o c c u r in v a r i o u s d e g r e e s of a d a p t a t i o n and reduction. An
e x a m p l e is t h e S p a n i s h v e r b v o l t a r 'turn, return', w h i c h is
b o r r o w e d in t h r e e ways:
(26) b ult a b u y i Itabuylta-
in 5 w a y n o ’s
in 1 w a y n o
in 7 w a y n o
M o t o n l y b o r r o w i n g s of a s i n g l e w o r d ocur, b u t a l s o of c o m p l e x
names :
(27)
y e r b a dii olbiduta
pallarashan nispa
herbs of forgetfulness
she c o l l e c t s t h e y s ay
S o m e t i m e s e l e m e n t s a r e ' b o r r o w e d as s i m p l e x w o r d s t h a t f o r m m o r e
t h a n o n e w o r d in Spanish. In (26) * \ i ind d â i i ï , w h i c h c o n s i s t s
o f t h e S p a n i s h v e r b p l u s p r o n o u n c o m b i n a t i o n d a + le g i v e n i m ,
f o l l o w e d b y t h e Q u e c h u a i m p e r a t i v e s u f f i x riC(28)
da l i y daliy karsiliru
h i t it, h i t it,
jailor
T h e u s e of S p a n i s h f r o z e n e x p r e s s i o n s is a l s o s e e n w i t h i g ^ s i a n d
â k i s t u y . T h e f o r m i s u s i in (29) is d e r i v e d f r o m S p a n i s h e s o_oi
't h a t yes' :
(29)
In
is u s i , i s u s i
m a n a pipas yachan
(30)
t h a t yes, t h a t yes
n o b o d y k n o w s it
a k i s t u y is d e r i v e d f r o m a 3 U i _ Ê £ i 2 ï ’
h e r e I a m ’:
(30>
W h e n w e c X a s s i f y t h e b o r r o w i n g , ir, t h e w a y n o " J —
£ Ï Ï Ï Â - â 2 ? o ? t ^
in^to
" b o r r o w e d w o r d s is e i v e n in T a H e »:
- 176 -
Nouns
430
Verbs
87
Adjectives
46
Adverbs
11
Exclamations
5
Coordinating conjunctions
4
Postpositions
3
Numerals
1
T ABLE 6 : B o r r o w e d W o r d s in t h e Wayno ' s ; t y p e s
T able 6 s h o w s a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s t h a t c o n j u n c t i o n s a r e b o r r o w e d
r e l a t i v e l y i n f r e q u e n t l y , a n d n o u n s r e l a t i v e l y often, T h u s t h e
list in T a b l e 6 c o r r e s p o n d s r e a s o n a b l y w i t h t h e h i e r a r c h y in (4).
T h ere is a p r o b l e m h o w e v e r w i t h t h e m e t h o d of c a l c u l a t i o n a p p l i e d
in T a b l e 6: h o w d o w e k n o w t h a t t h e r e a r e n o t a w h o l e lot of
b o r r o w e d S p a n i s h n o u n s b e c a u s e t h e r e a re m a n y n o u n s in a n y c a s e ?
To o b t a i n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t t h i s for a s m a l l e r g r o u p of w a y n o 1s t h e
p e r c e n t a g e o f b o r r o w e d e l e m e n t s in t h e t o t a l g r o u p of c a s e s
(tokens) is c a l c u l a t e d , in T a b l e 7:
Quechua
Spanish
1
% Spanish
100
Adjectives
6
4
40
Nouns
118
67
M
Verbs
155
19
11
Adverbs
8
1
11
Negating elements
32
2
6
Personal p r o nouns
13
0
Question words
21
0
Demonstratives
13
0
Conjunctions
1
0
Postpositions
1
0
Numerals
T A B L E 7 : B o r r o w i n g s in t h e F i r s t 10 W a y n o ' s ;
P e r c e n t a g e o f T o t a l N u m b e r of T o k e n s
S p a n i s h T o k e n s as
- 177 -
T h e i m a g e t h a t e m e r g e s f r o m Tab l e 7 d o e s n o t d i v e r g e s t r o n g l y
f r o m t h e c a t e g o r i a l h i e r a r c h y in (4) ( r e p e a t e d h e r e for t h e s a k e
o f c o n v e n i e n c e ) . P a r t i c u l a r l y t h e f a c t t h a t n o u n s a re b o r r o w e d
m o r e f r e q u e n t l y t h a n v e r b s is s t r i k i n g :
( 4 ) N “A - V - P
- A d v - N e g - C o n j - P r o n - C O M P - .. .
N = noun
A = adjective
V = verb
P = preposition
A d v = adverb
N e g = negation element
Conj = coordinating conjunction
Pron = pronoun
COMP = subordinating conjunction
B e c a u s e of t h e l i m i t e d s a m p l e t h e r a n k o r d e r c a n n o t be t a k e n v e r y
s e r i o u s l y . P a r t i c u l a r l y in o r d e r t o s a y s o m e t h i n g s e n s i b l e a b o u t
t h e b o r r o w a b i 1 ity of f u n c t i o n w o r d s m u c h m o r e e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h
is n e c e s s a r y . Th e f a c t t h a t n u m e r a l s and a d j e c t i v e s come b e f o r e
n o u n s c a n b e an a c cident, a c o n s e c u e n c e of t h e l i m i t e d sample. It
s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t in Q u e c h u a n u m e r a l s , a d j e c t i v e s and n o u n s
a l l b e l o n g t o t h e s a m e m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a t e g o r y . W h e n we f o r m u l a t e
c o n s t r a i n t s on b o r r o w i n g in t e r m s o f t h e r e c e i v i n g l a n g u a g e (and
t h a t is a f a i r l y o b v i o u s move), t h e n we a r i v e at t h e h i e r a r c h y in
(31), on t h e b a s i s of T a b l e 7:
(31) N O M I N A L
V / Adv
Neg
rest
T h i s h i e r a r c h y c o r r e s p o n d s w i t h t h a t in (4), a p a r t f r o m t h e f a c t
t h a t t h e r e are no prepositions and conjunctions mentioned.
A n o t h e r w a y of a p p r o a c h i n g t h e i s s u e at h a n d is t h r o u g h a m e t h o d
f i r s t a p p l i e d f o r t h e O t t a w a c o r p u s in P o p l a c k , Miller, a n d
S a n k o f f (1988), w h e r e t h e c a t e g o r i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n for b o t h
c a t e g o r i e s w a s studied. T a k e f i r s t of all t h e d a t a in T a b l e 7.
- 178 -
Spanish
Quechua
1
Numerals
Adjectives
6
.02
4
. 04
Nouns
118
.32.
67
■
21
Verbs
155
.42
19
. 20
Adverbs
8
.02
1
. 01
Negating elements
32
.08
2
.02
Personal pronouns
13
.04
Question words
21
.06
Demonstratives
13
.04
Conjunctions
1
Postpositions
1
T A B L E 8: B o r r o w i n g s in t h e F i r s t ;10 W a y n o ' s ; T o k e n s in Q u e c h u a
and S p a n i s h in P e r c e n t a g e s of the Tot a l N u m b e r of I t e m s in e a c h
Language
A s i m i l a r r e s u l t is o b t a i n e d is w e c o m p a r e t h e c a t e g o r i a l
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f S p a n i s h t y p e s w i t h t h a t of a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
s e l e c t i o n of Q u e c h u a types:
- 179 -
Quechua
Spanish
Adjectives
9
.05
46
.0 8
Nouns
76
■41
430
.
Verbs
70
.37
87
•I S
Adverbs
7
.04
11
.02
Negating elements
2
.01
Personal pronouns
3
.02
Question words
5
.03
Demonstratives
5
Conjunctions
1
4
.01
Postpositions
1
CO
o
Prepositions
3
Numerals
2
Quantifiers
2
Exclamatives
Z3
..
01
1
.01
5
.01
T A B L E 9: All S p a n i s h B o r r o w i n g s in t h e W a y n o ' s ( T y p e s ) a n d a l l
Q u e c h u a T y p e s in th e F i r s t 20 W a y n o ’s; P e r c e n t a g e s o f t h e T o t a l
N u m b e r o f I t e m s in e a c h L a n g u a g e
Again we notice the asymmetry between nouns and verbs. I t is
clear th a t the above tables show little light on s o m e o f t h e
o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s , s u c h as a d j e c t i v e s , c o n j u n c t i o n s , a n d p r e / p o s t - p o s i t i o n s . T h e s e I will d i s c u s s n o w in s e p a r a t e s e c t i o n s .
4. 1 A d j e c t i v e s
A t t r i b u t i v e a d j e c t i v e s in Q u e c h u a a r e p r e - n o m i n a l a n d n o n ­
a g r e e i n g ; in S p a n i s h t h e y are g e n e r a l l y p o s t - n o m i n a l a n d a g r e e i n g
in g e n d e r a n d n u m b e r . O f t h e 133 t i m e s a b o r r o w e d a j e c t i v e w a s
u s e d t h e m a j o r i t y of c a s e s i n v o l v e n o n - a t t r i b u t i v e u s e s , a s c a n
b e s e e n in T a b l e 10:
- 180 -
Adverbial
- n o suffix
- suffix
4
17
Predicative
- no suffix
- suffix
18
18
Independent
- n o suffix
- suffix
13
16
A ± agr
A +agr
A -agr
A ±agr
N
N
N
9
Nquechua
5
10
12
N
N
N
5
1
5
A +agr
A -agr
A ±agr
T A B L E 10:
T h e D i s t r i b u t i o n of B o r r o w e d A d j e c t i v e s
We w i l l b r i e f l y f o c u s n o w on t h e a t t r i b u t i v e cases. F i r s t of all,
there are 5 cases of a borrowed adjective with Q u echua word order
and w i t h S p a n i s h conc o r d . In (32) t h e a d j e c t i v e a m a r g a 'bitter'
p r e c e d e s v i d a 'life', j u s t l i k e in Quechua, b u t it c o n c o r d s w i t h
it in g e n d e r a n d n u m b e r , j u s t like in Spanish:
(32) y u y a r i n k i c h u y u y a r i s h a n i n
amarga bida pasasqanchista
d o y o u r e member, I r e m e m b e r
t h e b i t t e r life t h a t w e lead
H owe v e r , S p a n i s h w o r d o r d e r a n d c o n c o r d is e q u a l l y f r e q u e n t , as
in (33). G i v e n t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n a n d t h e a t t a c h m e n t o f t h e f i r s t
person s u f f i x -y w e are d e a l i n g here with a Q u e c h u a fragment, but
in t h e s e c o n d l i n e of (33) w e f i n d S p a n i s h w o r d o r d e r a nd
c onc o r d : b o t h u x a a n d r i d u n d a h a v e t h e f e m i n i n e ending:
(33) k u k a k i n t u c h a y
uxa ridunday
m y h a n d f u l of c o c a
m y (coca) w i t h a r o u n d l e a f # 3 4
S p a n i s h w o r d o r d e r and n o c o n c o r d is q u i t e e x c e p t i o n a l . J e s u s in
(34) is g r a m m a t i c a l l y m a s c u l i n e , w h i l e S a n t i s s i m a h a s a f e m i n i n e
ending.
(34) J e s u s S a n t i s s i m a
Holiest Jesus
N o t i c e t h a t t h e p a t t e r n is t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t w h e r e t h e r e is a
p r e - n o m i n a l a d j e c t i v e of w h i c h it c a n n o t b e d e t e r m i n e d w h e t h e r it
a g r e e s (± agr) o r w h e t h e r it d o e s not.
The e x c e p t i o n a l s t a t u s of n o n - a g r e e i n g p o s t - n o m i n a l a d j e c t i v e s
raises t h e issue of wh e t h e r n oun + post-nominal adjective
c o m b i n a t i o n s a r e n o t b o r r o w e d as blocks, and s i n c e t h i s is h a r d
t o c o n c e i v e o f if w e t h i n k of b o r r o w i n g as a s u b - l e x i c a l
- 181 -
p h e n o m e n o n , w h e t h e r we d o n o t h a v e e a s e s of p h o n o l o g i c a l l y a n d
m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y a d a p t e d c o d e - s w i t c h e s here. T h i s c o n c l u s i o n is
reinforced b y t h e fact that post-nominal a d j e c t i v e s o c c u r a l m o s t
e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h S p a n i s h nouns. C o n s i d e r e x a m p l e s s u c h as (35):
(35) s u l t i r a u n r a d a - t a
waqachiyirian c h a y p a s
a chaste girl
e v e n if I m a d e w e e p
H e r e t h e a g r e e i n g p o s t - n o m i n a l a d j e c t i v e u n r a d a ’c h a s t e , h o n e s t ’
( S p a n i s h h o n r a d a ) ha s an a d a p t e d v o w e l ( j u s t as s u l t i r a ’g i r l ’,
f r o m s o l t e r a ) , a n d in a d d i t i o n it h a s Q u e c h u a a c c u s a t i v e m a r k i n g
- t a . Alternatively, we would have to conc e i v e of s u l t i r a u n r a d a
as an u n a n a l y z e d chunk, w i t h i d i o m - l i k e s t a t u s . T h e l i m i t e d
n u m b e r o f c a s e s m a k e s it h a r d t o c o m e t o a f i x e d c o n c l u s i o n .
4. 2 P r e p o s i t i o n s
In t h r e e c a s e s S p a n i s h p r e p o s i t i o n s a re b o r r o w e d , w h i c h m a y b e
n e a r l y i m p o s s i b l e in s p o k e n Q u e c h u a , w h i c h h a s o n l y p o s t ­
p o s i t i o n s a n d c a s e suffixes. In (36) w e f i n d b o r r o w i n g o f d i s d i
’since, f r o m ’ in a couplet, a n d t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e s a m e
p r e p o s i t i o n d e s d e in a c o d e - s w i t c h e d l i n e o f h e t f o l l o w i n g
couplet :
(36) d i s d i w a r r n a-manta
yanayuq kanaypaq
from c h i l d h o o d on
to h a v e a l o v e r
[desde su palacio]
gubirnu kamachikamun
f r o m its p a l a c e
the g o v e r n m e n t c o m m a n d s
#91
In t h e f i r s t l i n e of' (36) d i s d i d o u b l e s w i t h t h e Q u e c h u a c a s e
s u f f i x - m a n t a ’f r o m ’, and t h e s a m e t h i n g o c c u r s in (37), w h e r e
M E S ’for' d o u b l e s w i t h Q u e c h u a b e n e f a c t i v e c a s e - p a g .
(37) s i p a s k a h t a n nini,
para paya-paq-qa,
manas kuraqtachu
I
wasiypipas kanmi
as f o r o l d w o m e n ,
w a n t t h e girl,
those
not the oldest d
I h a v e at h o m e
#106
S i n c e t h e t h i r d b o r r o w e d p r e p o s i t i o n , k u n t r a ' a g a i n s t ’, is u s e d
a d v e r b i a l l y , it n e e d n o t c o n c e r n u s her e . W e c a n a n a l y s e (36) a n d
(37) as c a s e s w h e r e t h e S p a n i s h p r e p o s i t i o n is s i m p l y a d d e d o n t o
t h e Q u e c h u a s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e , as a m o d i f i e r , w i t h o u t c r e a t i n g
s t r u c t u r e of its own, perhaps.
4.3 C o n j u n c t i o n s
S i m i l a r p r o b l e m s a r i s e w i t h c o n j u n c t i o n s . In Q u e c h u a c o o r d i n a t i o n
a n d s u b o r d i n a t i o n a r e g e n e r a l y e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h e n c l i t i c s . In
addition t h e r e are a few sentence-final s u b o r d i n a t i n g particles.
In S p a n i s h a l l s e n t e n c e - l i n k i n g is d o n e t h r o u g h s e n t e n c e - i n i t a l
e l e m e n t s . As in m a n y A m e r i n d i a n l a n g u a g e s , c o o r d i n a t i n g
c o n j u n c t i o n s a r e b o r r o w e d freely. A n e x a m p l e o f s u c h a b o r r o w e d
c o n j u n c t i o n is p i ru in (38):
- 182 -
(38) h i ñ a w a q a c h u n , h i ñ a r i p u c h u n
piru ama nuqaq sutiypichu
let h i m cry, let h i m g o
b u t n o t in m y n a m e
A p o t e n t i a l l y d r a s t i c a d a p t a t i o n t o S p a n i s h is c o n s t i t u t e d b y t h e
u s e of S p a n i s h e l e m e n t s s u c h as s e n t e n c e i n t r o d u c i n g a d v e r b s as
c o n j u n c t i o n s . In (39) s ig u r u ’certain' occurs, a n d in (40) a k a s u
’
perha p s , as i f ':
(39) s i g u r u m a n a ñ a m a m a y q a k a n c h u
c e r t a i n t h a t I have no moth e r any m ore?
sigura taytayqa manaña kanchu
c e r t a i n t h a t I have no father any m ore?
(40) a k a s u n u q a p a q
as
akasu nuqapaq
as
mansana phaltanchu
if I l a c k a p p l e s
sultira phaltanchu
if I l a c k g i r l s #48
In (41) a S p a n i s h v e r b form, a v e r 'let us see,
as a s e n t e n c e i n t r o d u c i n g el e m e n t :
to see'
is u s e d
(41) c h u k c h a c h a y k i t a t ' i p i y k u k u y
p u l l your little hair
awir m a n a chus nanasunki
l e t ' s s e e if it d o e s n o t h u r t
In (42) f i n a l l y w e h a v e t h e S p a n i s h s u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n si
' if' :
(42) s i - c h u s m u n a w a n k i c h a y q a
si-chus waylluwanki chayqa
[en p r u e b a d e t u c a r i ñ o ]
kay kupata tumay
if y o u l o v e me
if y o u c a r e for m e
as p r o o f of y o u r a f f e c t i o n
d r i n k t h i s c up #89
T h e c o n j u n c t i o n si a l w a y s o c c u r s w i t h t h e e n c l i t i c - c h u s a n d
three out of four cases with the sentence-final Quechua
conjunction c h a y q a .
If c o o r d i n a t i n g e l e m e n t s c a n b e s e e n as i n v o l v i n g a d i s c o u r s e s tr a t e g y , t h e n w e c a n s u m m a r i s e t h a t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f S p a n i s h
c o n j u n c t i o n s is e i t h e r n e u t r a l i z e d t h r o u g h d o u b l i n g (as w i t h si)
or i n v o l v e s d i s c o u r s e p a r t i c l e s .
5. C o d e - s w i t c h i n g in t h e w a v n o ' s
F r o m T a b l e s 1 a n d 2 it is c l e a r t h a t t h e r e is f r e q u e n t c o d e s w i t c h i n g i n s i d e of a c o u p l e t b e t w e e n S p a n i s h a nd Q u e c h u a . In
fact, o n e w a y n o , # 1 1 3 in t h e E s c o b a r a nd E s c o b a r c o l l e c t i o n ,
c o n s i s t s e n t i r e l y of a l t e r n a t i n g Q u e c h u a a n d S p a n i s h lines.
When w e c l a s s i f y t h e switches grammatically (excluding
adjectives, w h i c h w e r e a n a l y z e d a bove u n der borrowing, and most
intersentential switches where the relation between the sentences
is loose) t h e f o l l o w i n g p i c t u r e emerges:
- 183 -
between sentences
4
b e t w e e n e x c l a m a t i o n an d t h e r e s t o f t h e s e n t e n c e
2
b e t w e e n p e r s o n a d d r e s s e d and s e n t e n c e
of w h i c h a d d r e s s e e
31
= Q u e c h u a 13
= S p a n i s h 18
b e t w e e n v e r b a n d s e n t e n c e in d i r e c t s p e e c h
of w h i c h q u o t e = Q u e c h u a 8
= Spanish 2
10
b e tween s e n t e n t i a l adverb and sentence
2
between loose
1
'topic'
and sentence
b e t w e e n s e n t e n c e and prepositional p h r a s e
t h a t e x p r e s s e s time, place, or i n s t r u m e n t
40
b e t w e e n s u b j e c t and the rest
3
between verb and direct object
6
b e t w e e n p r e d i c a t e N P and c o p u l a
1
between noun and modifier
13
T A B L E 11:
Code-switches Inside a Couplet
In T a b l e 11 t h e c o d e - s w i t c h i n g s a r e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o g r o u p s : a
g r o u p in w h i c h t h e s e n t e n c e s in b o t h l a n g u a g e s r e m a i n r e l a t i v e l y
intact, a n d a g r o u p in w h i c h t h e r e is s w i t c h i n g i n s i d e t h e
s e n t e n c e . O n l y s w i t c h e s of t h e s e c o n d t y p e a r e o f i n t e r e s t t o a
t h e o r y o f g r a m m a t i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s on c o d e - s w i t c h i n g .
A n u m b e r o f c a s e s of s w i t c h i n g i n v o l v i n g a p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e
f o r m a p r o b l e m f o r a t h e o r y in t e r m s of l i n e a r c o n s t r a i n t s :
consti t u e n t s that express instrument and p l a c e u s u a l l y f o l l o w the
v e r b in S p a n i s h , an d p r e c e e d it in Q u e c h u a . T h e r e f o r e (42), c i t e d
b e f o r e , is a p o s s i b l e c o u n t e r e x a m p l e a g a i n s t a l i n e a r e q u i v a l e n c e
t h e o r y , w h i l e in (43) t h e o r d e r of b o t h l a n g u a g e s is r e s p e c t e d :
(42) s i p i w a y s i p i w a y
[con h i l o d e pita]
ni q a n t a ni p i t a
h a y k 'a q m u n a n a y p a q
(43) k a y p i k a n a y k a m a x
[contigo dormire]
s t r a n g l e me, s t r a n g l e m e
with agave thread
so t h a t n e i t h e r y o u n o r a n y o n e
I'll e v e r l o v e #1
a¡ ; l o n g as I ' l l b e h e r e
I 11 s l e e p w i t h y o u
- 184 -
F o r a t h e o r y in t e r m s of s t r u c t u r a l c o n s t r a i n t s n e i t h e r
e x a m p l e c o n s t i t u t e s a p r o b l e m : t h e r e is a m o d i f i c a t i o n r e l a t i o n
b e t w e e n t h e p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e s a n d t h e r e s t of t h e s e n t e n c e
r a t h e r t h a n a d e p e n d e n c y - r e l a t i o n . [Notice, h o w e v e r , t h a t in b o t h
(42) and (43) t h e o f f e n d i n g e l e m e n t c o n s t i t u t e s a n e w l i n e in t h e
song; m e t r i c r e s t r i c t i o n s c o u l d b e a r g u e d t o b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
the possible v i o l a t i o n . ]
E x a m p l e s in w h i c h t h e r e is a s w i t c h a f t e r t h e s u b j e c t a r e n o
p r o b l e m f o r t h e l i n e a r t h eory : in b o t h l a n g u a g e s t h e s u b j e c t is
initial. T h e y a r e p o t e n t i a l - p r o b l e m a t i c c a s e s f or a s t r u c t u r a l
theory, h o w e v e r : t h e r e is a d e p e n d e n c y r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s u b j e c t
and p r e d i c a t e , t h o u g h t h i s n o t d i r e c t l y o n e of l e x i c a l
d e p e n d e n c y . E x a m p l e (44) is a c a s e of s w i t c h i n g a f t e r t h e
subject:
(44) p a l o m a t o c a s a
marista waqashan
the torcaza dove
cri e s seas
It is n o t c o m p l e t e l y c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e s u b j e c t h e r e is t r u l y
Spanish: t h e w o r d s a r e Spanis h , b u t t h e article, n e c e s s a r y in
t h i s case, is lacking, so t h a t w e m a y h a v e a c o m p l e x b o r r o w i n g
here.
The six c a s e s in w h i c h t h e d i r e c t o b j e c t is in a d i f f e r e n t
language f r o m t h e v e r b a r e a b i g p r o b l e m for a s t r u c t u r a l t h e o r y
and for a l i n e a r t h e o r y . In Q u e c h u a t h e d i r e c t o b j e c t p r e c e d e s
t h e verb, a n d in S p a n i s h v i c e - v e r s a . In a d d i t i o n t h e r e is a c l o s e
d e p e n d e n c y r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n b o t h e lements. T h e l a r g e s t group,
four cases, i n v o l v e s a Q u e c h u a v e r b f o l l o w e d b y a S p a n i s h obj e c t :
(45) u s q h a y , u s q h a y q u y k u l l a w a y
[el v e n e n o m á s a c t i v o ]
quick, q u i c k g i v e m e
t h e s t r o n g e s t p o i s o n #37
(48) a m a n u r p i c h a l l a y
waqachiwankichu
don’
t my little dove m a k e cry
[esa p r e n d a p o r s e r mía]
th i s t r e a s u r e t h a t is m i n e #19
(47) h a y k ' a w a n m i k u t i c h i w a n q a
[cuarenta soles] gastasqayta
how will he return
t h e 40 s o l e s t h a t I s p e n t #38
(48) k a r i n u w a n c h a k u t i c h i w a n q a
[cuarenta soles] g a s tasqayta
with love then will he return
t h e 40 s o l e s t h a t I s p e n t #38
The w a y t o m a k e (45) a n d (46) fall w i t h i n t h e l i n e a r t h e o r y is b y
a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e y ar e t h e r e s u l t of e x t r a p o s i t i o n of a h e a v y N P
t o t h e ri g h t , w h i c h is p o s s i b l e in m a n y v a r i e t i e s o f Q u e c h u a .
E x a m p l e s (47) a n d (48) a r e s p e c i a l in t h a t t h e o b j e c t c u a r e n t a
s o l es m a y n e e d t o b e a n a l y z e d as t h e i n t e r n a l a n t e c e d e n t o f a
headless r e l a t i v e phrase formed with gastasqayta 'that I s p e n t ' .
T h a t w o u l d n o t m a k e it less o f a c o u n t e r - e x a m p l e , b u t n o w of a
d i f f e r e n t kind, s i m i l a r t o (49):
(49)
[el p a ñ u e l o q u e m e d i s t e ]
sida fina niwaranki
the handkerchief you gave me
fi n e s i l k y o u t o l d m e # 1 2 5
- 185 -
P o s s i b l y (47) a n d (48) c o u l d b e s e e n as i n v o l v i n g a b o r r o w e d
m o n e t a r y e x p r e s s i o n ( s o m e t h i n g v e r y c o m m o n ) . E x a m p l e (49)
involves p e r h a p s a preposed focussed long n o u n phrase.
F i n a l l y , t h e r e is o n e c a s e w h e r e a Q u e c h u a o b j e c t f o l l o w s a
Spanish verb:
(50) d e d o n d e d i v i s o mi [ q h a p a q k i l la]
from where I make out my radi a n t moon
d e d o n d e d i v i s o las g r a n d e s p r a d e r a s
from where I make out t h e large pas t u r e s
#60
P o s s i b l y t h e e x p r e s s i o n q h a p a q k i l l a s h o u l d b e t a k e n as a
b o r r o w e d f i x e d e x p r e s s i o n here.
If w e c a n m a n a g e t o e x p l a i n t h e c o u n t e r - e x a m p l e s [ p o s s i b l y
t h r o u g h a p p e a l i n g t o r e q u i r e m e n t s of r h y t h m i c s t r u c t u r e s p e c i f i c
t o t h e w a y n o as a genre], it is c l e a r t h a t t h e l a r g e s t g r o u p o f
cases of c o d e - s w i t c h i n g do not concern a t i g h t d e p e n d e n c y
r e l a t i o n i n s i d e a c l a u s e and d o n o t g o a g a i n s t t h e w o r d o r d e r s o f
both languages.
It is n o t e a s i l y f e a s i b l e t o a s s i g n d i s t i n c t f u c t i o n s t o S p a n i s h
a n d Q u e c h u a i n s i d e t h e couplets. T h i s a p p e a r s , a m o n g o t h e r
thi ngs, w h e n o n e c o n s i d e r s t h e s w i t c h i n g b e t w e e n t h e p e r s o n
a d d r e s s e d a n d t h e r e s t of th e sen t e n c e . F r o m T a b l e 11 it a p p e a r s
t h a t s w i t c h i n g s o c c u r in b o t h d i r e c t i o n s :
(51) a u r o r i t a y , a u r o r i t a y
ya no más contigo
rny l i t t l e d a w n (bis)
not any longer wit you
(52) s e ñ o r a C a t a l i n a
punkuykita kichay
Mrs. C a t a l i n a
open y o u r d o o r
In (51) t h e a d d r e s s f o r m is in Q u e c h u a (as c a n b e s e e n f r o m t h e
f i r s t p e r s o n s u f f i x ~y), in (52) in S p a n i s h . [It is p o s s i b l e , o f
course, t h a t t h e m a j o r f u n c t i o n o f t h e s w i t c h is s i m p l y a
c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e l a n g u a g e in w h i c h t h e p e r s o n is a d d r e s s e d
and the r e s t . ]
6. C o n c l u s i o n s
A t t h e e n d o f t h i s paper, I f e e l t h e r e a r e as m a n y q u e s t i o n s t h a t
r e m a i n o p e n as d e f i n i t e c o n c l u s i o n s t o b e d r a w n , a n d w i l l f i n i s h
w i t h s o m e l o o s e remarks.
(a) T h e a n a l y s i s of t h e w a y n o ’s m a k e s c l e a r t h a t t h e r e a r e q u i t e
a few f r a g m e n t s that are hard to fit into t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
c a t e g o r i e s b o r r o w i n g and c o d e - s w i t c h i n g . In T a b l e 1 23 o u t o f 1 0 0
w a y n o ’s w e r e c l a s s i f i c i e d as t h i s t y p e o f ’m i x e d f o r m ’, b u t t h e r e
t u r n o u t t o b e p e r h a p s as m a n y t y p e s of m i x i n g as c a s e s , d u e t o
t h é d e n s e p o e t i c s t r u c t u r e of t h e w a y n o ’s.
(b) N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e l a r g e m a j o r i t y of c a s e s o f l a n g u a g e m i x i n g
i n v o l v e d e i t h e r c o d e - s w i t c h i n g or b o r r o w i n g , c o n c e i v e d o f in t h e
- 186 -
t r a d i t i o n a l sense.
(c) A n a l y s i s of t h e c a t e g o r i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e b o r r o w i n g s
s h o w e d t h e f a m i l i a r p a t t e r n s of a s y m m e t r y b e t w e e n n o u n s a n d
verbs, b e t w e e n c o n t e n t w o r d s and f u n c t i o n words. T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n
o f a l i e n n e w c a t e g o r i e s s u c h as p r e p o s i t i o n s and s e n t e n c e - i n i t i a l
c o n j u n c t i o n s w a s s h o w n to b e i n f r e q u e n t and n o t d i s r u p t i v e of
Q u e c h u a g r a m m a r . T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a d j e c t i v e s is p r o b l e m a t i c ;
m o s t o c c u r in n o n - a t t r i b u t i v e position. A t t r i b u t i v e a d j e c t i v e s
t e n d t o e i t h e r f o r m a unit, p e r h a p s b o r r o w e d as a whole, w i t h t h e
n o u n t h e y m o d i f y p o s t - n o m i n a l l y , or fall into t h e Q u e c h u a p a t t e r n
of n o n - a g r e e i n g p r e - n o m i n a l adjectives.
(d) A p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s of t h e c o d e - s w i t c h e s s h o w e d n o t
u n f a m i l i a r p a t t e r n s of d i s t r i b u t i o n : f r e q u e n t s w i t c e s at t h e
f r i n g e o f t h e s e n t e n c e s , i n c l u d i n g e x c l a m a t i o n s , quotes, p e r s o n s
adressed. W i t h i n t h e clause, f r e q u e n t s w i t c h e s i n v o l v i n g
a d v e r b i a l p r e p o s i t i o n a l phrases.
(e) W h i l e c o d e - s w i t c h i n g a n d b o r r o w i n g c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d
formally, e.g. t h r o u g h m o r p h o l o g y , it is n o t t h e c a s e in t h e
w a y n o ’s t h a t c o d e - s w i t c h i n g has a p r i m a r i l y s y m b o l i c f u n c t i o n ,
e.g. m a r k i n g a m i x e d c u l t u r a l identity, and t h a t b o r r o w i n g c a n be
seen as a f o r m o f s i m p l e v o c a b u l a r y extension. P a r t i c u l a r l y in
s e m a n t i c d o u b l i n g , [ w h a t m u s t f o r m a l l y b e c h a r a c t e r i s e d as]
b o r r o w e d e l e m e n t s t a k e on, a t t h e s u b - l e x i c a l level, c e r t a i n of
t h e d i s c o u r s e f u n c t i o n s of c o d e - s w i t c h i n g s . [This r e s u l t t h r o w s
some l i g h t p e r h a p s on t h e q u e s t i o n of w h y ’
nonce b o r r o w i n g s ’ are
so c o n t r o v e r s i a l . In t h e p e r s p e c t i v e t a k e n h e r e t h e y c o n s t i t u t e a
c l a s s of e l e m e n t s t h a t f o r m a l l y s h o u l d b e g r o u p e d w i t h
b o r r o w i n g s , a n d f u n c t i o n a l l y can, in c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , b e
grouped w i t h code-switching, name l y when the b o r r o w i n g p r i m a r i l y
has a s y m b o l i c f u n c t i o n . Hence, h a v i n g a s e p a r a t e t h e o r y f or
n o n c e b o r r o w i n g s a n d o n e f o r c o d e - s w i t c h e s is p r o b l e m a t i c f r o m a
functionalist perspective. ]
* A m u c h e a r l i e r s h o r t e r v e r s i o n of t h i s p a p e r w a s p r e s e n t e d in
D u t c h in T i l b u r g in 1986 a n d p u b l i s h e d in E x t r a et a l . (1987). A
b r i e f S p a n i s h v e r s i o n wa s p r e s e n t e d in L e i d e n in (1988). I a m
g r a t e f u l f o r all c o m m e n t s at t h e s e m e etings, p a r t i c u l a r l y f r o m
W i l l e m A d e l a a r , R i k B o e s c h o t e n , a nd J u a n Riv a r o l a . In a d d i t i o n ,
B r u c e M a n n h e i m d i s c u s s e d a n u m b e r of t h e i s s u e s i n v o l v e d w i t h me.
This v e r s i o n is i d e n t i c a l t o t h e o n e p r e s e n t e d at t h e L o n d o n
workshop, e x c e p t t h a t a n u m b e r of e r r o r s h a v e b e e n c o r r e c t e d a t
at some p o i n t s e x t r a t e x t h a s b e e n inserted, m a i n l y f o r t h e s a k e
o f c l a r i f i c a t i o n . I a m g r a t e f u l t o t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e
workshop, a n d a l s o t o V i n c e n t d e Rooij, f o r comments.
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