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society, reality, and self are constructed through
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that form of interactive processes that gives rise to the sum
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across different contexts and in varying environments
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doing corresponds to underlying mental processes to which
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is difficult to establish with certainty that strategy training
is the best means of increasing learners’ strategic control
of the language learning process. It may be at least as
effective to concentrate on helping them to engage as fully
as possible in the reflective task of planning, monitoring
and evaluating their own learning (Byram, 2004: 580).
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Session 10
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A emphasises the importance of metacognitive awareness and the active use
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observation of teacher behaviour in class and autonomy in relation to
teacher instructions. B also claims that the programme has helped B to
develop a focus on finding efficient, interesting and motivating ways to
learn Spanish, including possible opportunities for studying abroad in a
Spanish-speaking country.
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SP1. Turn 477.
A emphasises the importance of metacognitive awareness and the active use
of language learning strategies for the development of learner autonomy
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well.
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[1] R 81: Mmm. So there is a certain transfer value, you think, to other
kinds of subjects, basically.
[2] L 82: Mmm.
[3] R: Mmm.
[4] T 83: So it is
me the best, OK?
everybody is the
saying that this
interesting what you are saying in terms of what suits
That one does not think that the situation is that
same, but that one chooses it oneself consciously
strategy suits me very well.
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[5] R: But then the point is that in order to be able to choose what suits
you the best, and in order to be able to define what suits you the best,
then you need a little overview over the options you have, OK, so that
you avoid inventing the wheel again yourself, you may know that OK I can
do it this way, I choose this and that because of this and that, OK. And
then one gets to know one’s own learning style better, that is for sure.
[6] T: Mmm.
[7] R: OK, no but then
[8] T: Then this was la última vez 84
[9] R: Yes.
[10] T: with Hans Erik, but we’ll meet him again in one and a half years
when he will
[11] R: have his defense
[12] T: when we will go up there to inquire thoroughly.
[13] R: Yes.
[14] T: Ex catedra, that is what it is called, isn’t it?
[15] R: Ex catedra, yes.
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SP2. Turn 476.
B claims that previous attempts to work with language learning strategies
and this year’s programme have contributed towards B’s deeper
understanding of relevant learning methods, especially in terms of
observation of teacher behaviour in class and autonomy in relation to
teacher instructions. B also claims that the programme has helped B to
develop a focus on finding efficient, interesting and motivating ways to
learn Spanish, including possible opportunities for studying abroad in a
Spanish-speaking country.
63 Turn 476. LV EDVHG RQ WKH IROORZLQJ VHTXHQFHV IURP WKH WUDQVFULEHG
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[1] L: I have become more aware in terms of thinking why I learn Spanish,
since before, yes, I have to learn Spanish, but now in a way, yes perhaps
I want to study abroad in a Spanish speaking country or, I thought more
about why I’m doing this.
[2] R: Mmm. Yes, great. Other comments? Yes?
[3] L: I thought simply like that, how, because previously then I have
done what the teacher has told me to do and then just started in a way …,
why not, but if one thinks things more over, yes, some will listen a lot
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Methodological framework
to music in a way, if you enjoy music, so then why not listen to Spanish
music, because one has several ways to learn it. Think how do I like to
learn Spanish in a way.
[4] R: That you look for what suits you the best and then you seek ways
to
[5] L: Yes.
[6] R: Learn it.
[7] L: … Not only do all what your teacher does, in a way.
[8] R: Mmm. Yes. Other comments. Yes?
[9] L: In addition I think a little bit that I have become more aware in
a way which different learning strategies we use in class, for instance
when I stand in front of the blackboard and get a sheet with a situation
and then we are to talk spontaneously to this and that person, then we
know, OK, it is a social learning strategy, and we use it in order to
dare a bit more. So then, perhaps I can analyse what the teacher does
more than I could before. And that I think helps a bit in any case,
because then I know that that learning strategy does not work for me, but
it does.
[10] R: Mmm. Yes. Other things?
[11] L: I have also … the other subjects as well. And then I have in a
way tests and things like that, then I have tested different learning
strategies, or different methods, and I have then found out which one
suits me. So it has helped quite a lot.
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[1] T introduces the scheme. Uses the movie as an example. When you get
a scheme. You have got used to asking questions about how. There was a
purpose behind the movie. We had four areas within language learning.
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Writes on the blackboard: Speech Listening Reading Writing
Think about the project.
Writes Purpose. Goals. Knowledge. Skills. Social.
[2] L: Knowledge = conjugate verbs
[3] T: Procedural knowledge – declarative knowledge. Social target: have
fun. We have almost finished the movie. What do you think the purpose is?
[4] R: Clarifies what purpose means.
[5] L: Two-three discuss together.
[6] The Head of Department explains his presence.
[7] L: Decides how active we want to be.
[8] T: Organised on an individual basis. Have you noticed something in
relation to the blackboard?
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A says that it was organised on an individual basis, and A wonders if B
has noticed anything in terms of what was written on the blackboard.
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SP136. Turn 342.
B discusses and states that B decides how active B wants to be.
Methodological framework
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SP137. Turn 341.
A answers that knowledge, in this sense, may be understood as procedural
and declarative knowledge. The social goal would be to have a good time.
A says that they had almost finished the film, and A asks if they had
thought about the purpose. A asks if they understand the concept
“purpose”, and A relates this to having a goal.
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SP138. Turn 340.
B says that knowledge implies being able to conjugate verbs.
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SP139. Turn 339.
A introduces the topic in terms of the importance of being aware of the
purpose of one’s actions. A says that B was going to use the film as an
example, and A says that B had got used to asking questions about why,
when doing something. A says that B has had a purpose with the film, which
is based on the four areas within language learning. A writes the four
areas on the blackboard: Speech, listening, reading and writing. A asks
them to think about the project. A writes purpose, goals, knowledge,
skills and social aspects.
Methodological framework
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SP Session 16
SP1. Turn 477.
A emphasises the importance of metacognitive awareness and the active use
of language learning strategies for the development of learner autonomy
in the language learning process and its usefulness for other subjects as
well.
SP2. Turn 476.
B claims that previous attempts to work with language learning strategies
and this year’s programme have contributed towards B’s deeper
understanding of relevant learning methods, especially in terms of
observation of teacher behaviour in class and autonomy in relation to
teacher instructions. B also claims that the programme has helped B to
develop a focus on finding efficient, interesting and motivating ways to
learn Spanish, including possible opportunities for studying abroad in a
Spanish-speaking country.
SP3. Turn 475.
A asks whether there are any particular experiences to be drawn from this
year’s SBI programme.
SP4. Turn 474.
Methodological framework
B answers that B had become very surprised upon learning that it is
possible to learn simply by listening to the spoken language.
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learning activity as a reward
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IF the goal is to avoid monotony in the learning
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B states that it would have been very much at the same time.
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A asks if one should read that book in German, if a CD with German text
would have got B on the right track, or if it would have been distracting.
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B states that
states that if
listen to the
listen to what
in terms of music, the music has to be instrumental. B
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text instead of starting to read. B states that B would
they are singing.
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A states that both initial training, and training afterwards, have been
mentioned.
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B states that when working with maths, B tends to listen to music because
that helps. B states that when reading or getting deeper into something,
music does not work. B states that it is easy to turn on the music and
have it on, but then it is not much of a help. B feels that it helps in
maths. B states that if B is going to work a long time with homework, it
helps to run first. B feels that B thinks more clearly if B has trained
first.
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A asks if listening to music is of any help or if B just sits there after
a while simply listening to the music and forgetting what the activity
was all about.
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B states that B tends to do something which B enjoys doing after having
worked a good deal. B refers to football training, watching TV, or
something like that. B states that B then somehow feels that B has a
source of motivation. B states that when working with homework, B knows
that B does not have to work only with the homework. B states that there
is something nice to look forward to. B states that B does not use that
many affective learning strategies except listening to music. B does not
know if that is relevant.
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A asks about the affective learning strategies. A asks about B’s preferred
affective strategy.
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FR85. Turn 640.
B states that B has to be very aware about how to learn. B needs a strategy
and B has to be as efficient as possible. B also says that B has to work
as fast as possible. It is motivating to see that B learns as B moves
along.
FR86. Turn 639.
A asks if one learns in relation to grammar. A wonders if one may quickly
verify if one has understood. One will quickly reveal if one knows all
the forms or not, but A states that A agrees that writing is important,
and that they will be doing more of that next year. A states that next
year they will be writing in the past tense as well. A also tells B to
reflect more over other issues that are important to learn, and tells B
to reflect over what they have said earlier this year as well. A asks
what is important if one has the motivation and clear goals and one wants
to learn French. A asks what it takes to write more and to write sentences
and face challenges. To express oneself in the language is important and
A has tried to work with that all the time in sentences. A asks for more
comments.
FR87. Turn 638.
B says that no, B learns things, how to use words fairly rapidly.
FR88. Turn 637.
A asks what the point is with these.
FR89. Turn 636.
B says yes.
FR90. Turn 635.
A states that one uses, for instance, some of these fill-in-the-blanks
today.
FR91. Turn 634.
B states that it is fairly easy, but that when B sees that B has suddenly
commented on four to five pages of text, then B feels that B knows French
somewhat better than B perhaps believes.
FR92. Turn 633.
A says yes.
FR93. Turn 632.
B states that B believes that it is very important that B checks out on
an individual basis what B knows every once in a while. B also states
that writing an essay, writing for a presentation, or using the language
Results
independently of the fill-in-the-blanks in the book, is very important in
B’s view. B states that when doing these fill-in-the-blanks, B thinks
that B does not know that much French. It is not difficult to put in a
word even if everything turns out to be wrong.
FR94. Turn 631.
A says yes and asks about other issues that were brought up. A asks what
is important in order to learn a language. A asks how to work in terms of
motivation, and then to see goals if one wants to learn French. A states
that if that is the main focus, then it is either about the grades, or
one wishes to acquire a beautiful language, or one wants to travel to
France and know the language so as to talk to people down there.
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SP63. Turn 415.
A acknowledges B’s claim about the importance of a teacher.
SP64. Turn 414.
B claims that a teacher is not necessarily important, but that B at least
needs someone around.
SP65. Turn 413.
A asks for clarification in relation to B’s claim about the role of the
teacher.
SP66. Turn 412.
B claims that a teacher is an enormous advantage, but without being
absolutely necessary. B mentions situations where people, for instance
children, learn the language by simply being in a place where one’s own
language is spoken, and that this situation may substitute the need for
a teacher. B emphasises that exposure to the language is important.
SP67. Turn 411.
A repeats B’s claim about the importance of exposure to the language.
SP68. Turn 410.
B claims that exposure to the language is important, for instance in the
work environment, the school setting, or a private setting.
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Results
GE187. Turn 228.
B talks about noticing certain words B does not know. B states that B may
write them down if possible, bring them back home, and then look the words
up.
GE188. Turn 227.
A says not being a good Norwegian saying “du”, but “Sie”.
GE189. Turn 226.
B talks about using the right personal pronoun.
GE190. Turn 225.
A mentions talking to a person whom B does not know at all and who is of
a certain importance. A asks what one has to remember then.
GE191. Turn 224.
B states that B should have had a good vocabulary.
GE192. Turn 223.
A asks what would be important in that situation, when B is to talk to
her.
GE193. Turn 222.
B states that B should have written a manuscript in order to think properly
through the situation.
GE194. Turn 221.
A asks how this would be with Merkel in Paris, and what would be the
strategy then.
GE195. Turn 220.
B refers to thinking through what kind of situations may occur and what
kinds of sentences may be useful in the relevant situation. B thinks that
it is important not to be over-stressed. B forgets a lot if B is stressed.
It is better to have a note with words on in case one forgets. B states
that it is not a good idea to work very hard with some breaks as opposed
to working on a regular basis. B states that it is better to be proactive,
rehearsing the sentences B wants, if B knows what B wants to rehearse. B
states that B then knows that it is related to clothes. B can begin
beforehand and has a note with some words on it.
Results
GE196. Turn 219.
A asks about the third point, and what B has come up with.
GE197. Turn 218.
B states that B should go to a clothes’ store in Berlin. B states that
the sentence B needs is related to clothing, currency, size, colours, and
so on. B states that B could ask dad or the family what B is to do and
what one can ask about. B relates general, normal sentences. B states
that B may listen to a Linguaphone course. B states that they have the
standard B asks about in the clothes’ store. B talks about a place which
is not that busy so that the people working in the store have time for B.
B states that B thought about colours, patterns, size, price and the like.
GE198. Turn 217.
A asks how many girls and boys wanted to go to a clothes’ store. A asks
about planning. A asks if this was difficult.
GE199. Turn 216.
B states that they had dealt with a bakery in Berlin. B states that B
could ask about things to buy in the bakery. B states that B could discuss
immigration politics with Angela Merkel in Versailles, although this may
be more difficult. B states that they could discuss nature, and that they
could be in Switzerland and do shopping in Germany. B suggests an
intellectual conversation about chocolate, buying a cinema ticket and
going to places that B knows about beforehand. B suggests a clothes’ store
in Munich.
GE200. Turn 215.
A says yes. A then wonders about the cognitive learning strategies in
terms of understanding, perception and memory. A states that during this
session they are going to talk about the metacognitive learning
strategies. A states that in that case, we are talking about knowledge
about our own learning and what we can do in order to improve this
learning. A refers to what one can do to improve this process. A asks if
B has anything to contribute with. A asks what kind of situations B had
dealt with.
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FR330. Turn 395.
A asks if B would have played out dialogues with people.
FR331. Turn 394.
B says that if B analyses some dialogues, B would also have people ask
questions.
FR332. Turn 393.
A says that cooperation makes B better.
FR333. Turn 392.
B says that B can find some other learners to play boule with during the
breaks.
FR334. Turn 391.
A says that if B imagines a dialogue, B imagines whole sentences. If B
has many words, it is not always easy for B to know how to use them.
However, it is easier if B has sentences.
FR335. Turn 390.
B would also have read through the textbook, in which there are many good
expressions.
FR336. Turn 389.
A asks if B would have created a fictive dialogue.
FR337. Turn 388.
B says that it is also possible to imagine a conversation with the other
person and then talk to oneself, pretending that B talks to the other
person.
FR338. Turn 387.
Results
A says that it is OK to have the cultural understanding that some words
are useful to know, but it is not always easy to use them. A states that
school French and everyday French are two different aspects.
FR339. Turn 386.
B says that it is possible to watch movies. B says that people use words
in some American movies that are not used on an everyday basis, such as
fuck. In everyday life, people would have reacted if someone had mentioned
such a word.
FR340. Turn 385.
A asks how B would have solved this. A asks where B would have gone to
get help.
FR341. Turn 384.
B says learning words and expressions they use, since the book presents
a good deal of formal material. This refers to oral language and
pronunciation.
FR342. Turn 383.
A asks B where B would have gone to talk about everyday words and
expressions. A says that there is a difference between being visual or
auditive in terms of preferences. A asks about other activities prior to
the trip.
FR343. Turn 382.
B suggests the acquisition of words, expressions and phrases that can be
used to get to know people when playing boule. It is also useful to learn
some general words and expressions in order to be able to talk normally.
B states that the Internet, e.g. You tube, is a useful tool to find
relevant linguistic material.
FR344. Turn 381.
A suggests getting some cultural insight. A says it is a good idea to use
music to think about how people may say it in France.
FR345. Turn 380.
B says that B has to learn how to buy something when going to a store.
Basic courtesy also comes in handy. B states that B learns this in the
textbook. B also refers to looking for some French music shops on the
Internet in order to see if there are expressions that are much used. B
also suggests exchange rates, and how expensive things are in France.
FR346. Turn 379.
Results
A says that the most important thing is to find something B wants to
learn. A asks what B wants to do before B leaves.
FR347. Turn 378.
B says that B would also look for CD’s in a store. B would have found a
bakery. B says that B would have asked about the way. B says that B would
like to play boule with French people. B says looking for cheap CD’s. B
says a café and clothes store in Paris.
FR348. Turn 377.
A says that understanding is a combination of declarative and procedural
knowledge, or applied understanding. A tells B to apply this at a specific
level. A tells B to imagine that B is in France and that B has to use
strategies to get out of these situations. B has to think in cultural
terms, that Paris is different from the countryside. B is to use the
cultural aspect. B is to think what B finds interesting according to B’s
competence and level in order to develop these aspects.
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SP237. Turn 241.
A suggests that B goes into a boring clothes store, and then B has to try
more stores. One cannot just buy a stupid blue cap. Perhaps one wants a
green cap that fits better. A asks if B has thought of other strategies
in order to get things done.
SP238. Turn 240.
B says that when buying clothes, it is possible to go to several stores
to try clothes.
SP239. Turn 239.
A says that everything is possible, but that it has to be planned. This
planning is part of the metacognitive thinking process. B decides what to
do, and thinks that perhaps the teacher is needed as a bodyguard.
SP240. Turn 238.
B says that they could bring along the teacher just in case.
SP241. Turn 237.
A says that this is a strategy that A has seen someone use. One practises
something, and then one uses it over and over again with several people
just to learn it. One is not sure if one is to talk about the weather in
Norway, Llueve mucho en Noruega? One has said it once, and thereafter one
says it several times. A says that A has used that technique in Spain. A
states that A has told the learners to ask about the way 20 times, even
if they know the way. A tells B to remember this strategy.
Results
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4.4.2 Factual metacognitive knowledge.
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GE121. Turn 294.
B says that the best thing is probably to run first, since it could be
difficult to run afterwards because of the time schedule at home with
dinner etc. B comments on the fact that running is a good way of dissolving
tensions in relation to a language learning activity.
GE122. Turn 293.
A asks what is difficult in this situation. A suggests that it perhaps
has to do with the fact that the ’e’ has to be placed correctly. A asks
if this was the case for the rest as well.
GE123. Turn 292.
B suggests that B could record endings before going to bed and then listen
to them.
GE124. Turn 291.
A suggests that B could run while thinking about the conjugation of
adjectives after a working session. A asks if the best thing would be to
run before or after doing the homework.
GE125. Turn 290.
B replies that it was a rather easy task. B says that the adjective was
not an easy part.
GE126. Turn 289.
A asks if B feels that this task was difficult or easy.
GE127. Turn 288.
Results
B says that B has to read a good deal of German. B says that B has to
read first and then make an effort to really understand the matter.
GE128. Turn 287.
A asks if B could think of other things as well.
GE129. Turn 286.
B says that B has to think about grammatical errors B tends to make.
GE130. Turn 285.
A asks what B should do if B is to write an exercise in German.
GE131. Turn 284.
B replies that B has heard that it is supposed to be a good method of
getting prepared for the learning session.
GE132. Turn 283.
A asks if B uses this strategy, and if it helps.
GE133. Turn 282.
B replies that it is a good idea to browse through the book, looking at
the pictures one comes across.
GE134. Turn 281.
A asks what kinds of pictures one should look at.
GE135. Turn 280.
B says that B would read the words, and then study the conjugation of
adjectives. B says that this person would study the rules first, and then
look at the task afterwards. B says that B should first learn the new
words, and then simply start doing the task. B suggests that one should
look at the paradigm first. B says that it is a good idea to look at the
pictures prior to the working session.
GE136. Turn 279.
A dismisses this comment, and asks B to focus on the task. The homework
for the next day consists of learning expressions from a text B has just
had. In addition, B should work with grammar in the form of adjective
conjugations related to the text. A emphasises the fact that the two parts
do not have very much in common, and A asks how B would go about the task.
GE137. Turn 278.
B says that reducing sleep could be a strategy, because it is necessary
to go to bed late in order to have time to do homework.
Results
GE138. Turn 277.
A asks if B has heard about the word organisation. One has to organise to
do things properly. A asks if B has thought about how to get organised.
A tells B to enter It’s Learning. A tells them to enter the German section
and look at what A has written for them to do as homework for the next
day. A tells them to read this instruction and find out what B is supposed
to learn for the next day. A tells B to think about how B can get organised
in order to do this, and that A should find a strategy in order to learn
what the instructions say.
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FR687. Turn 38.
B says that B cannot, B does not think that everybody, there are some
learners here who are able to explain all the words in the dictionary,
advanced words, make the language more advanced. B also says that if B
reads a new word in television and sees a new word, then B may, if B
wonders about something, for instance, and wants to expand B’s vocabulary,
then B may look it up and what it means.
FR688. Turn 37.
A asks what B, for instance, refers to and how B can develop the Norwegian
language.
FR689. Turn 36.
B says yes.
FR690. Turn 35.
A says that some talk. A is an old Norwegian teacher, and some talk about
the fact that A has the impression that when coming from lower secondary
school, they write Norwegian flawlessly, and do not get any of those red
lines on their written mistakes. Then they feel that Norwegian is
something they know. Is there anything more to learn in Norwegian now? B
comes directly from lower secondary school.
FR691. Turn 34.
B says that perhaps not on a daily basis, and wonders if they are talking
about, for instance, Norwegian. In that case, new words are acquired from
the news, for instance, or the media and those kinds of things - more
advanced words in a way.
FR692. Turn 33.
Results
A mentions the general principle of using the language and says that some
people use it automatically on a daily basis and some have to do it
actively in order to use it. A asks if B talks English on a daily basis.
FR693. Turn 32.
B says that B had talked about the fact that B will use it as well. B
needs to develop that language sense.
FR694. Turn 31.
A elicits more information.
FR695. Turn 30.
B says that B was thinking of the same, and that it is about reading and
watching movies. B refers to listening to others talking the other
language.
FR696. Turn 29.
A asks B about the conclusion B had reached.
FR697. Turn 28.
B says yes.
FR698. Turn 27.
A says that then B has something to (incomprehensible).
FR699. Turn 26.
B says that B thinks that it is very important to work with texts, etc.,
in terms of Norwegian and English, just as B had mentioned a minute ago
- just as in Norwegian, where it is possible to talk in a way. Try to
develop and become better from a grammatical point of view. If B works
with texts, one sees how the sentences are constructed in a way.
FR700. Turn 25.
A asks if B has anything to add from the relevant group.
FR701. Turn 24.
B says that it helps to read, watch movies, talk to others, and practise
a lot.
FR702. Turn 23.
A says yes, in order to improve in languages.
FR703. Turn 22.
(Incomprehensible.)
Results
FR704. Turn 21.
A asks if B can do anything in order to develop B’s language, not only
when talking French, but on a general basis.
FR705. Turn 20.
B says that it is important to make oneself understood and communicate
with the rest of the world.
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JUDPPDWLFDOLQVLJKWFDQEHDFTXLUHG,QFR701.Turn 24.FR695.Turn 30.
FR692. Turn 33. DQG FR691. Turn 34. WKH OHDUQHUV H[SUHVV WKDW H[WHQVLYH
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Results
SP90. Turn 388.
B says that B looks at the kinds of mistakes that have been made. B says
that B looks at the verb conjugations that B knows, which may be a problem
and depends on the test. If B discovers a rule, B tries to focus on this
rule. B says that B analyses the mistakes from one occasion to the other.
B says that if B discovers any system in the mistakes made, B tries to
correct this the next time. B says that B inserts another colour in order
to discover typical mistakes. B says that when B gets a test back with
many mistakes in it, B’s heart sinks. B states that at first it is
frustrating, but that it then becomes easier when B receives help from A.
SP91. Turn 387.
A asks if B tries to understand the nature of the mistakes.
SP92. Turn 386.
B answers that B did this when reviewing the last test. B also states
that B looks at the mistakes prior to a test, but that B does not correct
all of them. B says that B corrects the mistakes, and then places the
test in a drawer. B says that B writes it in a Word document. B says that
B uses a mixed method. First, B is disappointed, but takes it out later
in order to check it in more detail.
SP93. Turn 385.
A asks if B uses this method with all the mistakes.
SP94. Turn 384.
B says that B corrects it and writes the mistakes in brackets.
SP95. Turn 383.
A asks B about the content of the discussion and what actions B takes in
order to correct mistakes.
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Results
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4.4.2.2 Acquisition of pronunciation
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GE223. Turn 192.
B states that B felt that B had read the book without focusing that much
on vocabulary. B had tried to understand what the book was all about.
GE224. Turn 191.
A states that it is possible to use English as well.
GE225. Turn 190.
Results
B states that B had gone quickly through the book, and then B looks at it
afterwards. B goes through it quickly in order to understand the main
characteristics. B states that B had not quite understood what was at the
back of the book, the part in German where it said what the book was all
about. B states that B had looked it up on the Internet in English in
order to understand what was in the book when B started to read. B states
that it helped a good deal. B claims that B understood much more.
GE226. Turn 189.
A tells B to think about the book A had thought about letting B read. A
asks how B went about the whole task.
GE227. Turn 188.
B says yes. B says that B has to engage in rote learning and read it over
and over again.
GE228. Turn 187.
A asks if it is efficient to hear a German text being read aloud, for
instance by playing a CD.
GE229. Turn 186.
B talks about reading aloud. B is then corrected and gets to know how the
different words are pronounced.
GE230. Turn 185.
A states that when B gives them the prepositions with the accusative,
they have learned them by heart. A also refers to using them in practice
afterwards.
GE231. Turn 184.
B states that B plays a game in order to improve pronunciation. B states
that B played Internet games. B states that when watching movies, it is
all about perceiving individual words that one understands and seeing the
connections in terms of what happens in the movie, and also pictures if
it is a book. B mentions vocabulary tests for learning new words. B states
that if one watches a German movie, one may see it several times with
German subtitles, and then try to understand the language. B states that
one has to engage in rote learning as well and that the basics are easier
learned if one engages in rote learning. B suggests trying it out
afterwards, as it is easier to understand.
GE232. Turn 183.
A confirms that it was a P. A summarises and states that they talked about
theory and how they can try this out in practice. A explains that today
they are going to proceed to B getting a task. A states that B is going
to read the introduction first. A states that B is then to think through
the questions and sit together. A tells B to read through the first page,
all of which is in Norwegian. Then B is to look at the three tasks. A
states that B is to do them alone first, and then together. A states that
Results
they will return to the cognitive learning strategies. A tells B to
present topics B has done in order to learn certain aspects related to
vocabulary and pronunciation.
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FR26. Turn 699.
A says that A has tried to make the learners read out loud every session,
or if not every session throughout the whole year, at least to have this
as a goal. A also asks if there are any further comments.
FR27. Turn 698.
B states that it is more fun to work in groups than sitting alone at home
engaging in rote learning.
Results
FR28. Turn 697.
A says yes.
FR29. Turn 696.
B states that they only practise pronunciation.
FR30. Turn 695.
A says yes.
FR31. Turn 694.
B states that they have practised this and that they have also written
down examples of oral practice.
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Results
4.4.2.3 Acquisition of vocabulary.
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GE149. Turn 266.
B says that it feels strange, and that B finds it difficult to find the
right words. B says that it depends on the setting. B says that B does
not feel like trying since B is afraid that they will simply rattle on.
B has tried to talk German in Turkey, and B felt more comfortable there.
B says that it is great fun when one knows the language well, but that it
is frustrating if one is not able to say very much. B states that it is
important to learn new words, and also to learn how to use new words. B
states that rathaus is a funny word in German. B relates an episode in
Germany where B had been with B’s parents. B had attended a dinner, and
on that occasion B had been listening in on the other guests in order to
grasp some useful words and expressions.
GE150. Turn 265.
A asks how B feels when B talks.
GE151. Turn 264.
B replies that it is fine if we simply move on, but that it may be
difficult to break the ice.
GE152. Turn 263.
A asks if B sometimes chooses not to say anything, and what we can do to
amend this situation. A asks if B thinks it is acceptable to make mistakes.
GE153. Turn 262.
B answers that B feels unsecure and stressed, since B feels that B gets
it wrong no matter what B does. B says that it feels OK when B speaks to
her father, because then B does not feel embarrassed, but it is worse
when B is in Germany.
GE154. Turn 261.
A asks if B can express what it feels like to talk German.
GE155. Turn 260.
B mentions the word das Erlebnis (the experience).
GE156. Turn 259.
A asks if B remembers other words of the same kind and if B thinks B can
make a contribution.
GE157. Turn 258.
Results
B remembers the word Austauschschüler (exchange student).
GE158. Turn 257.
A asks B if B remembers that last week B had started to work on a text
about being an exchange student in Norway and which words they remembered
from the text.
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FR75. Turn 650.
B says that B there is not always focus on the fact that a certain issue
has to be remembered, but B thinks that it is OK to get some input at
least.
FR76. Turn 649.
A says yes.
FR77. Turn 648.
B says that it is OK to practise to build up a good vocabulary, which
means that if B has someone who knows more French than B, then B can ask
how to say things. B says that B does this a good deal. B asks what a
certain thing is in French even if B, of course, soon forgets much of it.
FR78. Turn 647.
A says yes, but that words are something on a list, although it also
important to use them in the sentence. This means that a series of words
is not that important, but that we are able to write as well. Thus,
vocabulary is important, since it is the content, and words may be looked
up. We have aids in the exam. Oral practice is something we get with
French people if that is a goal, and then we cannot look up words all the
time - we need a basic vocabulary.
FR79. Turn 646.
B says issues such as music.
FR80. Turn 645.
A says yes.
FR81. Turn 644.
B says rote learning. B also says that B would also have watched movies
and things like that. It is important to gain input from other places
than only the books used in the subject.
FR82. Turn 643.
A says that they should first focus on words, asking how B can go about
learning words.
FR83. Turn 642.
B says that B notices this when B starts to think in French in a way, in
that B recalls words and that B is able to put names on things and talk
a bit about oneself in French.
Results
FR84. Turn 641.
A says yes and asks how B can see that. B also asks how B can notice if
B has learned something.
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SP242. Turn 236.
B says that B imagines improvisation of some kind. B would also get the
help of a friend to get the necessary support if B gets into difficult
situations.
SP243. Turn 235.
A says that this learner would improvise, but at the same time have a
topic to use as well, such as going to the disco. A says that the
conversation could develop in different directions. One can use body
language and onomatopoeia. A says that this is also a strategy. It is
possible to plan the use of body language, and A tells B that A knows B
as being expressive. This means that B has a strategy that most likely
fits B well. A says that this becomes really interesting. A tells B to
explain what B will do in order to do what B envisages. A tells B to plan
exactly what to do when going to a disco, and A asks what B does in order
to carry out the activity. A asks what B will do if it keeps raining for
Results
a week. In such an event, B does not get the chance to go to the beach to
play volleyball, in which case one ends up there alone.
SP244. Turn 234.
B confirms this approach, or at least to have someone to ask if necessary.
B says that B does not know exactly what B would have done, but that B
would think of sentences to get used to.
SP245. Turn 233.
A asks if B would talk Spanish to the other learners as well.
SP246. Turn 232.
B says that B would have sought the help of a fellow learner to make it
less frightening, to have a backup. If it stops, it makes it less
frightening.
SP247. Turn 231.
A asks if B would prepare for normal daily situations and small talk. A
suggests that small talk can be B’s goal. It might not be difficult
topics, such as bullfighting, violencia, la corrida. It may just be small
talk.
SP248. Turn 230.
B says that B would have prepared for small talk in the disco because one
cannot have a note in one’s pocket and use it as the conversation develops.
SP249. Turn 229.
A emphasises the possibility of saying things spontaneously based on the
basic vocabulary one possesses.
SP250. Turn 228.
B says yes. B also says that, as we have commented upon, all of a sudden
the person working in the shop will ask Hola, ¿de dónde eres? The answer
will be Noruega. It would then be useful to know other things as well in
order to have a backup. B says that B would have learned some relevant
words and expressions. B would also have tried to improvise as well as
possible.
SP251. Turn 227.
A asks if B would prepare certain words and expressions that have to do
with clothes.
SP252. Turn 226.
Results
B says that many of them want to learn Norwegian. B says that if B wants
to go to a clothes store, B may use what B knows about that topic. B may
build upon that to find new words and expressions.
SP253. Turn 225.
A says that this could be of mutual help, B teaches them Norwegian or
English, which they are sometimes not good at. They will often learn
English.
SP254. Turn 224.
B says that B could talk to waiters in restaurants, waiters who often
know some basic Norwegian. B guesses they are interested in learning
Norwegian, and B can practise Spanish with them in order to learn more.
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5.4.1 How is the concept of metacognitive awareness
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5.4.2 Which role should the teacher play in the process
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5.4.3 How should the scope of metacognitive teaching
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Discussion
5.4.4 If metacognitive teaching is time-consuming, how
much time should be allotted to this pedagogical
field?
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Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Session 1
Goal for the session
The goal for this session is to produce a classroom conversation which will mark the start of
the project year. All conversations will be in Norwegian.
Scheme for the session
This session will be divided into two parts. 5 minutes are reserved for necessary start-up and
concluding activities. 40 minutes will be divided into two parts of 20 minutes each. During this
session, two main questions will be discussed:
1. What is necessary to learn a language?
2. What is necessary to learn Spanish/German/French?
1. What is necessary to learn a language?
During these 20 minutes, the goal is to have the learners think aloud in terms of language
learning on a general basis. The teacher starts by mentioning that during this year, the learners
will be taught learning strategies, and that we will start with a general conversation on language
learning which will be followed up by a similar conversation in June 2011. After this short
introduction of about 2 minutes, the teacher moves on to the topic of language learning.
The learners present their ideas about the topic without restriction. However, if the conversation
stops, the following key words can be used as cues: rote learning of grammatical rules, rote
learning of vocabulary, reading foreign language books, travel to foreign countries, get into
touch with friends who speak the foreign language, engage in homework, study for vocabulary
tests, listen to foreign language movies, write texts to be corrected by the teacher, watch foreign
language news, tackle stress, overcome frustration, etc.
The goal is for the learners to present their personal views on language learning. The teacher
directs the flow of the conversation and moves it forward with the necessary above-mentioned
key words if they are found relevant. If the above-mentioned keywords are not relevant, the
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
teacher may use the ongoing conversation as an inspiration. This general introductory
conversation ends up in a specific conversation about the language the learners are studying.
This specific conversation will be described in what follows.
2. What is necessary to learn Spanish/German/French?
During these 20 minutes, the goal is to have the learners reflect on specific problem areas related
to the language they are studying. The conversation will be influenced by the experience the
learners have with the language, but the following factors are important: degree of difficulty of
vocabulary, degree of difficulty of verb conjugations, degree of difficulty of pronunciation,
speed of speech flow, cultural differences, degree of formal courtesy in the language, etc.
The goal is to elicit particular views on linguistic and sociolinguistic aspects of the language
the learners are studying. Interesting aspects will be, for instance, whether German is perceived
as easier when it comes to vocabulary because of similarities with Norwegian, or if Spanish is
perceived as difficult because of important vocabulary differences compared with Norwegian.
Some learners may think that French pronunciation is difficult for Norwegian learners. While
the learners should feel free to express their points of view, the conversation may well be
focused on aspects such as vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. In this way, the learners
will have the possibility to talk about what they think is necessary in order to acquire German
vocabulary, French pronunciation, Spanish vocabulary, etc.
The main point is nevertheless that the learners are provided with the possibility to express what
they feel is necessary in order to learn the language at hand. Relevant possible questions may
include:
Is it enough to compare German words with Norwegian words in order to learn them, or does
it take more than that?
Is it possible to search for international words in a Spanish text in order to understand Spanish
faster?
Would it be purposeful to buy French music in order to learn French pronunciation?
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
The main goal is to move the session forward by having the learners reflect on what it takes to
learn the language at hand.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Session 2
During this session, the learners will be provided with basic information in terms of how
learning takes place. There is a focus on the difference between learning and acquisition, in
addition to the concepts declarative and procedural knowledge. During Session 3, these basic
concepts related to learning will be applied to particular language learning activities. The
presentation of the topics is theoretical and this theoretical backdrop, in terms of the dichotomy
between learning and acquisition as well as declarative and procedural knowledge, will form
the basis for instruction in language learning strategies at a later stage.
The session will be divided into two parts of 20 minutes instruction each, in addition to five
minutes for starting up and closing activities. The learners will be provided with an introduction
to the topics outlined in the above. This general introduction will be combined with comments
and ideas from the learners as in an ordinary teaching session. The learners will be informed
about the fact that language learning strategies will be introduced at a later stage, and knowledge
from the first sessions related to language learning theory will be an important pillar in this
respect.
The difference between the concepts of ‘learning’ and ‘acquisition’
The goal is to develop the learners’ basic understanding of the features that characterise learning
and acquisition in the form of theoretical knowledge related to practical examples. First of all,
the concept of ‘learning’ will be defined in terms of learning as the development of new
knowledge based on old knowledge. The condition for learning to take place is therefore that
there is a basis upon which additional learning may be developed. The following model will be
used to describe this process:
Basic knowledge + New knowledge = Learning
This year’s instruction programme is based on the following principle: learners are to develop
knowledge about learning strategies related to foreign language education. For this learning to
take place, it is important to possess fundamental knowledge of learning theory, knowledge
about language acquisition, and the significance of learning strategies in this process. As the
instruction programme progresses, knowledge about learning strategies will increase. Learning
is a conscious process that requires concentration and the possibility for maturation.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
The dichotomy between declarative and procedural knowledge.
Knowledge acquired in the learning process on the way towards acquisition may be divided
into declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the
knowledge which can be declared (the learners will be made aware of the connection between
the English verb declare and the adjective declarative), i.e. knowledge which can be declared
or explained aloud in some way. In language acquisition processes, these skills may be skills
such as saying aloud conjugation rules or lists of words. Declarative learning follows the model
outlined during the first part of this session. The process first requires a conscious focus on the
topics and skills to be learned. As this process progresses, the knowledge develops into matured
knowledge in the form of acquisition. In order to make full use of this knowledge, the next step
is to transform the declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge. When declarative
knowledge develops into procedural knowledge, this means that the knowledge may be carried
out as a procedure that is developed into skills. Procedures are the way we do something, so
that procedural knowledge is the knowledge that may be put into practice in one way or another.
When it comes to language learning, this is the skill which is being trained when, for instance,
one is able to conjugate verbs correctly, or when one uses a word in the right situation.
The purpose of teaching learning strategies is precisely to provide the learners with the
knowledge and skills necessary to make full use of declarative knowledge as a basis for the
development of good procedural knowledge. When the learners become aware of how to train
declarative knowledge, as well as transform this knowledge into procedural knowledge in the
next stage, they are being trained to make use of the language learning process based on their
knowledge about their own learning style. In this way, their ability to take responsibility for
their own learning process is also being trained, since knowledge about one’s own learning
process makes one more able to work on one’s own also outside the school environment.
During the last part of the session, the learners will be informed that, during Session 3, the
topics from Session 2 will be used to better understand how language learning takes place.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Session 3
The learners will reflect on the basic principles pertaining to learning from the previous session
in terms of the difference between learning as a conscious process of maturation based on a
gradual development of knowledge (the model from the previous session), and acquisition as
the automatisation of this knowledge. Thereafter, the learners are once again to explore the
difference between declarative and procedural knowledge, also illustrated as the difference
between theory and practice. This learning model is then to be transferred specifically to
language learning, and at the end of the session the learners are to consider language learning
as a phenomenon with the same structure as general learning. This implies that the learner’s
mother tongue is learned automatically, whereas the foreign language requires the conscious
learning of theoretical knowledge that is being trained during the time they are working with
the language. This awareness should form the basis of the understanding of the position of the
learning strategies in this process, something which is the topic of the next session.
During Session 2, we discussed to what extent all learning requires the training of declarative
and procedural knowledge, or whether some forms of knowledge can exist as either the one or
the other. Some learners discussed, for example, that it is possible to learn to walk without being
told to do so. Others mentioned the fact that the mother tongue is learned without anyone being
told how to use it. Cooking was mentioned as an example of how declarative and procedural
knowledge may be integrated into each other. During the French session, some learners
compared waffles made without a recipe with different degrees of knowledge of French: it is
possible to develop a fair knowledge of French if one knows the basic ingredients. This means
that it is possible to make oneself understood even with minor knowledge in French, but the
goal should be to become better and better, i.e. that the waffles are made more and more
according to a recipe. However, waffles may vary even when one follows a recipe. No matter
how, most people would be able to make decent waffles of different kinds because one has a
basic understanding of how waffles should be made. The learners of French who used this
metaphor considered language learning as a gradual training of this linguistic intuition for what
is a somewhat correct French.
Other learners mentioned interest and motivation for language learning as important factors in
the acquisition of linguistic knowledge. In all the three groups several learners wondered how
they best could get opportunities for practising the language and help during the language
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
learning process (help from the teacher, travels abroad, get into contact with foreign tourists
visiting Norway, music, watching television, and so on).
The learners will be placed in small groups and discuss the following topics for 10-15 minutes:
Declarative knowledge in German/French/Spanish equals topics such as theoretical
understanding of grammatical rules, rules of pronunciation, choice of words, use of expressions,
and rules of courtesy. Automatised use of this knowledge in language production and
understanding will be examples of procedural knowledge. During this session, the learners are
to arrive at as many examples as possible of the relationship between declarative and procedural
knowledge in the language they are studying. In what follows, some examples of this
relationship are provided. However, the list is not exhaustive. The learners are to discuss the
ideas freely with each other, and the teacher will assess the results afterwards in a joint session.
German
Declarative knowledge: rote learning of prepositions which take the accusative, accusative and
dative, dative and genitive.
Procedural knowledge: The correct use of these prepositions in specific contexts.
Declarative knowledge: Verbs that take sein or haben in the perfect tense.
Procedural knowledge: Correct use of these verbs in the perfect tense in specific contexts.
Declarative knowledge: Theoretical knowledge about the pronunciation of st- and sch-sounds
seen in relation to Norwegian.
Procedural knowledge: Correct pronunciation of these sounds in specific words.
Declarative knowledge: Rules for the construction of grammatical gender in German.
Procedural knowledge: Use gender properly in specific words.
French
Declarative knowledge: Rote learning of rules for the use of passé composé and imparfait.
Procedural knowledge: Correct use of these verbal tenses in specific contexts.
Declarative knowledge: Verbs that take avoir or être in the perfect tense.
Procedural knowledge: Correct use of these verbs in the perfect tense in specific contexts.
Declarative knowledge: Theoretical knowledge about the pronunciation of nasal sounds.
Procedural knowledge: Correct pronunciation of these sounds in specific words.
Declarative knowledge: Rules for the construction of grammatical gender in French.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Procedural knowledge: Use gender properly in specific words.
Spanish
Declarative knowledge: Rote learning of rules for the use of indefinido and imperfecto.
Procedural knowledge: Correct use of these verb tenses in specific contexts.
Declarative knowledge: The difference between –ar verbs, -er verbs and –ir verbs.
Procedural knowledge: Correct use of these verbs in specific contexts.
Declarative knowledge: Theoretical knowledge about the pronunciation of the voiceless velar
fricative [x].
Procedural knowledge: Correct pronunciation of this sound in specific words.
Declarative knowledge: Rules for the construction of grammatical gender in Spanish.
Procedural knowledge: Use gender properly in specific words.
After a 10-15 minute discussion in small groups, the results will be assessed in a group
discussion. The following question may be asked in case there is time left for further discussion
based on the group work:
How can the waffles made without a recipe, understood as the production and understanding
of German/French/Spanish, be more and more to the point?
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Session 4
During this session, the learners should develop a basic understanding of the concept of learning
strategies in language education. There are many kinds of categorisations of learning strategies,
and only three kinds of strategies will be integrated into the SBI programme. The three kinds
of strategies that have been integrated into the SBI programme are cognitive, social and
affective learning strategies. The learners will be provided with sheets containing explanations
of these strategies. The task sheets are self-explanatory and consist of an introductory sheet and
three subsequent sheets. The main purpose is to understand the core features of these three
strategies and, to the extent possible, draw on examples the learners have already used during
the implementation of the SBI programme.
A short introduction will be given based on the implementation of the programme so far in
terms of how language learning takes place in theory and practice/declaratively and
procedurally. During the previous session, this approach was related to the language the learners
are studying, particularly in terms of the topics which have been dealt with so far in upper
secondary school, as well as the knowledge the learners have acquired before they started upper
secondary school. During the classroom conversations, the learners mentioned different
methods and strategies they use when they learn vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.
During this session, these strategies will be systematised as a starting point and a tool in order
to understand one’s own language learning. The learners work with the tasks in small groups.
Towards the end of the session, approx. 15 minutes will be spent on a summary of the group
work.
Language learning instruction programme, task week 44
Thus far in this instruction programme, we have discussed methods and strategies which can
be used during second language learning processes. We have talked about topics such as going
abroad on holiday, working in tourist places where the language is spoken, and watching foreign
language movies. Today we are going to organise these methods, which we call learning
strategies. During this session, we will be working with three kinds of learning strategies. These
learning strategies are listed in this set of tasks, and the tasks consist of arriving at as many
examples as possible under each point. You may find the examples from your own experience
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
with the language. Spend five minutes on each learning strategy. Write the answers under each
point, and then we will sum up at the end of the session.
Cognitive learning strategies
Cognitive comes from the word cognition. Cognition includes understanding, learning, memory
and perception. As a conclusion, the word simply includes everything we have to do in order to
gain knowledge about something. Cognitive learning strategies are therefore all the methods
we use to understand, for instance, grammar and vocabulary. If we are to develop grammar,
vocabulary and pronunciation, we need to practise the language. We also need to develop our
understanding of what other people say.
What have you done yourself in order to learn rules of conjugation, vocabulary and
pronunciation?
What have you done yourself in order to understand movies, conversations and texts as much
as possible?
See how many methods you can remember -
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Social learning strategies
Language is basically communication and communication happens between people. Social
learning strategies are therefore learning strategies that can be used in interaction with other
people. Examples of social learning strategies are talking to fellow learners or to people who
speak the language as their mother tongue, learning about the culture in the countries where the
language is being spoken, asking interlocutors to talk more slowly/distinctly/easier, or asking
your interlocutor to correct you.
What have you done yourself in order to practise the language in interaction with others? Have
you worked at a tourist place? Did you have to ask people to speak more slowly? Did you ask
them to correct you? Have you learned anything about foreign traditions and customs at any
point in your life?
Write down the examples which come to mind -
Affective learning strategies
Affection is another word for feelings, attitudes and values. When talking about something that
has sentimental 1 value, we refer to the fact that an item does not have a monetary value in itself,
but that the item has value to us because, for instance, our grandmother bought it during the
war. In such a situation, our feelings mean more than the monetary value itself. Affective
learning strategies are the methods you use to reduce stress and frustration in the language
learning process, but also what you do to give yourself recognition for what you have achieved.
Have you ever gone out for a walk or listened to inspiring music in order to get into the right
mood to do homework? Have you ever said to yourself that you were pleased with the verb
conjugation you had just learned? Have you given yourself a specific reward for something you
have achieved in the language learning process? Have you talked to others about something
which has been difficult in the language learning process?
Write down as many examples as you can think of -
1
In Norwegian, the concept for sentimental value is «affeksjonsverdi». In this concept, the affinity to “affective”
is easily recognised. While this is not the case in English, in Norwegian the concept may be used to clarify the
meaning of affective learning strategies.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Session 5
During this session, the learners are to acquire a basic understanding of the content of the
concept metacognition. This is the last session on the basic principles in the field of language
learning strategies. From Session 6 onwards, the learners will be working with specific
metacognitive learning strategies. The different topics should be related to relevant problem
areas in the instructional process, such as work with specific homework, tasks and topics the
learners are working with elsewhere.
The learners will be informed that thus far in the instruction programme they have received an
introduction to learning psychology related to foreign language acquisition, as well as an
introduction to learning strategies for foreign language learning processes. This kind of
knowledge can also be called metacognitive knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge simply
means knowledge about one’s own knowledge, or knowledge about one’s own learning.
Metacognitive knowledge, i.e. knowledge about one’s own learning and what the learners can
do in order to increase the quality of this process, is the main topic of this year’s instructional
programme. The purpose behind learning the pedagogical concepts for language learning is that
learning theory in the field states that it may be useful for learners to understand one’s own
learning. It may be beneficial for the learners to learn the concepts behind this learning process.
During this session, the focus is on an imagined situation where the concept of metacognition
will be practised. The activity is about planning, implementing and assessing a trip to the
country where the language is being spoken. In the set of tasks, the language subjects were not
specified in order to avoid too many papers being distributed around, but the teachers were told
that “abroad” may be interpreted as a Spanish-speaking country, a German-speaking country,
or a French-speaking country.
The learners decide which situation they want to produce based on an awareness of cultural
factors that may come into play. In Spain, it is common to gather outside in the evening at
certain places and squares. On these occasions, it may be easy to come into contact with elderly
people who sit around chatting. This is less common in countries such as Germany. If one is in
the large city of Paris, it is more difficult to get to engage in conversation with people than in
the countryside in Provence. The point is that the learners are made aware of the fact that such
an understanding of the culture involved is an important basis for planning the language
learning activity as efficiently as possible.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
In terms of today’s activity, it is important that the learners grasp a situation that conforms to
their interests and level of language. The metacognitive aspect is for the learners to plan an
imagined language activity by analysing their own level and their own gaps that have to be
filled. They must ensure that they possess the skills to implement the plan, as well as being able
to think about what they have to do in order to assess themselves. These metacognitive
principles are brought down to a very specific level in the task, and they all will be able to say
something about each learner’s way of working with it. At a later stage in the implementation
of the SBI programme, the same principles will be used in relation to homework, watching
movies, listening to music, reading books and other activities that may be related to the general
teaching process according to the topics covered so far in the instructional process. Knowledge
about learning strategies follows the same track as general knowledge development: in order to
make full use of these strategies, they should be learned both in theory/declaratively and in
practice/procedurally. This is essentially the main purpose for the whole year’s instructional
programme, and the procedural part should be related to the general teaching in the subject as
far as possible.
The following sheets will be distributed among the learners. First, they read through the
definition of metacognition and then they fill in the set of tasks. The goal is to spend
approximately 15 minutes on the summary. The following time schedule is suggested:
x
5 minutes for start-up activities.
x
5 minutes introduction with an explanation of the programme for the session.
x
10 minutes individual planning based on the set of tasks.
x
10 minutes conversation in pairs/groups.
x
15 minutes summary in class.
Although this is the suggested general time schedule, it is possible to adjust the schedule
according to the overall evolution of the session.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Language learning instruction programme, task week 47
During the previous session, the focus was on the concept cognition, which includes
understanding, memory and perception. Metacognition is derived from this concept, and the
prefix meta- means behind, next to or with. In Norwegian, the concept may therefore be
explained as understanding one’s own understanding, or thinking about one’s own thinking. In
the language learning process, metacognition simply means knowledge and understanding in
relation to one’s own language learning and knowledge about what has to be done in order to
achieve the learning goals in the language.
Key words in this respect are:
1. How do I learn languages?
2. Which learning strategies can I use in order to learn languages?
3. How can I adapt these learning strategies to what has to be learned?
Metacognitive learning strategies are strategies that help us to plan and implement the language
learning process based on the knowledge we possess about ourselves, about what we already
know, and about the learning strategies we have at our disposal. At a later stage during the
implementation of this SBI programme, focus will be directed to specific metacognitive
learning strategies. However, during this session we will start by looking at how metacognition
takes place in practice.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Today’s task is the following activity:
You are going abroad with your family and you want to make sure that you get to practise the
language. Follow the following recipe, and compare with another learner when you have
completed the form! At the end of the session, we will sum up the ideas.
1. Determine a situation where you want to practise the language: clothes shop, sports
shop, buy a cinema ticket, talk to someone your age about Norwegian soccer, etc.
2. Explain what you want to do in order to plan your practice. Think through which words
and expressions you need to learn, find sources for learning new words and expressions
(Internet pages, dictionaries, ask the teacher, get help from fellow learners, write down
some sentences you want to use, etc.)
3. Explain what you want to do in order to implement the practice session: ask the family
to give you one hour for going to the shop, bring a note in order to not forget words,
learn by heart all you can before entering the shop, etc.
4. Explain how you will learn from the situation after the implementation of the plan: learn
the words you felt were missing, ask the teacher when you come home about words and
expressions you did not understand, write down another imagined situation in order to
sum up, etc.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Session 6
The goal for this session is for the learners to develop basic knowledge about the metacognitive
learning strategy:
A1. Overviewing and linking with already known material
“Overviewing comprehensively a key concept, principle, or set of materials in an
upcoming language activity and associating it with what is already known. This strategy
can be accomplished in many different ways, but it is often helpful to follow three steps:
learning why the activity is being done, building the needed vocabulary, and making the
associations” (Oxford, 1990: 138).
This metacognitive learning strategy is number one of three metacognitive learning strategies
aimed at helping the learners to “converge their attention and energies on certain language tasks,
activities, skills, or materials. Use of these strategies provides a focus for language learning”
(Oxford, 1990: 138).
This learning strategy will be applied to a specific activity that the learners are already somehow
engaged in, for instance homework, a forthcoming task or some other kind of suitable activity.
In what follows, the principles for the task in terms of reading a text are described, but this
outline must be adapted to the activity that is chosen as a basis for the task.
The learners will be told that, as of this session, a total of 11 metacognitive learning strategies
will be reviewed. The concept of metacognition will be explained once again as knowledge
about one’s own knowledge, insight into one’s own learning process, or awareness about one’s
own learning process.
In other words, this means that there will be a focus on 11 learning strategies, which include
planning and assessing one’s own language learning process. In order to carry out this process
in an efficient way, it is necessary to possess knowledge about best practices adapted to each
particular learner. It is also necessary to practise how one approaches a language learning
activity. This process will be started during this session. The relationship between
theory/practice or declarative/procedural knowledge is also valid for the learning strategies:
they can be learned in theory, for example in accordance with the above-mentioned definition,
and they can be used in practice, something which is the topic of this session. The learners will
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
be told that in order to focus attention there are three questions one may ask oneself before
engaging in a language learning activity:
1. Why is the activity to be carried out?
2. Which vocabulary do I have to build up?
3. How is this related to something I have learned before?
When reading a text, the following procedure may be followed:
The learners write down the following:
I am going to read this text in order to … .
In this case, the activity will determine the purpose. For example, this may be to learn a certain
grammatical form, rehearse specific vocabulary, or gain insight into a specific cultural topic.
The learner’s perception of the content of the text is the crucial point.
As a next step, the learner writes:
In order to understand this text I have to learn words which have to do with … .
In this case, the topic will determine what kind of vocabulary needs to be built up. The goal is
for the learners to analyse themselves which vocabulary has to be built up, and the scope of this
vocabulary.
Finally, the learner writes:
When I see this text, I think of what we previously reviewed about …
In this case, the goal is for the learner to associate the text freely with another topic or activity
which he or she has worked with previously. Perhaps the learners have gone through some kind
of verb conjugation, and the text will thus be adequate for examples of this verb conjugation. If
the learners have studied family-related vocabulary, it may be that the text is adequate for
practice in relation to this kind of vocabulary. The point is nevertheless that the learners
themselves discover the purpose of the reading task.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
The goal is for the learners to be made aware of the fact that, prior to a language learning
activity, it is possible to discover the meaning behind the task based on the knowledge the
learner has about the language learning activity, and the knowledge the learner possesses about
his or her own learning style and knowledge thus far in the subject. During this session, the
learners are not to read the text/do the task, etc., but only think about how they can approach a
task by planning it in the way we have now done. The work in other situations in everyday life
in school, in the form of homework or activities, will be dedicated to the actual work with the
topics. It is the actual approach/pre-understanding that is the topic during this session. Today’s
activity may be seen in light of how the stay abroad was planned during the previous session,
since the purpose behind that task was also to let the learner explore his or her own field of
interest and knowledge, and then let this influence our imagined stay abroad in order to achieve
the highest possible linguistic outcome.
The procedure outlined in the above may be applied to a series of different activities, for
example tasks related to the conjugation of verbs, reading different kinds of texts, conversation
tasks, listening to lyrics, and listening tasks. The point is that the learners develop an
understanding of how the focus may be narrowed so that the activity becomes as meaningful as
possible. By using material that the learners are already working with, the activity is also made
relevant for everyday school life. It would be best to use some homework the learners have
already been given. The learners may then get help to see how they can plan the homework
based on metacognitive principles.
We dedicate some time towards the end of the session to sum things up in a plenary session.
The time frame for the summary is dependent on how well the learners work with the activity
and how quickly time passes.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Session 7
During this session, the goal is to provide the learners with basic knowledge about the
metacognitive learning strategy:
A2. Paying Attention
“Deciding in advance to pay attention in general to a language learning task and to
ignore distractors (by directed attention), and/or to pay attention to specific aspects
of the language or to situational details (by selective attention)” (Oxford, 1990: 138).
This metacognitive learning strategy is number two of three metacognitive learning strategies
aimed at helping the learners to “converge their attention and energies on certain language tasks,
activities, skills, or materials. Use of these strategies provides a focus for language learning”
(Oxford, 1990: 138).
The session starts with a summary of the programme of the autumn term. The first part of the
autumn is dedicated to a general introduction to language learning psychology. The main focus
is on the difference between declarative and procedural knowledge and the consequences this
difference may have for language learning in the form of grammatical rules, rules of
pronunciation, and word creation. The learning strategies may be used as a tool in this process.
The learning strategies help us to make the right choices in the language learning process, and
the most important ones are the cognitive, social, affective and metacognitive learning
strategies. The autumn term ended with an extended focus on the metacognitive learning
strategies. These are learning strategies that help the learner to gain more insight into his or her
own learning style and make use of knowledge about his or her own learning process in order
to benefit the most from language teaching and learning. The learning strategies follow the
same principle as language learning in general: they may be learned both declaratively and
procedurally, i.e. both in theory and practice. This is the focus of the metacognitive learning
strategies of the present SBI programme: the learners are presented with the content of the
strategy and then these principles are applied to a specific material.
As a parallel to the tuition in language learning psychology and learning strategies, another
focus during the autumn term has been mentioning how a learner with a Norwegian background
can make best use of the differences and similarities between Norwegian and the target
language when facing the learning of the foreign language.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
After this short summary of the activities during the autumn term, there will be a further focus
on the metacognitive learning strategies. There is ongoing work with three kinds of
metacognitive learning strategies that help the learner to focus prior to a language learning
activity. Last time there was focus on the meaning inherent in a task in the form of
understanding why the task is to be done in light of previously rehearsed material and acquired
knowledge. The same pattern will be followed this time, and there will be focus on how the
learner can best focus his or her energy on the upcoming activity. Some kind of relevant
language learning activity will be chosen, such as homework or an activity to prepare for a test,
and this activity should preferably fit into the general time schedule/programme.
The learning strategy of this session builds on the previous strategy in the sense that the preunderstanding/creation of meaning which was the focus of the previous session enables the
learner to keep the right focus during the implementation of the task. If the learner, for instance,
has defined the grammatical focus of the task, as well as how this focus fits into previously
learned material, it is easier to converge specific attention to these aspects during work on the
task.
When working with a text, the following procedure may be followed:
This text has as its main focus ‘x’. I may then expect that the text contains words which have
to do with ‘x’. I will read through the text and write down all the words which have to do with
‘x’, and then translate them into Norwegian. This time I do not focus on the words that do not
have to do with ‘x’. Thereafter, this procedure will be applied to the text itself prior to the main
activity, which consequently consists of carrying out what the planning process will have
provided for.
If the task is applied to a grammatical fill-in-the-blanks task, the following information may be
written on the blackboard:
This grammar task has as its main focus ‘x’. I may then expect that the task consists of fill-inthe-blanks which have to do with ‘x’. Therefore, I will write down the conjugation paradigm
for ‘x’ on a separate sheet and then use this overview when working with the grammar task.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
This procedure is thus intended to be a suggested method for engaging in the learning strategy
of this session. However, the goal is for the learners to work with some kind of material that
fits into the overall progression of the course, and that they are made aware of the following
points:
1) The content of the learning strategy of this session (declarative knowledge) and
2) The application of the strategy to specific material (procedural knowledge)
Upon completion of the procedural task, the experiences with the introduction of this session’s
learning strategy will be discussed in a plenary session.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Session 8
The teachers were informed that the goal for this session was to provide learners with basic
knowledge about the metacognitive learnings strategy:
A3. Delaying speech production to focus on listening
“Deciding in advance to delay speech production in the new language either totally
or partially, until listening comprehension skills are better developed. Some
language theorists encourage a ‘silent period’ of delayed speech as part of the
curriculum, but there is debate as to whether all students require this” (Oxford, 1990:
138).
This metacognitive learning strategy is number three of three metacognitive learning strategies
aimed at helping the learners to “converge their attention and energies on certain language tasks,
activities, skills, or materials. Use of these strategies provides a focus for language learning”
(Oxford, 1990: 138).
This metacognitive learning strategy does not necessarily have to be linked to a specific
exercise. This session is intended to provide the learners with the opportunity to think about the
phenomenon that, during the language learning process, it is easier to listen to and understand
oral speech than to talk. If it is possible to relate this strategy to an ongoing task, this approach
is also possible. Such an ongoing task may be a speech exercise the learners have recently
worked with, and their experience of this learning situation. All the learners have probably
experienced a situation that can be used in one way or another.
This strategy is related to listening and speech, and not reading and writing, so that the focus
will be on the former. It is disputable whether delayed speech production is a conscious strategy
which is being used in order to learn, or if it is a strategy which is used in order to avoid the
uncertainty inherent in independent speech production.
Some theoreticians recommend that learners consciously avoid producing their own speech for
a long period of time in order to only focus on listening. This is largely controversial, since
most people agree on the fact that simply starting to speak the language, also in the form of
speech, is an important part of language learning. If a learner delays the whole process of speech
production, or in the beginning only talks in bits and pieces without producing coherent
sentences, most people would maintain that speech production should be stimulated and not
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
delayed. As a learning strategy, delayed speech production may still be a way for some people
to concentrate on parts of the language in the form of listening comprehension in order to have
fewer aspects to relate to. In this way, delayed speech production may be a strategy to avoid
stress in the language learning process in the hope that concentration on the understanding of
spoken language may lead to enhanced knowledge about linguistic constructions, something
which again leads to enhanced speech ability.
This session starts with a few minutes spent on the above-mentioned principles. Following this
introductory account of these principles, the learners discuss the following questions in small
groups. If the task is related to an ongoing task in the other lessons, this situation is used as a
basis for the task. If not the learners may associate freely.
The basis for this exercise is, for instance, the following question or a similar question:
How do you feel about talking the foreign language?
Have you ever remained silent during a conversation in the foreign language in order to
concentrate on what is being said in order to learn from it?
Have you ever remained silent during a conversation in the foreign language because you did
not quite know how to express yourself?
When the above-mentioned topic has been discussed in small groups, the different input will
be summed up in a plenary session. A full session is probably not necessary this time, so the
session will end when there are no more topics left for discussion.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Session 9
Goal for the session
During this session, learners will be provided with basic knowledge about the metacognitive
learning strategy:
B1. Finding out about language learning
“Making efforts to find out how language learning works by reading books and
talking with other people, and then using this information to help improve one’s
own language learning” (Oxford, 1990: 139).
This metacognitive learning strategy is number one of six metacognitive learning strategies
aimed at helping the learner to organise and plan the learning process in such a way that he or
she gets the most out of the language learning process. These strategies cover many areas:
retrieve knowledge about language learning, organise progression plans and learning
environment, set goals, assess the purpose with a given task, plan tasks and seek opportunities
to practise the language (Oxford, 1990: 139).
Scheme for the session
This metacognitive learning strategy is basically about discovering the implications of language
learning processes. Many learners do not know enough about the dynamics and mechanisms
inherent in the language learning process, even if such knowledge will make this process more
efficient according to some theories. In this way, the scheme of this session will largely provide
opportunities for repetition and creation of meaning in relation to the progression of this SBI
programme thus far. Theory in the field recommends books about language learning as a
relevant source for retrieving information. The SBI programme has thus far provided learners
with a summary and a short version of the content of such theoretical presentations. Therefore,
this session will be used as a small milestone since the SBI programme thus far illustrates
appropriately what knowledge about language learning really is. In accordance with the
systematic nature of this SBI programme, it is recommended that this session be dedicated to a
conversation about the problems the learners have experienced with their language learning
process. This may be done in the form of mutual sharing of experiences about learning
strategies, etc. This is basically what we have spent time on so far. Therefore, during this session
the learners will briefly analyse the content of the goals in the curriculum for foreign languages
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
in terms of language learning and assess whether the SBI programme will help the learners see
what they may do specifically in order to collect information about language learning processes.
Therefore, the learners will each be given a copy of the description of the Norwegian
curriculum. They will then be asked to review this description systematically in order to assess
whether the SBI programme thus far has helped them on their way to reach these goals, also in
terms of the activities they have engaged in during the language sessions apart from these SBI
sessions.
The session starts with a brief introduction related to today’s strategy in accordance with the
information given in the introduction to this document. This activity will probably take two to
three minutes. Afterwards, copies related to the goals in the curriculum will be distributed, and
the learners discuss in small groups for approximately 15-20 minutes. Finally, this input will be
summed up in a plenary session. If the learners feel that they have finished before 15 minutes
have passed, the summary will start thereafter, and the session will finish prior to the given
endpoint.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
SBI programme, metacognitive learning strategies week 5 2011
1. Read through the goals in the curriculum from the Directorate of Education below.
2. What can you do yourself in order to reach these goals?
3. Do you feel that you have received any help in this respect as a consequence of the
implementation of the SBI programme?
Language learning
The main area language learning includes insight into one’s own language learning process and language use. Important
features are the development of the ability to use purposeful learning strategies, such as defining one’s own learning needs,
formulate targets, choose working methods, use aids and assess the working process and to what extent targets have been
reached on an individual basis and in co-operation with others. This is intended to improve learning outcomes in the subject.
(http://www.utdanningsdirektoratet.no/grep/Lareplan/?laereplanid=123914&visning=2, 25.1.11)
Competence goals - Language learning
After the 10th year/2nd year in the Upper Secondary School (FSP1Z01 – Foreign languages common subject level I),
the goal for the education is that the learners shall be able to:
x
Make use of their own experiences with language learning when learning the new language
x
Examine similarities and differences between the mother tongue and the new language and make use of this in one’s
own language learning
x
Use digital tools and other aids
x
Describe and assess one’s own work when learning the new language
ˆ–‡”–Š‡•‡…‘†ƒ†–Š‹”†›‡ƒ”‹–Š‡Š‹‰Š•…Š‘‘Ž•›•–‡ȋͳͲʹȂ‘”‡‹‰Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•…‘‘•—„Œ‡…–Ž‡˜‡ŽȌ
the goal for the education is that the learner shall be able to:
x
Make use of experiences with language learning in order to develop further his or her plurilingualism
x
Make use of different sources of authentic texts in one’s own language learning
x
Use digital tools and other aids in a critical and independent way
x
Describe and asses one’s own progress when learning the new language
(http://www.utdanningsdirektoratet.no/grep/Lareplan/?laereplanid=123914&visning=5&sortering=3&hoid=1239
15, 25.1.11)
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Session 10
Goal for the session
During this session, the learners will be provided with basic knowledge about the metacognitive
learning strategy:
B2. Organizing
“Understanding and using conditions related to optimal learning of the new
language; organizing one’s schedule, physical environment (e.g., space,
temperature, sound, lighting), and language learning notebook” (Oxford, 1990:
139).
This metacognitive learning strategy is number 2 of 6 metacognitive learning strategies aimed
at helping the learner to organise and plan the learning process in such a way that he or she gets
the most out of the language learning process. These strategies cover many areas: retrieve
knowledge about language learning, organise progression plans and learning environment, set
goals, assess the purpose with a given task, plan tasks, and seek opportunities to practise the
language (Oxford, 1990: 139).
Programme for the session
During this session, it is possible to draw upon experiences from the three classes involved in
the project to the extent that it is interesting and relevant for the learners to see the results of the
project so far. This summary may serve as background information for the road ahead. Learners
may be provided with the summary below to the extent and scope that is relevant and
purposeful. In any case, the programme of this session is presented at the bottom of page 3.
During session 9, some comments were made in the three groups, which basically point to the
fact that a certain awareness has been raised in terms of metacognitive principles. This is the
purpose of the project: we are looking at how it is possible to converge focus and attention on
language learning as a process in order to see how such metaconversation may be organised in
the classroom, as well as how its evolution will be. In this way, it will be possible to make the
goals in the curriculum according to the LK06 curriculum more specific for the optimalisation
of learning outcomes in the field of language learning. The idea behind this part of the
curriculum is thus a higher degree of learner autonomy in the language learning process as such,
and important aspects relate to the fact that learners in the Norwegian school system are to be
able to give an account of and describe their own work with the language. This SBI programme,
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
as previously stated, is a way to render these goals more specific. The ground is being prepared
for the learner to develop individually and in co-operation with others’ insight and a method
for assessing his or her own work with the language, in addition to the learners’ own
achievement of goals. The role of the learning strategies in this work is a core element.
Metacognition is thus about the skills the learners acquire in order to understand their own
learning so that this process becomes as efficient as possible. The point is that a learner who
has insight into his or her own learning, and how this learning is best achieved, will experience
a larger effect in the language learning process. This perspective pertaining to learner autonomy
includes general educational perspectives as well and should have the potential to be transferred
to other subjects.
Tuition aimed at developing learning strategies in the subject, or Strategy Based Instruction
(SBI), may thus be included in the normal tuition, or be organised separately in the way we are
testing metacognitive principles. The advantage of a separate programme is that a space is
created for this kind of tuition so that it is possible to focus upon insight into one’s own learning
process on an individual basis and/or in co-operation with others. What we are testing is how
this kind of tuition can best be organised and handled, and what we are to assess eventually.
The goal is to reach a conclusion in relation to how we can best promote learner autonomy in
terms of a separate tuition programme for this purpose. This overall assessment will be carried
out in June when the programme is finished. At any rate, there is discrepancy in the field in
terms of whether tuition in language learning should be implemented as an integral part of the
tuition or as a separate programme, or whether a combined model is preferable. However, this
project will yield the basis for some conclusions regarding tuition models that may be
optimalised and form the basis for educational reforms and assessment according to the
curriculum.
During Session 9 (the previous session), we introduced to the learners the curriculum pertaining
to language learning, and we discussed to what extent this SBI programme can function in
order to achieve these goals. During the summary with the groups, interesting elements emerged
that reflect the professional debate in the field.
A learner in the Spanish group stated that they had had a test before Christmas in another
subject. However, this learner found that the test had been based too much on a “declarative
learning process”. This comment indicates that the learner has transferred insight into his or her
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
own learning from the foreign language over to another subject, something which again points
to the fact that we have possibly contributed to a certain general educational development in
the learner in this field. In the German group, one learner thought that it had been fun to
understand better the difference between theory and practice in the language learning processes.
This comment also indicates a trace of awareness-raising in terms of the nature of language
learning.
In the same German group, there was a learner who stated that it could be useful to learn more
about strategies for the learning of words. Such strategies are of a cognitive nature, but the fact
that the learner is aware of what he or she wants to learn more about, bears witness to a
metacognitive awareness in terms of the learner being aware of the gaps that need to be filled.
In the French group, two learners had discussed whether it is purposeful to spend time on
learning strategies as part of the language learning process. The fact that two learners were able
to discuss this topic points to the fact that they had gained enough metacognitive insight to
define their own learning needs and working methods. This is an important aim of the
curriculum, and strikes at the core of the debate for SBI: Will separate time given to SBI yield
more efficiency, since there is greater focus on the topic and that time spent will be compensated
for with more efficiency in the ordinary tuition? Or should SBI, i.e. tips and advice related to
working with the language learning process, be integrated into the regular teaching? At any
rate, two learners who assess this point based on their knowledge about the nature of
metacognition provide valuable information about how aware they are in the field. They have
been able to make a purposeful assessment of their own working methods and learning needs.
In the French group, one learner mentioned that spending time on defining the kind of learning
strategy that is relevant in advance of a language learning activity, seemed demotivating since
it is logical how one is to work with the subject. Theory in the field states that skilled language
learners have less use of SBI since they have essentially broken a code for learning. If this
learner is skilled, separate time spent on SBI may be experienced as an unnecessary waste of
time. Theory states that weaker learners may have use of SBI since they receive help to
understand their own learning, but again this learner’s comment is a sign that a certain
awareness has been raised that enables the learner to reflect and describe his or her own learning
needs and working methods in accordance with the curriculum.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
The idea is that such an awareness-raising will enable the learner to better assess the purpose
of work tasks and to adapt the work method in relation to insight into his or her own learning.
In this way, a metacognitively aware learner may, for example, choose to disregard certain parts
of work instruction if this learner thinks that the instruction is not adapted to the learner’s
progress at a given stage. In this way, we may notice that we start to get interesting results that
may form the basis for some conclusions. Again the point is whether such insight is best
promoted through integrated SBI, separate SBI (in the way we are working), or as a
combination of these methods. The summary above of the programme so far is meant as a
milestone along the road, and each teacher assesses whether it is useful to spend time on a short
summary to the learners, or whether the activity of this session should be organised
immediately.
This session’s metacognitive learning strategy aims at developing learner awareness in terms
of the progress plan for the language learning process, as well as how the physical environment
and note books are organised. Learners are told that these are important factors for work at the
school and at home, something most people would agree upon. For this session’s learning
strategy to be best adapted to our groups and to be purposeful in the progression of the SBI
programme, the following activities or similar activities are proposed:
A. If the learners have an up-coming test, time may be spent in the class discussing how
the preparatory work for this test may best be organised.
B. If the learners are engaged in project work, we may discuss in plenary how the planning
and implementation of this work may best be organised throughout the whole project
period.
C. The learners may explain how they take notes and if they keep a systematic log book.
As a specific task, we may for example use a relevant reading text from the workbook
and write down unknown words from this book. Afterwards, the learners may explain
to each other why they set up the word list as they did.
D. The learners may discuss and afterwards present how they think the physical learning
environment is set in the classroom, or if they have specific tips from their own home
environment.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
E. The learners may use a piece of homework they have to do until next time, and then
spend 5 minutes planning how to do this piece of homework in order to talk about it
afterwards.
F. If the learners are working on a book as a part of their education outside the language
learning classroom, they may explain how they have organised the reading so far, and
how they plan further reading, as well as upcoming work in relation to this reading.
G. If the learners are going on a study trip in the near future, a possible topic of discussion
is the planning of this trip from a linguistic point of view and in relation to the sessions
outside the language-learning classroom.
H. If the learners have an overview of verb conjugations, a possible topic of discussion
may be how this overview is systematised and how one integrates new verb structures
into this overview.
These ideas are mere suggestions and other activities may also be used. What is important
is that the learners spend time on reflection and assistance in relation to some kind of
ongoing work and that it is related to this session’s learning strategy in one way or another
(organising of work and/or adaptation of work environment). If the whole session is not
used, the session is finished when the discussion has reached an endpoint.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Session 11
Goal for the session
During this session, the learners will be provided with basic knowledge about the metacognitive
learning strategy:
B3. Setting goals and objectives
“Setting aims for language learning, including long-term goals (such as being able
to use the language for informal conversation by the end of the year) or short-term
objectives (such as finishing reading a short story by Friday)” (Oxford, 1990: 139).
This metacognitive learning strategy is number three of six metacognitive learning strategies
aimed at helping the learner to organise and plan the learning process in such a way that he or
she gets the most out of the language learning process. These strategies cover many areas:
retrieve knowledge about language learning, organise progression plans and learning
environment, set goals, assess the purpose of a given task, plan tasks, and seek opportunities to
practise the language (Oxford, 1990: 139).
Programme for the session
This metacognitive learning strategy seeks to raise learner awareness about the goals the
learners want to achieve. During the previous session, there was focus on organising the
language learning work. This session’s learning strategy is closely related to the organisation
that was the topic of the previous session since, in order to achieve a goal, good organisation
and planning is required. However, good organisation and planning also require clear and
transparent goals, and this goal setting component is an important part of metacognitive issues.
It is easier to measure the achievement of goals on an individual basis when the learner knows
what personal goals he or she has set. From an ideal point of view, these goals, and their
achievement, may be registered in a log book. At the same time, the teacher has the overall
view of plans for homework and tests, and this overall planning is probably enough to push the
learners forward. Individual learners may have individual goals they want to achieve, and it
may be a good idea to encourage them to define independent learning goals and to register these
in a log book.
Whereas the long-term goals may stretch over months or years, the short-term goals help the
learner to organise the work on an hourly, daily or weekly basis. During this session, we will
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
have a closer look at this setting of goals, and the main intention is to help the learners see how
they consider their goals on an individual basis in order for them to go beyond simply wanting
to achieve the best grade in the subject. This session’s metacognitive learning strategy has as
its starting point the four language skills, namely listening, reading, speaking and writing. If the
learners are engaged in activities that can be used to exemplify how the road towards the
achievement of goals may be defined, it is highly relevant to use these kinds of possible
experiences in one way or another.
If the learners have homework for the following day, they may see how this homework fits into
the goals they define for their own learning. If the learners are working on a project, they may
discuss how the work with this project can be used to achieve the goals they set for themselves.
This goal setting component should as far as possible be related to the overall tuition
programme in the subject. The learners try to define the goals they have set for the different
skills and what they do/can do quite specifically in order to achieve these goals. If they are not
aware of these issues, the activity will hopefully be a suitable challenge for the learners to
broaden their horizons. The session will be summed up towards the end and will finish when
the discussion has reached an endpoint.
The pages with questions will be distributed to the learners as a basis for the activity and several
goals may be relevant.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Course programme in metacognitive learning strategies, week 8/9 2011
Have you ever thought about whether you have set some specific goals in the language subject
apart from getting the best possible grade?
Are you aware of why you do the things you do at all times, or do you not think that much about
it?
Work together for 10-15 minutes in small groups and review the points below. -
Listening
Is your goal to become as good as a native speaker when understanding the spoken language?
Is your goal to understand as much as possible of a conversation with a native speaker?
Is your goal to understand as much spoken language as possible in order to get by as a tourist
in the countries where the language is used?
Is your goal to get a job where you have to understand what is being said in a professional
setting?
… or do you have other goals for your listening skills?
Have you done anything/do you do anything in particular in order to achieve this goal? Do you
have any specific activities coming up in the near future in order to achieve this goal?
Reading
Is your goal to be able to read advanced technical material in the language in some years?
Is your goal to be able to read newspapers or magazines that interest you for the sheer joy of
reading?
Is your goal to be able to read literature in the foreign language without making any particular
effort?
Is your goal to understand signs and posters in the countries where the language is used?
Is your goal to understand the reading homework without having to look up too many words?
… or do you have another goal for your reading skills?
Have you done anything/do you do anything in particular in order to achieve this goal? Do you
have any specific activities coming up in the near future in order to achieve this goal?
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Speaking
Is your goal to learn to speak so well that you get by in a country where the language is used?
Is your goal to be able to talk occasionally with friends or family who have the language as
their mother tongue?
Is your goal to get a job some time, for which good speaking skills are important?
Is your goal to speek the language so well that you get by as a tourist in the countries where the
language is spoken?
… or do you have another goal for your speaking skills?
Have you done anything/do you do anything in particular in order to achieve this goal? Do you
have any specific activities coming up in the near future in order to achieve this goal?
Writing
Is your goal to be able to write to foreign friends?
Is your goal to write the language well enough to be able to study abroad some time in the
future?
Is your goal to get a job in which it is important to be able to write the language well?
Is your goal to write well enough to manage the tests in the language subject?
… or do you have another goal for your writing skills?
Have you done anything/do you do anything in particular in order to achieve this goal? Do you
have any specific activities coming up in the near future in order to achieve this goal?
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Session 12
Goal for the session
During this session, the learners will be provided with basic knowledge about the metacognitive
learning strategy:
B4. Identifying the purpose of a language task
“Deciding the purpose of a particular language task involving listening, reading,
speaking, or writing. For example, listening to the radio to get the latest news on the
stock exchange, reading a play for enjoyment, speaking to the cashier to buy a train
ticket, writing a letter to persuade a friend not to do something rash. (This is
sometimes known as Purposeful Listening/Speaking/Reading/Writing.)” (Oxford,
1990: 139).
This metacognitive learning strategy is number 4 of 6 metacognitive learning strategies aimed
at helping the learner to organise and plan the learning process in such a way that he or she gets
the most out of the language learning process. These strategies cover many areas: retrieve
knowledge about language learning, organise progression plans and learning environment, set
goals, assess the purpose of a given task, plan tasks, and seek opportunities to practise the
language (Oxford, 1990: 139).
Programme for the session
This metacognitive learning strategy seeks to raise learner awareness about the purpose of a
language learning activity. If, according to the curriculum, a learner is to assess purposeful
learning strategies and working methods, it will be important to know why the activity is to be
carried out. This is again related to the programme of Session 11, where the focus was on the
overall goal setting the learner has with his or her language learning beyond getting the best
possible grade in the subject. It will be much easier to find a meaningful purpose with an
upcoming language learning activity for a learner who is aware about the goals he or she has
set. In this way, the learner will be more likely to fulfill the curriculum’s goal setting in terms
of insight into one’s own working process.
During this session, we will have a look at the actual implementation of the task, since this
activity will form part of the cognitive, social or affective learning strategies that were briefly
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
considered before Christmas. Since the focus of the whole SBI programme is only on the
metacognitive aspect of language learning, this session’s programme will only focus on
defining the purpose of a task. This purpose will be considered in the possible light of the
learners’ own goals, which the learners discussed during the previous session.
Just as in other aspects of life, an activity may seem more meaningful if one is aware about the
purpose of the activity, and that this activity is considered in a broader context. In this way,
awareness about the purpose of specific language learning activities may make the activities
more efficient. This session’s activity is somewhat different from the strategy A2, which was
considered after New Year. At that point, the purpose was to focus attention on the actual
content of the activity. During this session, the focus will be on the purpose of a task or an
activity, and this purpose will direct the steps the learner has to take in order to carry out the
task. In this way, we see how this session’s learning strategy is a tool to plan and organise a
given activity in the same way as for the other six in group B. The main point with this group
of strategies is consequently to help the learners channel their energy in the right direction.
During this session, the learners will discuss the purpose of an activity they are working on in
one way or another. They will analyse whether it is about listening, reading, writing or speaking,
because the kind of activity will have an influence on the purpose of the activity. If the activity
is about reading a text, a possible approach would be to skim through it in order to get an
overview, or read certain sections carefully in order to understand some specific details. If the
activity is about reading a novel, the point is possibly to learn new words, as well as simply
enjoying the book. Listening in the form of understanding the content of a foreign movie implies
possibly relaxing in addition to learning new words and expressions. When the task is to write
something, it is also useful to know why the text is to be written. An essay requires another
textual form than the summary of a text. In this way, the kind of activity (listening, reading,
writing or speaking) will have an influence on the purpose of the activity.
Below are some examples of how the activities of this session may be organised after the
introduction of this session’s learning strategy. It is a good idea to refer to the curriculum’s
goals in terms of insight into the working process and working methods according to the above.
The learners have previously analysed the goals of the curriculum goals related to language
learning, and it may be useful to allow them to explore these connections in practice.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
This list is not exhaustive, and similar activities may also be used. Activities which have been
used before in the discussions may be used again, such as grammar tasks or a film project. The
learners discuss the purpose of the activity they are to work with in pairs or small groups, and
after this discussion in class (10-15 minutes) the ideas are summed up as usual in a plenary
session. The actual implementation of the tasks/activity is not organised in this session, but is
postponed until relevant and suitable.
a. If the learners are engaged in an ongoing project of some kind, they may discuss the
purpose of the activity in light of the above-mentioned categories of reading, listening,
writing and/or speaking. They are to answer the question: “Why do we work with this
project?” Several answers, of course, may be possible.
b. If the learners in the next session are to work with a grammar task, a reading text, a
listening text or something similar, they are given the topic of the upcoming task.
Thereafter, they discuss the purpose of this task. Again, they may ask the question:
“Why shall I do X?” Again, several answers may be possible.
c. If the learners are going on a study trip in the near future, they may discuss the purpose
of this trip. They may then ask themselves the question: “Why shall I go on this trip?”.
Once more, several answers may be possible.
d. If the learners have some homework they have been given/will get for the next day or
later, they may discuss the purpose of this homework. This purpose will be influenced
by the kind of activity they are engaged in (reading, listening, writing and/or speaking).
They may then ask themselves the question: “Why shall I do this homework?” Again,
several answers may be possible.
If the discussion is finished before the end of 10-15 minutes, the topics are summed up in a
plenary session when the discussion has finished. The summary in a plenary session will also
be finished before the end of the session if the discussion during the summary has reached an
end.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Session 13
Goal for the session
During this session, the learners will be provided with basic knowledge about the metacognitive
learning strategy:
B5. Planning for a language task
“Planning for the language elements and functions necessary for an anticipated
language task or situation. This strategy includes four steps: describing the task or
situation, determining its requirements, checking one’s own linguistic resources,
and determining additional language elements or functions necessary for the task or
situation” (Oxford, 1990: 139).
B6. Seeking practice opportunities
“Seeking out or creating opportunities to practise the new language in naturalistic
situations, such as going to a second/foreign language cinema, attending a party
where the language will be spoken, or joining an international social club.
Consciously thinking in the new language also provides practice opportunities”
(Oxford, 1990: 139).
These metacognitive learning strategies are number five and six of six metacognitive learning
strategies aimed at helping the learner to organise and plan the learning process in such a way
that he or she gets the most out of the language learning process. These strategies cover many
areas: retrieve knowledge about language learning, organise progression plans and learning
environment, set goals, assess the purpose of a given task, plan tasks, and seek opportunities to
practise the language (Oxford, 1990: 139).
Programme for the session
This time, two metacognitive learning strategies have been merged into one session for the
above-mentioned practical reasons. These two are not necessarily related, and they
consequently have to be presented as two separate strategies. If the learners have an upcoming
practice opportunity, these two strategies may well be considered in relation to each other. If it
is not possible to implement this approach, learning strategy B6 will be mentioned towards the
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
end of the session as a reminder. On previous occasions, the learners have been informed about
the importance of seeking situations that provide them with the opportunity to practise the
language. Therefore, it is not necessary to spend a good deal of time on it during this session.
However, if it is possible to relate this session’s strategies to each other, this may be a purposeful
approach.
The planning of a language learning activity or task is an important part of the preparation of
an activity. The kind of planning will depend on what kind of activity is to be carried out, since
writing, reading, speaking or listening will involve different approaches. Irrespective of the
kind of activity that is relevant, the preparation of an activity will consist of four steps according
to this strategy:
1. Identification of the characteristics of the task/practice/activity.
2. Identification of the necessary steps to take in order to carry out the activity.
3. Identification of the resources the learner already possesses in order to solve the task.
4. Identification of extra resources required for carrying out the activity.
If the activity is about listening to a radio programme in the foreign language, the procedure
above will imply the following preparation:
1. Identification of the topic for the radio programme since this will define the direction
for the preparation of the topic with words and expressions which are likely to emerge.
2. Identification of possible words and expressions that may emerge based on the
identification of topics according to point 1.
3. Analysis of one’s own knowledge in order to discover which words and expressions the
learner has to read up on or look up prior to the listening activity.
4. Use of dictionary or glossary in order to fill in possible gaps.
It is not possible to identify all the gaps in advance, but the activity as such provides a basis for
learning, as well as the fact that the learner benefits more from the listening activity since the
linguistic foundation is greater following the preparations.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
If the activity is a reading task, the same approach may be used. If the activity is about reading
an article in a music journal, the following model will be used:
1. Identification of the article’s topics, since this will define the direction for the
preparation of the topic with words and expressions that are likely to emerge.
2. Identification of possible words and expressions that may emerge based on the
identification of topics according to point 1.
3. Analysis of one’s own knowledge in order to discover which words and expressions the
learner has to read up on or look up prior to the reading activity.
4. Use of dictionary or glossary in order to fill in possible gaps.
The same procedure may be used for oral and written production, where the attention to
grammar production is also important in the form of mastery of correct conjugation patterns
and the use of these patterns.
The learners choose some kind of upcoming activity, for example the homework for the next
day, or the partial goal of an ongoing project. They prepare the actual work according to the
following procedure. In order to make things easier, four points may be presented to the learners
in order to remember the procedure:
1. Topic?
2. What do I have to know?
3. May I use something I know from before?
4. Do I have to get knowledge/aids?
The results are summed up in a plenary session towards the end of the session.
We devote some minutes towards the end of the session to remind the learners about strategy
B6 in terms of seeking practice opportunities. This topic has been discussed previously, and the
learners are reminded about the importance of seeking situations where they can practise the
language.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Session 14
Goal for the session
During this session, the learners will be provided with basic knowledge about the metacognitive
learning strategy:
C1. Self-monitoring
“Identifying errors in understanding or producing the new language, determining
which ones are important (those that cause serious confusion or offense), tracking
the source of important errors, and trying to eliminate such errors” (Oxford, 1990:
140).
This main group consists of two related strategies, and both comprise help functions to control
one’s own achievement and assess one’s own learning. One strategy consists of noticing and
learning from mistakes, and the other one relates to assessing the learning process in a holistic
perspective (Oxford, 1990: 140).
Programme for the session
An important part of the language learning process is to learn from one’s mistakes. In order to
do so, it is important to be able to understand the nature of the mistakes, and then possess
enough declarative knowledge to improve one’s procedural knowledge in the field. One way of
getting an overview of what kind of mistakes one commits is simply to register them in a
notebook. In this way, the individual learner may gain overall information about the kind of
mistakes that are being made and develop an individual understanding of the error patterns of
the learner. A good piece of advice when it comes to understanding one’s own errors is to try
to find out why the mistake or mistakes are being made. By discovering whether the mistake is
due to factors such as transfer from some kind of phenomenon in one’s own language, or a
direct translation that does not work in a given context, the learner will get help to understand
more about the construction of the new language in addition to greater insight into his/her own
learning strategies. At any rate, it is important to emphasise that too much focus on mistakes
may be counterproductive since it may create achievement anxiety, which in turn may prevent
learning.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Self-correction is often associated with oral and written production. However, this technique
may also be applied to listening and reading. In terms of listening and reading, such an autocorrection approach would be to think through whether one has understood the message
properly, or whether misunderstandings may occur and the nature of these possible
misunderstandings.
In terms of oral and written production, the pure linguistic aspects will be important. Another
important factor would be whether one expresses oneself correctly in relation to rules of
courtesy and other factors that may offend or cause pain if one does not master these rules. At
the same time, it is important to emphasise that one must never be afraid of submerging oneself
in the language, since this is how learning takes place. Nevertheless, communication is the most
important thing, and the fear of making mistakes must not lead to a breakdown in
communication. On the other hand, it is always possible to improve in the language if one’s
strategy is to become better by being aware of the mistakes one makes, and what one can do in
order to correct these mistakes.
During this session, the learners will discuss the following based on the above-mentioned
aspects of the language learning process:
1. What do I do when I am handed back written tasks? Do I try to understand what kind of
mistakes I make? What do I do to correct them?
2. How do I try to correct myself when talking the foreign language?
3. What do I do to check that I understand correctly when I read or listen to the foreign
language?
4. How important is it to use the foreign language perfectly? Does it disturb communication
if I make any mistakes? Shall I give up talking in order not to make mistakes?
We sum up the discussion as usual in a plenary session towards the end of the session.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Session 15
Goal for the session
During this session, the learners will be provided with basic knowledge about the metacognitive
learning strategy:
C2. Self-evaluating
“Evaluating one’s own progress in the new language, for instance, by checking to
see whether one is reading faster and understanding more than 1 month or 6 months
ago, or whether one is understanding a greater percentage of each conversation”
(Oxford, 1990: 140).
This main group consists of two related strategies, and both comprise functions to control one’s
own achievement and assessment of one’s own learning. One strategy consists of noticing and
learning from mistakes, while the other relates to assessing the learning process in a holistic
perspective (Oxford, 1990: 140).
Programme for the session
This learning strategy covers both the learning process in a holistic perspective and specific
aspects related to the four skills. The focus on general assessment criteria may possibly be of
such a general nature that these criteria become counterproductive. Therefore, the learners are
recommended to work with as specific points as possible as part of the self-assessment process.
Checklists, diaries or logs are tools the learner may use to assess him/ herself during the process.
The learner may be encouraged to divide the self-assessment activity according to the four
skills. When it comes to listening, one method is simply to sum up for the interlocutor what the
learners have understood from the conversation. In this way, it is possible to check the extent
to which the conversation has been understood, and compare this level of understanding with
similar previous assessments. If the learner has a plan for his or her own progression, such a
survey will yield information about whether he or she has reached the level defined in the longterm planning process. In terms of reading skills in the foreign language, the self-assessment
activity may consist of the learners monitoring how the reading speed develops from one
checkpoint to another. They may also assess how much of a text they understand and see to
what extent this represents a sign of progress. In terms of speech production, the learners may
record themselves and then find out how this sounds compared to native speakers. It is also
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
possible to register how many times one is asked to repeat something during a conversation
with a native speaker. If the learner gets used to registering how the interlocutor reacts during
a conversation, it is also possible to assess how one’s own speech production works. In terms
of writing, the learner may assess how the writing process develops in a long-term perspective
in the form of sentence length and complexity, precision and grammar as well as semantic
correctness.
The above-mentioned aspects are techniques that may be transmitted to the learners as an
inspiration for their metacognitive development. During this session, we will render this
principle more specific by using the EKSPER wheel, which has been developed at the
University of Stavanger. The EKSPER project aims at making learning goals more specific in
such a way that the learner may get help to assess his or her own learning as a part of the
language learning process.
The learners are provided with a copy of the following form:
http://www.uis.no/getfile.php/HF/EKSPER/Norsk_a2_vg1.pdf
The learners work on an individual basis by shading the fields during the time they have at their
disposal during the session. This work may continue after the end of the session if relevant.
However, the activity will consist of working with filling-out the form and then discussing
learner experiences in a plenary session towards the end of the session. The main point is
nevertheless to raise learner awareness about the fact that self-assessment is a method that can
be used in order to develop insight into the language learning process, and that it is a good idea
to divide this self-assessment into the four skills.
Appendix 1: Description of Sessions 1-16
Session 16
Goal for the session
The goal for this session is to produce a classroom conversation that will mark the end of the
experiment. This conversation is a follow-up of the conversation that was conducted when the
project started in September 2010.
Programme for the session
The session is divided into two parts. During the session, the two questions asked at the
beginning of the SBI programme last autumn will be repeated. The learners will be asked to
think through the year we have behind us with separate instruction in metacognitive issues.
Thereafter, the learners will talk in small groups for approximately 15 minutes, and then the
rest of the session will be spent on a plenary summary, such as in Session 1. The conversation
in the plenary session may be structured in such a way that the first question is addressed, and
then the second question. As an alternative, the summary in class may follow its own course
without dividing the conversation according to the two questions. The learners will first spend
approximately 15 minutes on the following questions in small groups, and these questions will
form the basis of the summary in the plenary session:
1. What is necessary in order to learn a language?
2. What is necessary in order to learn Spanish/German/French?
Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know.
Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
Session 16
GE1. Turn 414.
B confirms that B had to take German at this school.
GE2. Turn 413.
A asks if B knew that B had to take German when B started at this school.
GE3. Turn 412.
B states that Spanish is growing tremendously as an international language.
B states that it is going to be very important to know Spanish, or at least
good to know it. B states that B always wanted to learn Spanish anyway, so
it is a bit cool to be able to learn German knowing that B has enough stamina
to learn Spanish as well. B states that B felt cheated when B could only take
German at the Steiner school, and not be able to choose. B states that B does
not regret.
GE4. Turn 411.
A says yes and asks for more information.
GE5. Turn 410.
B says yes.
GE6. Turn 409.
A states that if B wants to study in Berlin, then it would be useful to know
German.
GE7. Turn 408.
B states that as a matter of fact that is how it seems, and that B would have
liked Spanish to be easier. B states that B feels that B will have more use
of German and that German will dominate more.
GE8. Turn 407.
A says yes and states that again it is relevant that German and Norwegian
are more related in a way.
GE9. Turn 406.
B states that of B’s friends, many have expressed that they would have liked
to change now. They have taken Spanish now, but feel that they do not get
by. B states that they would have liked to have German, and they deeply regret
that they have not changed.
GE10. Turn 405.
A claims that Spanish is easier up to a certain point. After that point, the
learners discover that there are many things to learn in that language as
well.
GE11. Turn 404.
B states that B has the impression that Spanish seems easier sometimes, also
from a grammatical point of view.
GE12. Turn 403.
A states that B’s language choice could have been a discussion.
GE13. Turn 402.
B states that they were cheated for French as well. B states that B did not
have that choice.
GE14. Turn 401.
A states that B was cheated for a foreign language by moving to this school.
GE15. Turn 400.
B confirms that they started with Spanish in the first grade at the Steiner
school, then advanced Spanish, and the rest was German.
1
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
GE16. Turn 399.
A asks if they had started with Spanish.
GE17. Turn 398.
B states that if B had remained at the Steiner school, then B could have
taken Spanish.
GE18. Turn 397.
A says no.
GE19. Turn 396.
B says no.
GE20. Turn 395.
A claims that B was forced into a direction that B did not think much about
at the age of 7. B could not do much about the situation.
GE21. Turn 394.
B states that B has always wanted to learn Spanish.
GE22. Turn 393.
A states that B has surely talked to others who attend this school, learners
who take French and Spanish. A asks if B has ever thought that it is a pity
that B did not take Spanish or French.
GE23. Turn 392.
B states that B perhaps works in a different way in order to learn to have
everyday conversations and those kinds of things, issues which are more useful
during travelling, but which are not that useful in relation to business.
GE24. Turn 391.
A asks if B thinks that it will lead to B working differently with German in
the time to come and that B in a way has developed a deeper understanding in
terms of the reasons for B’s actions.
GE25. Turn 390.
B states that when they have talked about issues such as why B has chosen
German, then B thinks that B has got many more impressions in a way,
impressions related to learning German, not simply in relation to work and
the like. B adds leisure and travels.
GE26. Turn 389.
A asks if B has done anything differently at any point. A asks if B has done
homework in a different way, or become more aware of why one has chosen German
in the first place. A mentions having a goal with the learning activity.
GE27. Turn 388.
B says no. B states that most of what B has thought about is rather logical.
B states that it is logical that one has to engage in rote learning in order
to master a subject, and it is logical that one has to practise it in order
to learn it better, and basically most of what we have been reviewing. B
states that B has also seen the importance of how much one needs to learn
through rote learning in order to achieve good results.
GE28. Turn 387.
A tells B to think back on the year which has passed and the instruction
programme B has been exposed to in order to gain insight into the learning
process and become more aware of what one may do quite specifically. A states
that the point is to find one’s own learning style and what suits the
individual best, but this depends somewhat on the target one has for the
learning process. It also depends on what one finds interesting, what one
thinks is easy to work with, and which ways suit one better for the learning
of German, as in this case. A reckons that if A had not been present during
this year, then B would not have had any relationship to it at all in terms
of a conscious approach to what A has written and the issues we have been
working with during these sessions. A asks if B has discovered something
2
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
special, if something seems natural, if B has reacted in any way, or if B
has developed a certain insight. A also asks if B has done something in a
different way just because B got advice during these sessions, or if B has
not done things differently.
GE29. Turn 386.
B states that it is not that confusing, since B’s mother tongue is Chinese.
B states that sometimes when B talks to B’s older sister, they may switch to
Norwegian just like that, then go back to Chinese, and then back to Norwegian
again. B states that they do not become confused because of that. B states
that sometimes they also switch to German as well. B finds this strange. B
states that they also use English once in a while.
GE30. Turn 385.
A states that B has probably experienced that if one watches a detective
movie in Germany, it will be in German. A states that this might not sound
good to us.
GE31. Turn 384.
B mentions German subtitles instead of Norwegian ones when watching, e.g.
movies. If the movie is in English, then one can use German subtitles.
GE32. Turn 383.
A states that B could have opposed that, but A does not want to do that now.
GE33. Turn 382.
B states that one needs an exceptional interest for grammar.
GE34. Turn 381.
A states that there are certain grammatical structures one has learned in
English which one would like to transfer to German. A states that this is
because one tends to use the same structures since it is a foreign language,
and sometimes this is not the right thing to do. A asks what it takes to
learn German. A asks who wants to answer that question. A states that there
is a certain overlap with the previous question, so B is only to add issues
which have not been mentioned in the previous section.
GE35. Turn 380.
B confirms this.
GE36. Turn 379.
A states that there are many Latin words in English. A also states that if
one uses a dictionary with English words, one may notice that they have
different origins. A states that some words come from Anglo-Saxon.
GE37. Turn 378.
B states European.
GE38. Turn 377.
A states that many words come from Latin.
GE39. Turn 376.
B states that not that many do.
GE40. Turn 375.
A confirms that English is a bit Germanic.
GE41. Turn 374.
B asks if it is true that English and German have two different roots. B
wonders if English is Germanic.
GE42. Turn 373.
A confirms that B could have tried things out and if B understood them, they
would have been OK. A asks the difference B perceives between English and
German. A states that when A corrects German, A often notices that the
learners think in German. A claims that B knows English well. A claims that
3
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
many structures in English may be recognised in German, something that should
not often be the case.
GE43. Turn 372.
B confirms that B could have found support in Norwegian.
GE44. Turn 371.
A states that if B, for instance during a conversation, meets a German in
town, then B could have found support in Norwegian to a certain extent.
GE45. Turn 370.
B states that B only looks for similar words when reading. B understands the
meaning of a word since it is similar. B states that B can make a guess when
writing. B states that B tends to use a dictionary anyway.
GE46. Turn 369.
A asks if B looks for words which are similar or if B takes the word which
is the closest.
GE47. Turn 368.
B says no.
GE48. Turn 367.
A asks if this is something B does consciously when working with a German
text.
GE49. Turn 366.
B states that there are many German words that are similar to Norwegian words.
B states that this is rather practical because it is then possible to make a
guess in terms of the meaning of the words.
GE50. Turn 365.
A states that B made a safe choice in many ways. A states that it has occurred
to A that, in terms of making use of Norwegian as a starting point, and also
learning from other languages, A wonders if B has reflected during the year
over the issue how B can make use of B’s own mother tongue, Norwegian, or
the learning of other languages, probably English at this point. A wonders
how B can make use of this experience when studying German. A states that
they have touched upon this issue during the year, but since the topic is to
summarise briefly during this session, A wonders if B has had any special
experiences, such as thinking of how to use Norwegian in a particular way
when learning German, or a similar situation in relation to English. A wonders
if B has reflected over how to use experience with previous languages, one’s
mother tongue, or English.
GE51. Turn 364.
B states that B had heard that the wisest thing to do was to take German.
GE52. Turn 363.
A says yes.
GE53. Turn 362.
B states that B had wanted to learn the language properly in order to get a
deeper understanding of the language. B states that B had thought of taking
another foreign language than German.
GE54. Turn 361.
A acknowledges B’s confirmation of the importance of the parents’ opinion.
GE55. Turn 360.
B confirms that the parents’ opinion is important.
GE56. Turn 359.
A asks if the parents’ opinion is important when it comes to the language
choice the learners make in lower secondary school.
4
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
GE57. Turn 358.
B states that B had thought about the subject that was the easiest to take
in the first grade. B states that if B learns Spanish without achieving any
results, B will not benefit from it later. B states that if B takes German
as well, and learns to talk that language, B will benefit more from it
irrespective of whether they talk Spanish in more parts of the world. B states
that they got to know that Spanish is a language for holidays, whereas German
is a business language. B states that B preferred the business language to
the holiday language. B states that, in addition, B’s mother and father had
studied German, which makes it easier.
GE58. Turn 357.
A asks if B had thought of the subject which was the easiest to learn and
not the subject which would be the most useful.
GE59. Turn 356.
B states that B chose the language B thought was the easiest one.
GE60. Turn 355.
A states that these are three different languages.
GE61. Turn 354.
B states that one was forced into choosing either Spanish, French or German.
GE62. Turn 353.
A states that the German teachers also say so.
GE63. Turn 352.
B states that the teacher said that since many learners, and B, are good at
maths and subjects like that, they are also good at German.
GE64. Turn 351.
A asks on what basis.
GE65. Turn 350.
B says that B would have recommended it.
GE66. Turn 349.
A says no.
GE67. Turn 348.
B states that, just as A comments, they had no choice.
GE68. Turn 347.
A says yes.
GE69. Turn 346.
B states that B is German, so B had to do it anyway.
GE70. Turn 345.
A asks if the choice was made without B wanting it.
GE71. Turn 344.
B says yes.
GE72. Turn 343.
A states that in that case B has talked German for many years.
GE73. Turn 342.
B states that they had no choice.
GE74. Turn 341.
A says yes.
GE75. Turn 340.
B states that in the Steiner school, they had German in the second grade
without having the option to decide. They then had to choose German in upper
secondary school as well.
5
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
GE76. Turn 339.
A wonders whether, when B chose German in lower secondary school, it was
something B wished or if it was a coincidence.
GE77. Turn 338.
B confirms that it is important that B wants to learn this.
GE78. Turn 337.
A asks whether this means, in other words, that B needs to want to learn
this.
GE79. Turn 336.
B states that in that case, B is forced into talking, or it depends on whether
they know English. B thinks that it is a good idea to look at one’s mistakes
and what B does, namely what B does not know properly, and then try to test
these. One can thereafter look at them and learn them so that B can fill the
gaps and acquire a larger spectrum. B says that if B wants to learn a language,
B thinks it is important in a way to have a goal and know why B wants to
learn, and what B wants to achieve.
GE80. Turn 335.
A says yes.
GE81. Turn 334.
B states that it is somewhat like B said, that if B learns about some
grammatical topics, B learns the theoretical part first, and then B may read
a text or watch a movie which is about the topics B has learned. In this way,
B gets to see it both in practice and in theory. B refers to going to places
where they talk the language B is trying to learn.
GE82. Turn 333.
A states that if A is going to talk about “Kein Schnaps für Tamara”, such as
tomorrow, then B must be prepared.
GE83. Turn 332.
B states that it is possible to learn a language if one simply enters a native
tribe. B refers first of all to something which is perhaps very basic, to
someone/something that can teach you the language, for example a book or a
teacher. B states that we also need motivation in order to learn grammar and
to practise the language. B states that one also needs a strategy, a goal
and a plan in a way which can lead you forwards, or that B can follow. B
states that the way this is established is up to the individual, but it is
very important to have a strategy, a learning strategy. B states that it
requires a good deal of individual effort. It is not possible to simply expect
that one learns German simply by attending German lessons. B has to be at
home, reading and learning on one’s own. B states that one has to be exposed
to the language on a regular basis by listening, for example to German,
reading German, and trying to talk German. B states that B has to carry out
in practice what B has learned theoretically. B states that if B reads
something, if B learns something, then in a way B thinks that B knows it,
and then B at least has to try it.
GE84. Turn 331.
A says that during this session the topic is summarising the whole school
year by looking at what B remembers in terms of curriculum goals stating that
B is to be aware of the learning process and acquiring insight into B’s own
learning. A states that they are going to start with the questions they had
last autumn, spending about 10-15 minutes on it. A also states that afterwards
they are going to summarise in class, just as they did the first time. A asks
the first question in terms of what it takes to learn a language.
Session 15
6
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
GE85. Turn 330.
B replies that the book is used prior to tests.
GE86. Turn 329.
A asks whether the learners have ever assessed themselves.
GE87. Turn 328.
B says that it is a good tool to use for the teacher. B also says that it is
something which he/she has not been involved in before, and that it is
difficult to assess. B asks what it means to understand the main content of
a certain matter.
GE88. Turn 327.
A gives an introduction to the topic after distribution of the wheel. A
informs that this is a tool that can be used to develop insight into one’s
learning process, and that it is closely related to the instruction programme
the learners have behind them. A tells B to be honest in order to find out
what they can.
Session 14
GE89. Turn 326.
B says that B tries to understand what B has done wrong. B tries to avoid
making the same mistake again by comparing with previous tests. B says that
B does more or less the same, but that it is easier in English. B checks in
order to avoid making the same mistakes again. B also says that B checks what
spoiled the good grade. B says that when B gets a bad grade, B does not want
to look at it at once. B takes out the test at an earlier stage. B says that
B looks more at it later, something which makes it easier. B says that making
mistakes does not destroy anything. B says that the most important thing is
to make sure that others understand what B is saying, but that some mistakes
may interfere with communication. B says that listening to the immigrants
makes B understand that B learns more and more. B says that children learn
to talk as they go along.
GE90. Turn 325.
A introduces the topic to the group.
Session 13
A says that it is important to practise looking up in the right places.
GE91. Turn 324.
B answers that B does not know all the words, and that this influences solving
the task.
GE92. Turn 323.
A asks what B thinks about the task at hand. A asks if there is something B
should have known more about.
GE93. Turn 322.
B comments on going to the grocery store and buying warm rolls as an example.
In that case, B has to find out what kind of words B can use. B also says
that it is important to rehearse what B knows from before for a specific
approach.
GE94. Turn 321.
A says that it is important to go about the task in the right way, and that
we have to find out the things we do not remember and what we need to solve
the task. We have to use a grammatical overview.
GE95. Turn 320.
7
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
B says that general grammar is important and so is vocabulary.
GE96. Turn 319.
A tells B to analyse in order to find other elements, such as prepositions.
GE97. Turn 318.
B says that it is important to be able to analyse.
GE98. Turn 317.
A asks what they had to look for.
GE99. Turn 316.
B says that the topic of the task is translation. B says that knowledge about
general grammar is important, i.e. tenses, etc.
GE100. Turn 315.
A tells B to prepare for a task with the four cases.
Session 12 1
A says that some prepositions always take the genitive, and in those cases
the genitive is required, not “von”. A says that finding one’s own learning
style is the goal, and that one may ask the question: “Are there other ways
to learn this?”
GE101. Turn 314.
B replies “The man’s car”.
GE102. Turn 313.
A asks if B has other tips. A says that the purpose is important. A says that
there is one situation where the genitive is necessary.
GE103. Turn 312.
B says that it is OK to use “von”. With the genitive one gets a larger
vocabulary.
GE104. Turn 311.
A says that this is an easier way, and it is rather oral. The genitive case
varies the language to a further extent.
GE105. Turn 310.
B replies that this forms the basis for a deeper understanding of the
language, and that it is perhaps not that important for the time being. B
says that it is easier to formulate sentences when one knows the genitive
case. B says that the German language becomes more proper. B says that it is
easier to say things which B wants if B has a better foundation. B says that
B does not use it that much. B uses most “von”.
GE106. Turn 309.
A says that this is why they had not studied this topic so far.
1
The Head of the Language Department had announced his presence during this session. He said that he wanted
to follow up the evolution of the project. He informed about his presence in the Spanish group, and that he had
learned a good deal even though he had worked as a teacher himself. He informed about the importance of learning
strategies according to the LK06 curriculum. He also wanted to know if the learners had learned anything in terms
of becoming more aware. Responses were in terms of better understanding of the importance of learning a
language. The Head mentioned the use of the genitive case in German and its relevance for the quality of the
correct use of German. He asked about the transfer value of the topics, for instance to geography. The response
was to find the best way to work. The Head said that as a teacher, he is not aware of what good learning strategies
are.
8
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
GE107. Turn 308.
B says that the genitive case is used in order to be able to get by in
Germany. It is important to lift it up to a developed level.
GE108. Turn 307.
A explains that having a purpose when doing something is always a good idea,
especially if one relates this purpose to some goals. A reminds B about the
fact that B had been discussing goals in the previous session, and that
today’s topic could be related to last session’s discussion of topics. A says
that they were going to use the workbook, and that they should enter It’s
learning in order to find out about the homework. The exercise was one
introducing the genitive case. A informs that if they had not studied the
genitive before, it will now be introduced to them.
Session 11
GE109. Turn 306.
B says that being able to write well enough to study abroad is a goal. B says
that B wants to study abroad, and that B needs writing skills to achieve
this.
GE110. Turn 305.
A asks about writing skills.
GE111. Turn 304.
B says that being understood as a tourist in the country is important, and
also to be able to ask about tourist attractions quite specifically. B says
that the objective is to be able to live in a German-speaking country and,
for instance, study there.
GE112. Turn 303.
A asks about speaking skills.
GE113. Turn 302.
B replies that B had tried to read German books. B says that B is going to
Berlin very soon, and that instead of taking taxi, the goal is to take the
subway on as many occasions as possible in order to be able to read signs
and information in German to get where they want.
GE114. Turn 301.
A asks what B does quite specifically in order to reach this goal.
GE115. Turn 300.
B says that an objective is to be able to read literature in German and also
to be able to read newspapers and magazines. B says that the goal is to be
able to understand texts for homework. B says that understanding signs and
posters is an important goal. B says that reading technical material may seem
too advanced.
GE116. Turn 299.
A asks about the objectives for reading skills.
GE117. Turn 298.
B says that B´s objective is to be able to understand most of a conversation
with a native speaker. B says that being able to understand what is necessary
to work with the German language later on is an important objective. B says
that the goal is not necessarily to get a job where German skills are
important, but if such a situation should come about, the objective is to
have sufficient skills to hold the post.
9
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
GE118. Turn 297.
A explains that the background for the project is the European Council’s
guidelines for language teaching in Europe and these guidelines’ connection
with policies of European integration. A relates that, according to political
theories, patterns of conflict in Europe can partly be determined by
understanding language barriers in Europe. In this perspective, political
theories claim that levels of conflict may be reduced by enhancing cultural
and linguistic awareness and knowledge among people, since understanding
others’ perspectives, and being able to have a dialogue with others, is
positive for the reduction of conflict. In international crises, keeping a
dialogue open and making sure that people speak the same language is important
for conflict solving. In this perspective, an important step is to analyse
the “Good language learner” and then find out what he or she does in order
to learn languages. When these methods and skills have been identified, the
purpose is to learn from these experiences in order to improve and vary
language teaching methods accordingly. This ultimate goal is perhaps a utopia,
but always trying to reach it is a purpose in itself.
GE119. Turn 296.
B emphasises the fact that B has now gathered some experience in the matter,
and that this experience can be used to understand the purpose of the
programme even better.
GE120. Turn 295.
A summarises the content of the metacognitive learning strategies so far, and
asks if B has any questions regarding the strategy based instruction programme
after these months of activity.
Session 10
A writes a memotechnical pattern for adjective ending in German and then asks
B if B could place the cases correctly in the grid:
N
A
D
M
e
en
en
F
e
e
en
N
e
e
en
Pl
en
en
en
A starts with the –e endings, and then continues with the –en endings.
GE121. Turn 294.
B says that the best thing is probably to run first, since it could be
difficult to run afterwards because of the time schedule at home with dinner,
etc. B comments on the fact that running is a good way of dissolving tensions
in relation to a language learning activity.
GE122. Turn 293.
A asks what is difficult in this situation. A suggests that it perhaps has
to do with the fact that the ’e’ has to be placed correctly. A asks if this
was the case for the rest as well.
GE123. Turn 292.
B suggests that B could record endings before going to bed and then listen
to them.
GE124. Turn 291.
A suggests that B could run while thinking about the conjugation of adjectives
after a working session. A asks if the best thing would be to run before or
after doing the homework.
10
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
GE125. Turn 290.
B replies that it was a rather easy task. B says that the adjective was not
an easy part.
GE126. Turn 289.
A asks if B feels that this task was difficult or easy.
GE127. Turn 288.
B says that B has to read a good deal of German. B says that B has to read
first and then make an effort to really understand the matter.
GE128. Turn 287.
A asks if B could think of other things as well.
GE129. Turn 286.
B says that B has to think about grammatical errors B tends to make.
GE130. Turn 285.
A asks what B should do if B is to write an exercise in German.
GE131. Turn 284.
B replies that B has heard that it is supposed to be a good method of getting
prepared for the learning session.
GE132. Turn 283.
A asks if B uses this strategy, and if it helps.
GE133. Turn 282.
B replies that it is a good idea to browse through the book, looking at the
pictures one comes across.
GE134. Turn 281.
A asks what kinds of pictures one should look at.
GE135. Turn 280.
B says that B would read the words, and then study the conjugation of
adjectives. B says that this person would study the rules first, and then
look at the task afterwards. B says that B should first learn the new words,
and then simply start doing the task. B suggests that one should look at the
paradigm first. B says that it is a good idea to look at the pictures prior
to the working session.
GE136. Turn 279.
A dismisses this comment, and asks B to focus on the task. The
the next day consists of learning expressions from a text B has
addition, B should work with grammar in the form of adjective
related to the text. A emphasises the fact that the two parts
very much in common, and A asks how B would go about the task.
homework for
just had. In
conjugations
do not have
GE137. Turn 278.
B says that reducing sleep could be a strategy, because it is necessary to
go to bed late in order to have time to do homework.
GE138. Turn 277.
A asks if B has heard about the word organisation. One has to organise to do
things properly. A asks if B has thought about how to get organised. A tells
B to enter It’s Learning 2. A tells them to enter the German section and look
at what A has written for them to do as homework for the next day. A tells
2
The digital learning platform used at the school.
11
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
them to read this instruction and find out what B is supposed to learn for
the next day. A tells B to think about how B can get organised in order to
do this, and that A should find a strategy in order to learn what the
instructions say.
Session 9
GE139. Turn 276.
B says that B can learn more about vocabulary learning.
GE140. Turn 275.
A asks B if B feels that anything is missing.
GE141. Turn 274.
B replies that it is possible to read about memotechnics and find out about
learning strategies. B says that when one gets a test back, it is important
to analyse the errors. B says that it is important to listen to what the
learners tell you to do and be able to take more responsibility oneself. B
says that while working with this programme in class, B has understood better
the necessity to do something on one’s own. Previously, B had not cared that
much about what B could do independently of what the teacher tells the
learners to do. B says that B understands the difference between theory and
practice better.
GE142. Turn 273.
A asks how B can look for sources.
GE143. Turn 272.
B says that one has to work continuously, focus one’s attention during
lessons, and take the initiative.
GE144. Turn 271.
A emphasises the purpose of the task in relation to the general programme,
i.e. that B is expected to discuss to what extent the programme has helped
them towards understanding what B can do in order to understand language
learning, and what B can do to achieve the curriculum competence aims.
GE145. Turn 270.
B answers that B has been working more with these aspects now than in lower
secondary school.
GE146. Turn 269.
A says that one needs ideas to get the right expressions. A asks how much B
has been working with language learning.
GE147. Turn 268.
B says that B has been working with communication. B also says that they had
been writing texts. B also says that they had been working with the alphabet
and the signs of the language. B also says that they had expressed their own
opinions and emotions.
GE148. Turn 267.
A tells the learners to focus on the first part of the curriculum, i.e. the
part focusing on level I, although B is at level II for the time being. This
would be the right method since they were already acquainted with this part.
A asks whether B does what is stated therein. A explains to B that the
curriculum is divided into three parts, and A defines the content of the
three areas. A tells B to think through the process of learning the language
so far.
12
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
Session 8
A acknowledges this comment by emphasising the fact that this is an example
of this session’s strategy, i.e. that listening to others speak, instead of
speaking oneself, is a learning method. A asks if someone would answer yes
to the last question, i.e. if someone had ever stopped speaking the foreign
language because he/she did not know how to express themselves. A applies the
concepts of declarative and procedural knowledge to this strategy. A uses
examples of how this strategy can be learned from a declarative point of view
in terms of being able to state what the strategy is all about and then apply
it in real life by being able to delay speech to focus on what is being said
from a procedural point of view.
GE149. Turn 266.
B says that it feels strange, and that B finds it difficult to find the right
words. B says that it depends on the setting. B says that B does not feel
like trying since B is afraid that they will simply rattle on. B has tried
to talk German in Turkey, and B felt more comfortable there. B says that it
is great fun when one knows the language well, but that it is frustrating if
one is not able to say very much. B states that it is important to learn new
words, and also to learn how to use new words. B states that Rathaus is a
funny word in German. B relates an episode in Germany where B had been with
B’s parents. B had attended a dinner, and on that occasion B had been listening
in on the other guests in order to grasp some useful words and expressions.
GE150. Turn 265.
A asks how B feels when B talks.
GE151. Turn 264.
B replies that it is fine if we simply move on, but that it may be difficult
to break the ice.
GE152. Turn 263.
A asks if B sometimes chooses not to say anything, and what we can do to
amend this situation. A asks if B thinks it is acceptable to make mistakes.
GE153. Turn 262.
B answers that B feels unsecure and stressed, since B feels that B gets it
wrong no matter what B does. B says that it feels OK when B speaks to her
father, because then B does not feel embarrassed, but it is worse when B is
in Germany.
GE154. Turn 261.
A asks if B can express what it feels like to talk German.
GE155. Turn 260.
B mentions the word das Erlebnis (the experience).
GE156. Turn 259.
A asks if B remembers other words of the same kind and if B thinks B can make
a contribution.
GE157. Turn 258.
B remembers the word Austauschschüler (exchange student).
GE158. Turn 257.
13
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
A asks B if B remembers that last week B had started to work on a text about
being an exchange student in Norway and which words they remembered from the
text 34.
Session 7
A tells B to look up the conjugation paradigm for the relative pronoun and A
relates this to the conjugation of the definite article. A tells B to focus
on the relative pronoun, and think about gender as well as finding cases by
analysing the sentences. A defines this exercise as an example of
metacognition.
GE159. Turn 256.
B answers that one has to learn the conjugation paradigm. B discusses which
form of the relative pronoun is important, and B mentions that it is important
to analyse the sentences in order to find the right pronoun.
GE160. Turn 255.
A decides to use the topic ‘relative pronouns’ for this exercise. This topic
had been introduced the week before this session, and A asks the class if
they remember which topic had been introduced. A asks if B knows what one
has to know when working with relative pronouns. A gives a summary of last
session´s topics, focusing on the introduction to general learning psychology
and its consequences for language learning psychology in the form of the
dichotomy between declarative and procedural knowledge. A also gives a brief
summary of the basic language learning strategies that were referred to:
affective, social, cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies. A
mentions the terms metacognition and metacognitive learning strategies again,
and defines these as knowledge about one’s own knowledge, knowledge about the
learning process and one’s own progress, and the strategies used to make use
of this potential to promote one’s own language learning process.
Session 6
A comments on the importance of analysing the clause for correct translation.
A comments on the use of an adjective derived from a noun 5.
GE161. Turn 254.
B writes sentence no 2 on the blackboard: Ich glaube, dass Anna morgen kommt.
B discusses the use of morgen vs Morgen. B translates another two sentences
in relation to the theory about subordinate clauses. Wenn ich in Bonn bin,
besuche ich Bekannte. B analyses the sentence in order to translate it
correctly.
GE162. Turn 253.
A tells B to identify the subordinate clause and to define the word order
for the subordinate clause. A states that the verb conjugated according to
person must be placed at the end of the clause.
GE163. Turn 252.
3
Prior to the session, the researcher and the teacher discussed the programme for this session in terms of the
relevance of using a text the learners had been working with last week. This was a text about being an exchange
student in Norway. We decided to use this text as a starting point for working on this session’s learning strategy.
4
This summary created a link to the final part of session 7, when the researcher and the teacher decided to spend
some minutes during session 8 discussing the learners’ experience with the exercise used during session 7.
5
More sentences were analysed according to the same theoretical model. Since the focus of this research is on the
metacognitive and metalinguistic issues which arose as a consequence of the SBI programme, this particular
grammar activity is not included.
14
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
B writes the first sentence on the blackboard: Ich weiss, dass Peter heute
krank ist.
GE164. Turn 251.
A explains the difference between als and wenn.
GE165. Turn 250.
B answers that the topic is subordinate clauses in German. B refers to clauses
introduced by dass (that), called adverbial subordinate clauses. B answers
that one has to know subjunctions/subordinating conjunctions such as dass,
wenn, weil. B states that one has to know the word order with the verb
conjugated according to the subject towards the end. B states analysis. B
states that this is not particular for subordinate clauses. B asks about the
difference between als and wenn.
GE166. Turn 249.
A asks if it is about any particular topic.
GE167. Turn 248.
B answers it is about learning the words and the grammar.
GE168. Turn 247.
A states that the session is going to be a part of preparing for an upcoming
whole-day test. A writes on the blackboard: Why are we working with this
text/translation? What do I have to learn/check up on/know in order to
translate it? Have I worked with similar material before?
Session 5
GE169. Turn 246.
B says no. B states that these people should put something in the corner;
they placed a suitcase in the corner. B remembers that B had been to an old
people’s home in Schönbrunn when B was younger. B had subsequently lost her
way and had to ask many old people the way. These people did not speak any
English. This is a situation where B simply had to know. At the time, B knew
more German in a way than now. B’s father talked German to B at the time,
but does not do that anymore. B states that B has been to a bakery in Berlin.
B bought a loaf of bread and got the bread B wanted.
GE170. Turn 245.
A asks if B had learned the word “Ecke”. A says that B will never forget this
word.
GE171. Turn 244.
B states that B has not been to Germany. B states that B had been to Germany
some time ago, but there were no situations where B just had to talk. B asked
people who passed by where a store was. People thought that B talked English,
so they answered in English. B states that things went OK and they understood
each other. B states that B had been in such a situation in a train in
England, where some people next to B were talking. B thinks that B heard the
word Ecke, um die Ecke, or something like that. B had asked Bist du Deutsch?
And they said yes. B states that this was three years ago, so B did not know
very much German at the time.
GE172. Turn 243.
A states that not wanting to learn the dishes is also a kind of consciousness,
since they are farfetched and special. A states that B determines what B
wants to spend B’s energy on. A states that B registers that if there are
many special meat dishes in Switzerland, B does not necessarily want to learn
15
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
about them. This is also a way to be aware of B’s own learning. A states that
B determines what B wants to learn.
GE173. Turn 242.
B states that B was in Switzerland. B had been in many kinds of situations.
B states that the worst situation was in a restaurant. B states that it is
difficult to remember dishes. B states that when B got stuck, B got help from
the person next to B, a person who knew more German.
GE174. Turn 241.
A asks how many have been in a situation similar to the one described by B.
GE175. Turn 240.
B remembers some things that stuck in the memory in that situation when the
woman pointed and said that this is that. B states that B remembers this. B
states that B learned something in the situation.
GE176. Turn 239.
A states that B needs a very special interest.
GE177. Turn 238.
B says no.
GE178. Turn 237.
A asks if B had looked things up when B came home.
GE179. Turn 236.
B states that B should have known more words for items such as food.
GE180. Turn 235.
A asks if there were things B feels B should have known.
GE181. Turn 234.
B states that there were some words. B says that there were a couple of dishes
and names of different hams that were a bit farfetched for B.
GE182. Turn 233.
A wonders if there were many words B did not know with the benefit of
hindsight.
GE183. Turn 232.
B says yes. B states that it went reasonably well. B states that it was about
buying sandwiches, and it worked.
GE184. Turn 231.
A asks if B had been to a place where B had to use the German language.
GE185. Turn 230.
B states that B has been to Berlin. B states that B has been to a café, but
not a store.
GE186. Turn 229.
A asks who has been to a German-speaking country in the near past, or late
past.
GE187. Turn 228.
B talks about noticing certain words B does not know. B states that B may
write them down if possible, bring them back home, and then look the words
up.
GE188. Turn 227.
16
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
A says not being a good Norwegian saying “du”, but “Sie”.
GE189. Turn 226.
B talks about using the right personal pronoun.
GE190. Turn 225.
A mentions talking to a person whom B does not know at all and who is of a
certain importance. A asks what one has to remember then.
GE191. Turn 224.
B states that B should have had a good vocabulary.
GE192. Turn 223.
A asks what would be important in that situation, when B is to talk to her.
GE193. Turn 222.
B states that B should have written a manuscript in order to think properly
through the situation.
GE194. Turn 221.
A asks how this would be with Merkel in Paris, and what would be the strategy
then.
GE195. Turn 220.
B refers to thinking through what kind of situations may occur and what kinds
of sentences may be useful in the relevant situation. B thinks that it is
important not to be over-stressed. B forgets a lot if B is stressed. It is
better to have a note with words on in case one forgets. B states that it is
not a good idea to work very hard with some breaks as opposed to working on
a regular basis. B states that it is better to be proactive, rehearsing the
sentences B wants, if B knows what B wants to rehearse. B states that B then
knows that it is related to clothes. B can begin beforehand and has a note
with some words on it.
GE196. Turn 219.
A asks about the third point, and what B has come up with.
GE197. Turn 218.
B states that B should go to a clothes’ store in Berlin. B states that the
sentence B needs is related to clothing, currency, size, colours, and so on.
B states that B could ask dad or the family what B is to do and what one can
ask about. B relates general, normal sentences. B states that B may listen
to a Linguaphone course. B states that they have the standard B asks about
in the clothes’ store. B talks about a place which is not that busy so that
the people working in the store have time for B. B states that B thought
about colours, patterns, size, price and the like.
GE198. Turn 217.
A asks how many girls and boys wanted to go to a clothes’ store. A asks about
planning. A asks if this was difficult.
GE199. Turn 216.
B states that they had dealt with a bakery in Berlin. B states that B could
ask about things to buy in the bakery. B states that B could discuss
immigration politics with Angela Merkel in Versailles, although this may be
more difficult. B states that they could discuss nature, and that they could
be in Switzerland and do shopping in Germany. B suggests an intellectual
conversation about chocolate, buying a cinema ticket and going to places that
B knows about beforehand. B suggests a clothes’ store in Munich.
GE200. Turn 215.
17
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
A says yes. A then wonders about the cognitive learning strategies in terms
of understanding, perception and memory. A states that during this session
they are going to talk about the metacognitive learning strategies. A states
that in that case, we are talking about knowledge about our own learning and
what we can do in order to improve this learning. A refers to what one can
do to improve this process. A asks if B has anything to contribute with. A
asks what kind of situations B had dealt with.
GE201. Turn 214.
B wonders if it was, for instance, about watching movies and listening to
music.
GE202. Turn 213.
A acknowledges that it is in communication. A asks about the affective
strategies. A states that they had talked about reducing stress in the
learning process.
GE203. Turn 212.
B says that the social is when you use the language in conversations.
GE204. Turn 211.
A states that it is good for B to know these concepts. A writes these concepts
on the blackboard, saying that these are the two forms of knowledge, i.e.
theoretical and practical. A says that A wants to write some learning
strategies they have talked about. A asks B what these mean (cognitive, social
and affective). A asks if B remembers anything at all in terms of the
difference between them.
GE205. Turn 210.
B says that declarative is theory and procedural is practice.
GE206. Turn 209.
A repeats declarative and procedural knowledge. A asks if B feels that B
understands these concepts. A asks if it is possible to express these concepts
in other more simple words.
Session 4
GE207. Turn 208.
B says perhaps.
GE208. Turn 207.
A wonders if calm Mozart or Beethoven could have been OK.
GE209. Turn 206.
B states that it would have been very much at the same time.
GE210. Turn 205.
A asks if one should read that book in German, if a CD with German text would
have got B on the right track, or if it would have been distracting.
GE211. Turn 204.
B states that in terms of music, the music has to be instrumental. B states
that if B has texts when trying to read something, B will easily listen to
the text instead of starting to read. B states that B would listen to what
they are singing.
GE212. Turn 203.
A states that both initial training, and training afterwards, have been
mentioned.
18
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
GE213. Turn 202.
B states that when working with maths, B tends to listen to music because
that helps. B states that when reading or getting deeper into something,
music does not work. B states that it is easy to turn on the music and have
it on, but then it is not much of a help. B feels that it helps in maths. B
states that if B is going to work a long time with homework, it helps to run
first. B feels that B thinks more clearly if B has trained first.
GE214. Turn 201.
A asks if listening to music is of any help or if B just sits there after a
while simply listening to the music and forgetting what the activity was all
about.
GE215. Turn 200.
B states that B tends to do something which B enjoys doing after having worked
a good deal. B refers to football training, watching TV, or something like
that. B states that B then somehow feels that B has a source of motivation.
B states that when working with homework, B knows that B does not have to
work only with the homework. B states that there is something nice to look
forward to. B states that B does not use that many affective learning
strategies except listening to music. B does not know if that is relevant.
GE216. Turn 199.
A asks about the affective learning strategies. A asks about B’s preferred
affective strategy.
GE217. Turn 198.
B states that one has to go to a place where they only talk German and nothing
else. B states that it is easy to switch over to English, since this is a
language that both parties understand.
GE218. Turn 197.
A states that most people are aware of the fact that one does not know that
much, and then people are good at moderating things and talking a little
slower.
GE219. Turn 196.
B says not now, but perhaps at a later stage. B states that B had used it
with German tourists when B worked in an amusement park. B states that in
school it is possible to talk with the learner next to one’s own seat. B
states that a big part of B’s family in Austria only speak German, and there
is no other option than speaking German to them. B states that it is a mixture
of Bosnian and German. B talks about ordering food and drinks and getting by
on one’s own when being abroad. B states that B had to talk quite a good deal
of German in Switzerland, but that most people knew English there. B states
that, once in Turkey, they had been better at talking German than English. B
states that B had tried to talk German to them, but it had turned out to be
difficult after all. B states that B’s family had once been in Germany and
then B had tried to talk German. However, it had not gone well. B states that
it is a good idea to travel to countries where people talk their mother tongue
and where there are many German tourists, so that they have to learn German.
B states that they would then talk more easily and they would understand that
they have to talk more slowly. B states that if B goes to Germany, things
may happen quickly.
GE220. Turn 195.
A asks if B would have done this in German.
GE221. Turn 194.
19
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
B states that B has not done that much. B states that they have read quite a
good deal in school. They have read in pairs. The other has tried things out
to the extent possible. Listen and try to correct the other. B also states
that B has used quite a good deal of chatting on the Internet, such as games
and the like. B states that when B had started to learn English at a younger
age, B used this knowledge as a basis for playing on the Internet. B states
that B talked a good deal on those occasions. B wanted to be understood and
understand what the others were saying. B states that B had forced B into
learning this. B states that this was a nice and useful way to learn.
GE222. Turn 193.
A states that A had intended that B should understand what it was all about.
A states that sometimes when this is the goal, B may have to look up some
very important words in order to understand the content. A states that the
next point is the social learning strategies. A wonders if B has ever done
anything to rehearse the language in interaction with others.
GE223. Turn 192.
B states that B felt that B had read the book without focusing that much on
vocabulary. B had tried to understand what the book was all about.
GE224. Turn 191.
A states that it is possible to use English as well.
GE225. Turn 190.
B states that B had gone quickly through the book, and then B looks at it
afterwards. B goes through it quickly in order to understand the main
characteristics. B states that B had not quite understood what was at the
back of the book, the part in German where it said what the book was all
about. B states that B had looked it up on the Internet in English in order
to understand what was in the book when B started to read. B states that it
helped a good deal. B claims that B understood much more.
GE226. Turn 189.
A tells B to think about the book A had thought about letting B read. A asks
how B went about the whole task.
GE227. Turn 188.
B says yes. B says that B has to engage in rote learning and read it over
and over again.
GE228. Turn 187.
A asks if it is efficient to hear a German text being read aloud, for instance
by playing a CD.
GE229. Turn 186.
B talks about reading aloud. B is then corrected and gets to know how the
different words are pronounced.
GE230. Turn 185.
A states that when B gives them the prepositions with the accusative, they
have learned them by heart. A also refers to using them in practice
afterwards.
GE231. Turn 184.
B states that B plays a game in order to improve pronunciation. B states that
B played Internet games. B states that when watching movies, it is all about
perceiving individual words that one understands and seeing the connections
in terms of what happens in the movie, and also pictures if it is a book. B
mentions vocabulary tests for learning new words. B states that if one watches
a German movie, one may see it several times with German subtitles, and then
20
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
try to understand the language. B states that one has to engage in rote
learning as well and that the basics are easier learned if one engages in
rote learning. B suggests trying it out afterwards, as it is easier to
understand.
GE232. Turn 183.
A confirms that it was a P. A summarises and states that they talked about
theory and how they can try this out in practice. A explains that today they
are going to proceed to B getting a task. A states that B is going to read
the introduction first. A states that B is then to think through the questions
and sit together. A tells B to read through the first page, all of which is
in Norwegian. Then B is to look at the three tasks. A states that B is to do
them alone first, and then together. A states that they will return to the
cognitive learning strategies. A tells B to present topics B has done in
order to learn certain aspects related to vocabulary and pronunciation.
GE233. Turn 182.
B states P for procedural.
GE234. Turn 181.
A confirms declarative. A also asks what the other nice letter was.
GE235. Turn 180.
B says declarative.
GE236. Turn 179.
A says yes. A also states that they are first going to have a bit of theory.
A states that B contributed with some theory, and then they tried things out
in practice. A states that this is what they have tried to talk about. A asks
if B remembers the expressions they have used. A reminds B about the nice
words for theory and practice. A asks B if B has written them down somewhere.
A states that B has mentioned something with a ‘D’.
GE237. Turn 178.
B relates ways to learn and practical rehearsal.
GE238. Turn 177.
A says yes, the prepositions. A states that some people have first mentioned
prepositions, and then they have tried to sing them again and to see how it
is possible to use these prepositions. A states that this is something B has
learned from these German lessons. A asks what they have talked about during
these lessons.
GE239. Turn 176.
B answers accusative and dative, and the prepositions.
GE240. Turn 175.
A asks what kind of grammar, what kind of topic.
GE241. Turn 174.
B answers grammar.
GE242. Turn 173.
A asks what kind of songs they had been singing.
GE243. Turn 172.
B states that they had been singing songs.
GE244. Turn 171.
A asks if B remembers what they had done last Friday.
21
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
Session 3
GE245. Turn 170.
B states that in lower secondary school, B spent a good deal of time
understanding what nominative, accusative and dative meant. B did not
understand these concepts, and the teacher did not say that it was subject,
direct object, etc.
GE246.
A asks
time B
thinks
Turn 169.
if the concept of cases is something which has been useful during the
has studied German, or if it has confused matters. A wonders what B
about the use of these declarative concepts.
GE247. Turn 168.
B says that cases are not vital in order to get the message across. B states
that it does not matter if B writes ein or einen - B still gets the message
across.
GE248. Turn 167.
A says that one needs certain grammatical principles. A states that what B
has said is at least to check the agreement between subject and verb. A states
that word order is also important and that B has to remember what is special
for German. A states that it is easy to choose the wrong case with prepositions
and that the better declarative knowledge one has, the easier it is.
GE249. Turn 166.
B says that B tries to use the declarative knowledge B has when writing a
text, but this often happens spontaneously as well. B states that B feels
that the most important thing is to get the message across, not the degree
of grammatical mistakes in the text. B states that if B were to write a proper
text, B would have used a language B knows well, for instance Norwegian or
English. B states that there are more letters and private items, if B had
chosen German. B states that the most important thing is the message, not
the grammar.
GE250. Turn 165.
A says that they had talked about the difference between regular and irregular
verbs.
GE251. Turn 164.
B answers that there are many regular and irregular verbs that B already
knows. B states that if one does not know something, B finds it in the
dictionary. B states that then B uses one’s declarative knowledge to know
what the ending is.
GE252. Turn 163.
A asks how B knew what an irregular verb was to start with. A wonders if B
remembers this, or what has made B aware of the fact that a verb was irregular.
GE253. Turn 162.
B says that when B was unsure if a verb was regular or irregular, the verb
was checked in the dictionary. B states that B then learned which ending was
relevant.
GE254. Turn 161.
A says that B does not need very much to be understood. A says that now that
B has produced information about how to systematise the different fields in
German, B has a topic to learn something about. A says that in the following
session B will be handed back an essay. B could then see how B has practised
language and this will show if B has to go back to the declarative form of
knowledge, and to brush up on the declarative knowledge in order to move to
the procedural form. This is complicated with German since there are so many
rules that have to be used at the same time, so one has to practise constantly.
The more one writes, the better it is. A says that the point about learning
the concepts of the perfect tense and accusative is that it makes it possible,
for example, to look up in a list in order to understand conjugation patterns.
22
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
A states that this is why these concepts are used, not to make it more
difficult for B, but rather to make it easier to acquire declarative knowledge
when B knows what this knowledge consists of. A wonders how conscious B has
been in terms of looking at conjugation patterns for the perfect tense when
B has written tasks and essays. A wonders if B has ever thought explicitly
about this, or if B does it because the teacher tells B to do so. A wonders
if B has ever thought about the importance or the necessity of knowing the
perfect tense as a concept and also to learn conjugation patterns from a list
which has “perfect tense” as a heading. A wonders if B wrote spontaneously
when writing the essay, or if B ever looked up conjugation patterns for
different topics in order to create a particular sentence.
GE255. Turn 160.
B talks about travelling to a place in Germany where they do not talk English,
so that one has to talk German. B says that if someone had to do it, it would
be possible. B states that one may use hands and feet. B had been to Croatia
during the summer holiday and had tried to use a dictionary to look up certain
basic words. B states that B learned some words that enabled B to communicate.
B says that the same principle could apply to German. B had been on an
exchange programme in Germany, and the mother in the host family spoke a
particular dialect that was difficult to understand. They did not speak
English. They had to use body language sometimes.
GE256. Turn 159.
A asks how to put this into practice.
GE257. Turn 158.
B points to TV, at school, and finding summaries on the internet.
GE258. Turn 157.
A asks where one has to be in order to learn grammatical rules. A wonders if
one has to go far. A states that for the practical aspect, it is fun to attend
language courses. A asks where it is possible to learn grammatical rules. A
suggests in the textbook.
GE259. Turn 156.
B says that if one is to remember these rules when reaching the age of 50 B
has to have been in Germany and talked. B has to practise with regular
intervals.
GE260. Turn 155.
A says that practice is a necessity.
GE261. Turn 154.
B says that one constructs knowledge as a consequence of trying out the same
knowledge over and over again. B says that B has to practise, otherwise B
would have to read it over and over again. If B does not use it, it will not
be stored in the mind.
GE262. Turn 153.
A asks how it is possible to construct one’s theoretical knowledge.
GE263. Turn 152.
B says that this person feels that B has moved beyond the purely theoretical
stage, and that B returns to the basic principles in order to develop
knowledge further into procedural knowledge. B states that it is like a curve
that grows in height.
GE264. Turn 151.
A tells B to think in terms of the perfect tense and wonders how this has
been. A wonders if it went well and if the theory is still there. A wonders
about the prepositions.
23
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
GE265. Turn 150.
B says that B had written down sentences and tasks. B says that B had listened
to CDs to learn pronunciation. B states that B learns pronunciation in order
to pronounce words in Germany. B focuses on theory and practice when reading
texts and also on tasks in order to see if anything can be transferred from
theory to practice.
GE266. Turn 149.
A asks what B needs then. A says that when writing an essay all these basic
skills have to be in place. A asks if B had done anything particular with
the different topics in order to rehearse them.
GE267. Turn 148.
B says that B had written an essay.
GE268. Turn 147.
A asks how B had tried to transform declarative knowledge into procedural
knowledge.
GE269. Turn 146.
B refers to strong verbs, intransitive verbs, and the perfect tense and
auxiliaries. B also refers to the conjugation of auxiliaries in general terms
in addition to prepositions.
GE270. Turn 145.
A asks if B has had anything particular this semester.
GE271. Turn 144.
B says that in an early stage of the learning process, declarative issues
may be important.
GE272. Turn 143.
A says that B learns how to walk by watching others walk. A asks about B´s
mother tongue. A wonders if that is similar to walking. A wonders if we see
others do the same. A asks if they are comparable. A wonders if German is
something B has to focus upon consciously because B does not see others do
the same. A states that they are going to work with German to find out about
declarative and procedural knowledge. A states that they have recently worked
with the preteritum tense and the use of auxiliaries, and they have talked
about prepositions. A wonders how this fits in with the topics of the
programme. A wonders how B can go about these matters and what it is when B
goes home to rehearse the auxiliaries sein/haben. A says that rote learning
refers to the theoretical part. If B says it after having rehearsed several
times, it is the practical part, i.e. procedural knowledge. A tells B to
think about the topics they had covered this autumn. A tells B to find out
what they have worked with in terms of theoretical knowledge and how they
have tried to use it in practice. A tells B to use as many examples as occurs
to B. A asks B if B so far had had some kind of declarative knowledge this
semester.
GE273. Turn 142.
B says that one learns to walk by watching others walk.
GE274. Turn 141.
A says that declarative is the theoretical material B has to learn and
procedural the practical aspect. A asks if B remembers any examples of
declarative and procedural knowledge in terms of the general items they
discussed last time, such as cycling, walking, and waffles made without
recipe. A wonders if one needs theoretical knowledge in order to cycle, or
just procedural knowledge.
GE275. Turn 140.
B says that it is the same as the difference between theoretical and practical
knowledge.
24
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
GE276. Turn 139.
A says that they are both Germanic languages. A asks if there are other issues
which occur to B. A asks if B remembers the difference between declarative
and procedural knowledge.
GE277. Turn 138.
B says that there are many similar words. B asks why there are many similar
words. B says that it is because the two languages have the same origin.
GE278. Turn 137.
A asks what the right ingredients are in terms of German. A mentions
pronunciation and pain, i.e. it is painful to learn German. A states that
there are different words. A asks what B can say about the difference between
words in German and Norwegian. A asks if German is a language which is
difficult as far as vocabulary is concerned.
GE279. Turn 136.
B says that one has to learn grammar in order to know what it is all about.
B states that one has to know what the basic differences are compared to
other languages. B says that one has to find the right ingredients.
GE280. Turn 135.
A says that this is equal to making waffles when having 100 ingredients in
front of you – you must know which ingredients to pick if you want to make
waffles. A asks what it is that one needs in order to learn German, as in
the case of the waffles. A asks what B needs to learn in relation to the
basic recipe for these waffles. The waffles will develop into real waffles
as time goes by and not only waffles made without a recipe. A asks what they
have talked about and asks what B has to do. A tells B to say just what
crosses B´s mind.
GE281. Turn 134.
B says that B is to learn German and not French.
GE282. Turn 133.
A says that if A had put forward 100 different ingredients and asked B to
make waffles, B would have found the right ingredients. A states that B would
not have made anything else. A then asks how they could compare the making
of waffles with the learning of German. A asks if B sees any parallels between
German spoken without a recipe and what is not German spoken without a recipe.
GE283. Turn 132.
B says to make waffles spontaneously, but with knowledge about how it is
done.
GE284. Turn 131.
A asks what the thing was with the waffles made without recipe.
GE285. Turn 130.
B replies practical and theoretical forms of learning. B says waffles made
without recipe.
GE286. Turn 129.
A asks what B remembered from last time.
Session 2
GE287. Turn 128.
A says that they have talked about learning today. The curriculum states that
learners are to learn about learning a language as a part of language
instruction. Often, this happens as part of regular instruction. There is
advice in the books, the teacher talks about it, etc. A states that they are
going to see what happens when it is wrapped up like a parcel, and
systematising the topic and served as they go along. A states that, during a
whole year, B will get the recipe for learning a new language. A states that
25
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
during the normal lessons, B works with gaining practice in the field. B is
going to get systematised knowledge about learning a language in terms of
what it implies and what B has to do. A states that during these sessions,
they have talked about the fact that something is learned as a child,
something as an adult, so it depends on the point in life. All these issues
will also come to the surface when learning a new language. A states that B
learns Norwegian as B’s mother tongue, English after a while at an early
stage in life, and German and French later. All this is dependent on what B
has learned before, B’s point in life, interest in the subject, etc. Knowing
about language learning, what this process implies and what B has to do in
order to learn based on the experience B has, is something which is important
for learning German. A states that during this session, they talked about
learning in general terms so that B could reflect on what learning is all
about, i.e. what it means to learn something. A states that next time they
will talk about the linguistic aspect in terms of what one needs to do when
learning a language. A states that then they are going to talk about what
one can do from B’s situation, what B can learn about learning a language
based on the content of these sessions. B works with B’s German as usual,
but it will be interesting to see if B works with B’s homework in a different
way, or if B becomes aware of learning or not. They are going to see what
happens when knowledge about language learning is wrapped up as a parcel and
served like this in the classroom for a whole year. A tells B to think about
it, to see what kind of ideas B gets.
GE288. Turn 127.
B says that when learning English, it was more confusing when learning the
theory.
GE289. Turn 126.
A tells the learners to spend three minutes discussing other aspects of life
when they have had to learn declarative and procedural knowledge, such as
playing games, cycling, etc. A asks if B has to know the rules and how to
perform them. A tells B to find examples of this from B’s daily life, such
as dancing, swimming and breathing, which is procedural knowledge. A states
that crawling requires more theory.
GE290. Turn 125.
B states that it would not have been possible to go straight to the procedural
part. B also states that one learns a bit in theory, then one moves on to
the practical part etc.
GE291. Turn 124.
A says that they may have entered the procedural part.
GE292. Turn 123.
B says that they are still in the declarative part at an early stage.
GE293. Turn 122.
A says that B knows that it is not necessary to use potatoes. B knows these
things, and B gets waffles even if B has made them without a recipe. The
result may vary, but B gets waffles. A says that B may include many ingredients
in something, and still produce the same, although with a different taste. A
then used B’s German tuition as an example. A asks how far B has reached when
it comes to the perfect tense of the verbs. A wonders if B has reached the
declarative part or the procedural part.
GE294. Turn 121.
B says that one knows more or less what ingredients to use, but not exactly
how much.
GE295. Turn 120.
A says that the easiest activity was to get up and walk. Those kinds of
activities are something B has had to learn. A asks if B remembers when B
learned to walk. A asks B if B has seen any pictures from that time. A
compares this to the time when A had small children. A related that one
26
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
followed them closely with one’s arms. A states that the child nowadays has
to get up on its own, when it feels right. A asks how B related to waffles
made without a recipe. A asks if B makes waffles without a recipe, and if B
still makes waffles. A wonders how this may happen.
GE296. Turn 119.
B answers with, for example, cycling and swimming, talking and reading. B
says that it took a long time before B learned to talk.
GE297. Turn 118.
A tells B to think back when B learned to eat ice cream. A wonders how B did
it. A suggests that someone may have given B a spoon, a bowl, and showed B
how to eat. A asks what B does now. A guesses that B takes a spoon
automatically now. A guesses that B learned it quickly. A wonders if there
are other things B has learned during B´s life, things that have taken a
certain amount of time.
GE298. Turn 117.
B says that B did not get it all into their mouth in the first place; most
of it came outside.
GE299. Turn 116.
A wonders if B remembers how B went about this activity. A asks how B had
got everything into B’s mouth.
GE300. Turn 115.
B states that B eats it with a spoon, a bowl.
GE301. Turn 114.
A asks how B eats ice cream. A tells B to think go back 15 years in time and
what would have happened if someone had put a bowl of ice cream in front of
B.
GE302. Turn 113.
B confirms this.
GE303. Turn 112.
A says that it seems to be a habit. A states that B knows how to do it - it
goes automatically.
GE304. Turn 111.
B replies that B has done it since B was a small child.
GE305. Turn 110.
A asks B if B at any point had learned to eat ice cream or cakes, or if this
comes automatically. A wonders why B does it automatically if nobody has
taught B how to eat these things.
GE306. Turn 109.
B says yes. B says that the only thing B had done during the weekend was to
eat ice cream.
GE307. Turn 108.
A then says that one goes straight to the practical part since the declarative
part has been acquired. A states that learning has then taken place and the
theoretical part has come into the right place in your mental system. A states
that B takes it out and uses it. A asks if B remembers it and if it went
well.
GE308. Turn 107.
B says that it was the practical part. B asks what it may be called when one
makes dinner as B did. B went straight to making it, since B remembered what
this declarative stuff was all about, but before B had to read the recipe.
GE309. Turn 106.
27
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
A asks if B was so skilled at it that B could go straight to the practical
part or if B had to study the theory first.
GE310. Turn 105.
B says muffins and brownies.
GE311. Turn 104.
A asks if B baked anything last weekend. A asks what B baked.
GE312. Turn 103.
B says that it can be compared to the difference between theory and practice.
B states that one grabs the cooking book and finds the recipe for apple pie.
B states that after this it is about theory, how much B is to put into the
apple pie. B states that B then starts following this recipe, and then B is
into the practical part.
GE313. Turn 102.
A says that it has to do with the process. A states that it is when B is told
that that is the way it is. We have a simple way to explain this. It is to
boil eggs. If A says how to boil hard eggs, B can write down water, pot, boil
the water, and put the eggs into the water. Then B lets it boil for about
ten minutes to get really hard eggs. A states that when B follows that recipe,
B makes use of declarative knowledge. However, when B actually does things,
B makes use of the procedural part. That is when B actually indulges in the
process B has got to know.
GE314. Turn 101.
B says that B does not know what these concepts mean, but that procedural
knowledge is perhaps what happens when one learns something gradually, when
something new is constructed. B states that B learns something easily, and
then B can construct this into a holistic understanding in a way. B states
that B learns plus and minus and then B learns to use it with lines.
GE315. Turn 100.
A says that one knows something, and then one adds a little bit more. A shows
this principle by using boxes which are added to each other with the answer
in the formula being the biggest box. A says that A wanted to teach them two
expressions they could jot down somewhere. A writes declarative and procedural
knowledge on the blackboard. A asks what they have done now and what this
is.
G316. Turn 99.
B says that knowledge or learning is adaptation. B says that the more
knowledge one gets, the more new knowledge one may learn. B says that if one
knows two languages, it will be easier in a way to learn the third one.
GE317. Turn 98.
A comments that what one does not know is something one is more afraid of.
GE318. Turn 97.
B says that it is about acquiring new knowledge and skills. B says that it
is a process that lasts for one’s whole life. When one gets older, one gets
wise because one acquires more knowledge. B says that it is a step-wise
addition of information that goes on throughout one’s life. All parts of the
information are equally important. B compares it to bricks. B says that
learning is when one has received or understood knowledge or information so
that one can repeat it oneself and use it. It is knowledge based on one’s
own experiences. B says that it is desired or not desired exposure to useful
or less useful information. B says that enhanced knowledge yields enhanced
understanding. B mentions religion as an example, where B learns about other
religions, and then accepts other religions more easily as well. B knows what
they are all about in a way. B states that this is why it is important to
learn about these religions.
GE319. Turn 96.
28
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
A writes on the blackboard: “What is learning?” and states that this is
today’s question.
Session 1
GE320. Turn 95.
A says Elch, der Elch. A mentions that traffic signs tend to get lost along
the road. A asks if this is new to B or if these were things which B had
thought about previously. A states that they are going to delve deeper into
these matters in the upcoming weeks. A states that they have had a
conversation about language learning. A states that in June next year there
will be a similar conversation when they will look back on this year to see
if they have learned anything new or anything they have not thought about
before. Next time they will look at how they acquire languages from a
psychological point of view. Thereafter they will talk about learning
strategies. A explains that learning strategies are quite specific advice in
terms of what one may do in order to learn German related to what they talked
about today. As examples, A mentions movies, working on camping sites, and
going to Austria.
GE321. Turn 94.
B mentions Elch (moose).
GE322. Turn 93.
A talks about caravans which they have filled up with food and drinks. A also
mentions items such as fishing rods and freezers. A states that it may be
interesting talking to them and that one does not need that many words either.
GE323. Turn 92.
B mentions car.
GE324. Turn 91.
A repeats camping sites and asks how they get to Norway.
GE325. Turn 90.
B states along the coast and on camping sites.
GE326. Turn 89.
A asks where one gets in touch with them.
GE327. Turn 88.
B confirms Europe and mentions countries such as Germany, Switzerland and
Austria. B claims that there are many German tourists in Norway.
GE328. Turn 87.
A asks in which parts of Europe.
GE329. Turn 86.
B states that there are several German-speaking countries.
GE330. Turn 85.
A asks why it is important for Norwegians to learn German when people know
English.
GE331. Turn 84.
B states that it is a relatively important language.
GE332. Turn 83.
A asks what happens when one hears something in German. A asks if B corrects
him/herself. A asks if B pays attention to this.
GE333. Turn 82.
B states that one hears much more English than German.
GE334. Turn 81.
29
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
A states that A thought it was great fun to learn German since there were so
many rules. A states that when knowing the rules, A knew the language, but
this was not the case since there were always exceptions to the rules. A
states that there is no rule without exceptions. If one knows a rule, then
one usually knows that rule, but it may be difficult.
GE335. Turn 80.
B states that there are rules.
GE336. Turn 79.
A states that the grammar which they often find difficult, is grammar they
may also make use of, for instance, in Norwegian. If B is to write proper
Norwegian, this is useful knowledge since Norwegian has cases as well.
GE337. Turn 78.
B states that the grammar is somewhat more difficult in terms of analysis.
GE338. Turn 77.
A states that they have a really big advantage when learning German because
they know so many of these words from before. It is much more difficult for
an English person to learn German. A asks if B had reached any particular
conclusion in terms of German.
GE339. Turn 76.
B states that they are probably much closer.
GE340. Turn 75.
A states that they are from the same family.
GE341. Turn 74.
B states that they are Germanic.
GE342. Turn 73.
A states that the pronunciation is almost the same. In relation to English
and French it is terribly difficult, but German is OK.
GE343. Turn 72.
B states that the words are very similar to Norwegian.
GE344. Turn 71.
A states that if one reads in Norwegian, it becomes different, but the moment
we see them, we see that this is quite understandable. A asks what it is
about German which makes it similar. A states that A does not think about
articles then. A asks what A might be thinking about.
GE345. Turn 70.
B reads Tante (aunt), Onkel (uncle).
GE346. Turn 69.
A states that A agrees with B to a certain extent. A asks if there is something
specific about learning German in comparison with English. A states that B
has been through that process. First B had several years of only English,
and then they started to study German in addition. A states that A has written
three words on the blackboard. A asks how these words are read in German.
GE347. Turn 68.
B states that the most important thing is to be able to extend B’s vocabulary
in order to make oneself understood. B states that the most important thing
is to be able to express oneself orally.
GE348. Turn 67.
A says yes. A states that there is a difference between talking and writing.
A asks what is most important - talking and writing.
GE349. Turn 66.
30
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
B states that it depends on the context. People would normally understand you
if it is a normal conversation.
GE350. Turn 65.
A asks if it is not possible to use the word because B does not know the
gender.
GE351. Turn 64.
B states that very often B learns a word and then later remembers what kind
of gender it is, and then B cannot use the word because B does not remember
the gender.
GE352. Turn 63.
A states that A does not think that the most important thing is to learn the
gender, but it is important to learn the words.
GE353. Turn 62.
B states that especially in German, it is a car or something like that.
GE354. Turn 61.
A confirms that this is important. A claims that they do this at school on a
regular basis. A states that next month B will be travelling to Austria with
a small group. A states that they will then have to talk German to the
parents, who are not that good at English. A states that the Austrians will
return to Norway.
GE355. Turn 60.
B states that it only applies to ‘good morning’ and those kinds of
expressions. B remembers that, for instance, when they had their German exam,
or German oral exam, or a mock exam, they learned many phrases, such as
“excuse me for a little moment”. However, B does not remember what it is.
GE356. Turn 59.
A asks in German if B has an example.
GE357. Turn 58.
B states learning good phrases and expressions.
GE358. Turn 57.
A states that one takes a room. One places furniture there and then one writes
the name in English or German, or whatever.
GE359. Turn 56.
B refers to vocabulary.
GE360. Turn 55.
A confirms B’s statement about the origin of Rex, stating that it is
incredible what they may learn about the two cities by watching the series.
Then we may learn about country and culture as well. A wonders if B has
anything further on the list to be included.
GE361. Turn 54.
B states Austria and wonders if this is correct.
GE362. Turn 53.
A confirms that Derrick is in Munich. A asks about Rex.
GE363. Turn 52.
B states that Derrick is probably in Munich.
GE364. Turn 51.
A states that Rex has been of invaluable use and joy for learners of German
for many years, not to mention Derrick. A states that Derrick goes way back.
A asks if B has noticed that NRK 6 broadcasts it again now. A thinks that it
is pathetic to watch. A asks if B knows where Rex comes from and where they
6
The Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation.
31
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
are. A asks where Derrick is. A asks what kind of city they are in when
watching Derrick.
GE365. Turn 50.
B states sometimes, rather seldom. B states that everybody has the chance to
watch the Internet.
GE366. Turn 49.
A asks if B sometimes listens to the news in German.
GE367. Turn 48.
B states that B does not watch those channels very much. B watches different
series.
GE368. Turn 47.
A asks if B knows the name.
GE369. Turn 46.
B states that B watches different kinds of programmes.
GE370. Turn 45.
A asks how many have the possibility to watch German television, and wonders
what B watches on those occasions.
GE371. Turn 44.
B states social media and TV.
GE372. Turn 43.
A asks if one will learn from the ones B is talking to, and B may pick up
different expressions and those kind of things which B may be using.
GE373. Turn 42.
B mentions playing a specific kind of computer game. Then one may talk to
the people one is playing with. These may, for instance, be German. B may
talk to them while engaging in the activity and must then be able to explain.
B becomes somewhat stressed, resulting in pressure on B. B learns a good deal
from that.
GE374. Turn 41.
A asks what B is thinking about.
GE375. Turn 40.
B states that one may play games or engage in other kinds of activities while
talking to the people one is playing with, using the target language. B needs
to be active in order to learn the language properly.
GE376. Turn 39.
A states that it is not only about the language, since language and culture
are connected. A states that B also knows something about issues such as
Germany and geography. It makes it more interesting. A asks if there are any
points which B has written down which they have not commented on yet.
GE377. Turn 38.
B thinks that it is important to have a special interest for the country
where the language is spoken. B learns a good deal about Germany, and this
knowledge creates an interest for the language.
GE378. Turn 37.
A asks if there may be something in the individual which makes him/her want
to learn a foreign language, without worrying about what the teacher is like.
GE379. Turn 36.
B states that they had a very good teacher in the eighth grade, and then they
learned a lot. However, in the ninth and tenth grades, they had another
teacher and noticed a considerable difference. B states that it was much
harder to learn the language because of the teacher. B states that this means
that the teacher has a great influence. B states that one needs a good teacher
32
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
in order to learn a language, otherwise B will not be motivated. B needs to
understand this.
GE380. Turn 35.
A asks if B watched many movies in lower secondary school. A suggests that B
learned a good deal.
GE381. Turn 34.
B answers having a good teacher for learning, since B then does that kind of
thing. B states that in lower secondary school they had a teacher. B states
that B concentrated on the teaching, something nobody else did.
GE382. Turn 33.
A asks about the exercise.
GE383. Turn 32.
B says that when B is in Germany, much more German is used. B states that B
thinks more in German as well every once in a while. B mentions many new
words.
GE384. Turn 31.
A asks if B learns anything from that.
GE385. Turn 30.
B states that B talks to them.
GE386. Turn 29.
A asks about B since B also has family in Germany.
GE387. Turn 28.
B answers yes and that B has talked German to cousins. B states that B does
not think very much about it, for instance when writing. B states that they
laugh a little at B sometimes.
GE388. Turn 27.
A asks if B has tried English.
GE389. Turn 26.
B answers German. B answers online chatting.
GE390. Turn 25.
A asks if B now has been thinking about German or about English and foreign
languages in general terms.
GE391. Turn 24.
B states talking to other Germans and managing to remember.
GE392. Turn 23.
A asks about a given situation in, for instance, a railway station.
GE393. Turn 22.
B states exercise through talking German in different situations.
GE394. Turn 21.
A asks if there are other learning methods.
GE395. Turn 20.
B states that it is rather like dramatisation. B writes B’s own piece,
presenting it afterwards in front of the class.
GE396. Turn 19.
A asks if there are others who have made the same point.
GE397. Turn 18.
B says that B may vary the learning methods if B wants to learn, so that it
does not get boring and monotonous in a way.
GE398. Turn 17.
A asks about the result of the group discussion.
33
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
GE399. Turn 16.
B says that it is OK.
GE400. Turn 15.
A asks if reading a text and talking about it is OK.
GE401. Turn 14.
B states that it is not particularly difficult to understand.
GE402. Turn 13.
A states that English is fairly easy. A asks what it is like doing homework.
A asks B if there are difficult words when B reads a text.
GE403. Turn 12.
B answers both. B states that it is easier to read since the pronunciation
is a little special sometimes.
GE404. Turn 11.
A asks what B concentrated on then. A asks if B concentrated on listening or
reading.
GE405. Turn 10.
B says yes and states that B tries to translate. B states that in lower
secondary school they used to watch many German movies. B states that they
then had both German speech and Norwegian subtitles.
GE406. Turn 9.
A asks if B watches German movies.
GE407. Turn 8.
B states that B easily focuses on the text even if B tries not to do that.
It is difficult not to do it. B states that B tries to hear what they say in
English and then B translates it in B’s head instead of watching the text.
GE408. Turn 7.
A acknowledges this confusion, stating that it is even possible to see that
the translation is wrong.
GE409. Turn 6.
B states that B manages to listen and that B prefers not having a Norwegian
text, since it gets confusing.
GE410. Turn 5.
A states that, for instance, such as expressed by B, talking to people who
speak the same language, and reading in that language without necessarily
thinking about grammar. A wonders how things are when B watches movies or
television in a foreign language, including English. A asks if B reads the
Norwegian subtitles, or if B manages to listen.
GE411. Turn 4.
B confirms this. B states that it is very important to learn new words. B
states that it is important to do things that make it fun to learn the new
language, so that it does not just become boring and stressful.
GE412. Turn 3.
A acknowledges reading a lot and asks if B thinks about the target language.
GE413. Turn 2.
B states reading a lot.
GE414. Turn 1.
A asks B what it takes to learn a foreign language. A informs about the
purpose of the research project, and tells B to make use of the principles
rehearsed beyond the classes, if this is possible. The focus will be on an
understanding of what language learning processes involve, as well as how one
can use language-learning strategies in order to become more autonomous in
34
Appendix 2A: Backwards induction of the German Case (GE)
the way one learns. A also informs B about the topic for the next session,
which is how language learning takes place in order to create awareness of
the nature of language learning processes.
35
Appendix 2B: Pragmatic Analysis of the German Case (GE)
1. Reasons for language
choice (GE1-GE26)
A asks if B has developed a deeper understanding of the reasons for B´s
actions. A asks if B has become more aware of why B has chosen German in
the first place. A mentions the importance of having a goal with the learning
activity. A asks if B thinks it is a pity that B has not chosen French or Spanish.
A claims that B was forced into a direction which B did not think much about
when B was 7 years old. At that time, B could not do very much about the
situation. A states that if B wants to study in Berlin, then it is useful to know
German.
B states that B has got many more impressions as a consequence of the focus
on issues such as why B has chosen German. These impressions are related
to learning German in terms of work, leisure, and travelling. B confirms that
B could not have done very much about the situation when B was 7 years
old. B states that B feels that B will have more use of German than Spanish
and that German will dominate more. B confirms that it would be useful to
know German if B wants to study in Berlin. B states that B always wanted to
learn Spanish anyway, so it is a bit cool to be able to learn German knowing
that B has enough stamina to learn Spanish as well.
A (instigating, “B reflects on the reasons for B´s language choice ”)
2. Identification of the
usefulness of learning
activities (GE27-GE30)
A states that the point is to find one´s own learning style and what suits the
individual best. This depends somewhat on the target one has for the learning
process. It also depends on what one finds interesting, what one thinks is easy
to work with, and ways which suit one best when learning German. A asks if
B has discovered something special, or if something seems natural, if B has
reacted in any way, or if B has developed a certain insight. A also asks if B
has done something in a different way just because B received advice during
these sessions, or if B has not done things differently.
B states that most of what B has thought of is rather logical. B states that it
is logical that one has to engage in rote learning in order to master a subject,
it is logical that one has to practise it in order to learn it better, basically most
of what they have been reviewing. B states that B has also seen the
importance of how much one needs to learn through rote learning in order to
achieve good results.
A (asking, “B reflects on efficient practice for learning ”)
3. Identification of
cognitive learning
strategies (GE31-GE34)
A states that there are certain grammatical structures one has learned in
English that one would like to transfer to German. A asks what it takes to
learn German. A states that A could have opposed B´s claim that one needs
an exceptional interest in grammar.
B states that one needs an exceptional interest in grammar. B mentions
German subtitles instead of Norwegian when watching movies. B states that
if the movie is in English, one may use German subtitles.
A (asking, “B identifies cognitive learning strategies”)
4. Relevance of previous
experience (GE35GE50)
A wonders if B has thought about making use of B´s own mother tongue
during the year, Norwegian, or the learning of other languages, which is
probably English at this point. A wonders how B can make use of this
experience when studying German. A asks if B makes use of the fact that
many words in German are similar to Norwegian words. A asks if B looks
for words which are similar or if B takes the word which is the closest. A
states that if B, for instance, meets a German person in town, then B may find
support in Norwegian to a certain extent during a conversation. A asks what
difference B perceives between English and German. A claims that many
structures in English may be recognised in German. A confirms that English
is a little Germanic. A states that many English words come from Latin. A
Appendix 2B: Pragmatic Analysis of the German Case (GE)
states that if one uses a dictionary with English words, then one may see that
they have different origins. A states that some words come from AngloSaxon.
B states that many words in German are similar to Norwegian ones. B states
that this is rather practical, because it is then possible to guess the meaning
of the words. B says that B does not use this principle consciously when
working with a German text. B states that B only looks for similar words
when reading. B understands the meaning of a word since it is similar. B
states that when writing, B can make a guess. B states that B tends to use a
dictionary anyway. B confirms that B could have found support in
Norwegian. B asks if it is true that English and German have two different
roots. B wonders if English is Germanic. B states that English is not very
Germanic. B states that English is European. B confirms that, when using a
dictionary, it is possible to see that the words have different origins.
A (explaining, “B reflects on B´s linguistic background as a source for
learning German”)
5. Reasons for language
choice (GE51-GE78)
A asks if B really wants to learn German. A asks if choosing German in lower
secondary school was something B wanted, or whether it was a coincidence.
A asks if B had thought of the subject which was the easiest to learn of the
three foreign languages and not the subject that would be the most useful. A
asks if the parents’ opinion is important when it comes to the language choice
the learners make in lower secondary school.
B confirms that it is important that B wants to learn German. B states that
they had German in second grade in the Steiner school without having the
option to decide. They then also had to choose German in upper secondary
school. B states that they had no choice. B states that in that case B has talked
German for many years. B states that B is German, so B had to speak it
anyway. B states that B was forced into choosing either Spanish, French or
German. B states that B chose the language that B thought was the easiest
one. B states that they got to know that Spanish is a language for holidays,
whereas German is a business language, which makes German useful. B
states that B preferred the business language to the holiday language. B states
that B´s mother and father had studied German, which makes it easier. B
confirms that the parents’ opinion is important. B states that B had heard that
the wisest thing to do was to take German.
A (asking, “B reflects on the reasons for B´s language choice ”)
6. Practice opportunities
(GE79-GE84)
A asks what it takes to learn a language. A states that B has to be prepared
for the next day´s learning activity based on “Kein Schnaps für Tamara”. A
confirms going to places where people talk the language one is trying to
learn.
B states that it is possible to learn a language if one simply enters a native
tribe. B states that first of all one needs someone who can teach B the
language, and also perhaps a book or a teacher. B states that B has to be
exposed to the language on a regular basis by listening to German, reading
German, and trying to talk German. B states that B has to carry out in practice
what B has learned theoretically. B states that if B learns about some
grammatical topics, then B first learns the theoretical part, and then B may
read a text or watch a movie related to the topics one has learned about. B
states that by going to places where they talk the language, B is trying to
learn. B states that in that case, B is forced into talking, or it depends on
whether people know English. B states that B has to consider the things B
does not know properly, and then attempt to test them out. Thereafter, B has
to look at them and learn them so that B can fill in the gaps.
Appendix 2B: Pragmatic Analysis of the German Case (GE)
A (asking, “B reflects on practice opportunities”)
7. Self assessment (GE85GE88)
A states that the wheel is a tool which can be used to develop insight into B´s
learning process, and that it is closely related to the instruction programme B
has been exposed to. A tells B to be honest in order to find out what B already
knows. A asks if B has ever engaged in self-assessment activities.
B states that it is something B has not been involved in before and that selfassessment is difficult. B asks what it means to understand the main content
of a certain matter. B states that prior to tests the book is used.
A (explaining, “B reflects on self-assessment activities”)
8. The role of mistakes
(GE89-GE90)
A introduces the topic of this session as the role of mistakes.
B states that B tries to understand what B has done wrong. B tries to avoid
making the same mistakes again through a comparison with previous tests.
B also says that B checks what spoiled the good grade. B says that when B
gets a bad grade, B does not want to look at it at once. B takes out the test at
an earlier stage. B states that B looks more at it later, something that makes
it easier. B states that making mistakes does not destroy anything. B states
that the most important thing is to make sure that others understand what B
is saying, but that some mistakes may disturb communication. B states that
listening to the immigrants makes B understand that B learns more and more.
B states that children learn to talk as they go along.
A (prompting, “B reflects on the role of mistakes”)
A asks what B has to look for and tells B to analyse in order to find other
9. Preparation of a
learning activity (GE91- elements, such as prepositions. A states that it is important to go about the
task in the right way, and that B has to find out the things B does not
GE100)
remember and what B needs to solve the task. A states that B has to use a
grammatical overview. A asks what B thinks about the task at hand. A asks
if there is anything B should have known more about. A states that it is
important to practise looking up in the right places.
B states that the topic of the task is translation. B states that knowledge about
general grammar is important, such as the tenses. B states that it is important
to be able to analyse. B states that general grammar is important, as is
vocabulary. B refers to going to the grocery store and buying warm rolls as
an example. B states that in that case B has to find out what kind of words B
can use. B also says that it is important to rehearse for a specific approach
what B knows from before. B answers that B does not know all the words,
and that this fact influences the solving of the task.
A (prompting, “B reflects on the preparation of a learning activity”)
A explains that it is always a good idea to have a purpose when doing
10. Purpose of a learning
activity (GE101-GE108) something, especially if this purpose is related to some goals. A reminds B
about the fact that B had been discussing goals in the previous session, and
that today´s topic could be related to last session´s discussion of topics. A
states that the exercise introduces the genitive case, and that this topic is
introduced for the first time. A states that structures with “von” are rather
oral. A states that the genitive case varies the language to a further extent. A
states that the purpose is important. A states that there is one situation where
the genitive is necessary. A states that some prepositions always take the
genitive, and in those cases the genitive is required, not “von”.
Appendix 2B: Pragmatic Analysis of the German Case (GE)
B says that the genitive case is used in order to be able to get by in Germany.
B states that it is important to raise it to a developed level. B replies that this
forms the basis for a deeper understanding of the language, and that it is
perhaps not that important for the time being. B states that it is easier to
formulate sentences when one knows the genitive case. B states that the
German language becomes more proper. B states that B does not use the
genitive that much. B states that B uses most “von” and that it is OK to use
this form. However, with the genitive case, one develops a larger vocabulary.
B uses “The man´s car” as an example.
A (prompting, “B defines the usefulness of the genitive case”)
11. Goals for the learning
process (GE109GE120)
A explains that the background to the project is the European Council´s
guidelines for language teaching in Europe and the connection of these
guidelines to policies of European integration. A explains that according to
political theories, patterns of conflict in Europe can partly be determined by
understanding language barriers in Europe. A claims that levels of conflict
may be reduced by enhancing cultural and linguistic awareness and
knowledge among people, since understanding other´s perspectives and
being able to have a dialogue with others is positive for the reduction of
conflict. In international crises keeping a dialogue open and making sure that
people speak the same language is important for conflict solving. A asks
about the objectives for reading and writing skills. A asks what B does in
order to reach B´s goals.
B states that B has now gathered some experience in the matter, and that this
experience can be used to understand the purpose of the programme even
better. B states that B´s objective is to be able to understand most of a
conversation with a native speaker. B states being able to understand what is
necessary to work with German later on. B states that the goal is not
necessarily to get a job where German skills are important, but if such a
situation should come about, the objective is to have sufficient skills to hold
the post. B states that the objective is to be able to read literature in German
and also to be able to read newspapers and magazines. B states that the goal
is to be able to understand texts for homework. B states that understanding
signs and posters is an important goal. B states that reading technical material
seems too advanced. B replies that B had tried to read German books. B states
that B is going to Berlin very soon, and that instead of taking a taxi, the goal
is to take the subway on as many occasions as possible in order to be able to
read signs and information in German to get to one’s destination. B states
that being understood as a tourist in the country is important, and also to be
able to ask specifically about tourist attractions. B states that the objective is
to be able to live in a German-speaking country and, for instance, to study
there. B states that being able to write well enough to study abroad is a goal.
B states that B wants to study abroad, and that B needs writing skills to
achieve this aim.
A (explaining, “B reflects on the goals for the learning process”)
12. Organisation of a
learning activity
(GE121-GE138)
A asks if B has heard about the word organisation. A states that one has to
organise in order to do things properly. A asks if B has thought about how to
become organised. A tells B to find out about the instructions A has prepared
for B´s forthcoming learning activities. A tells B to think about how B can
become organised to do this, and that B should find a strategy in order to
learn what is stated therein. A states that the homework for the next day
consists of learning expressions from a text B has just read. A states that B
should work with grammar in the form of adjective conjugations related to
the text. A states that the two parts do not have very much in common, and
A asks how B would go about the task. A asks what kind of pictures one
should look at. A asks if B uses the strategy “browsing through the book
Appendix 2B: Pragmatic Analysis of the German Case (GE)
looking at the pictures one comes across”. A asks what B should do if B is to
write an exercise in German. A asks if the task mentioned by B was difficult
or easy. A suggests that B could run while thinking about the conjugation of
adjectives after a working session. A asks if the best thing would be to run
before or after doing homework. A writes a memo-technical pattern for the
learning of the adjective ending in German, asking if B could place the cases
correctly in the grid.
B states that B would read the words and then study the conjugation of
adjectives. B states that B would study the rules first and then look at the task
afterwards. B states that B should first learn the new words and then simply
start doing the task. B suggests that one should look at the paradigm first. B
states that it is a good idea to look at the pictures prior to the working session.
B replies that it is a good idea to browse through the book looking at the
pictures B comes across. B replies that B has heard that it is supposed to be
a good method of getting prepared for the learning session. B states that B
has to think about the grammatical errors B tends to make. B states that B
has to read a lot of German. B states that B has to read first and then make an
effort to really understand the subject matter. B replies that it was a rather
easy task. B states that the adjective was not an easy part. B suggests that B
could record endings before going to bed and then listen to them. B states
that the best thing is probably to run first since it could be difficult to run
afterwards because of the time schedule at home with dinner, etc. B
comments on the fact that running is a good way of dissolving tensions in
relation to a language learning activity.
A (prompting, “B reflects on the organisation of a learning activity”)
13. Assessment of the SBI
programme (GE139GE148)
A informs B about the content and structure of the national curriculum. A
tells B to think through the process of learning the language so far. A asks
how much B has been working with language learning. A emphasises the
purpose of the task in relation to the general programme, i.e. that B is
expected to discuss to what extent the programme has helped B towards
understanding what B can do in order to understand language learning and
what B can do to achieve the goals stated in the curriculum. A asks how B
can look for sources. A asks if B feels that anything is missing.
B states that B has been working with communication. B states that B had
been writing texts. B states that B had been working with the alphabet and
the signs of the language. B states that they have expressed their own
opinions and emotions. B answers that B has been working more with these
aspects now than in lower secondary school. B states that one has to work
continuously, focusing attention on the lessons and taking the initiative. B
replies that it is possible to read about memo-technics and find out about
learning strategies. B states that if B gets a test back, it is important to analyse
errors. B states that it is important to listen to what the learners tell you to do
and to be able to take more responsibility oneself. B states that during the
time with this programme in class, B has seen more of the necessity to do
something one’s own. Previously, B had not cared that much about what B
could do independently of what the teacher tells B to do. B states that B
understands the difference between theory and practice better. B states that
B can learn more about vocabulary learning.
A (prompting, “B reflects on the usefulness of the SBI programme”)
14. Proceduralisation of
oral skills (GE149GE158)
A asks if B remembers that last week B had started to work on a text about
being an exchange student in Norway and which words they remembered
from this work. A asks if B remembers other words of the same kind and if
B thinks B can make a contribution. A asks if B can express what it feels like
to talk German. A asks if B sometimes chooses not to say anything, and what
Appendix 2B: Pragmatic Analysis of the German Case (GE)
we can do to amend this situation. A asks if B thinks it is OK to make
mistakes. A asks how B feels when B talks. A states that B’s comment is an
example of this session’s strategy in terms of listening to others speak instead
of speaking oneself, and that this is a method B can use to learn. A asks if B
has ever stopped speaking the foreign language, since B did not know how
to express oneself. A applies the concepts of declarative and procedural
knowledge to this strategy. A uses examples of how the strategy can be
learned from a declarative point of view in terms of being able to state what
the strategy is all about and then applying it in real life by being able to delay
speech to focus on what is being said from a procedural point of view.
B remembers the word Austauschschüler (exchange student). B mentions the
word das Erlebnis (the experience). B answers that B feels insecure and
stressed since B feels that B gets it wrong no matter what B does. B states
that it feels OK when B speaks to B’s father, because then B does not feel
embarrassed, but it is worse when B is in Germany. B replies that it is OK if
we simply move on, but that it may be difficult to break the ice. B states that
it feels strange, and that B finds it difficult to find the right words. B states
that it depends on the setting. B states that B does not feel like trying, since
B is afraid that they will simply rattle on. B has tried to talk German in
Turkey, and B felt more comfortable there. B states that it is great fun when
B knows the language well, and that it is a drag if B is not able to say very
much. B states that it is important to learn new words, and also to learn how
to use these words. B states that Rathaus is a funny word in German. B relates
an episode in Germany where B had been with her parents. B had attended a
dinner, and B had been listening in on the other guests on that occasion in
order to grasp some useful words and expressions.
A (prompting, “B reflects on the proceduralisation of oral skills”)
15. Preparation of a
learning activity
(GE158/159-GE160)
A asks if B remembers which topic had been introduced 1. A asks if B knows
what B needs to know when working with relative pronouns. A gives a
summary of last session’s topics, focusing on the introduction to general
learning psychology and its consequences for language learning psychology
in the form of the dichotomy between declarative and procedural knowledge.
A gives a summary of the basic language learning strategies that had been
mentioned: affective, social, cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies.
A mentions the terms metacognition and metacognitive learning strategies,
and these were defined as knowledge about one’s own knowledge,
knowledge about the learning process and one’s own progress and the
strategies used to make use of this potential to promote B’s own language
learning process. A tells B to look up the conjugation paradigm for the
relative pronoun and A relates this to the conjugation of the definite article.
A tells B to focus on the relative pronoun, and to think about gender and
finding cases by analysing the sentences. A defines this exercise as an
example of metacognition.
B states that B has to learn the conjugation paradigm. B discusses which form
of the relative pronoun is important, and B mentions that it is important to
analyse the sentences in order to find the right pronoun.
A (defining, “B reflects on preparatory issues prior to a learning activity”)
16. Definition of a learning
activity (GE160/161GE168)
A states that the session is going to be part of the preparation for an upcoming
full-day test. A writes on the blackboard: Why are we working with this
text/translation? What do I have to learn/check up on/know in order to
translate it? Have I worked with similar material before? A explains the
1
A had decided to use the topic relative pronouns for this session, a topic which had been introduced a week prior
to the session.
Appendix 2B: Pragmatic Analysis of the German Case (GE)
difference between als and wenn. A tells B to identify the subordinate clause
and to define the word order for the subordinate clause. The verb conjugated
according to person must be placed at the end of the clause. A comments on
the importance of analysing the clause for correct translation. A comments
on the use of an adjective derived from a noun.
B answers with learning the words and the grammar. B answers that
subordinate clauses in German is the topic. B states clauses introduced by
dass (that) called adverbial subordinate clauses. B states translation
Norwegian-German.
B
answers
that
one
has
to
know
subjunctions/subordinating conjunctions, such as dass, wenn, weil. B states
that one has to know the word order – the verb towards the end, the verb
conjugated according to the subject towards the end. B states analysis. B
states that this is not particular for subordinate clauses. B asks about the
difference between als and wenn. B writes the first sentence on the
blackboard: Ich Weiss, dass Peter heute krank ist 2. B writes the second
sentence on the blackboard: Ich glaube, dass Anna morgen kommt 3. B
discusses the use of morgen vs Morgen 4. B translates another two sentences
in relation to the theory about subordinate clauses: Wenn ich in Bonn bin,
besuche ich Bekannte 5. B analyses the sentence in order to translate it
correctly.
A (explaining, “B reflects on the characteristics of subordinate clauses in
German”)
17. Definition of practice
opportunities (GE169GE186)
A asks who has been to a German-speaking country in the near or late past.
A asks if B has been to a place where B had to use the German language. A
wonders, with the benefit of hindsight, if there were many words B did not
know. A asks if there are things B feels B should have known. A asks if B
had looked things up when B came home. A states that one needs a very
particular interest. A states that it not wanting to learn dishes is also a kind
of consciousness, since they are farfetched and special. One determines what
one wants to spend one’s energy on. One registers that if there are many
special meat dishes in Switzerland, one does not necessarily want to learn
them all. This is also a way to be aware of one’s own learning. One
determines what one wants to learn. A asks if B had learned the word Ecke 6.
A states that B will never forget this word.
B states that B has been to Berlin. B states that B has been to a café, but not
a store. B confirms that B has been to a place where B had to use the German
language, and that this went rather well. B states that B had bought
sandwiches, and that this had worked. B states that there were some words B
did not know. B states that there were a couple of dishes, names of different
hams, which were a bit farfetched for B. B states that B should have known
more words for things, such as food. B states that B had not looked things up
when B came home. B remembers a few things that got stuck in the memory
in that situation, when the woman pointed and said that this is that. B states
that B remembers this. B states that B learned something in the situation. B
states that B was in Switzerland. B had been in many kinds of situations. B
states that it had been worst in a restaurant. B states that it is somewhat
difficult to remember dishes. B states that when B got stuck, B got help from
the person next to B, a person who knew more German. B states that B has
not been to Germany. B states that B had been to Germany some time ago,
but there were no situations where B just had to talk. B asked people who
2
I know that Peter is sick today.
I think that Anna will be arriving tomorrow.
4
Tomorrow vs. morning.
5
When I am in Bonn, I visit acquaintances.
6
Corner.
3
Appendix 2B: Pragmatic Analysis of the German Case (GE)
passed by where a store was. People thought that B talked English, so they
answered in English. B states that things went OK and they understood each
other. B states that B had been in such a situation on a train in England where
somebody next to B was talking. B thinks that B heard the word “Ecke”, “um
die Ecke” 7 or something like that. B had asked “Bist du Deutsch?” 8 The other
had said ‘yes’. This was three years ago, so B did not know very much
German at the time. B says no. These people should put something in the
corner, so they placed a suitcase in the corner. B remembers that B had been
to an old people’s home in Schönbrunn when B was younger. B had then lost
her way and had to ask many old people. These people did not speak any
English. B asked about the road. This is a situation where B simply had to
know. At the time, B knew more German than now in a way. B’s father talked
German to B at the time. B states that he does not do that anymore. B states
that B has been to a bakery in Berlin. B bought a loaf of bread and got the
type B wanted.
A (prompting, “B reflects on past practice opportunities ”)
18. Preparation of cognitive A mentions the concept of cognitive learning strategies in terms of
understanding, perception and memory. A states that during this session, they
practice opportunities
are going to talk about the metacognitive learning strategies. A states that this
(GE187-GE200)
means talking about knowledge about one’s own learning and what we can
do in order to improve this learning and this process. A asks about B’s
contribution. A asks what kind of situations B had dealt with. A asks about
the planning of the activity and if this was difficult. A asks about Merkel in
Paris and what would be the strategy to achieve this encounter. A asks what
would be important in the situation when B is to talk to her. A mentions
talking to a person who B does not know at all and who is of a certain
importance. A asks what one has to remember then. A states not being a good
Norwegian, saying “du” 9.
B states that they had dealt with a bakery in Berlin. B states that they had
mentioned bakery goods and discussing immigration politics with Angela
Merkel in Versailles. B states that this is perhaps more difficult. B states
discussing nature, being in Switzerland, and shopping in Germany. B states
having an intellectual conversation about chocolate and buying a cinema
ticket. B states going to places where B knows about chocolate and clothes’
stores in Munich. B states that B should go to a clothes’ store in Berlin. B
states that the sentence B needs is related to clothing: currency, size, colours,
etc. B states asking dad or family what B is to do and what it is possible to
ask about in addition to general normal sentences. B states that B may listen
to a Linguaphone course. B states a place that is not so busy, so that people
working in the store have time for B. B thought about colors, patterns, size,
price and that kind of things. B states thinking through what kind of situations
may occur and what kinds of sentences may be useful in the relevant
situation. B thinks that it is important not to stress too much. B states that B
forgets a lot if B stresses. B states that it is better to have a note with words
on in case one forgets. B states that it is no good to make an all-out effort
from time to time. B states that it is better to be proactive, practising the
sentences B wants if B knows what B wants to rehearse. Then B knows that
it is related to clothes. B can begin beforehand and B has a note with certain
words. B states that B should have written a manuscript in order to think
properly through the situation. B states that B should have a good vocabulary.
B states using the right personal pronoun. B states noticing certain words B
does not know. B may write them down if possible, bring them back home,
and look the words up.
7
Around the corner.
Are you German?
9
The Norwegian informal you.
8
Appendix 2B: Pragmatic Analysis of the German Case (GE)
A (prompting, “B reflects on the preparation of cognitive practice
opportunities”)
19. Definition of an
affective learning
strategy (GE201GE202)
A asks about the affective learning strategies. A states that they have talked
about reducing stress in the learning process.
B wonders if it was about watching movies, for instance, and listening to
music.
A (asking, “B defines the nature of affective learning strategies”)
20. Definition of a social
learning strategy
(GE203-GE204)
A states that it is good for B to know these concepts. A writes these concepts
on the blackboard, saying that these are the two forms of knowledge,
theoretical and practical. A states that A wants to write some kinds of
learning strategies they have talked about. A asks what these mean
(cognitive, social and affective). A asks if B remembers anything at all in
terms of the difference between them.
B states that the social part is when B uses the language in conversations.
A (defining, “B reflects on the characteristics of social learning strategies”)
21. Difference between
declarative and
procedural knowledge
(GE205-GE206)
A repeats declarative and procedural knowledge. A asks if B feels that B
understands these concepts. A asks if it is possible to express these concepts
with other, easier words.
B states that declarative is theory and procedural is practice.
A (asking, “B defines the difference between declarative and procedural
knowledge”)
22. Proceduralisation of
affective learning
strategies (GE207GE216)
A asks about B’s preferred affective learning strategy. A asks if listening to
music is of any help, or if B just sits there after a while simply listening to
the music and forgetting what the activity was all about. A states that both
training first and training afterwards has been mentioned. A asks if one
should read that book in German, and whether a CD with German text would
have got B on the right track or whether it would have been distracting. A
wonders if calm Mozart or Beethoven could have been OK.
B states that B tends to do something which B enjoys doing after having
worked a good deal, e.g. football training, watching TV, or something else.
B then feels that B has a source of motivation in a way. B states that, when
working with homework, B knows that B does not have to work only with
the homework. B states that there is something nice waiting to look forward
to. B states that B does not use that many affective learning strategies, except
listening to music. B does not know if this is relevant. B states that when
working with mathematics, B tends to listen to music because that helps. B
states that when reading or getting deeper into something, the music does not
work. B states that it is easy to turn on the music and have it on, although it
is not much help. B feels that it helps in mathematics. B states that if B is
going to work with homework for a long time, it helps to run first. B feels
that B thinks more clearly if B has trained first. B states that, in terms of
music, the music has to be instrumental. B states that if one has texts when
trying to read something, then one will easily listen to the text instead of
starting to read. B states that one would listen to what they are singing. B
states that reading a book and listening to a CD would have been too much
at the same time. B states that perhaps calm Mozart or Beethoven could have
been OK.
Appendix 2B: Pragmatic Analysis of the German Case (GE)
A (prompting, “B reflects on the proceduralisation of affective learning
strategies”)
23. Proceduralisation of
social learning
strategies (GE217GE222)
A asks if B has ever done anything in order to rehearse the language in
interaction with others. A asks if B would have done learning activities, such
as on the Internet in German. A wonders if it is correct that most people are
aware of the fact that one does not know that much and that people are good
at moderating things and talking a bit slower.
B states that B has not done that much. B states that they read a good deal in
school. B states that they read in pairs and the other tried things out as much
as possible. They listened and tried to correct the other person. B states that
B has used a good deal of chatting and games on the Internet. B states that
when B started to learn English at a younger age, B used this knowledge as
a basis for playing on the Internet. On those occasions, B talked quite a good
deal. B wanted to make him/herself understood and to understand what others
were saying. B had forced him/herself into learning it. B states that this was
a good way to learn. B states that B could not have done this now, but at a
later stage. B states that B had used it with German tourists when B worked
in an amusement park. In school, it is possible to talk with the learner next to
B. B states that many of B’s family in Austria only speak German. There is
no other option than talking German to them. B states that it is a mixture of
Bosnian and German. B states ordering food and drinks and getting by on
one’s own when being abroad. B states that B had to talk quite a good deal
of German in Switzerland. However, most people know English there. B
states that on one occasion in Turkey they had been better at talking German
than English. B had tried to talk German to them. However, it had turned out
to be difficult after all, although B at least tried. Once B’s family had been in
Germany, and then B had tried to talk German. It had not gone that well. B
states that it is a good idea to travel to countries where they talk their mother
tongue and where there are many German tourists, so that they have to learn
German. They then talk more easily and they understand that they have to
talk slower. B states that if B goes to Germany, things may tend to go
somewhat fast. B states that B has to go to a place where they only talk
German and nothing else. It is easy to switch over to English since this is a
language that both parties understand.
A (prompting, “B reflects on the proceduralisation of social learning
strategies”)
24. Proceduralisation of
oral skills (GE223GE232)
A states that they have talked about theory and how they can try this out in
practice. A states that when B gives us the preparation with the accusative,
we have then learned it by heart. We then try to use it in practice afterwards.
A asks if it is efficient to hear a German text being read aloud, for instance
by playing a CD. A tells B to think about the book A had thought about letting
B read. A asks how B went about the task. A states that it is possible to use
English as well.
B states that B plays a game to improve pronunciation. B states that B played
Internet games. B states that when watching movies, it is all about perceiving
individual words one understands and making the connections in terms of
what happens in the movie, and also pictures, if it is a book. B mentions
vocabulary tests in order to learn new words. B states that if B watches a
German movie, B may see it several times, have German subtitles, and then
try to understand the language. B states that B also has to engage in rote
learning. B states that the basics are easier learned if B engages in rote
learning and tries it out afterwards. It is then easier to understand. B states
reading things aloud. Then B is corrected and gets to know how the different
words are pronounced. B states that it is efficient to hear a German text being
read aloud, for instance by playing a CD. B says that B has to engage in rote
Appendix 2B: Pragmatic Analysis of the German Case (GE)
learning and read it over and over again. B states that B had gone quickly
through the book and then B looks at it afterwards. B goes through it quickly
in order to understand the main characteristics. B states that B had not quite
understood the thing at the back of the book, the part in German where it said
what the book was all about. When B started to read, B had to look it up on
the Internet in English in order to understand what was in the book. B states
that it helped a good deal. B understood much more. B states that B felt that
B had read the book without focusing that much on vocabulary. B had tried
to understand what the book was about.
A (prompting, “B reflects on the proceduralisation of oral skills”)
25. Practical use of
declarative and
procedural knowledge
(GE233-GE244)
A asks if B remembers what they did last Friday. A asks what kind of songs
they had been singing. A asks what kind of grammar and what kind of topic.
A confirms it was prepositions. First, some people mentioned the
prepositions, and then they tried to sing them again, and to see how it is
possible to use these prepositions. A states that this is something B has
learned from these German lessons. A asks what they talked about during
these lessons. A confirms it was ways to learn and practical rehearsal. A
states some theory first; some of them contributed with some theory and then
they tried things out in practice. This is what they tried to talk about. A asks
if they remember the expressions they used, in addition to the nice words for
theory and practice. A asks if they wrote them down anywhere. A states that
some of them mentioned a word with a D. A confirms declarative.
B states that they have been singing songs. B answers grammar. B answers
accusative and dative, and the prepositions. B states ways to learn and
practical rehearsal. B states declarative. B states P for procedural.
A (asking, “B reflects on practical use of declarative and procedural
knowledge”)
26. Proceduralisation of
grammatical skills
(GE245-GE256)
A asks how to put grammatical skills into practice. A says that one does not
need very much to be understood. A states that that B has now produced
information about how to systematise the different fields in German one has
to learn something about. A states that in the following session they will get
back an essay. B can then see how they have practised language and this will
show if they have to go back to the declarative form of knowledge, to brush
up on the declarative knowledge in order to move to the procedural form.
This is complicated with German, since there are so many rules that have to
be used at the same time. One thus has to practise constantly. The more one
writes, the better. A states that the point about learning the concepts of the
perfect tense and accusative is that it will be possible to look up conjugation
patterns in the list. A states that this is why we use these concepts, not to
make it more difficult for B. It makes it easier to get declarative knowledge
when B knows what it consists of. A wonders how conscious B has been in
terms of looking at conjugation patterns for the perfect tense when B has
written tasks and essays. A wonders if B has ever thought explicitly about
this, or whether B does it just because A tells B to do so. A wonders if B has
ever thought about the importance or the necessity of knowing ‘perfect’ as a
concept, and also of getting conjugation patterns from a list where it says
“perfect” as a title. A wonders if B wrote spontaneously when B wrote B’s
essay, or if B ever looked up conjugation patterns for this and that in order to
create a particular sentence. A asks how B knew what an irregular verb was
to start with. A wonders if B remembers this, or what has made B aware of
the fact that something was irregular. A states that they talked about the
difference between regular and irregular verbs. A states that one needs certain
grammatical principles. What B has said is at least to check the concord
between subject and verb. A states that the word is also important. One has
to remember what is special for German. With prepositions, it is easy to
Appendix 2B: Pragmatic Analysis of the German Case (GE)
choose the wrong case. The better declarative knowledge one has, the easier
it is. A asks if the concepts belonging to the cases is something that has been
useful during the time B has studied German, or if it made matters more
confusing. A wonders what B thinks about the use of these declarative
concepts.
B states travelling to a place in Germany where they do not talk English, so
that B has to talk German. B states that if B has to do it, it would be possible.
B states using hands and feet. B had been in Croatia during the summer
holiday and had tried to use a dictionary in order to look up certain basic
words. B had learned some words so that B was able to communicate. B
states that the same principle could have been applied to German. B had been
on an exchange programme in Germany, and the mother in the host family
spoke a particular dialect that was difficult to understand. They did not speak
English, and they had to use body language sometimes. B states that when B
was unsure if a verb was regular or irregular, this person checked the word
in the dictionary. B thus learned which ending was relevant. B answers that
there are many regular and irregular verbs one already knows. If one does
not know a verb, one finds it in the dictionary. Then one knows the ending
by using one’s declarative knowledge. B states that B tries to use the
declarative knowledge B has when writing a text, but much is done using
intuition as well. However, B feels that the most important thing is to get the
message across, not the degree of grammatical mistakes in the text. If B were
to write a proper text, B would have used a language B knows well, for
instance Norwegian or English. B would have rather chosen German for
letters and private issues. B states that the most important thing is the
message, not the grammar. B states that cases are not vital in order to get the
message across. It does not matter if one writes ein or einen, as long as one
gets the message across. B states that B spent a lot of time in lower secondary
school understanding what nominative, accusative and dative meant. B did
not understand these concepts, and the teacher did not say that it was subject,
direct object, etc.
A (prompting, “B reflects on the proceduralisation of grammatical skills”)
27. Construction of
theoretical declarative
knowledge (GE257GE264)
A tells B to think in terms of perfect and wonders how this has been. A
wonders if it went well and if the theory is still there. A wonders about
prepositions. A asks how it is possible to construct one’s theoretical
knowledge. A says that practice is a necessity. A asks where one has to be in
order to learn grammatical rules. A wonders if one has to go far. A states that
it is fun for the practical part to attend language courses. A asks where it is
possible to learn grammatical rules. A suggests back in the textbook.
B says that B feels that B has moved beyond the purely theoretical stage and
that B goes back to the basic principles in order to develop knowledge further
into procedural knowledge. It is like a curve that goes higher and higher. B
states that B constructs knowledge as a consequence of trying out the same
knowledge over and over again. B states that B has to practise, otherwise B
will have to read it over and over again. If B does not use it, it is not stored
in the mind. B states that if we are to remember these rules when we reach
the age of 50, we must have been in Germany and talked. We have to practise
with regular intervals. B states TV, at school, and finding summaries on the
Internet.
A (asking, “B reflects on the construction of theoretical declarative
knowledge”)
Appendix 2B: Pragmatic Analysis of the German Case (GE)
28. Proceduralisation of
declarative knowledge
(GE265-GE276)
A states that they are both Germanic languages. A asks if there are other
things which occur to B. A asks if B remembers the difference between
declarative and procedural knowledge. A states that declarative is the
theoretical material we have to learn, while procedural is the practical part.
A asks if B remembers any examples of declarative and procedural
knowledge in terms of the general items they discussed last time, such as
cycling, walking, and waffles made without a recipe. A wonders if B needs
theoretical knowledge in order to cycle, or only procedural knowledge. A
states that B learns how to walk by watching others walk. A asks about B’s
mother tongue. A wonders if that is similar to walking. A wonders if we see
others do the same. A asks if they are comparable. A wonders if German is
something B has to focus upon consciously because B does not see others do
the same. A states that they are going to work with German to find out about
declarative and procedural knowledge. A states that they have lately worked
with the preterite tense and the use of auxiliaries, and they have talked about
prepositions. A wonders how this fits into the topics of this programme. A
wonders how B can go about these matters. When B goes home to rehearse
the auxiliaries sein haben, what is it then? A states that if B is into rote
learning in order to learn to say the rules, we are dealing with the theoretical
part. If B says it after having rehearsed several times, it is the practical part,
namely procedural knowledge. A tells B to think about the topics they have
had this autumn. A tells B to find out what they have worked with in terms
of theoretical knowledge and how they have tried to use it in practice. A tells
B to use as many examples as occur to them. A asks B if B has had any kind
of declarative knowledge thus far this term. A asks how B has tried to
transform the declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge. A asks what
they needed when they wrote an essay. A states that when writing essays, all
these basic skills need to be in place. A asks if they had done anything in
particular with the different topics to rehearse them.
B says that it is the same as the difference between theoretical and practical
knowledge. B states that B learns to walk by watching others walk. B states
that declarative issues may be important at an early stage of the learning
process. B states strong verbs, intransitive verbs, perfect tense and
auxiliaries, in addition to the conjugation of auxiliaries in general terms, and
prepositions. B states that they have written an essay. B says that they had
written down sentences and tasks. B states that they had listened to CDs to
learn pronunciation. B states that B learns pronunciation so that B learns how
to pronounce things in Germany. They focus on theory and practice when
reading texts, in addition to tasks, to see if anything from theory can be
transferred to practice.
A (prompting, “B reflects on the proceduralisation of declarative
knowledge”)
29. Importance of
grammatical knowledge
(GE277-GE286)
A asks what B remembers from last time. A asks what the thing was with
waffles made without a recipe. A states that if A had put forward 100
different ingredients and asked B to make waffles, B would have found the
right ingredients. A states that B would not have made anything else. A then
asks how we could compare the making of waffles with the learning of
German. A asks if B sees any parallels between German produced without a
recipe and what is not German produced without recipe. A states that this is
equal to making waffles when having 100 ingredients in front of B. B must
know which ingredients to pick if B wants to make waffles. A asks what it is
that B needs in order to learn German, as with the case of the waffles. A asks
what B needs to learn in relation to the basic recipe for these waffles. The
waffles are supposed to develop into real waffles as time goes by, not simply
waffles made without a recipe. A asks what we have talked about and asks
what B has to do. A tells B to say just what crosses B’s mind. A asks what
the right ingredients are in terms of German. A suggests pronunciation. A
Appendix 2B: Pragmatic Analysis of the German Case (GE)
mentions pain, i.e. that it hurts to learn German. A states different words. A
asks what B can say about the difference between words in German and
Norwegian in terms of words. A asks if German is a difficult language when
it comes to the words.
B replies with practical and theoretical forms of learning. B says waffles
made without a recipe. B says to make waffles spontaneously, but with
knowledge about how this is done. B states that B is to learn German and not
French. B states that B has to learn grammar in order to know what it is all
about. B states that B has to know what the basic differences are compared
to other languages. B states that B needs to find the right ingredients. B says
that there are many similar words. B asks why there are many similar words.
B says that it is because the two languages have the same origin.
A (asking, “B reflects on the importance of grammatical knowledge”)
30. Proceduralisation of
knowledge (GE287GE299)
A wonders if B remembers how B went about the activity. A asks how B had
got everything into the mouth. A tells B to think back when B learned to eat
ice cream. A wonders how B did it. Perhaps someone gave B a spoon, a bowl,
and showed B how to eat. A asks what B does now. A guesses that B takes a
spoon automatically now. A guesses that B learned it quickly. A wonders if
there are other things B has learned during B’s life, things that have taken a
certain amount of time. A says that the easiest thing was to get up and walk.
That kind of activity is something we have to learn. A asks if B remembers
when B learned to walk. A wonders if B has seen pictures from that time. A
compares this to the time when A had small kids. A reports that one followed
them closely with their arms. One does not do that anymore. The child has to
get up on its own, when it feels it is right. A asks about waffles made without
a recipe. A states that when B makes waffles without a recipe, the process
still results in waffles. A asks why this happens. A says that B knows that B
does not have to use potatoes. A states that B knows these things, and B gets
waffles even if B has made them without a recipe. The result may vary, but
B gets waffles. A states that B may include many things in something, and
still get the same result, but with a different taste. A uses their German tuition
as an example. When it comes to the perfect tense of the verbs, A wonders
where they found themselves, i.e. in the declarative part or in the procedural
part. A states that B has perhaps moved a little into the procedural part. A
states that when it comes to playing games, cycling etc., A wonders if B has
to know the rules and how to perform them. A states that dancing and
breathing are procedural, as well as swimming and floating. A states that
crawling requires more theory. A states that, during this session, they talked
about the fact that something is learned as a child, something as an adult, and
that this depends on the point in life. A states that all these issues will also
come to the surface when learning a new language. B learns Norwegian as
B’s mother tongue, English after a while at an early stage in life, and German
and French later. A states that all this depends on what B has learned before
in life, B’s point in life, interest in the subject, etc.
B states that B did not get it all into the mouth in the first place; most of it
came outside. B answers cycling and swimming, talking and reading. B states
that it took a long time before B learned to talk. B states that B knows more
or less what ingredients to use, but not exactly how much. B states that they
are still in the declarative part at an early stage. B, who has a partly German
background, states that it would not have been possible to go straight to the
procedural part, upon which B says that B learns something in theory, and
then moves on to the practical part, etc. B states that when learning English
things, were more confusing when learning the theory.
A (prompting, “B reflects on the proceduralisation of knowledge”)
Appendix 2B: Pragmatic Analysis of the German Case (GE)
31. The nature of learning
(GE300-GE319)
A asks what learning is. A comments that what B does not know is something
B is more afraid of. A states that B knows something, and then B adds a little
more. A uses boxes that are added to each other with the answer in the
formula in the biggest box. A states that A wanted to teach B two expressions
they could jot down somewhere, or at least save them in the right place. A
writes declarative and procedural knowledge on the blackboard and asks
what they have done now and what these are. A states that it has to do with
the process. A states that it is when B is told that that is the way it is. A states
that we have a simple way to explain this in terms of boiling eggs. If A says
how to boil hard eggs, A can write down water, pot, boil the water, and put
the eggs into the water. A states that A lets the water boil for about ten
minutes to get really hard eggs. When A follows that recipe, A makes use of
declarative knowledge. However, when A actually does things, A makes use
of the procedural part. It is when A actually carries out the process that A
acquires knowledge. A asks if B baked anything last weekend. A asks what
B baked. A asks if B was so skilled at it that B could delve straight into the
practical part, or whether B had to study the theory first. A says that B then
goes straight into the practical part since the declarative part has been
acquired and learning has taken place. The theoretical part has thus entered
the right place in B’s mental system. B takes it out and uses it. A asks if B
remembers it and if it went well. A asks B if B had learned to eat ice cream
or cakes at any point, or if this was automatic. A wonders why B does it
automatically if nobody has taught B how to eat this food. A states that it
seems to be a habit. B knows how to do it and it comes automatically. A asks
how B eats ice cream. A tells B to think back 15 years in time and whether
someone had put a bowl of ice cream in front of B.
B states that it is about acquiring new knowledge and skills. B says that it is
a process that carries on throughout B’s whole life. When B gets older, B
gets wise through gaining more knowledge. B states that it is a step-wise
addition of information that continues throughout B’s whole life. All parts of
the information are equally important, just like bricks. B states that learning
is when B has received or understood knowledge or information that B can
repeat and use. B states that it is knowledge based on B’s own experiences.
B states that it is desired or undesired exposure to useful or non-useful
information. B states that enhanced knowledge yields enhanced
understanding. For instance, in the religion subject, B learns about other
religions, and B is then more willing to accept other religions. B understands
to a certain extent what these religions are about. That is why it is important
to learn about them. B states that knowledge or learning is adaptation. The
more knowledge B acquires, the more new things B may learn. If B knows
two languages, it will be easier in a way to learn a third one. B states that B
does not know what these concepts mean, but that procedural knowledge is
possibly what happens when B learns something new gradually, when
something is constructed. B learns something simple and can then somehow
construct this into a holistic understanding. B learns plus and minus and then
learns to use it with lines. B states that it can be compared to the difference
between theory and practice. B states that B grabs the cooking book and finds
the recipe for apple pie. It is thus about theory, i.e. how much to put into the
apple pie. One then starts following the recipe and indulging in the practical
part. B says muffins and brownies. B states that it was the practical part. B
asks what one may call it when B makes dinner in the way B did. B went
straight into making it since B remembered what this declarative knowledge
was all about, but before B had to read the recipe. B says yes. B says that the
only thing B did during the weekend was to eat ice cream. B replies that this
was something B had done since B was little. B confirms that it is something
automatic. B eats it with a spoon and in a bowl.
A (prompting, “B reflects on the nature of learning”)
Appendix 2B: Pragmatic Analysis of the German Case (GE)
32. The importance of
German (GE320GE330)
A asks why it is important for Norwegians to learn German when people
know English. A asks whereabouts in Europe. A asks where B gets in touch
with Germans. A repeats in camping sites and asks how they get to Norway.
A states in caravans that they have filled up with food and drink, fishing rods,
freezers, and those kinds of things. However, it may be interesting talking to
them and one does not need that many words either. A says Elch 10, der Elch.
A mentions that traffic signs tend to get lost along the road. A asks if this was
new to B or if these were things B had thought about previously.
B states that there are several German-speaking countries. B confirms Europe
and mentions Germany, Switzerland and Austria. B claims that there are
many German tourists in Norway. B states that B gets in touch with German
tourists along the coast and on camping sites. B states that they come to
Norway by car. B mentions moose (Elch).
A (prompting, “B reflects on the importance of German”)
33. Similarities between
Norwegian and German
(GE331-GE346)
A asks if there is something specific about learning German in comparison
with English. A states that B has been through that process. First B had
several years with only English, and then they started to study German in
addition to English. A states that A has written three words on the blackboard
and asks how these words are read in German. A states that if B reads in
Norwegian, it becomes different, but at the moment we see that this is quite
understandable. A asks what it is about German that makes it resemble
Norwegian. A states that A does not think about articles then. A asks what A
might be thinking about. A states that the pronunciation is almost the same.
A states that compared to English and French, German is terribly difficult,
but that German is OK. A states that they are from the same language family.
We have a really big advantage when learning German because we know so
many of these words from before. A states that it is much more difficult for
an English person to learn German. A asks if B had reached any particular
conclusion in terms of German. A states that the grammar which they often
find difficult is grammar they may also make use of, for instance, in
Norwegian. If B is to write proper Norwegian, this is useful knowledge.
There are the cases. A states that A thought it was great fun to learn German
since there were so many rules. A states that when knowing the rules, A knew
the language, but this was not the case since there were always exceptions to
the rules. A states that there is no rule without exceptions, but usually if one
knows a rule, then one knows that rule, even though it may be difficult. A
asks what happens when B hears something in German. A asks if B corrects
him/herself. A asks if B pays attention to this.
B reads Tante 11, Onkel 12. B states that the words are very similar to
Norwegian. B states that they are Germanic. B states that they are probably
much closer. B states that the grammar is more difficult in terms of analysis.
B states that there are rules. B states that one hears much more English than
German. B states that German is a fairly big language.
A (asking, “B reflects on the similarities between Norwegian and German”)
34. Practice opportunities
(GE347-GE354)
10
Moose.
Aunt.
12
Uncle.
11
A confirms that this is important. A claims that they do this at the school on
a regular basis. A states that next month B will be travelling to Austria with
a small group. A states that they will then have to talk German to the parents
who are not that good at English. A states that the Austrians will return to
Norway. A states that A does not think that the most important thing is to
learn the gender, but it is important to learn the words. A asks if it is not
Appendix 2B: Pragmatic Analysis of the German Case (GE)
possible to use the word because one does not know the gender. A says yes.
A states that there is a difference between talking and writing. A asks what
is the most important between talking and writing.
B states that in German especially, it is a car or something like that. B states
that very B often learns a word and then one later remembers what kind of
gender the word has. B cannot then use the word because B does not
remember the gender. B states that it depends on the context. People would
normally understand you if it is a normal conversation. B states that the most
important thing is to be able to extend B’s vocabulary in order to make
oneself understood. B states that the most important thing is to be able to
express oneself orally.
A (prompting, “B reflects on practice opportunities”)
35. The acquisition of oral
skills (GE355-GE375)
A asks if one will learn from those one is talking to, and if one can pick up
different expressions and the like that they may be using. A asks how many
people have the possibility to watch German television, and wonders what B
watches on those occasions. A asks if B sometimes listens to the news in
German. A states that Rex has been of invaluable use and pleasure for
learners of German for many years, not to mention Derrick, who goes way
back in time. A asks if B has noticed that NRK is currently showing the series
as repeats. A thinks that it is pathetic to watch. A asks if B knows where Rex
comes from and where it is set. A asks where Derrick takes place. A asks
what kind of city they are in when watching Derrick. A confirms that Derrick
is set in Munich. A asks about Rex. A confirms B’s statement about the origin
of Rex, stating that it is incredible what they may learn about the two cities
by watching the series. One may thus gain information about country and
culture as well. A wonders if B has any further information on the list to be
included. A states that one takes a room. One places furniture there and then
one writes the name in English, German or whatever. A asks in German if B
can provide an example.
B states that B may play games or engage in other kinds of activities while
talking to the people B is playing with, using the target language. B needs to
be somewhat active in order to learn it properly. B states playing a specific
kind of computer game. B may then talk to the people B is playing with.
These may be, for instance, German. B may talk to them while engaging in
the activity. B must be able to explain. B becomes quite stressed, resulting in
pressure on B. B learns quite a good deal from that. B states social media and
TV. B states that B watches different kinds of programmes. B states that B
does not watch those channels very much. B states that B watches different
series sometimes, rather seldom. Everybody has the chance to watch the
Internet. B states that Derrick is probably based in Munich. B states Austria
in terms of Rex, wondering if this is correct. B states learning vocabulary and
good phrases and expressions. B states that it is only good morning and those
kinds of things. B remembers, for instance, that when they had their German
exam, German oral exam, or a mock exam, they learned many phrases, such
as “excuse me for a moment”, but B does not remember what it is.
A (prompting, “B reflects on the acquisition of oral skills”)
36. Motivational issues
(GE376-GE381)
A asks if B watched many movies in lower secondary school. A suggests that
B learned a good deal. A asks if there may be something in the individual
that makes him or her want to learn a foreign language, without worrying
about what the teacher is like. A states that it is not only about the languages,
since language and culture are connected. A states that B also knows a bit
about Germany, geography, and the like. It makes it more interesting. A asks
if there are any points that B has written down which we have not commented
on yet.
Appendix 2B: Pragmatic Analysis of the German Case (GE)
B answers the importance of having a good teacher. Then B does things like
that. In lower secondary school, B had a teacher. B states that B concentrated
on the teaching, something nobody else did. B states that they had a teacher
in the eighth grade who was very good, and they learned a lot. However, they
had another teacher in the ninth and tenth grade. They noticed a considerable
difference. B states that it was much harder to learn the material because of
the teacher. B states that this means that the teacher has a great influence. B
states that B needs a good teacher in order to learn the language, otherwise B
will lose motivation. One needs to understand this. B thinks that it is
important to have a special interest for the country where the language is
spoken. One learns a good deal about Germany, and this knowledge creates
an interest for the language.
A (prompting, “B reflects on motivational issues”)
37. Practice opportunities
(GE382-GE398)
A asks if there are other learning methods. A asks about a given situation in,
for instance, a railway station. A asks if B has been thinking about German,
English, or foreign languages in general. A asks if B has tried online chatting
in English. A asks what about B, since B also has family in Germany. A asks
if B learns anything from talking to family members in Germany.
B says that B may vary the learning methods if B wants to learn, so that it
does not become boring and monotonous. B states that it is rather like
dramatisation. B writes B’s own piece and B presents it in front of the class.
B states exercises through talking German in different situations. B states
talking to other Germans and managing to remember. B answers German. B
answers online chatting. B answers ‘yes’ and that B has talked German to
cousins. B states that B does not think very much about it when, for instance,
writing. They laugh a bit at B sometimes. B states that B talks to them. B
states that when B is in Germany, much more German is used. B states that
B thinks more in German as well every once in a while. B mentions many
new words.
A (prompting, “B reflects on practice opportunities”)
38. Cognitive strategies
(GE399-GE414)
A asks what it takes to learn a foreign language. A informs B about the
purpose of the research project and informs B to make use of the principles
if possible beyond the classes. The focus will be on an understanding of the
language learning processes, as well as how B can use language-learning
strategies in order to become more autonomous in the way B learns. A also
informs B about the topic for the next session, which is how language
learning takes place in order to create awareness in terms of the nature of
language learning processes. A acknowledges reading a lot and asks if B
thinks about the target language. A states talking to people who speak the
same language and reading material in that language without necessarily
thinking about grammar. A wonders how things are when B watches movies
or television in a foreign language, including English. A asks if B reads the
Norwegian subtitles, or if B manages to listen. A states that it is even possible
to see that the translation is wrong. A asks if B watches German movies. A
asks what B concentrated on when B watched German movies with
Norwegian subtitles in lower secondary school. A wonders if B concentrated
on listening or reading. A states that English is fairly easy. A asks what it is
like doing homework. A asks B if there are difficult words when B reads a
text. A asks if reading a text and talking about it is OK.
B states reading a lot. B confirms that B refers to the target language. B states
that it is very important to learn new words. B states that it is important to do
things that make it fun to learn the new language, so that it does not just
become boring and stressful. B states that B manages to listen and that B
Appendix 2B: Pragmatic Analysis of the German Case (GE)
prefers not having a Norwegian text, since it becomes confusing. B states that
one easily focuses on the text, even if one tries not to do that. It is difficult
not to do it. B states that B tries to hear what they say in English and B then
translates it into B’s head instead of watching the text. B confirms that B
watches German movies and states that B tries to translate. B states that they
used to watch many German movies in lower secondary school. B states that
they then had both German speech and Norwegian subtitles. B answers that
B focuses on both listening and reading. B states that it is easier to read since
the pronunciation is a bit special sometimes. B states that it is not particularly
difficult to understand. B confirms that reading a text and talking about it is
OK.
A (prompting, “B reflects on cognitive strategies”)
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
Session 16
FR1. Turn 724.
A asks if there are other comments. A states that if there are no other
comments, the camera will be turned off.
FR2. Turn 723.
B answers “yes”.
FR3. Turn 722.
A acknowledges the fact that B has become aware that in certain situations
B does as B always has done because this works best. At the same time, in
some situations, for instance in situations of speech production, B can
possibly consider doing things in other ways because B has the knowledge to
do so. A also asks B if this is a correct interpretation of what B has
said.
FR4. Turn 721.
B states that when doing homework in whatever subject, B does not have the
energy to sit down and think through how B is to think in order to do the
homework. B prefers to get things done, and B then thinks automatically as
the work unfolds. Nevertheless, B thinks that when the situation occurs
that B has to talk French, strategies need to be employed in that
particular situation. B feels that the topic of these sessions should
rather be used in those situations.
FR5. Turn 720.
A acknowledges B’s remark and elicits further comments.
FR6. Turn 719.
B states that the issues are at the back of one’s mind, even if one is not
consciously aware of them. They are at the back of one’s mind, and then one
thinks that one has to do things in this or that way in order to achieve
certain results.
FR7. Turn 718.
A states that what B says is really very important, because the point is
that the curriculum states that the learners have to be aware and choose
their own strategies. They are to identify what works best on an individual
basis. If one thinks that a certain activity takes too long and one does
not do it because it works best in another way, then one does it and one
chooses that option because one has a choice. One does it that way since it
suits one best to do it that way. One thinks that a certain way suits one
best, so then one can take what one needs, or one can put it aside. A
states that this is the whole point, which is also stated in the
curriculum, namely that the learner is to be able to choose relevant
working methods. One has the tool box, and sometimes it is like this and
sometimes like that. Nevertheless, the repertoire is there, and then one
may choose the best method for oneself . The point about finding one’s own
learning style is to find out what suits one best at the end of the day. A
elicits more comments about the same topic.
FR8. Turn 717.
B states that much of this has to do with issues one can arrive at through
one’s own thought processes, but one has to be aware of the fact that one
does not have to do things in exactly this or that way. If it does not
work, then one can do it in a slightly different manner.
FR9. Turn 716.
A says whenever B wants.
1
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR10. Turn 715.
B says yes.
FR11. Turn 714.
A acknowledges that B considers it to be a tool box from which to pick the
tools one wishes.
FR12. Turn 713.
B states that what B had found out was that B had developed a strong
motivation to learn French as a consequence of this programme, since B
notices that B has a rather big tool box with means that can be used to
make learning somewhat easier.
FR13. Turn 712.
A states that this is brilliant.
FR14. Turn 711.
B says yes.
FR15. Turn 710.
A says that B has rather captured it intuitively in terms of a specific way
of doing things, and then B does it this way.
FR16. Turn 709.
B says that B thinks that many of these techniques took too long to be used
for every task. B states that this is why B did not bother to go through
the metacognitive learning techniques for each homework.
FR17. Turn 708.
A says that A has some closing remarks. The 16 sessions that have been
dedicated to activities related to becoming more aware about language
learning have been implemented throughout the whole year. A assumes that B
has gained an impression of the activities that have been used in one way
or another, and that B would not have gained this impression if this
programme had not been followed. A therefore asks if B has had any
awakening experiences in relation to B’s own previous experiences, own
insight, if B has done homework in a different way than would have been the
case in other circumstances, and if B has developed a plan in terms of why
B learns French so that it can be used in the future. In this way, it is
related to goal-setting, so that B becomes more aware, something which B
can envisage. B may have changed some attitudes during this year, a change
that would not have occurred without this separate form of instruction.
FR18. Turn 707.
A says OK.
FR19. Turn 706.
B says no, because most of it has been said already.
FR20. Turn 705.
A asks if there are more comments.
FR21. Turn 704.
B states that there are no further comments, and that motivation was very
important for them.
FR22. Turn 703.
A says that Latin words in English are words which one would probably find
in Spanish. A also asks if there are more comments.
2
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR23. Turn 702.
B says yes.
FR24. Turn 701.
A states that these kinds of words are often rather advanced ones.
FR25. Turn 700.
B says that it is possible to try to learn the words that are somehow
similar to English words. There are some similar words there, since about
half of the English words are derived from French.
FR26. Turn 699.
A says that A has tried to make the learners read out loud every session,
or if not every session throughout the whole year, at least to have this as
a goal. A also asks if there are any further comments.
FR27. Turn 698.
B states that it is more fun to work in groups than sitting alone at home
engaging in rote learning.
FR28. Turn 697.
A says yes.
FR29. Turn 696.
B states that they only practise pronunciation.
FR30. Turn 695.
A says yes.
FR31. Turn 694.
B states that they have practised this and that they have also written down
examples of oral practice.
FR32. Turn 693.
A states that these two languages have some features in common, even though
they differ in some ways in terms of grammar and vocabulary. A claims that
the most important aspect is that the learners hear English every day
almost automatically. This way of getting practice opportunities is
important, and this is why A emphasises the importance of seeking practice
opportunities in French. Practice opportunities may be TV, movies, music,
advertising, magazines, and advanced books are also recommended at a later
stage. It is possible to go through a whole summer without hearing a word
of French. A states that in Norway it is impossible to spend a day without
hearing English, unless one is hiding in a tent in the mountains. A asks
for more comments, issues which have not been mentioned and which may be of
importance.
FR33. Turn 692.
B states Germanic language family.
FR34. Turn 691.
A states Germanic.
FR35. Turn 690.
B says the same.
FR36. Turn 689.
A claims that it is the same language group.
FR37. Turn 688.
B claims that English is more similar to Norwegian than French.
3
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR38. Turn 687.
A asks how B learned English. A feels that having studied maths and natural
sciences, A feels that A did not learn English in school, but in other
ways.
FR39. Turn 686.
B says that if B has travelled abroad a little during childhood, then
English is most probably the language spoken when B ever tried to talk
abroad.
FR40. Turn 685.
A refers to experiments with an early language start. A also asks if there
are other causes why learners start so late with French.
FR41. Turn 684.
B says that learners could have started to learn English at an earlier
stage. The younger one is, the easier it is to absorb information,
especially in languages, so one could have started with a foreign language
earlier.
FR42. Turn 683.
A asks if there are other opinions in this respect. A asks why people in
Norway are much better at English than French, referring to those who are
actually taking French.
FR43. Turn 682.
B states that one reason is that learners are provided with input in
English via, for instance, social media. B had thought that Facebook and
Twitter could change the language into French.
FR44. Turn 681.
A tells B to state why.
FR45. Turn 680.
B states that they had thought about looking at why they had become so much
better at English than French.
FR46. Turn 679.
A says that it is important to have fun. A says that next year, when the
learners hopefully reach a higher level, they will probably use other
material as well. The library will be used for access to reading French
books, and they will go to the French cultural centre, where they have
comics, music and different material. A has noticed that many of those who
learn French well, those who get the best grades, are learners who work
with role play or try to do things on their own. A states that they do not
have many hours at their disposal per week, three hours per week if it is a
full week, and sessions may often be cancelled. B mentions that continuous
input is important. A asks if B has any further comments about important
issues which were discussed in the group.
FR47. Turn 678.
B says in front of a larger audience. It is often Norwegian, English and
French. It may be something else as well, and then B tries to muddle
through the French ones as well. If there are things one does not
understand, then B simply compares with the others as well. B states that
it is just a minor detail, but it is rather fun.
FR48. Turn 677.
A says yes.
4
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR49. Turn 676.
B says that there are also informative texts.
FR50. Turn 675.
A says OK.
FR51. Turn 674.
B says that it does not necessarily have to be a museum in France, but it
is often in museums.
FR52. Turn 673.
A asks if B is in France.
FR53. Turn 672.
B says that it is when B does not understand everything.
FR54. Turn 671.
A says yes.
FR55. Turn 670.
B says that if B is in a museum or a similar place, then B often tries to
read the French texts.
FR56. Turn 669.
A says that it is easier to get in.
FR57. Turn 668.
B says yes.
FR58. Turn 667.
A states yes, or on the Internet.
FR59. Turn 666.
B says that it has already been said, but a good idea is to watch a movie,
listen to music, or read something. B also says that finding a pen friend
could be a good idea as well.
FR60. Turn 665.
A states doing what one is told, that the teacher develops a scheme that
the learner follows and then puts trust in the teacher. A asks if B had
said a little extra and asks what the learners can do themselves beyond the
issues the teacher prepares for.
FR61. Turn 664.
B states that the goal is to work on a regular basis, do what one is told,
and make that extra effort without concentrating one’s work just before a
test.
FR62. Turn 663.
A hopes the same. A states that there are some challenges related to
Spanish, since it is much easier to start with the oral part right away. A
claims that they have based their written language on the spoken language.
A also states that they have worked quite a bit with pronunciation, and
this is a huge task in French, because there is often a great discrepancy
between pronunciation and written language. Their goal next year includes
the written language. A states that the written language has to be at the
core if they are to manage this. A asks if there are any other comments. A
asks how B has worked this year, and how B feels that B has worked in order
to reach B’s good level in French.
5
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR63. Turn 662.
B says instead of the opposite.
FR64. Turn 661.
A says yes.
FR65. Turn 660.
B says to go down that road.
FR66. Turn 659.
A says yes.
FR67. Turn 658.
B says that it is easier.
FR68. Turn 657.
A says yes.
FR69. Turn 656.
B says that B thinks so, that is the differences which B sees. B feels that
B has a good focus on grammar, but in terms of some of the Spanish classes,
B feels that they talk a lot, and then B also sees that they are able to
talk much more than B can. At the same time, it seems that they can write
much more than they can. B also thinks that it is beneficial to allow
talking to develop over time, after one has learned to write.
FR70. Turn 655.
A mentions the difference between communicating and oral language
correctness. A states that they have also said that, this aspect is not
that important in terms of oral language correctness as long as one
understands it. A comments on written language.
FR71. Turn 654.
B says that the French understand if one does not manage to conjugate
correctly.
FR72. Turn 653.
A says no and that one hardly hears them when one talks.
FR73. Turn 652.
B says that B does not think that grammar is just as important for talking
as for writing, i.e. in terms of issues such as conjugations and concord.
FR74. Turn 651.
A says yes, and that they have talked about the fact that practising over
and over again is a key in foreign languages. It is not enough just to get
started with some grammar and words. One has to practise the most common
words, those which appear the most, so that they will be absorbed. A asks
if there are other issues. A wonders if grammar is that important at all. A
says that A tries to put emphasis on grammar, since A feels that it is
important to review those issues properly. A asks how it is possible to
work in order to learn grammar. A states that B has seen some ways to do
things during the year, and asks if B has any ideas about this issue.
FR75. Turn 650.
B says that B there is not always focus on the fact that a certain issue
has to be remembered, but B thinks that it is OK to get some input at
least.
FR76. Turn 649.
A says yes.
6
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR77. Turn 648.
B says that it is OK to practise to build up a good vocabulary, which means
that if B has someone who knows more French than B, then B can ask how to
say things. B says that B does this a good deal. B asks what a certain
thing is in French even if B, of course, soon forgets much of it.
FR78. Turn 647.
A says yes, but that words are something on a list, although it also
important to use them in the sentence. This means that a series of words is
not that important, but that we are able to write as well. Thus, vocabulary
is important, since it is the content, and words may be looked up. We have
aids in the exam. Oral practice is something we get with French people if
that is a goal, and then we cannot look up words all the time - we need a
basic vocabulary.
FR79. Turn 646.
B says issues such as music.
FR80. Turn 645.
A says yes.
FR81. Turn 644.
B says rote learning. B also says that B would also have watched movies and
things like that. It is important to gain input from other places than only
the books used in the subject.
FR82. Turn 643.
A says that they should first focus on words, asking how B can go about
learning words.
FR83. Turn 642.
B says that B notices this when B starts to think in French in a way, in
that B recalls words and that B is able to put names on things and talk a
bit about oneself in French.
FR84. Turn 641.
A says yes and asks how B can see that. B also asks how B can notice if B
has learned something.
FR85. Turn 640.
B states that B has to be very aware about how to learn. B needs a strategy
and B has to be as efficient as possible. B also says that B has to work as
fast as possible. It is motivating to see that B learns as B moves along.
FR86. Turn 639.
A asks if one learns in relation to grammar. A wonders if one may quickly
verify if one has understood. One will quickly reveal if one knows all the
forms or not, but A states that A agrees that writing is important, and
that they will be doing more of that next year. A states that next year
they will be writing in the past tense as well. A also tells B to reflect
more over other issues that are important to learn, and tells B to reflect
over what they have said earlier this year as well. A asks what is
important if one has the motivation and clear goals and one wants to learn
French. A asks what it takes to write more and to write sentences and face
challenges. To express oneself in the language is important and A has tried
to work with that all the time in sentences. A asks for more comments.
FR87. Turn 638.
B says that no, B learns things, how to use words fairly rapidly.
7
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR88. Turn 637.
A asks what the point is with these.
FR89. Turn 636.
B says yes.
FR90. Turn 635.
A states that one uses, for instance, some of these fill-in-the-blanks
today.
FR91. Turn 634.
B states that it is fairly easy, but that when B sees that B has suddenly
commented on four to five pages of text, then B feels that B knows French
somewhat better than B perhaps believes.
FR92. Turn 633.
A says yes.
FR93. Turn 632.
B states that B believes that it is very important that B checks out on an
individual basis what B knows every once in a while. B also states that
writing an essay, writing for a presentation, or using the language
independently of the fill-in-the-blanks in the book, is very important in
B’s view. B states that when doing these fill-in-the-blanks, B thinks that
B does not know that much French. It is not difficult to put in a word even
if everything turns out to be wrong.
FR94. Turn 631.
A says yes and asks about other issues that were brought up. A asks what is
important in order to learn a language. A asks how to work in terms of
motivation, and then to see goals if one wants to learn French. A states
that if that is the main focus, then it is either about the grades, or one
wishes to acquire a beautiful language, or one wants to travel to France
and know the language so as to talk to people down there.
FR95. Turn 630.
B says yes.
FR96. Turn 629.
A says yes, and that A hopes that B will be better next year, and later on
as well. A also says that it seems that B has chosen the right thing.
FR97. Turn 628.
B says thank you.
FR98. Turn 627.
A says that B has become good at French.
FR99. Turn 626.
B says that it has not been decided for B to know French in particular. B
states that B’s starting point was simply to know another language than
English.
8
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR100. Turn 625.
A says yes.
FR101. Turn 624.
B states that B has said earlier that B had applied for Spanish in the
first place.
FR102. Turn 623.
A elicits information from B.
FR103. Turn 622.
B says yes.
FR104. Turn 621.
A asks if this is true.
FR105. Turn 620.
B says oh yes.
FR106. Turn 619.
A says that B had said something about the French language in relation to
Spanish in terms of Spanish being a more beautiful language.
FR107. Turn 618.
B says that there are many similarities as well. This is the way it is in
many places. Even if B reads a sentence where B does not understand all the
words, B still manages to understand what it is about.
FR108. Turn 617.
A says that B speaks Spanish fluently and wonders if Spanish is B’s mother
tongue. A also says that on one occasion, A had asked B what B thought of
French in relation to Spanish.
FR109. Turn 616.
B says that then B may talk to people and use less English.
FR110. Turn 615.
A says yes.
FR111. Turn 614.
B says yes, B works mostly in order to be able to travel to France once and
possibly to live there.
FR112. Turn 613.
A says OK and asks if there were other issues B found in terms of what it
takes to learn a language if one is motivated and feels like learning. It
may be an excuse that next year is not the last year of the subject, but
the grade B gets next year will be the one on B’s certificate. The grade
may contribute towards getting admission to different study programmes
later in life, if the grades are the motivating factor. A asks if there are
other factors, apart from grades, which may be motivating. A also asks if
it is just the grades B is working for.
9
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR113. Turn 612.
B says yes, yes of course.
FR114. Turn 611.
A says that it is possible to learn not only the language and to hear a
language, but also part of a culture.
FR115. Turn 610.
B says yes.
FR116. Turn 609.
A confirms that there are many opportunities in French to take a year after
upper secondary school.
FR117. Turn 608.
B says that it would have been nice to have at least the possibility for B
to travel to France once a year. B does not know how much it would have
been, but perhaps a year, or it could have been a full-time study.
FR118. Turn 607.
A says yes.
FR119. Turn 606.
B wonders in order to learn French.
FR120. Turn 605.
A says that this is an important issue in primary school at present. A
refers to the fact that B had mentioned the issue about the goal to learn
to speak French fluently. A wonders how and why B is to find a goal which
motivates towards working in order to learn a language such as French. A
asks what motivates B.
FR121. Turn 604.
B says yes, brilliant.
FR122. Turn 603.
A says that often, when working long-term with another subject, one uses
part of the brain as a numeric part, and then it may be useful to have a
break and work a little with languages for instance. A states that it is
also possible to use another part of the brain in order to charge the brain
to let the numeric part rest a bit. A wonders if there is competition with
other subjects, since grades are very motivating.
FR123. Turn 602.
B says that one works with all the subjects, but of course if one has to
submit two kinds of written work, and one of them is a subject B is taking
in its final year and the other one is French, then B thinks that most
people would automatically work in order to finish the most important
subject, since one has an extra year to work with French.
FR124. Turn 601.
A elicits comments from B.
FR125. Turn 600.
B says no, not really.
FR126. Turn 599.
A says yes and asks if B feels that French has a lower priority this year
since it is not the final year of the subject.
10
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR127. Turn 598.
B says that it is a school subject compared to other subjects B has in B’s
final year.
FR128. Turn 597.
A asks what this means and what it competes with.
FR129. Turn 596.
B says that one needs enough time to do it. B states that one needs time so
that it does not only become stressful.
FR130. Turn 595.
A says yes and OK, and elicits more information from B.
FR131. Turn 594.
B states being able to talk fluently should be the goal.
FR132. Turn 593.
A asks what the goal of the French language is.
FR133. Turn 592.
B states that B does not know. B also says that things have to fall into
their natural place, or one has to set a goal.
FR134. Turn 591.
A asks what about French, which is not completely as global as
(incomprehensible). A wonders what it takes to get motivated in that
subject.
FR135. Turn 590.
B states that it is a goal.
FR136. Turn 589.
A says yes.
FR137. Turn 588.
B says yes and that it is nice to be able to express oneself globally.
FR138. Turn 587.
A states that then there is English.
FR139. Turn 586.
B says yes.
FR140. Turn 585.
A states that in terms of Norwegian, it is good enough, one has to know
that in order to (incomprehensible) languages.
FR141. Turn 584.
B states that one needs an interest. B states that one has to know; one is,
for instance, to enter Norway as a foreigner. One has to want to learn
Norwegian in order to get a job, for instance, or in school.
FR142. Turn 583.
A says yes and asks what it takes to become motivated.
FR143. Turn 582.
B says motivation.
FR144. Turn 581.
11
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
A says yes.
FR145. Turn 580.
B says that the first thing B wants to say is motivation, which is the
first step. B has to know that B wants to achieve this and B needs a goal
for the effort.
FR146. Turn 579.
A says that they will return to where they started sometime last autumn,
and that was with two questions. A states that at that point it was related
to the experience B had from previous education. Now they also include what
has happened during this year, i.e. the sessions they have had with Hans
Erik. A states that A will be writing the questions on the blackboard, and
they will then form the basis for B sitting in groups and discussing them
for a quarter of an hour. They will then address it in a plenary session
and it will be recorded during the session, both in the groups and in the
plenary session. The first question is a general one about what it takes to
learn a language. Then there is a general question in terms of language
learning. A does not remember whether they also talked about Norwegian or
English and experiences with a foreign language in general. And when it
says languages, one must also be permitted to talk about learning Norwegian
as well, with experiences back to one’s childhood, when one learnt the
language as a mother tongue compared to learning it as a foreign language,
as we call it. The language they have worked with, which is French, and
then question 2 is what they also had last autumn, what it takes to learn
French, which is a foreign language. Some features will be shared, some
will perhaps be special for French as a foreign language, and now for a
quarter of an hour B will be talking together to find out what B arrives
at, and then discuss it in a plenary session. A states that languages are
important, both one’s mother tongue and foreign languages. English and
French may be very important for B.
Session 15
FR147. Turn 578.
B says that it had provided a good overview, but that it was difficult to
answer a clear yes or no to the questions. B also says that some of the fields
should have been divided into sub-fields, since it was difficult to answer
either yes or no to the question, especially since some parts needed to be
nuanced even more.
FR148. Turn 577.
A says that they had almost finished and wonders if they were satisfied with
the wheel. A says that B could bring them along the following Thursday as
well so that B could continue assessing. The grid could be a good basis for
work in the time to come. A comments on the importance of being able to assess
one’s own progress, and that this is a way to create opportunities for
knowledge and insight into the learning process. This insight may be used to
achieve the goals that were mentioned in previous sessions. After the working
session, A asks how this self-assessment method had worked.
FR149. Turn 576.
B discusses in groups.
FR150. Turn 575.
A emphasises the fact that language learning basically consists of four parts,
and that B is still at a basic level in the process. A explains the purpose
of the wheel. A says that an important part of the language learning process
is to be able to evaluate one’s progress and fulfil one’s plans. A relates
this to factors such as goals, something which has been discussed in previous
sessions. B was to analyse B’s own progress and shade the wheel according to
B’s understanding of B’s own progress.
12
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
Session 14
FR151. Turn 574.
B says that it is frightening to learn a new language. This person still
makes waffles without any recipe. The errors should rather disappear as B
goes along. B says that it is not necessary to know it perfectly. B says that
when B was once in Mexico, B had spoken to some English-Canadians B. They
had told B when B made mistakes. B states that they listened to each other.
FR152. Turn 573.
A comments that one starts to unravel the whole thing, and then one discovers
that one learns more. A states that when A lived in France, A went to offices
when A needed something, instead of calling, since A wanted to look at the
facial expressions at the same time.
FR153. Turn 572.
B says that if one recognises some words, it is easier to understand.
FR154. Turn 571.
A says that the first pages of a book are often the most important ones. It
is important to get started. A suggests that a good idea would be to read
Harry Potter in French. A then wonders about the radio.
FR155. Turn 570.
B says that when reading, when there is a sentence one does not understand,
one looks for the meaning before and after this sentence. B says that it is
possible to look at the facial expressions, whether one is sad or glad.
FR156. Turn 569.
A says that communicating is important, to get the message across.
FR157. Turn 568.
B says that it is nice that the teacher does not correct them too much.
FR158. Turn 567.
A says that the first time A went to France, A felt like a red light in A’s
head. A states that one learns as time passes. After several times, one does
not make that many errors any more.
FR159. Turn 566.
B says that it is more difficult with oral speech.
FR160. Turn 565.
A summarises this as B thinking that B thinks B is something. As a teacher
one often does not say that much. And when correcting, it may be too much
with too much red ink.
FR161. Turn 564.
B replies that if B stands in front of the class, for instance. B says that
when talking, one has to think through “le” and “les”. If one buys something
and uses the wrong word, one gets more all of a sudden. B says that B often
thinks through what B says, and then others have to correct what B says. B
says that B finds it difficult to correct oneself, since B does not know that
much. B says that if one corrects somebody else, it may seem that one feels
superior to the other.
FR162. Turn 563.
A asks what kind of situations these could be.
FR163. Turn 562.
B says that when one talks, it is possible to correct oneself. When one wants
to tell someone something, one may go back and say it again.
FR164. Turn 561.
13
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
A says that B may look at it again in order to avoid making the same mistakes
again. A suggests that if one sees a lot of red ink, it is a good idea to
try to understand what the mistakes are all about. Another important question
is to try to correct one’s own errors.
FR165. Turn 560.
B says that this person may have a look at it when becoming old.
FR166. Turn 559.
A asks if this person uses it as a basis for further work.
FR167. Turn 558.
B says that this person hides it in the folder.
FR168. Turn 557.
A asks what they do with the test.
FR169. Turn 556.
B says that B feels that it has something to do with the subject. It is easier
with subjects that focus on rules, such as mathematics and French. It is more
difficult with, for instance, Geography.
FR170. Turn 555.
A says that if A goes through something before a test, it does not have that
much effect. It is better to do this afterwards when one is more receptive.
FR171. Turn 554.
B says that when B writes something B is insecure about, it is possible to
check afterwards to find out what is correct. After the test, B verifies.
FR172. Turn 553.
A replies that A tries to give them back within a week.
FR173. Turn 552.
B says that B goes through and looks at the mistakes. B rewrites sentences.
B says that if B sees that there is a good deal of red ink, B does not have
the energy to go through it. Less red ink means more attention to the mistakes.
B tells A to use different colours, and to vary the colours. B says that if
B has felt that things have gone nicely, it is a pity when B sees what the
misunderstandings have all been about. It is very important when B receives
the test back. In mathematics, the tests are returned quickly. It is important
to get it back quickly. One month is too long.
FR174. Turn 551.
A asks what is the first thing B looks at.
FR175. Turn 550.
B says that B looks through the mistakes.
FR176. Turn 549.
A says that they were going to talk about the opposite compared with the
previous session. A says that it was about learning from one’s mistakes. Some
people make a mistake several times, some learn, and some learn from others
as in other aspects of life. A says A calls the test “learning tests”. One
wants to do most things correctly to start with, but one occasionally makes
mistakes. A says in French “On va terminer ensemble” 1. A asks what B does
when B gets something back.
Session 13
A says that the first thing that would happen would be that B would be fetched
by car. A wonders what B would have been asked about first. A wonders what
1
We are going to finish together.
14
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
is most important. A wonders what kind of questions they normally ask to
start with.
FR177. Turn 548.
B suggests “Have you had a nice trip?”
FR178. Turn 547.
A asks if B knows how this is said in French. One way of saying this would
be “Le voyage, c’est bien passé?” A states that perhaps they would also ask
if B had to get up early as well. A says that it is possible to practise
these comments in advance. B could present something about B and B’s family,
or use pictures from Stavanger. Something important to think about is that B
may be paralysed if B has not prepared well. It is important to overcome the
first difficult part. Sometimes this can be done through role plays and, by
doing this, it is possible to talk about things for which one is prepared. A
mentions the rules pertaining to the use of bonjour and bonsoir, since not
using the correct phrase may seem strange on certain occasions. A uses an
example from some learners who had used bonjour when it was undoubtedly
evening, and this had caused some giggling on that occasion. A’s experience
had been that it is important to get started, and that it is important to
prepare for the situation. The tension is important.
FR179. Turn 546.
B says that B would have explained a little about B. B would also have asked
questions to the hosts about the same issues, and B would have prepared these
questions in advance.
FR180. Turn 545.
A asks how B would behave when there.
FR181. Turn 544.
B says that B can write down phrases.
FR182. Turn 543.
A replies that with the actual level in French, it is possible to read. B
may, for instance, read Harry Potter. A mentions basic reading strategies. A
also says that reading film reviews in advance is a useful method to get an
idea about what the movie is about. A asks B to think about a possible trip
to Vichy in the third grade. A asks B to think about what B can do in advance
in order to prepare a visit in a family. A wonders what B can do if B is to
spend time alone in the family.
FR183. Turn 542.
B says that reading about Coco Chanel in French would be a good idea.
FR184. Turn 541.
A says that A believes that French people work there, and that they speak
French. A asks what B thought about the movie. A asks in French: Qu’est-ce
qu’on va faire pour se préparer? 2 A wonders what it would be OK to learn
something about, and what would be interesting.
FR185. Turn 540.
B says that B wants to make sure that they actually speak French there.
FR186. Turn 539.
A says that it is much better if B can say things in French. All learners
should have to speak French as their goal.
FR187. Turn 538.
B asks if one should speak French only.
FR188. Turn 537.
A provides B with some examples of how to ask about the price in French. A
then asks if B has more ideas. A says that A hopes that it would be possible
2
What shall we do to get prepared?
15
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
to go to the café before the summer vacation. A asks B if B looks forward to
it.
FR189. Turn 536.
B says that expressions such as asking how much something costs are important.
FR190. Turn 535.
A asks what kind of expressions.
FR191. Turn 534.
B says that asking for the price is a useful topic.
FR192. Turn 533.
A asks what kind of expressions.
FR193. Turn 532.
B says that B needs expressions, not only reading and engaging in rote
learning.
FR194. Turn 531.
A says that they had been discussing ordering in restaurants and cafés.
FR195. Turn 530.
B says that it could be possible to study two relevant chapters in the textbook that deal with relevant topics.
FR196. Turn 529.
A says that preparing and testing a role-play prior to the visit could be
useful.
FR197. Turn 528.
B proposes that working with a role-play first could be a useful method.
FR198. Turn 527.
A summarises this as the concepts B needs for what they sell in the café.
FR199. Turn 526.
B responds that it is important to start with the basics, such as finding
out what B needs. In the case of the visit to the café, this would imply
learning the words for ingredients, food, etc. In the case of the movie, this
preparatory work would include having a look at certain topics, history, etc.
FR200. Turn 525.
A asks B what B could do in order to plan the above-mentioned language
activities. A says that, irrespective of whether it is a visit to a café or
watching a movie, we may think through what we can do to get the most out of
it. Those who excel in French do things on their own. In school, much time
is lost through different activities that come about, so B has to spend time
on B’s own practising the language if B wants to achieve good results. That
is why A wants to discuss with B what B could do before going to the Café
Français. A askes in French: “Est-ce que tout le monde connaît le Café
Français?” 3 A requests B to work in small groups or pairs, discussing how B
can plan the visit to the café, and watching the movie to get the most out
of it. A says that today they will talk more about how to learn. A says that
it is necessary to do something active. A mentions the fact that they had
talked about eating at a French café. A says that if B used this situation
for preparation, today’s strategy can be applied in a setting they had already
discussed. In this way, the visit to the café will be more beneficial. They
had also planned to watch a movie. A says that they would also look at how
to prepare this forthcoming language activity. The café they had planned to
visit is the Café Français in the centre of Stavanger. A reviews the main
aspects of this session’s learning strategy, i.e. the importance of planning
a forthcoming language activity carefully. A outlines the basic principle of
identifying the topic, then analysing one’s own resources in order to discover
3
Does everybody know the Café Français?
16
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
points that can be improved, then trying to learn new words and expressions
in order to fill these gaps, and finally identifying instruments that can be
used as support while carrying out the activity. A uses the forthcoming visit
to the Café Français as an example; when planning a visit to this café, it
is important to identify the topic, for instance in terms of knowing that it
is not a furniture shop they will be visiting, and therefore words relating
to this field will not be of any relevance.
Session 12
A summarises the importance of being aware of one’s purpose when doing
something, and that it may be useful every once in a while to ask oneself
about the reason for doing something.
FR201. Turn 524.
B says that one learns by listening to the language in the environment. B
states that the Danish visitors had not been that keen to learn something
here. B says that B had seen clear differences, and that B thought that they
would get something out of it. B says that if one knows what one wants to
say on a trip, it is easier to learn. B says that when they came to our family
here, it was difficult to understand. This was the same experience as in
Switzerland. One has to take one’s time. B says that B’s father has been to
this place in Denmark and gathered some pictures from the place.
FR202. Turn 523.
A asks if B had thought about the learning potential of such a trip.
FR203. Turn 522.
B says that the purpose of this trip is to enhance understanding between
Scandinavians. B says that it is difficult to understand the pedagogical
nature about going to Denmark. B says that they are going to consider the
differences between Danish and Norwegian in a project. B says that B is keen
on going on holiday. B says that they will not be learning anything by going
to Denmark. B says that it had been a very social experience having them
visiting on a previous occasion.
FR204. Turn 521.
A says that they were going to talk about a forthcoming trip to Denmark. This
trip is part of a cooperation between the school and a school in Denmark,
and they had already had visitors from Denmark. A wants to use this trip as
an example of how cultural understanding can be developed, and B would go to
France at a later stage. Because of this trip to France in the future, A
wants to illustrate how a trip abroad can be used for learning purposes.
FR205. Turn
B says that
to rehearse
subjects is
520.
B would be working with a role-play next year. B has not started
yet. B says that the big difference between French and other
that one is less confident about what one wants to say.
FR206. Turn 519.
A says that they would be working with “civilization” next year.
FR207. Turn 518.
B replies that the goal was important for B, and B says that what has already
been studied is important for B.
FR208. Turn 517.
A asks if B focused on what B had already studied when writing and preparing
something, or if B rather focused on the goal of what B was preparing.
FR209. Turn 516.
17
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
B says that presentations are something B learns a good deal from. B has to
talk, B has to get prepared, B gets questions, and B listens to others. B
says that B is very fond of making something on one’s own. It is useful to
be able to present it without restraint. It is important to force oneself
into seeing how sentences are built up. B says that when presenting something
orally, B has to understand what the others say. B must be able to match
circumstances to something that happens. B says that B has to build up a
vocabulary. B says that what they had now was a presentation, whereas in
lower secondary school they had had plays.
FR210. Turn 515.
A says that they were going to talk about the purpose of what they were doing
for the time being.
FR211. Turn 514.
B works a little in small groups, discussing the purpose of the presentations.
FR212. Turn 513.
A says that it means having a goal for learning. To be able to understand
French. The ones who take this seriously will get a richer life. A says that
it is important to be able to think about what we do. A emphasises the
importance of defining the purpose of what we are doing, and that this has
to be seen in light of what we discussed in the previous session in terms of
goals. A says that they are working with some presentations in French, and
that they are going to use these as examples. A reminds B of the fact that
they had had homework with verbs yesterday. A asks B about the purpose of
the homework. A asks B to think about the goals discussed in the previous
session and to consider if the presentations fit into these topics in any
way.
FR213. Turn 512.
B says that it means being aware of how B learns in order to be most effective.
FR214. Turn 511.
A asks what it means to have a strategy.
FR215. Turn 510.
B says that it means having goals.
FR216. Turn 509.
A says that we are going to talk about metacognitive learning strategies
again. A asks B if B could explain the meaning of the concept “metacognitive
learning strategies”.
Session 11
A again emphasises the importance of being aware of one’s goals for the
purpose of defining the road towards learning.
FR217. Turn 508.
B says that the book has a good deal of focus on colloquial written language.
FR218. Turn 507.
A asks whether B had done anything particular, and if B had written a card
to Geneva. A points out that again it is important to set individual goals.
FR219. Turn 506.
B says that B had been on Facebook and that B had found some French people
online.
FR220. Turn 505.
A says that this is organised in some schools.
18
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR221. Turn 504.
B says that having a pen friend would have been nice.
FR222. Turn 503.
A says that A had seen friends who come together to practise French together.
A then asks about writing skills.
FR223. Turn 502.
B says that on one occasion in lower secondary school they were only supposed
to speak French, but that B did not have sufficient vocabulary to do so.
FR224. Turn 501.
A asks about speech production. A wonders what they can do to be better
communicators and what is required. A states that what is being done in school
is not enough. A wonders if B had done anything specific towards that end,
apart from being present during the sessions and doing homework.
FR225. Turn 500.
B replies that B does not know whether B wants to read a lot of technical
material. B says that B wants to be able to read French literature in French.
FR226. Turn 499.
A asks if B has further comments on reading. A asks B what B wants in this
respect.
FR227. Turn 498.
B replies that B understood signs.
FR228. Turn 497.
A asks B about signs in Geneva.
FR229. Turn 496.
B replies that B had not read. B was in France a couple of years ago with a
friend. B bought a children’s book.
FR230. Turn 495.
A asks if B knew the name of some authors.
FR231. Turn 494.
B says that it would be nice to be able to read literature, but possibly
difficult to achieve. B says that what B had seen so far of poetry and
literature had been incredible. The language is consistent with the desire
to express oneself poetically. B states that B has developed the urge to read
literature in French.
FR232. Turn 493.
A asks about reading and if B had intended to be able to read technical
material and books.
FR233. Turn 492.
B reports about a stay in France. B had talked in the family about leisure
time, school, etc.
FR234. Turn 491.
A mentions tourism.
FR235. Turn 490.
B says that B sometimes stops if there are words in class. B says that the
goal is to understand most of what is being said. Today B understands some
words.
19
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR236. Turn 489.
A asks what B thought about listening. A raises the issue about the foreign
channels, and says that it is sometimes possible to watch French movies, and
sometimes with an African accent.
FR237. Turn 488.
B says that B thinks that B possibly learns something that may be useful in
the future.
FR238. Turn 487.
A explains the rationale behind fill-in exercises.
FR239. Turn 486.
B replies that it depends on the situation. Fill-in exercises are easily
completed, whereas bigger projects require more focus on what has to be
learned.
FR240. Turn 485.
A emphasises the importance of knowing about the objectives of one’s actions
and that this is also important when it comes to language learning. A says
that it is important to have goals set for teaching and strategies for
achieving these goals. It is important to know what B wants to learn and what
kind of objectives B has. A explains how the learners were going to use the
sheets that were to be distributed. A says that they were going to work with
a project, and B should relate this session’s activity to this project as
much as possible. A tells B to work in small groups, discussing the questions
outlined. A says that the different groups should present what they had been
discussing. A mentions awareness and asks if B thinks much about the fact
that B is heading towards a goal, if B wants to learn French at a certain
level.
FR241. Turn 484.
B answers that this is about planning and knowing about one’s own learning
process.
FR242. Turn 483.
A writes “metacognitive learning strategies” on the blackboard. A asks if B
remembers what this was all about.
Session 10
FR243. Turn 482.
B says that there is a good study room and library, but that the air in the
classrooms is bad sometimes, and that the classrooms may be cold.
FR244. Turn 481.
A asks about the learning environment at the school.
FR245. Turn 480.
B says that B learns more from simply reading than writing. B says that B
learns better by working directly with the text.
FR246. Turn 479.
A comments on notes and a verbal report book. A asks how many of B actually
write systematic verbal reports.
FR247. Turn 478.
B says that B has no systematic way of doing this. B says that it depends on
how one plans things. B says that one should not talk in too advanced a manner
20
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
when giving presentations. B says that it is important to think through the
kinds of questions that could be asked and to be better prepared.
FR248. Turn 477.
A says that experiencing success in this way is a good feeling.
FR249. Turn 476.
B states that B’s experience had been that teaching others had been beneficial
for B’s own learning.
FR250. Turn 475.
A says that it was A’s experience that one learns a good deal from teaching
others.
FR251. Turn 474.
B says that it is important to be able to have something to reach for, and
this is a consequence of working together with someone better than oneself.
FR252. Turn 473.
A asks if there is any use in working with someone who is weaker than oneself.
FR253. Turn 472.
B replies that it can be an advantage to work with a learner who is weaker
than oneself, since this will be more demanding and B will be presented in a
better light. B states that there is a big difference between lower secondary
school and upper secondary school. In upper secondary school, there is less
difference between the pupils, since they are more at the same level. In
lower secondary school, there was much more difference between the levels of
the pupils. Working together is a good way of getting experience. B says that
it is also good to work together with someone who is better than B.
FR254. Turn 471.
A asks if it is worthwhile working with others.
FR255. Turn 470.
B replies that it is important to start early and organise things well. If
one is to present something in Norwegian classes, it is important to
distribute the work on the different topics. B says that it is important to
think about what one is doing. B says that if there is any difference in the
learners’ level, it will have consequences for the individual learner. B
states that one has to accept the fact that things are done in different ways
by different people.
FR256. Turn 469.
A asks what B felt was important when doing project work.
FR257. Turn 468.
B says that it is important to communicate, to make agreements, and to make
sure that all the learners involved work on the same topic. B says that it
is useful to spend time efficiently in school to avoid things having to be
done just before the test.
FR258. Turn 467.
A asks if anyone writes down things word by word, or if they try to create
sentences with words. A also asks how it is possible to work together on a
project. A wonders how is it possible to avoid lack of justice.
FR259. Turn 466.
B says that B did the same as the others; B uses rote learning to learn new
words.
21
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR260. Turn 465.
A asks if B had any other comments regarding preparation work.
FR261. Turn 464.
B replies that B does not do this to a large extent, but that it is done in
B’s own way. B writes down the things B does not understand the meaning of.
B also figures out whether B would be able to say this in French, and then
tries to write it down in French.
FR262. Turn 463.
A asks what the learner felt about this. A mentions that they had talked
about writing down words. A asks what kind of words B usually writes down.
FR263. Turn 462.
B says that B rehearses grammar, looks at the text, and does the exercises.
FR264. Turn 461.
A confirms that it is important to work on a regular basis and to do homework
all the time. A wonders if B had more ideas regarding preparation work.
FR265. Turn 460.
B says that it is important to work on a regular basis and to do the exercises
beforehand.
FR266. Turn 459.
A suggests that visiting friends could be a good way to seek practice
opportunities and that this could provide opportunities to study for a test
together. A states that the plan later on is to talk more about writing
vocabulary.
FR267. Turn 458.
B says that they have to learn the rules, practise the text, and then revise
the whole thing once again. B says that it is possible to read out the text
for the others to translate. B says that B’s mother knows some French and
that she feels like helping out every once in a while. On these occasions,
she reads out a Norwegian text, and B translates it for practice.
FR268. Turn 457.
A asks how B can prepare for a forthcoming test.
FR269. Turn 456.
B works in pairs, discussing the first three items on the list of suggestions
for implementing today’s metacognitive learning strategy.
FR270. Turn 455.
A asks about the physical environment and conditions and if B could think of
any issues B would raise in that respect. A tells B to focus on A, B and C,
but that it would be possible to talk about other items as well in case B
feels this would be relevant. A tells B to get organised in small groups for
the discussion of the items. A comments on the specific nature of today’s
strategy, i.e. organising one’s work and/or making sure that the learning
environment is good. B needs to practise the use of aids. A then refers to
task B (preparing project work), and says that this will be presented in
French. A also comments on the learning of vocabulary and that it is important
to spend time on how one works with vocabulary. A remarks that they were
going to try without it this time, but that they were going to use it later.
FR271. Turn 454.
B asks if the use of aids is allowed when taking tests at school.
FR272. Turn 453.
22
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
A replies that they had been working with the ‘passé compose’ and the use of
être and avoir 4 in this respect.
FR273. Turn 452.
B asks what kind of grammar they had to study prior to the test.
FR274. Turn 451.
A distributes the tasks presented in the last part of the description of
today’s session. A also asks how B prepared.
Session 9
FR275. Turn 450.
B says that it is not good if the conscious use of language learning strategies
becomes demotivating. B felt that what needs to be done is pretty obvious
and logical, so spending time on determining language learning strategies
prior to a task is a waste of time and is demotivating. B found that SBI
should be directly and specifically related to the teaching as such. B says
that B does not spend time on thinking about what has to be learned.
FR276. Turn 449.
A refers to theory in the field in the sense that the debate around SBI is
exactly whether it is worthwhile spending time on it, since it takes away
time from actually working with the language. Nevertheless, the theory claims
that spending time on SBI could be a useful way of enhancing learning outcomes
in the subject, and that this would compensate for the time spent on SBI.
Political guidelines in the field (the curriculum) state that metacognition
is important for Norwegian foreign language learners.
FR277. Turn 448.
B says that, in a group of two learners, B had discussed that too much focus
on learning strategies may spoil the joy of learning. It may be strenuous to
focus too much on it. Some of it comes naturally, and it may not be that
useful to focus only on how to learn things. B says that B had reflected more
on what B had done with language learning previously. It was useful to become
more aware of it. B states that they have talked about what they have done
previously. B says that some strategies are good. B says that learning a
language implies working with what is interesting to B, such as reading a
good book in English. B states that B had worked a lot with Paris and learned
a lot from it. Reading poems may be useful and structural understanding is
important.
FR278. Turn 447.
A starts the session by once more defining the concepts of metacognition and
language learning according to the curriculum. This implies explaining the
relationship between the main area language learning and the other two areas,
i.e. communication and language, culture and society. A tells them to work
with the task individually, and then discuss it together afterwards.
Session 8
A refers to the dichotomy between declarative and procedural knowledge on
this strategy: declarative knowledge is when one is able to state that delayed
speech is a method that can be used to focus upon certain aspects of the
language spoken by others in order to focus attention. Procedural knowledge
is the ability to actually do this in a given and relevant situation. A plays
the recorded text A talked about in the first part of the session.
FR279. Turn 446.
4
To be and to have.
23
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
B states that B has family in Bolivia and says that when B goes to Bolivia
it takes B a week to get into the language, although B actually uses some
sentences before B reaches that stage. B has had the same experience in
Portugal even though B does not speak Portuguese as such. Nevertheless, B
understands some Portuguese and needs some time to adapt when going to
Portugal. B states that B is bilingual, but did not define her second
language. B says that B is completely bilingual and does not need any time
to adapt to circumstances when in the other country.
FR280. Turn 445.
A encourages B to come forward with B’s example.
FR281. Turn 444.
B states that, when in Finland, B always needs some time to adapt to the
Finnish language before B dares to use it. B reports that B has family in
Finland, and B asks if it would be relevant to mention an episode from this
experience, even though it is not taken from a French setting.
FR282. Turn 443.
A mentions that actually talking is a way of increasing motivation in the
subject, especially since one feels the need for learning more. A asks if B
has ever been in a situation where B had decided that B would solely focus
on active listening in order to learn more. A mentions the fact that watching
movies could be a method, as well as listening to the radio. When doing that,
a strategy is to decide in advance what to focus upon and then use this
situation as an exercise. A comments that this method can be used as training,
so that real life situations with native interlocutors can be more beneficial
to B. Even if watching a movie or listening to the radio does not mean that
B is engaged in a dialogue, it still may be used as an exercise to practise
listening skills in many ways.
FR283. Turn 442.
B explains that B had once had a visit from French teachers at their school.
On that occasion, they had not been allowed to talk English, and the teachers
had been understanding in the way they had approached the Norwegian learners.
B relates that during the summer holiday B and B’s family had travelled to
Nice on the spur of the moment. They had experienced some practical problems,
and B had to cope with these difficulties in French. She actually managed to
construct some simple sentences in French to sort things out.
FR284. Turn 441.
A suggests to B that B perhaps felt more satisfied with having tried, as
opposed to a situation where B had not spoken at all because of B’s uncertainty
in the language.
FR285. Turn 440.
B agrees that it had been great fun to cope in the situation in French, and
B felt that B had learned a lot from actually trying.
FR286. Turn 439.
A says that A would end this session with a recording taken from the text
book in order to let B listen to a text as an exercise. A explains that the
principle is for B to focus on what is being said and to try to grasp some
aspects of the language as a way of exemplifying this learning strategy. A
comments on the fact that there might be poor English teachers in France. In
this respect, A mentions the fact that learning strategies could be an issue
here. If people deliberately choose to use delayed speech as a method in
order to focus on what is being said, this may be considered to be a learning
strategy people can use in order to enhance learning. Nevertheless, if this
is simply an excuse and a pretext for not speaking out of fear, it is not a
metacognitive learning strategy according to our definition of the concept.
24
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
So if French people do not speak English, but simply write it well, the
discussion would be whether delayed speech can be used as an excuse for 40
years of not daring to speak. Delayed speech is a learning strategy if it is
used for a certain amount of time and with a purpose. The same would apply
in a classroom setting: it would not be possible to call it a learning
strategy if learners choose not to speak in class simply because they fear
making mistakes and making fools of themselves, or if they simply want to
withdraw from participation.
FR287. Turn 438.
B relates this theory to French people’s lack of ability to speak English.
FR288. Turn 437.
A comments that a child would scream and not be able to talk during the first
phase. A presents the theory on delayed speech production. A says that most
people would agree that this is not the right method to use, but when comparing
this theory with how children develop their speech, it may be possible to
see a connection. A wonders what B thinks about this issue. B has already
been engaged in speaking the language since B started learning it, so B might
have some ideas.
FR289. Turn 436.
B replies that B hears the language in the environment and picks up what is
possible.
FR290. Turn 435.
A asks B how B goes about learning B’s mother tongue.
Session 7
FR291. Turn 434.
B suggests the use of the right accent in Grèce 5 and Norvège 6 and norvégienne 7,
the spelling of touristes 8 vs tourists 9, some preposition issues and the
pronunciation of the /s/ in ils habitent 10. B also mentions the semantic use
of rencontrer 11. When discussing the pair Elle habite à Oslo. C’est en
Norvège 12, this exercise also generated a discussion of whether it would be
possible to use il y a instead of c’est in C’est en Norvège.
FR292. Turn 433.
A points out which part of the sentence was particularly relevant according
to the introduction to the exercise, i.e. nationality, close past and time
expressions.
FR293. Turn 432.
B works in pairs translating the Norwegian sentences into French.
FR294. Turn 431.
A summarises the autumn term and
that the task B will work with is
working with recently. A tells B to
to today’s session. A writes some
5
Greece.
Norway.
Norwegian (f).
8
Tourists (f).
9
Tourists (m).
10
They live.
11
To meet.
12
She lives in Oslo. It is in Norway.
6
7
25
introduces this session’s task. A states
a translation based on a text B had been
relate the main topics of this translation
key words on the blackboard to take into
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
account: nationality, close past and time expressions. A tells B to pay
special attention to these factors.
Session 6
A says that the task is in a book, 1. Grade French. A states that this says
something about the vocabulary, and sorts things out in advance. A tells B
to think about where a given text is taken from.
FR295. Turn 430.
B answers “know the words” in terms of text 2. B mentions remembering the
passé composé, and knowing how to formulate words in French.
FR296. Turn 429.
A sums up the significance of metacognition for learning and gives more
results. A suggests using B’s own resources and getting more out of the tasks.
A suggests making the activity more active. A compares this process with a
spell checker at the PC. A emphasises the conscious relationship to the
activity and the responsibility for B’s own learning.
FR297. Turn 428.
B answers “know the words”.
FR298. Turn 427.
A wonders about vocabulary in terms of Text 1.
FR299. Turn 426.
B answers the participle.
FR300. Turn 425.
A asks “what else?”.
FR301. Turn 424.
B answers “Know how to conjugate avoir 13”.
FR302. Turn 423.
A mentions knowing what passé compose is and wonders what we have to know.
FR303. Turn 422.
B answers “Knowing passé compose and auxiliary verbs (conjugation according
to person)”.
FR304. Turn 421.
A confirms this and wonders what we need to do the task.
FR305. Turn 420.
B answers that it is easier to fill-in the words.
often one rule that needs to be practised.
B states that there is
FR306. Turn 419.
A wonders what B associates with fill-in the blanks tasks.
FR307. Turn 418.
B answers “Question words”.
FR308. Turn 417.
A asks B: “What else?”
FR309. Turn 416.
13
To have.
26
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
B answers conjugations,
expressions.
provided
that
there
are
familiar
words
and
FR310. Turn 415.
A remarks that more skills are required when answering questions,. A wonders
how we can use associations.
FR311. Turn 414.
B answers “understand the text”. B suggests the use of free texts with the
passé compose and not only fill-in the blanks.
FR312. Turn 413.
A remarks automatised knowledge, and that practice creates perfection. A
wonders about a text.
FR313. Turn 412.
B answers “Learn the passé compose, maintain previous knowledge. Get it into
the fingers”.
FR314. Turn 411.
A relates declarative/procedural knowledge to the above-mentioned task. A
says that metacognition is used in order to make learning more efficient, and
that they will be working with a total of 11 metacognitive learning strategies
during the year. A writes on the blackboard: Why do we carry out an
activity/task? What do we need in order to accomplish the activity?
Association/use previous knowledge.
FR315. Turn 410.
B discusses what metacognition is all about.
FR316. Turn 409.
A says “Repetition of metacognition”.
FR317. Turn 408.
B answers that they had constructed a situation, and focused on the strategies
that could be used in practical situations.
FR318. Turn 407.
A states two exercises with practical, daily language, and the passé compose,
in addition to one fill-in-the-blanks, and one answer to the questions. A
states that this is homework for the following day. A asks what they did last
time and why.
Session 5 14
A acknowledges that what kind of mistakes one makes depends on the situation,
and whether it went OK or not OK. The best thing is to get home with a feeling
that one managed to say something. It is then possible to use this for further
enhancement of knowledge. One did not come home without CD’s. If things fail,
the question one may ask oneself is: What did I do that made the situation
fail? A says that we have now worked with metacognition in practice. First,
we started with the declarative part, the theory of what it is, and then we
worked with the procedural part in terms of how metacognition can be
praictised.
FR319. Turn 406.
B says that it depends on what happens when B does it. B states that when B
has difficulties explaining something to another person who does not
14
The other teacher present.
27
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
understand, B has to find out what kind of mistakes B made. B may also ask
A.
FR320. Turn 405.
A says that it is a good strategy to say that: “I am Norwegian and I am
learning French”. French people think it is very nice that foreigners learn
French. A mentions the fact that it is possible and useful to learn some
standard phrases that can be used in all situations, for example if you cannot
find the way, if you want cheap CD’s, or if you want to play boule. A asks B
what B would do afterwards to get the most out of what B has done.
FR321. Turn 404.
B says that it is important not to stress because one then easily forgets
things. B states that it is important to take time to make mistakes and
correct oneself. B says that B would have smiled properly and said that B is
from Norway.
FR322. Turn 403.
A says that this may be easier when you simply want to pay for something. It
would have been different if B had to ask for something.
FR323. Turn 402.
B relates that B had once been in France with a friend, and they had imagined
a whole conversation with the person at the counter. It ended up with B just
saying “hello” and how much it cost. B paid and then left.
FR324. Turn 401.
A says that there are good places down south. A tells B to remember that if
B goes to Paris, it may be difficult to find people to play boule with.
FR325. Turn 400.
B remembers a book in the tenth grade with a lot of boule included, and with
several cities listed.
FR326. Turn 399.
A says that B is then not in Paris.
FR327. Turn 398.
B says that B would simply have gone up to the people playing boule and said
“Bonjour”.
FR328. Turn 397.
A says that the best thing to do in normal conversations is to give people a
note where it says exactly what people have to answer. This would have been
very easy. Perhaps it does not work that well in practical life. B is now in
France and is inside this CD store. A wonders what B does when B has to
prepare. A states that B has prepared in the ways B has stated, and then B
is inside the store. A wonders what happens.
FR329. Turn 396.
B says that B would have had someone ask questions to make B answer unprepared.
FR330. Turn 395.
A asks if B would have played out dialogues with people.
FR331. Turn 394.
B says that if B analyses some dialogues, B would also have people ask
questions.
FR332. Turn 393.
A says that cooperation makes B better.
28
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR333. Turn 392.
B says that B can find some other learners to play boule with during the
breaks.
FR334. Turn 391.
A says that if B imagines a dialogue, B imagines whole sentences. If B has
many words, it is not always easy for B to know how to use them. However, it
is easier if B has sentences.
FR335. Turn 390.
B would also have read through the textbook, in which there are many good
expressions.
FR336. Turn 389.
A asks if B would have created a fictive dialogue.
FR337. Turn 388.
B says that it is also possible to imagine a conversation with the other
person and then talk to oneself, pretending that B talks to the other person.
FR338.
A says
useful
French
Turn 387.
that it is OK to have the cultural understanding that some words are
to know, but it is not always easy to use them. A states that school
and everyday French are two different aspects.
FR339. Turn 386.
B says that it is possible to watch movies. B says that people use words in
some American movies that are not used on an everyday basis, such as fuck.
In everyday life, people would have reacted if someone had mentioned such a
word.
FR340. Turn 385.
A asks how B would have solved this. A asks where B would have gone to get
help.
FR341. Turn 384.
B says learning words and expressions they use, since the book presents a
good deal of formal material. This refers to oral language and pronunciation.
FR342. Turn 383.
A asks B where B would have gone to talk about everyday words and expressions.
A says that there is a difference between being visual or auditive in terms
of preferences. A asks about other activities prior to the trip.
FR343. Turn 382.
B suggests the acquisition of words, expressions and phrases that can be used
to get to know people when playing boule. It is also useful to learn some
general words and expressions in order to be able to talk normally. B states
that the Internet, e.g. You tube, is a useful tool to find relevant linguistic
material.
FR344. Turn 381.
A suggests getting some cultural insight. A says it is a good idea to use
music to think about how people may say it in France.
FR345. Turn 380.
B says that B has to learn how to buy something when going to a store. Basic
courtesy also comes in handy. B states that B learns this in the textbook. B
also refers to looking for some French music shops on the Internet in order
29
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
to see if there are expressions that are much used. B also suggests exchange
rates, and how expensive things are in France.
FR346. Turn 379.
A says that the most important thing is to find something B wants to learn.
A asks what B wants to do before B leaves.
FR347. Turn 378.
B says that B would also look for CD’s in a store. B would have found a
bakery. B says that B would have asked about the way. B says that B would
like to play boule with French people. B says looking for cheap CD’s. B says
a café and clothes store in Paris.
FR348. Turn 377.
A says that understanding is a combination of declarative and procedural
knowledge, or applied understanding. A tells B to apply this at a specific
level. A tells B to imagine that B is in France and that B has to use
strategies to get out of these situations. B has to think in cultural terms,
that Paris is different from the countryside. B is to use the cultural aspect.
B is to think what B finds interesting according to B’s competence and level
in order to develop these aspects.
FR349. Turn 376.
B wonders if it is wrong to write “understanding” as a definition of
procedural knowledge.
FR350. Turn 375.
A says that one understands the causal relationships. A agrees with this,
that it is rather procedural. A says that sports is the best example, because
B sees it easily. When B studies theory pertaining to sports, one learns
declarative knowledge. A states that B normally runs around. This is
procedural knowledge in terms of engaging in activities and actually using
one’s body, not sitting down with the books, but actually carrying it out. A
describes this as the difference between the two.
FR351. Turn 374.
B says that even if you have learned all the years of the battles of WWII,
it does not mean that you understand why these battles happened. B thinks
that the procedural part is understanding the connections.
FR352. Turn 373.
A says that if B thinks about the construction of sentences, then this is
declarative knowledge in terms of the subject first and then the verb. That
is declarative knowledge, knowledge about the facts. However, it is still
knowledge B needs in order to be able to talk.
FR353. Turn 372.
B suggests normal facts, such as rote learning of years.
FR354. Turn 371.
A replies that declarative is knowledge about facts.
FR355. Turn 370.
B asks if declarative is about understanding.
FR356. Turn 369.
A says rather practical knowledge, the practice.
FR357. Turn 368.
B says that the procedural part is about understanding.
30
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR358. Turn 367.
A states that one may have tools to use when learning on one’s own. The
topic of the last session was cognition. A asks if B can remember what
cognition was. Cognition is about issues in the brain. It is about
understanding, memory and perception. Cognition is an abstract concept. Today
we are going to talk about metacognition. “Meta” is Greek and means either
“next to” or “beyond”. A asks if B has heard about metacognition before.
Metacognition is a very important feature of the LK06 curriculum, according
to which we are working. Metacognition is about learning about one’s own
learning - to know something about the learning processes, and to be able to
use this information to become better learners. In terms of language learning,
it means to know about how to learn languages and to use this knowledge to
become better language learners. In the first part of the LK06 curriculum,
metacognition is an important aspect in terms of language learning, i.e. to
be able to learn how to learn. B is lucky to be a part of this, since it is
a rather new concept with much focus on it in the modern curricula. The idea
is that learners who know about how to learn, become better learners. B will
become better and will get better grades. A asks if B remembers the difference
between declarative and procedural knowledge. These are two rather important
concepts when working with metacognition. A asks B if anyone remembers what
declarative knowledge means. A defines the two concepts as two opposites,
with declarative knowledge being knowledge about facts, and procedural
knowledge about procedures. Declarative knowledge may be grammar, for
instance how to conjugate to be in the present tense - knowledge about facts
that one possesses. However, being able to use it in a sentence, e.g. being
able to say: “I am a girl” or “I am Norwegian”, is procedural knowledge. Then
you use the knowledge you have. Research shows that one needs both. There
was previously an important focus on declarative knowledge, i.e. grammar,
etc. Now practical knowledge about the rules is becoming more important. One
needs both, just as equations in mathematics. Both parts are equally
important.
FR359. Turn 366.
B states that it is in order to use these methods.
FR360. Turn 365.
A states that we have a reason for doing this.
FR361. Turn 364.
B responds that it easier to learn something new. B becomes more aware about
learning.
FR362. Turn 363.
A states that so far B has worked with an introduction to learning psychology
and learning strategies. A states that important questions have been: Why do
we learn this? What is the usefulness of what we are doing? Why have we
learned about learning strategies? Why have we learned about these methods?
Session 4
FR363. Turn 362.
B says that working out is a good way of having a break. It is easier to
continue working after a workout session. If one gets inspiration beforehand
in terms of a movie or French music that one likes, it may provide motivation
to learn, one understands more, and it may be a reward for having achieved
something good, not only in school.
FR364. Turn 361.
A says yes and that they are going to do more of that. Before Christmas, they
are going to rest a little and go back to the texts. A states that the
31
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
learning curve in this language is not always forwards. Sometimes one may
feel that one is going backwards, and that in the second grade one may feel
that French was easier in the first grade.
FR365. Turn 360.
B says that when B has had a hard time reading a text, B can read something
B has read before, a text that has been reviewed a long time ago. B can then
see that B understands everything, which is a good feeling.
FR366. Turn 359.
A says that this is a good idea they can consider before Christmas. A states
that they will remember that.
FR367. Turn 358.
B makes a cake with a French recipe.
FR368. Turn 357.
A says yes. A states that B then wants to show that B has worked in front of
another person. It is not something just for yourself. That is what languages
are all about, to be able to communicate with others in writing or orally. A
wonders if there is anything B can do here in Stavanger in order to seek
practice opportunities in terms of social strategies. A states that B only
hears French on these lessons, that is unless B takes the initiative on B’s
own. A mentions affective strategies.
FR369. Turn 356.
B says that when B has the A B scheme, when B reads aloud to others, then it
is very nice because B corrects others and finds similarities and mistakes.
B learns a good deal from that.
FR370. Turn 355.
A says that if B wants to learn to swim, B has to be thrown into the ocean.
B then either survives and learns how to swim, or the opposite happens.
FR371. Turn 354.
B says that they received a visit from some French teachers in lower secondary
school. On that occasion, some of the learners showed the visitors around.
They spoke only French and had to communicate.
FR372. Turn 353.
A says that this is one of the major challenges when comparing French and
Spanish, where they have a pronunciation that is more directly related to how
the words are written, and also German, which is easier to pronounce even if
they have some intricacies as well. The Rogaland dialect is an asset because
of the open vowels and the uvular R’s and simple L’. However, in French there
is a discrepancy between the pronunciation and the written language. A states
that they have some challenges there which they meet little by little. A
mentions social strategies as learning strategies.
FR373. Turn 352.
B says that after reading texts in the book, it is useful to use the
expressions there. It is then easier to learn them. In terms of pronunciation,
it is useful to read the text several times, and to think through what kind
of pronunciation rules one knows between each reading. One then discovers
one’s performance and it becomes more and more correct.
FR374. Turn 351.
A says that A recommended yesterday that, when having problems with numbers,
one could write years on a sheet of paper as B had done. B now seems more
confident about numbers. That is one way of doing things, namely get to
understand one’s weaknesses, use feedback to learn from one’s mistakes, remove
32
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
the mistakes, and become more confident. This is the learners’ own
responsibility and is a good strategy. A wonders if there are more comments
about cognitive strategies.
FR375. Turn 350.
B says that this is very much related to what B usually does in the sessions.
If they have a new verb form, an irregular verb, they repeat that form by
using fill-in-the blanks, or they write sentences in order to use the verb
in different forms. B also states that B looks up items in a dictionary that
B sees but does not understand, thereby trying to learn them. B states that
when B writes long texts or simply sentences, B tries to challenge oneself
and try new things, perusing in the book to see if there are things B can
use. B thinks this is a good learning method.
FR376. Turn 349.
A says that it is basically French, but that it is possible to mention other
languages as well. A states that they are going to see if B has understood
these concepts, that B is able to systematise them. In the next session, they
will talk more about theoretical explanations of learning strategies. In the
last session before Christmas and the rest of the spring, they will work with
one strategy at a time. Quite specifically, B will learn declaratively that
when I am to learn X, I have to do this and that. They will practise this in
the sessions, or in connection with homework or other things B is doing. They
will work with 11 strategies, and the same principle as with language
learning. They need to be able to state what the learning strategy is all
about declaratively and B needs to be able to use the strategy in practice,
that is procedurally. In that event, it would apply to homework, or a book
B may have read in school connected to these sessions on learning strategies.
B would then have a theoretical background in language learning that would
constitute the basis for specific work with specific learning strategies and
practice related to these during the spring semester. They will establish a
link between the declarative and the procedural aspects of language learning
strategies. They will use these concepts and become more aware of different
learning strategies related to what they are doing. A states that they have
explained what cognitive means.
FR377. Turn 348.
B asks if it is only French, or also other languages.
FR378. Turn 347.
A says learning, and that they talked about recipes. It is then actually
doing it. In French, it must be to learn things, grammar and vocabulary, and
then the procedural aspect that they are able to communicate in French. This
is what they practise every lesson, whether you know it or not. Today they
will also work with three other concepts. They will talk about the so-called
strategies, namely ways to proceed. They will talk about cognitive (writes
cognitive on the blackboard), which they call
“cognitive learning
strategies”, many nice words. The subject has to do with pedagogy and
psychology. B may come across the word later as well. Writes “learning
strategies” on the blackboard. One is called cognitive, one is called social,
a concept B may have heard before. They will return to these concepts. Let’s
write these three down first. They will look at similarities and differences.
Then they have the so-called affective, affection. When one learns a language,
there are many ways to learn the procedural and the declarative. Anything you
do in order to achieve learning is a strategy, since you do something in
order to achieve something else. Many different strategies may be used, but
they have used three today that B will become further acquainted with. Today
they will systematise the strategies B has come up with so far, even if B
will not learn anything completely new today since this has been the topic
of previous lessons. Cognitive strategies are used in order to understand
something, understand grammatical rules or words. These are the strategies B
33
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
uses to understand grammar and words. These are cognitive strategies, and
cognitive has to do with cognition, and cognition has to do with
understanding, i.e. that one perceives something, acquires something, learns
something. It is thus about understanding, perceiving something, rules in the
language or words. Everything B does to learn or understand words and rules
is a cognitive strategy. One of the goals of grammar teaching is to understand
the overall structures of grammar. It is also to see similarities between
words, as they often talk about words that they recognise from English. This
is a way to understand what may appear to be chaos. Social strategies are
used in order to learn the language in interaction with others. B may ask
the teacher for help, B may go to a school adviser to get help, or B talks
to a friend or travels to the country in order to speak the language. All of
the strategies and methods B uses to practise the language are social
strategies. Affective strategies have to do with affections, that is emotions
and attitudes in relation to something. If a watch has sentimental 15 value,
it is because it means a lot to that person for some reason, not that it has
great economic value. So everything B does to cope with stress and frustration
in the language learning process, for example if B gets stressed because of
some homework, goes out for a walk and returns fresher, then B has used an
affective learning strategy, B has done something specific in order to cope
with the stress. Alternatively, B may decide to watch an interesting movie
after working with homework as a future reward for something B has done in
the language learning process. In that case, B has also used an affective
learning strategy. If B really feels like learning a language, such as French,
it is an affective force, but not a strategy, since it is about motivation.
If B uses it to give oneself a good feeling, it may be considered an affective
learning strategy. The point is to be able to talk about the learning process,
which is why B has to learn these foreign words.
FR379. Turn 346.
B says that procedural is what B can use automatically, and that B can do
it.
FR380. Turn 345.
A writes procedural on the blackboard, procedural learning. A wonders if B
can explain what the difference is between the two.
FR381. Turn 344.
B says declarative and procedural learning, or information or knowledge.
FR382. Turn 343.
A says that B is to work with the task. B is going to fill in and state what
B thinks about the topics they have been dealing with so far. This includes
the two concepts they have been dealing with. A wonders if B remembers these
concepts now, the different kinds of learning that they have been talking
about.
Session 3
A says in terms of the –ent ending, they learned that rather early. When they
started with the first verbs in the present tense and the conjugation of
them, B was made aware about it. B was also made aware that that they know
that it takes a long time to go from declarative knowledge to 100% procedural
knowledge in lower secondary school, which B sees straight away. First B has
to recognise that it is a verb in the present tense, that it is an –e verb.
They also see that there are many things to work with in French. Everything
takes time in terms of expanding B’s vocabulary, expressions, especially
French expressions, grammar, and many topics they have to deal with. However,
they should have looked at it, even if they do not have to look at everything
15
In Norwegian the word used in this expression is «affeksjon», i.e. a word related to affective.
34
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
for so long that they feel completely confident. The same goes for
pronunciation. In French, this is a special challenge. They have three more
sessions before Christmas with this instruction programme, talking about how
to learn languages. The curriculum states that the learners are to be aware
about this. In these sessions, they talk about these issues, and what is
being said is used to drive the scheme forward. Today B has talked much about
the strategies B has to learn vocabulary, grammar etc., what B can
specifically do prior to a language learning activity, homework, or whatever.
Next time they will talk more about learning strategies. They will systematise
them and see what strategies they can use. Some of them have to do with
understanding, while some may need to go to the sources to practise the
language. They will systematise them, and they gain knowledge in terms of
their repertoire to find a suitable strategy for a task or a practice
opportunity. They will subsequently expand on these strategies and consider
specific advice when working towards Christmas and further on during the
spring. Each time they will have one new strategy and then they will look at
what B can do in order to understand what that strategy tells B to do, session
by session. They thus move towards learning specific learning strategies,
with specific strategies for different topics. The goal is for B to have a
repertoire of things B can do next summer in order to help oneself towards
becoming better at French.
FR383. Turn 342.
B says that a good strategy is to talk and then to be corrected, because it
is then easier to remember. B discovers basic pronunciation mistakes. In
addition, there are important rules that need to be learned, such as the
–ent ending in the third person plural. It is not logical, but it simply has
to be learned and remembered. It then becomes automatic.
FR384. Turn 341.
A says yes. A also says that in terms of French pronunciation, it is not
enough with just once. For instance, the fact that the –ent ending in the
third person plural is silent.
FR385. Turn 340.
B says that it is much easier then.
FR386. Turn 339.
A asks if B feels that things become easier then.
FR387. Turn 338.
B says that they had repeated after A.
FR388. Turn 337.
A asks what they had done in the previous session.
FR389. Turn 336.
B says that what they have done so far is to learn the rules for pronunciation.
B then has to talk on B’s own. It helps to talk oneself, for instance in
smaller groups, since it makes people feel more confident.
FR390. Turn 335.
A says that yes, they have had faire 16. They have had venir 17. They have not
spent an hour on each verb. They present them and later discover them in
texts. A states that B will feel the need to use them. B should have registered
that these verbs have a special conjugation, that they are not regular verbs
- –ir verbs as well, as we will see. A wonders about pronunciation. A wonders
about learning the rules and about declarative and procedural knowledge. A
16
17
Do.
Come.
35
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
wonders what they say about best ways to learn this. The great challenge in
French is the discrepancy between the written language and the pronunciation
of many verbs. B thus has to take into account these special features related
to pronunciation.
FR391. Turn 334.
B says that faire is a verb they know.
FR392. Turn 333.
A confirms aller 18. They thus now get the feeling of passive knowledge. If B
had seen this verb, B would have recognised it straight away. However, it is
all about getting it to the fore after two weeks of break. They have looked
at some verbs. A states that B will see the irregular verbs a good deal in
the texts. They are irregular because they are much used. That is why they
have acquired these special forms.
FR393. Turn 332.
B says aller.
FR394. Turn 331.
A says vouloir/pouvoir 19. A wonders if they have looked at these verbs. A
mentions modal auxiliaries and states that they are important. A wonders if
they have looked at other important verbs before the autumn holiday.
FR395. Turn 330.
B says vouloir/pouvoir.
FR396. Turn 329.
A confirms that être 20 was the verb for today. A states that it is an irregular
verb.
FR397. Turn 328.
B says être.
FR398. Turn 327.
A confirms that it is an –e. If there is an –e in the third person when B
sees a verb in a text and the subject is third person singular, a boy or a
girl, and the verbs ends in an –e, B can then conjugate that verb. It is
regular in the present tense, and also in all other tenses. Thus, it is
important to see the patterns, also in grammar, not only learn each verb
individually. A wonders if there are other verbs than the two verbs and the
–e verbs. A wonders if B remembers any of them.
FR399. Turn 326.
B says an –e.
FR400. Turn 325.
A wonders what the ending is in the third person singular of an er-verb.
FR401. Turn 324.
B says that B looks at how it is conjugated.
FR402. Turn 323.
A says that it is important, as they say here that we look at the forms and
then they have some quick exercises, just to try them out. They talked about
er-verbs. More than 90% of all the verbs are regular and are conjugated in
that way. If B knows one er-verb, B may conjugate them all. If one takes away
18
Go.
Want/can.
20
Be.
19
36
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
the er-ending, then B has the stem, and can conjugate them all. This is also
the goal. They will work a good deal with verbs and they will learn to see
the patterns. When B sees a verb B has not seen before, but B sees that it
is an er-verb, how does B notice that if B finds it in a text, for instance
conjugated in the third person present tense? A wonders how B notices if it
is an er-verb.
FR403. Turn 322.
B says that there is much rote learning in terms of grammar, and that there
are many rules. However, it is important to write texts afterwards, fill them
into dialogues, and talk about and use them in tasks.
FR404. Turn 321.
A says that they become acquainted with them through usage and through texts.
FR405. Turn 320.
B says that these do not easily stick in the mind.
FR406. Turn 319.
A says that they have looked at some irregular verbs, the most common
irregular verbs.
FR407. Turn 318.
B says that B has to learn the irregular verbs by heart.
FR408. Turn 317.
A says that if B knows er-verbs, B knows over 90% of all the verbs.
FR409. Turn 316.
B says that B only knows verbal paradigms of être. And the rules of –er verbs.
But B is not good at verbs.
FR410. Turn 315.
A says that it is what B has available when B talks or that B does not have
to look up, perhaps only in order to check the orthography, but B knows the
word. A asks about passive vocabulary. That is also something that B has
learned. If B reads a text, B understands more than B would be able to
reproduce and use procedurally, because B knows what it means when B sees it
in a text, in a certain context. A wonders if B has more to say about
vocabulary, learning, use, and declarative and procedural knowledge. A
mentions learning and use of grammar, declarative and procedural knowledge.
Skills.
FR411. Turn 314.
B says that active is what B uses oneself, whereas passive is what B
understands if B sees the word.
FR412. Turn 313.
A says that B is not the only one who has done this. Then they encounter the
problem of things they have not rehearsed. In that case, B uses things from
lower secondary school, or B tries to find B’s way. They have talked about
the learning of vocabulary. When they work with new texts, they create word
lists, they need oral practice, they have to learn the words, they cannot
simply look them up in dictionaries all the time. They need to have them
present, they need to be able to talk. They often talk about the difference
between passive and active vocabulary. A wonders what B associates with this
difference. A wonders what passive and active vocabulary mean.
FR413. Turn 312.
37
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
B refers to the text B had written about Lars Lillo Steenberg. B does not
talk about the colour of the house, what kind of family members he has, how
many cats he has, and so on.
FR414. Turn 311.
A says that the tasks they have been working with so far are related to the
first chapter, that is talking about oneself, talking about hobbies, and also
representing another person than oneself. There are thus many words and
expressions involved in what they have been working on. B may later use word
lists in a different way, more freely than B has done so far.
FR415. Turn 310.
B says that B has a document and that B scrolls down this page. B says that
when writing texts in French, B has the need to express oneself properly in
order to avoid being ordinary. As a consequence, B wants to learn new words
so that B can better express what B wants to say. When B is writing a text,
B uses items that B does not know beforehand, and B feels that B learns a
good deal from this. B feels that B gets new words to use by reading texts
and looking up.
FR416. Turn 309.
A asks if this can be done on a computer. A asks if B looks at this afterwards.
FR417. Turn 308.
B says that B may take notes and think through the situation.
FR418. Turn 307.
A wonders if B just looks the words up and then closes the book afterwards.
FR419. Turn 306.
B says read texts and look up the words B does not know.
FR420. Turn 305.
A confirms waffles made without a recipe, and they transformed this into
French spoken without a recipe. Many of them may still be on that level. B
has to use the knowledge B has, even if B is not a hundred percent confident.
But it is important to use the knowledge they have. They all make mistakes,
also French people. Sometimes even French people do not have the perfect
recipe when they talk. They will talk about their language and this aspect.
A states that what A has written on the blackboard are things they have been
working with so far this autumn. Much is repetition, as they have recognised
that it is important to repeat things. They talk about learning in terms of
declarative and procedural knowledge, use, methods, vocabulary. They have
talked about how B can learn words and that they are accessible when they
need to be used and to speak the language, also grammar in general terms.
They can have a look at what they have worked most with, which is regular
and irregular verbs, conjugation forms. For the time being, they are only
working with the present tense. You may also work with pronunciation. They
can concentrate on these three aspects. Grammar is more than just verbs. This
is the main focus now. The verbs are the motor in the language. The other
words in the sentence relate to the verbs. In a text, B has to know the verbs.
This is particularly important when they start to look at other tenses. When
doing so, they have to be able to recognise the tenses in the different verb
forms. Work in groups, discuss experiences and opinions and also proposals
in terms of other ways of doing things, if B has prior experiences B wants
to use. Vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. Use a sheet of paper to write
down their results. B may use the books, think through what they have done,
experience beyond the linguistic aspects, what have they learned in theory,
and what have they learned in practice. They have not learned economic
vocabulary, so they do not have to use this. See what they have learned within
the different areas. Passive and active vocabulary. Learning of declarative
38
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
knowledge. And the procedural, which is the use of these words. A wonders
what B has experienced, what ideas B has about how this learning process
should take place. A wonders what the best way is to learn words and
expressions.
FR421. Turn 304.
B says waffles made without a recipe.
FR422. Turn 303.
A says that they used a concept for that. They are not quite sure about the
recipe, but they make something.
FR423. Turn 302.
B says yes, and that if B know parts of the recipe.
FR424. Turn 301.
A asks whether the declarative knowledge is the recipe.
FR425. Turn 300.
B says that waffles made without a recipe are when B knows more or less how
to make waffles without using a recipe, when B knows more or less what to
put into the batter. B can then make something that resembles waffles.
FR426. Turn 299.
A asks what they had said about making waffles. They used these pictures as
a metaphor for learning. Not only languages, but also other things.
FR427. Turn 298.
B says that they had talked about waffles made without a recipe.
FR428. Turn 297.
A says that this is how our memory works. It is not enough to say things once
- things need to be practised. The first thing was declarative. A wonders if
B remembers. A writes declarative knowledge on the blackboard. They talk
about knowledge and they talk about learning. Procedural. A writes procedural
knowledge on the blackboard. A wonders if B remembers the difference between
these two foreign words when B sees them. A wonders what they reveal about
different forms of knowledge and learning. Declarative – theory – learning.
The other one is about practice – or use. B has to learn things and B has to
use them. The main goal is to be able to communicate in written and oral
French. They are working with two phases in this learning process. A wonders
if B remembers what they talked about during that lesson. A wonders what they
say in terms of the difference between the two of them.
FR429. Turn 296.
B says that B does not remember.
FR430. Turn 295.
A says that they are going to see if B remembers anything from last time.
There were two concepts, very nice Latin concepts. A wonders if B remembers
these concepts related to learning. A states that one of them was about
learning things, and the second one was about the use of this knowledge. A
states that the last thing they did was that B was to repeat. It was written
on the blackboard.
Session 2
A reads aloud the two words with the group. (Declarative and procedural
knowledge). A says that they have reflected around learning as a concept.
39
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
Next time they are going to talk about French specifically, using what they
have reviewed about French.
FR431. Turn 294.
B says that if B has to do something specific in five years, it is easier to
remember if B has done something physically than in terms of knowledge. If B
plays the guitar, B will remember the song in five years because it becomes
automatic since B has learned it.
FR432. Turn 293.
A asks if B gets the point. After five years without using them, the brain
must reactivate the dance. A states that A is now into a field that A is not
a specialist in, but A may use A’s own experience.
FR433. Turn 292.
B says that it could be, but B is not sure. B states that B has done that
dance for several months, so it may be.
FR434. Turn 291.
A says that according to what B is saying, it is easier to do this backwards
than for a fellow learner who did not have this star achievement. However,
this is only something A claims. A does not believe that any knowledge is
useless, but that it can disappear from our active access. A uses the example
of a learner who dances in Sandnes. B might be able to do it when asleep; B
knows the steps and B does it every night. A wonders what would have happened
if A had asked B in five years if B can do two minutes of that dance.
FR435. Turn 290.
B says that B does not think so, but that it takes a lot of time to learn it
again.
FR436. Turn 289.
A says that when the family was together, B had the show. B has not learned
from the beginning yet.
FR437. Turn 288.
B says that B thinks that B did it backwards.
FR438. Turn 287.
A says that that was perhaps one of B’s star achievements. A wonders if B
did it many times.
FR439. Turn 286.
B says that B was about three.
FR440. Turn 285.
A wonders how old B was.
FR441. Turn 284.
B says that when B was young in kindergarten, B could say everything backwards
by heart, and B found out that B could do this in the tenth grade. B’s mother
told B. But B is not able to say it now, and B has to spend much time trying
to find back to it.
FR442. Turn 283.
A says that it becomes more passive; they do not have access to it. The mind
puts away things they do not use. And there is something they have easy access
to if they use it. They will come back to that.
FR443. Turn 282.
40
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
B says that if B has been able to use knowledge, really been able to use it,
then B will not forget it. B thinks that it is easy to forget facts and that
kind of knowledge, but it is different if B has used things.
FR444. Turn 281.
A says especially if B has seen the connections, such as grammar.
FR445. Turn 280.
B says that if B was once really good at something, which B was able to use
properly, then B will not forget it. B thinks that B can easily pick it up
again.
FR446. Turn 279.
A says that A would claim that learning grammar is about learning the
structures of the language. After they have finished French here, many will
perhaps not use French for quite a few years, and not hear French either. If
B gets a job in 20 years in which B has to use French or buy a house in
France, those who have had studied French and acquired some understanding,
and reached a fair level in terms of declarative or procedural knowledge when
B was 17 or 18 years, will have the skills again more quickly. A believes
that all they learn, all they experience, is stored somewhere in the brain.
They may not have access to everything, but they have to activate and process
things, something they will return to later on. A says that the question is
if B starts from scratch, B might feel that B starts all over again.
FR447. Turn 278.
B says that procedural knowledge is something B can lose over time if B does
not maintain it. Then it is not procedural, and then B has to learn it again.
B would then start from scratch and have to learn it again.
FR448. Turn 277.
A says that this is very important. It is the same as learning verbs
declaratively. B then tries to make it procedural in a communicative setting,
which is our goal. Sometimes B makes mistakes. A states that that is why A
calls all their tests “learning tests”. A provides B with feedback in terms
of things B has to become more confident about and have a closer look at. A
thinks that it is not possible to go through life without making mistakes. A
states that it is important to learn from mistakes, not only in foreign
languages.
FR449. Turn 276.
B says that in terms of putting up a tent, B would probably not manage that
the first time B tries. If B sees that it does not work and takes it down
again, this is also a kind of learning. B learns from B’s own mistakes.
FR450. Turn 275.
A says that there is a certain injustice in that respect. Some people are
good at mathematics, but not that good at relating to other people. They just
sit there alone with their numerical knowledge. Some people are not that good
at mathematics, but they have a brain that has led to them having many friends
and warmth.
FR451. Turn 274.
B says that not everybody needs the same amount.
FR452. Turn 273.
A says that some people learn things faster than others. But that they have
to work a bit. Everyone needs to gain some declarative knowledge in order to
be able to do things procedurally.
FR453. Turn 272.
41
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
B says no.
FR454. Turn 271.
A says that some claim that the intelligent ones know it all by heart. A
wonders if B believes that.
FR455. Turn 270.
B says that they know things without having learned them. Perhaps that is
also the case for B. B states that this is why some people learn faster than
others and why some people grasp things faster than others because of their
instinct.
FR456. Turn 269.
A says that some people claim that. A states that A does not say that.
FR457. Turn 268.
B acknowledges what A said about the animals having a kind of instinct to
learn things.
FR458. Turn 267.
A says that we can wait with that.
FR459. Turn 266.
B states the concept of logic as such.
FR460. Turn 265.
A asks if B thinks in terms of philosophical logic or that we consider the
fact that one thing leads to another.
FR461. Turn 264.
B says that the place of logic in all this remains a bit vague.
FR462. Turn 263.
A says that A thinks that one learns a good deal through playing, through
different kinds of games, for instance when girls play with children and
dolls. Boys play with technology. This becomes very gender-biased. A states
that one learns much in terms of how things work together, which can be
transferred.
FR463. Turn 262.
B mentions the notion of putting up a tent. If B knows more or less what a
tent should look like when assembled, then B would be able to imagine this
without having put up a tent before.
FR464. Turn 261.
A says that they are all Indo-European. A states that Indian and Urdu have
many traits in common.
FR465. Turn 260.
B says that B did not know that.
FR466. Turn 259.
A says that not everybody knows that Urdu is in the same large language family
as French and Norwegian. A asks if B knew this.
FR467. Turn 258.
B says that B’s mother-tongue Urdu resembles these languages, but that they
do not resemble them so much that B is able to speak them, although B
understands them.
42
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR468. Turn 257.
A asks what kind of language this is.
FR469. Turn 256.
B says that when using the language (incomprehensible), there are languages
that B understands without having learned. B states that B cannot speak them.
FR470. Turn 255.
A says that mathematics is interesting because B talks about applied
mathematics in that subject and that B uses mathematics in a practical
setting.
FR471. Turn 254.
B says that B may have done things before. If B gets a task in mathematics
that B has never seen before, B has knowledge of mathematics, B uses the
knowledge B already possesses, B uses the things B has learned before, so B
has thus been through the acquisition process.
FR472. Turn 253.
A asks if nice words are interesting.
FR473. Turn 252.
B says that B cannot only have procedural knowledge.
FR474. Turn 251.
A says that they have other instincts that they are born with; they can do
certain things straight away without having seen, for instance, that the
mother gives milk.
FR475. Turn 250.
B says that they do not have any instinct in terms of how to assemble a tent.
FR476. Turn 249.
A says that A has experienced something similar when people have used Lego.
One then learns how to assemble things. A states that A would use a concept
that is mostly related to animals, but the question is that people also have
instincts. Animals know from the day they are born what they have to do.
During their first hour, they find their mother without having learned to do
it. A wonders if we are animals. We have a human body.
FR477. Turn 248.
B says that it is possible to do something even if B has no pre-knowledge.
If B has a tent that B places before someone and says “put it up”, then that
person will finally find out how to put it up. So it is possible to teach
oneself.
FR478. Turn 247.
A says that this is how one learns one’s mother tongue before we start school
and before we have learned to read or anything else. We do not start with
grammar, but most people are nevertheless able to talk. This is what
distinguishes foreign languages, as we do not have this practice opportunity
with them. We talked about that last time as well, how we can get more
practice opportunities than just the two to three hours we get with French
at school. It is not enough because we do not hear French unless we actively
seek practice opportunities. This is different from one’s mother tongue,
which people talk all the time. B acquires it automatically, and A has read
that the brain is most receptive around the age of two, receding after that.
FR479. Turn 246.
43
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
A says that B has heard the words so many times that B knows how the words
are supposed to be linked together and formed in certain contexts.
FR480. Turn 245.
B says yes, but that there is a good deal of grammar in Finnish, but that B
does not know this grammar.
FR481. Turn 244.
A asks if B has ever heard it or learned it.
FR482. Turn 243.
B says that B does not hear it around B all the time, but that B is a little
fluent in the language.
FR483. Turn 242.
A says that B learns it as a mother tongue if B hears it around B all the
time.
FR484. Turn 241.
B says that B speaks Finnish, and nobody has ever told B any rules in Finnish.
It is a bit like waffles made without a recipe. B says that B has Finnish
family and that B has been to Finland.
FR485. Turn 240.
A asks what B thinks since B asks that question. A wonders if B thinks that
it is possible.
FR486. Turn 239.
B says that without anyone telling B how to do things, B has to talk like
this and that.
FR487. Turn 238.
A asks if B thought about something special.
FR488. Turn 237.
B asks if it is possible to have only procedural knowledge.
FR489. Turn 236.
A says that if B uses spray cream and marmalade on top of the powder waffles,
it would also help. If B talks French and messes it up, if helps if B smiles.
FR490. Turn 235.
B says that if B, with a good deal of effort, makes imperfect waffles without
a recipe, people would still say that it is a good effort. It is the same
with French - if B tries, people would become more open even if B’s French
is not perfect, contains errors, and if B messes up the words.
FR491. Turn 234.
A says that B’s procedural knowledge in Norwegian is very good.
FR492. Turn 233.
B compares waffles made without a recipe with French and says that B produces
French with conjugation errors, but it becomes edible. B is able to
communicate.
FR493. Turn 232.
A asks if B has been following the news about a Norwegian woman who went to
France as a young girl as an au pair when she had finished upper secondary
school in Oslo and who is now running for the presidential election. She may
also have thought that she would never speak perfect French. Her pronunciation
is still not perfect, but it is Eva Joly. She was only 16 and had so much to
44
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
learn in life and so little basic knowledge in so many fields in terms of
life experiences, love and, last but not least, French. Talking about French
waffles.
FR494. Turn 231.
B says that B is pleased if B learns a lot of French.
FR495. Turn 230.
A says that B should not say that.
FR496. Turn 229.
B says that B feels that that is the most important point, since B feels that
B will probably never speak French perfectly.
FR497. Turn 228.
A says with money in one hand, and French spoken without a recipe, B could
have communicated.
FR498. Turn 227.
B says that B would not get a very good grade, but that B could have gotten
by in France.
FR499. Turn 226.
A asks what B thinks they would say if B comes up with French spoken without
a recipe.
FR500. Turn 225.
B says no, that is cheating. The thing with French is that it is not possible
to buy French in powder.
FR501. Turn 224.
A says, OK, not only resemble.
FR502. Turn 223.
B says that it has to taste and smell like waffles as well.
FR503. Turn 222.
A says that almost everything resembles waffles in a waffle iron.
FR504. Turn 221.
B thinks that it would have been real waffles. B asks if it is not enough to
know that it becomes something that resembles waffles. This is a metaphor for
learning French, when B manages to say what B wants.
FR505. Turn 220.
A asks if this would not have been waffles made without a recipe.
FR506. Turn 219.
B says that B feels that, that B could have done that.
FR507. Turn 218.
A says that this is interesting, and they talked about it when talking about
basic knowledge a minute ago. It can be there consciously for a while, and
then it disappears, at least part of it. A asks what B has to do in order to
maintain this knowledge. It is not enough to learn things once. We have to
learn things several times. A wonders if B has the necessary declarative
knowledge to go over to the grocery’s and buy the ingredients needed to make
waffles. A wonders if B has that procedural knowledge.
FR508. Turn 217.
B says that B could have made something that would resemble waffles.
45
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR509. Turn 216.
A says that things have to be easy.
FR510. Turn 215.
B says that a lot of powder is used. It tastes good and is much easier.
FR511. Turn 214.
A asks if B is good at making waffles.
FR512. Turn 213.
B confirms that declarative knowledge is not integrated.
FR513. Turn 212.
A asks if B even remembers how much water is added. B has to read this. A
states that B’s declarative knowledge is not integrated in this case.
FR514. Turn 211.
B says that B thinks that B made waffles once, but that B had used powder. B
is thus only able to add water.
FR515. Turn
A says that
waffle iron
declarative
210.
if someone had asked B to make waffles, B would have got the
and been told to fix the rest. A wonders if B has the necessary
knowledge to get started.
FR516. Turn 209.
B says that in terms of procedural knowledge and ingredients, it means that
B is able to treat all the ingredients and what they can be used for, in
which case the recipe is integrated in a way. B knows how to use milk, flour,
sugar and so on in order to make waffles, because B knows how the different
ingredients become what they become. B has done it before and B knows what
happens.
FR517. Turn 208.
A says yes, it is declarative when B is able to inform, when B has knowledge
about how B did it. Then it is declarative. Good. A wonders about waffles
made without a recipe. When making waffles without a recipe, B does not follow
a recipe, for example if A had told B to make waffles, and A had put 100
ingredients in front of B, different kinds of ingredients, and A had said,
make waffles. A wonders if B had made potato dumplings, or if B had made
waffles.
FR518. Turn 207.
B says declarative.
FR519. Turn 206.
A says that B does this when using the language according to what they have
understood, which is the goal for our learning. It is procedural knowledge
that B is able to use when communicating with someone in writing or orally.
Declarative knowledge is the knowledge we acquire when learning new things,
words, grammatical forms or syntax, or word order. Last time they forgot to
look at the exercise with negation, where to put ne… and pas. These things
have to be learned and B will transform it into procedural knowledge. A
wonders about the following: when B’s friends say ‘mmm, what a delicious
omelette, how did you make it? and B says ‘I did this and that’, did B use
B’s declarative or B’s procedural knowledge when B tells B’s friends how B
did it?
FR520. Turn 205.
46
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
B says that B had done this.
FR521. Turn 204.
A asks if B had walked into the kitchen alone and done this.
FR522. Turn 203.
B says eggs, and milk and salt and species and things B wants to put into
it.
FR523. Turn 202.
A says yes, and the one takes…
FR524. Turn 201.
B says yes, omelette, and remembers that B had asked B’s mother the first
time B had made them.
FR525. Turn 200.
A says that when reading the recipe, knowledge about making food is acquired.
In this way, B acquires declarative knowledge, what the ingredients are, how
much there is of the different ingredients, and also how long the different
parts will go to this and that. Based on this recipe, when B is able to make
it, and especially without having to poke B’s nose into the book, namely that
it is knowledge B has acquired and learned, then B is able to do this. A
wonders if there are any dishes B can make without recipe.
FR526. Turn 199.
B says that B first reads the recipe and then B makes the food while looking
at the recipe.
FR527. Turn 198.
A asks how B goes about making food. A says that B is able to choose freely.
A states that B may have friends visiting B.
FR528. Turn 197.
B says yes.
FR529. Turn 196.
A says to use them, to master it. When B has to make a sentence where B uses
“faire”, they do not have to go through the whole conjugation pattern.
Sometimes during the first phase in second language learning, it is a good
idea to have it at the back of one’s mind or write it down if one is not
sure. It is also possible to look it up if one is not certain about the kinds
of verbs. A wonders if B can come up with examples where B acquires knowledge
and then uses it. A states that they had an example and wonders if B is good
at cooking.
FR530. Turn 195.
B says that this has to do with facts and understanding. B says that the
declarative aspect is the facts, the clean facts, taken out of context.
Procedural knowledge is apparently the understanding of how they are used. B
has to understand it in order to use them.
FR531. Turn 194.
A says that B could have done that. “Tu” and “il” 21. Procedural knowledge is
when B is able to use it, use “faire”, when B has to communicate, write to
someone, or talk to someone in French. Through this declarative learning,
which may be the first encounter with what a verb looks like, that we can
use it. Declarative has to do with learning and procedural with use.
21
«You» and «he».
47
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR532. Turn 193.
B says that B could have done that.
FR533. Turn 192.
A repeats procedure. B is going to use these two words in relation to learning
about learning. A says that in relation to language learning and the learning
of verbs, they have learned regular verbs, they have learned conjugation
patterns, they have learned many irregular verbs in the present tense, they
have looked at the structure of how these are conjugated in person, singular
and plural- this is declarative knowledge. A wonders if A had asked B to
conjugate “faire” in all the persons, whether could B have done that.
FR534. Turn 191.
B says procedure.
FR535. Turn 190.
A says “déclarer” 22. Ask an English-speaking person where it is from. It is
from Latin. The other concept is procedural knowledge (writes this on the
blackboard). A asks if B has ever heard of anything that resembles
“procedural”, for instance other words that start with “proc”.
FR536. Turn 189.
B says “declare”.
FR537. Turn 188.
A asks what this verb may be in French. It is an –er verb.
FR538. Turn 187.
B asks if it has anything to do with “avklare” 23.
FR539. Turn 186.
A says that this is different from exercises at home when things are written
down. A calls this internalization, that B is to get into contact with the
Frenchman or woman inside themselves and play roles. When they work with oral
exercises, the point is to accustom the speech organs to how the words are
pronounced. The goal is also to talk as much French as possible every session,
at least read aloud some French every session in order to avoid A doing all
the talking in front of the class. They try to achieve variation. They are
will use these concepts when talking about learning strategies later on. A
tells B to remember them and asks what it implies to know something, what it
implies to learn something. They will come back to this before Christmas,
specifically in terms of learning strategies and the learning of languages.
They will learn two concepts that taken from pedagogy or didactics, and they
will possibly learn more theoretical concepts later in their lives when B
starts studying. B will experience more specific scientific concepts. It is
about learning and teaching. They will use these basic concepts later on.
They will not learn many new concepts all the time, but they will learn a
few concepts as a part of this programme. They will use them later when they
have specific advice for language learning, so B has to know what the
difference is. They will have two-three hours of conversation around concepts
in the subject. They are both about knowledge. They will look at two different
kinds of knowledge. The first one is declarative. A wonders if B associates
something with the concept “declare”, to declare something.
FR540. Turn 185.
B says that B feels that this is a good method. B says that it is often quick
oral pair exercises. This is a way to acquire automatization since B uses
the language. And also when B reads texts that B writes down, the things B
22
23
Declare.
Clarify in Norwegian.
48
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
does not understand,
vocabulary.
since
B
learns
new
words
and
acquires
a
larger
FR541. Turn 184.
A asks if B has experienced this.
FR542. Turn 183.
B answers that when they have written texts, A tries to make them look up
from the sheet of paper and talk to the person they have written to in order
to make the knowledge stick in the mind. They do this instead of simply
reading aloud, because B does not learn from this method.
FR543. Turn 182.
A says using the knowledge B gets when learning words, grammar, etc.is the
goal. These are two different sides of learning. In order to acquire
something, they need knowledge. As they have said before, the goal is to be
able to use the language automatically more and more so that it happens
without thinking. A writes use and automatization. In order to do this, they
must work with their knowledge. A wonders if B associates what they do in
French as a way to build up knowledge to the extent that acquisition is
achieved. A says that A uses methods that are integrated, and wonders if B
sees that.
FR544. Turn 181.
B says that B was once in France. B knows how to speak basic French. However,
using it in everyday life implies acquiring the knowledge B has.
FR545. Turn 180.
A asks what the difference is.
FR546. Turn 179.
B says that knowledge and acquisition are rather similar. Having knowledge
about something, and using this knowledge, are different from each other.
FR547. Turn 178.
A says that the knowledge that B acquires there is now integrated into the
basic knowledge. In the next phase, B will hopefully acquire new knowledge
that is different from the first formula. This leads to new learning. They
can continue in this way, which is the goal session after session, namely to
add something new. They are now in a phase where they repeat things that they
have touched upon in lower secondary school. For others, this may be
completely new. They get different offers. They are also going to talk about
two other concepts that have to do with language learning. They have been
working with a concept called “knowledge”. They are also going to talk about
another concept called “acquisition”. A asks whether there is any difference
between these two concepts. A states that B has integrated knowledge, B has
acquired knowledge. A wonders if there is anything in these concepts. A
wonders what the difference between the two of them is. A wonders what the
difference between having knowledge about and acquiring a skill is.
FR548. Turn 177.
B says that when learning something, B acquires basic knowledge.
FR549. Turn 176.
A says that they will come back to that in the next session. They will talk
about learning vocabulary, how to write down words to learn them. When they
have had a session that has ended up in learning, they get to the next session
where they start off with basic knowledge 2. A asks what the difference is
between the formula basic knowledge + new knowledge = learning and the second
formula basic knowledge 2.
49
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR550. Turn 175.
B says that B feels that B has learned a good deal, things that B did not
know before, since they have learnt in different ways. That is why B did not
know it before. It helped B to have worked with it before, but B feels that
it is better now. B also says that what B has learned in lower secondary
school varies, so B feels that B has learned many new things. It is mainly
repetition. At the same time, B learns in new ways and at another level. Then
things are refreshed in a new way. B also says that, even if they have learned
about certain topics before, they have had new texts, so that they have
learned many new words. Even if B has talked about B, my family and my house
before, B has learned many new words now.
FR551. Turn 174.
A says that some of the things that should have been basic knowledge are not
so because B has not been into it before.
FR552. Turn 173.
B says that it is repetition if they have gone through it in lower secondary
school. But B wonders if there are certain things they have not gone through
in lower secondary school. In that case, it is new knowledge.
FR553. Turn 172.
A asks why B says that B has acquired new knowledge of since they have worked
within what should have been basic knowledge.
FR554. Turn 171.
B says that it is difficult to say, because B does not know if it is new
knowledge, since B has heard it before. B says that B does not know everything,
because there are many things that they practise and then forget. However,
most of what they have practised so far is what B has heard before. B thinks
B has new knowledge, because it is there. B also says that B has acquired a
good deal of new knowledge during these months and weeks.
FR555. Turn 170.
A asks if B learned anything during the month.
FR556. Turn 169.
B says yes, to a certain extent.
FR557. Turn 168.
A asks if all they have had so far is something B feels B already knew.
FR558. Turn 167.
B says that they have now repeated everything. If they say that what they
learned in lower secondary school is basic knowledge, if this is learned,
then it is only brushing up the basic knowledge.
FR559. Turn 166.
A says that they will talk more about this later on.
FR560. Turn 165.
B says that the things B can use automatically would be classified as basic
knowledge. New knowledge is something B has to concentrate on and integrate
into B’s mindset.
FR561. Turn 164.
A asks if this means that what they have practised during the month they have
spent together is new knowledge.
FR562. Turn 163.
B says yes, most of it.
50
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR563. Turn 162.
A says that B has acquired new knowledge, and this leads to B learning. When
B started at this school, B had studied French for three years in lower
secondary school. A asks how B would relate to what B had learned during
these three years in this way. A asks if this is basic knowledge.
FR564. Turn 161.
B asks if B has acquired new knowledge.
FR565. Turn 160.
A says that B builds upon that. This extra piece is that B has learned
something. A asks what it means if A asks B after a session if B has learned
anything during that session. A asks what has happened if B says that B has
learned something.
FR566. Turn 159.
B says new knowledge.
FR567. Turn 158.
A asks and then?
FR568. Turn 157.
B says that this knowledge is called basic knowledge.
FR569. Turn 156.
A asks what B calls what B knows from before.
FR570. Turn 155.
B says that they know things from before, so it is a matter of building upon
that knowledge in some way. B uses what B knows in order to learn new things.
FR571. Turn 154.
A says that they are going to continue talking about learning in general
terms, and they are also going to introduce B to some concepts that may seem
somewhat abstract but that are used within the field of pedagogy, the subject
about learning. Their goal is to become more aware of their learning through
their activities, not only in French, but also in other subjects. This implies
that thinking about how they learn, and that they are first and foremost
going to use their subject, French, as a frame of reference. But B may also
use references from other subjects, as they did last time, talking about the
learning of Norwegian and English. They are going to use a formula with
plusses and equals signs. They are going to look at some concepts that are
not that difficult. B has to think about it and see how it relates to B’s
experiences in terms of learning French and learning other subjects. The
first concept is that of “basic knowledge”. B knows that a basis is the
fundamental thing that B does. The concept they are going to add to this is
“new knowledge”. They will use an equal sign, and introduce a third concept,
which is “learning”. These are three concepts B will become familiar with,
especially if B knows these words. A asks if there are any spontaneous
comments. A asks if B feels that this can describe the way B learns things,
for instance in French.
Session 1
A says that A knows that some of them also have parents who talk some French,
or at least they claim to do so. It is also possible to organise a topic;
the point is that B tries to construct situations in which the language is
used, such as B has already described.
51
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
A states that this is the moment to finish the session. A states that there
are three minutes left on the tape, thus what they are going to do now that
B has talked a bit about learning a language in terms of what it takes and
what is difficult. During these sessions, they will receive specific advice
about B learning a language, French, and then B can do this and that. B may
seek practice opportunities for one thing and another. They will also work
with specific learning strategies, that is what B may do according to B’s
own plan to become a little more active, or a little more independent in the
way B learns a language. B attends school, which is one thing, but B may be
inspired to assume responsibility for B’s own learning as it is called. Thus,
if B is on holiday abroad, B should seek specific practice opportunities,
that is what B does in a particular situation. B may also want to watch a
French movie on TV. The question is then what B does five minutes prior to
this activity to get more out of the movie than just sitting there watching
it in order to be aware, for instance, about this and that. A states
furthermore that this is the topic they will develop further, that is B is
going to learn more specifically what B can do in different situations in
order to make the learning of French more efficient, also outside the school
setting or when it comes to homework. A asks what B does with that particular
piece of homework. Is it just a matter of getting it over and done with so
that B avoids getting a mark in log, or what is it that takes away the
concentration from the work with the homework? But there are many ways of
viewing things in that situation, although they will only systematically go
through some specific advice in terms of what B can do. During the year, they
will then see if B has something, or, quite simply, what kind of use they
have for the kind of tuition. A says that these are things they will talk
about all the time as they go along, which is how and why they are doing what
they are doing. A says that A tries to do this now as well, and asks if B
has noticed this. A wonders why they do things the way they do. As B improves,
there are sources B may seek. These include an FM-radio in French that is
easily accessible and that is called RFI, Radio France International. A states
that this radio may be a bit too difficult for B at the moment, but that B
may have it on. Even if B does not understand very much of what is being
said, B can have it on in the background. A says that A will return to this
later on and that A had thought that they would have this opportunity as a
backup. Nevertheless, many learners in the third grade listened very much to
this station. They had it on their I-pod and listened not only to disco music,
but also to the French language. A says that one develops one’s linguistic
intuition simply by listening to French.
FR572. Turn 153.
(Incomprehensible)
FR573. Turn 152.
A says that it is possible to create a role play with people in the class
one goes to.
FR574. Turn 151.
B states that B can simply talk about issues that B finds interesting in
order to talk to oneself as well.
FR575. Turn 150.
A says that A is tempted to give the advice that when B is sitting on the
bus or the train in the morning, then try to name what B sees from the window.
At this point, it does not need to be that advanced. B may think about what
B is going to do. B may start with the future tense and think about what B
is going to do tomorrow, that is just say it to oneself. A suggests the French
sentences “Je mange” 24, “Je vais à l’école” 25.
24
25
I eat.
I go to school.
52
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR576. Turn 149.
B confirms this and says that it is surely the only way.
FR577. Turn 148.
A says yes.
FR578. Turn 147.
B says that B thinks about half of everything in English, so this goes
automatically. It is not of the kind “Oh hello, my name is”.
FR579. Turn 146.
A says no.
FR580. Turn 145.
B says that B has not finished with this yet.
FR581. Turn 144.
A asks why B finished.
FR582. Turn 143.
B asks if A asked for the reason why B finished doing it.
FR583. Turn 142.
A says that if A may say it as a French teacher, then it is a very good
strategy that B creates situations, for instance, here among the learners. A
says that A has seen several learners doing this. The best learners in a way
create small role plays, where they have a topic and then try to use the
French they have. In those situations, B has to look it up and then develop
an active relationship to it. It is not easy for B to have a long stay in
France. This stay may come later. At this school, there are several good
offers for B on the French programme. There are several learners from last
year who are in France. The language is part of the culture they will return
to later. Thus, this is the advice to B, that B should (incomprehensible). A
asks what happened since B had finished.
FR584. Turn 141.
B says that B thinks that B does not necessarily have to travel to France
when B is 16. B does not need to travel to France in order to learn French.
B may simply talk a bit on B’s own. B says that B did this a lot when B was
younger and was learning English, when B did B’s make-up, took a shower, or
was making food.
FR585. Turn 140.
A says yes.
FR586. Turn 139.
B confirms that B has been to France. B says that B got by using sign language,
which is also possible.
FR587. Turn 138.
A states that B has seen that there are countries where it is important to
know French in order to talk to people. A asks if B has ever been to France.
FR588. Turn 137.
B says that B has been there, but that was before B had started studying
French, so B was not able to use it very much.
FR589. Turn 136.
A says yes and asks B if B has been to France and experienced that it is
necessary.
53
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR590. Turn 135.
B says that a point is to travel to France so that B can get the opportunity
to use it in practice. Many French people do not know English, so then B has
to use French, or French and body language, one may say. Thus, B thinks that
using it in practice is incredibly important for B
to develop fluent
language.
FR591. Turn 134.
A asks if B has any ideas.
FR592. Turn 133.
B says no. B also says that it is a bit difficult to use French. B thinks
that this is part of what makes it difficult, to say the least. B also states
that it is possible to travel to France.
FR593. Turn 132.
A asks if B has other ideas about what to actively do in order to use the
language, such as mentioned by people at the beginning of the session.
Generally speaking, it is important to use the language. A asks how B may
get to use it beyond the opportunities B gets during the sessions at the
school, often only twice a week, sometimes three. A asks if B has any thoughts
in relation to this.
FR594.
B says
then B
then B
Turn 131.
taking the initiative on B’s own. If B really wants to learn French,
has to work for it. It is possible to get a pen friend, which means
has to use French.
FR595. Turn 130.
A says that B is going to have French for at least two years, and asks what
ways B needs to work with the French language. They are going to return to
French later on, but in order to become good at French, A hopes that B’s goal
is to become as good as possible in French. A wonders what B can do beyond
what A tells B to do. They will watch movies and things like that, but A
wonders if B has any further ideas.
FR596. Turn 129.
B says no.
FR597. Turn 128.
A asks if B knows the approach beforehand and asks if B wants to say something.
FR598. Turn 127.
B says yes.
FR599. Turn 126.
A confirms that B feels the advantage comes little by little as the grammar
becomes more advanced.
FR600. Turn 125.
B says that the challenge for B is that there are many words and expressions
that are similar in French and Spanish, so if two words are written almost
the same way, then it may be that B writes Spanish instead of French.
FR601. Turn 124.
A says that a goal is to reach a bit higher and be able to talk about the
family and oneself. A says that B has to learn many French words that are
considered to be advanced in English, and extend the English vocabulary.
Sometimes it is changed a little, but it is possible to recognise it. But
now they have mentioned the fact about different language families. They have
54
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
talked about Romance and Germanic. A also says that B might have noticed that
they have a learner present who speaks another Romance language fluently. A
asks B what is the big perceived challenge in relation to French.
FR602. Turn 123.
B confirms what B said, as B had done with English and French in terms of
learning it when one knows English beforehand. B had felt that it was much
easier to learn French since, having already learned English, B had learned
those words first. B then thought that there are many words that are very
similar to the French words. B says that B had made associations, and it is
much easier in a way when B knows that there are many similarities. When B
does not know this in French, then B may think what it is in English, and
then B may twist it a little so that it fits into the French pronunciation.
B feels that this is very useful.
FR603. Turn 122.
A asks for more comments by B.
FR604. Turn 121.
B says that French creates access to several languages. When B knows the
different languages that are very different, it is easier to learn other
languages. It is claimed that when one knows several languages, then one can
easily learn more or less all the languages of the world. Then one has grasped
the way one learns languages. So having an extra language that one knows is
the key to the other language.
FR605. Turn 120.
A says that X was first.
FR606. Turn 119.
B mentions grammar in French. The French grammar and the English grammar are
quite similar to each other. B says that B has often compared the two.
FR607. Turn 118.
A asks if B has thought about how this can happen.
FR608. Turn 117.
B says yes.
FR609. Turn 116.
A asks if B thinks that learning French can improve B’s English and Norwegian
as well.
FR610. Turn 115.
B says that B only had English and Norwegian in lower secondary school. B
thinks that it could easily have become boring with only knowledge of two
languages. So even if they would surely have learned them much better than
they do, then this is also the challenge. It is a little exciting, even if
the first year was perhaps a bit like no, I hate French in a way. When B
started to understand things, they became much more enjoyable.
FR611. Turn 114.
A asks for more comments by B.
FR612. Turn 113.
B says yes and states that it becomes easier in a way just to know English.
Nevertheless, it is important for many to know a third language.
FR613. Turn 112.
55
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
A asks if B envisages a world where it is more important not simply to learn
English in addition to one’s mother tongue. A asks if it may be useful to
know other languages.
FR614. Turn 111.
B says that at least English will be extremely significant in many jobs,
especially if B is going to travel. B would then be completely dependent on
that. It is all about being able to communicate with other people, and this
is often an important part of many jobs. In terms of French, it is useful if
B is working in France, or in a French-speaking country, or if B works, for
instance, in a French company, an oil company. It is useful if B only has to
communicate with French people from a general point of view. There are so
many people who speak that language and it is an important language. There
are many people and it is a big labour market. If B knows French, B has
possibilities beyond the English market. So there are many possibilities.
FR615. Turn 110.
A says that A has some good stories in that respect, but A will not relate
those stories now, since B is the one to talk. Based on what B says now, A
wonders what kind of world B envisages - the world in which B is going to
grow up in, live in, and work in. A asks how, what kind of importance languages
will have there.
FR616. Turn 109.
B acknowledges what A has said about the necessity to seek more practice
opportunities in French. B repeats what has been said in terms of English
and Norwegian being languages B is exposed to in all possible ways. However,
in terms of French, there is no established culture in this country. So B
must seek French sources, for instance visit France. B needs to find B’s way
to the language on B’s own. It is simply more dependent on B. When B learns
to read Norwegian, B reads everything. B reads shampoo bottles, milk boxes,
and reads signs. B states that B thinks that it has a lot to say for
vocabulary as well. B says that B will never forget the word “oeuf” in French
because this word was on a shampoo bottle they once had. And that word means
“egg”, just to mention an example. B does not learn it the same way just
through short words.
FR617. Turn 108.
A asks for more comments.
FR618. Turn 107.
B states that B cannot always hear what they are singing.
FR619. Turn 106.
A says yes.
FR620. Turn 105.
B says that B understands his name.
FR621. Turn 104.
A asks if B hears the text there, if B understands anything of the text.
FR622. Turn 103.
B says that B used to live in France, and that B has some French music.
FR623. Turn 102.
A says yes.
FR624. Turn 101.
B says that B has read such a children’s book once.
56
Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR625. Turn 100.
A says that they are going to talk a bit about some sources after a while,
and asks B if B is able to read a book in French, and if B has ever tried
this.
FR626. Turn 99.
B says that it is possible to find French artists or watch French movies and
those kinds of things, since there are many in English - watch movies, listen
to music, and read books. The same is possible with French, but B has to
start smoothly. In the beginning, B perhaps understands a word or two, and
then B constructs knowledge from there.
FR627. Turn 98.
A asks what this means for what B has to do if B wants to learn French in
relation to Norwegian, which is B’s mother tongue, and perhaps also English
in this country we are living in. A wonders if the fact that B has to work
in a different way has any implications for the learning of French. A says
that A does not know, but continues to elicit information from B.
FR628. Turn 97.
B refers to the fact that B hears a lot of Norwegian and English during
childhood and adolescence, while in terms of French, B states that B has
spent a little time in France, but that B never gets to learn French as a
child. In this way, French is a completely new language with completely new
words that B has almost never heard before.
FR629. Turn 96.
A asks for more information.
FR630. Turn 95.
B says that in terms of learning French as a new language, after having
learned Norwegian and English quite well, the issue is more about attitudes.
B thinks that B gets by in the world B lives in now and survives with Norwegian
and English so that it becomes more difficult to learn French knowing that B
gets by at the end of the day. Nevertheless, B feels very much like learning
it, because it is a new language. There are certain contrasts.
FR631. Turn 94.
A states that it probably makes it more difficult for us in some areas to
learn languages, for instance, from another linguistic group.
FR632. Turn 93.
B says that French is supposed to be part of the Romance language family,
whereas Norwegian and English are supposed to be Germanic. It is different
because they are two different families.
FR633. Turn 92.
A confirms pronunciation and states that they have started to work with
pronunciation. A also states that they are going to work more on that. The
rules are easy to understand, as A has told B before.
FR634. Turn 91.
B says pronunciation.
FR635. Turn 90.
A asks if there is more input from that group. Otherwise, they may proceed
to French, which differs a bit from the other two languages, as B might have
noticed already. A asks in which way French differs for B compared to the
learning of English and Norwegian. A asks B what the most important difference
is.
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Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR636. Turn 89.
B says that B had arrived at the conclusion that it is possible to survive
in Norway with almost only Norwegian. B also states that if B is to move out
of Norway, then one needs other languages as well that B can use. B also says
that those languages are important if B wants a job and education, or simply
talking to people and managing to be in another country and buying food and
getting hold of things, apart from using Norwegian. And learning another
language provides B with even more opportunities.
FR637. Turn 88.
A replies that B may say it.
FR638. Turn 87.
B asks if B should say it.
FR639. Turn 86.
A says other languages.
FR640. Turn 85.
A says yes.
FR641. Turn 84.
B says that B thinks that they misunderstood each other a little in terms of
what B was supposed to do. B had talked about why it is important to learn.
FR642. Turn 83.
A asks if this was perhaps what B also wanted to say. A also says that there
is one group remaining whose input we have not heard yet. A says that many
things have been said here. A asks if B had touched upon other things. A asks
if there is something B wants to mention or repeat or emphasise the
significance of.
FR643. Turn 82.
B says that B had agreed that B needs to be fairly proficient in English
before starting to study French in order to avoid mixing the two languages.
Nevertheless, they had agreed to a certain extent that already when attending
lower secondary school, things had been rather difficult at that point. So
if it had been a bit earlier in … if it had been late in primary school,
perhaps, that B had started to learn it. But this presupposes that they had
started to learn English at a really early stage. B had started to learn
English at different stages. B started in the fourth grade and B had started
in the first grade.
FR644. Turn 81.
A says that A had thought about the two who had mentioned this.
FR645. Turn 80.
B asks if A asks B now.
FR646. Turn 79.
A asks at what time, just to make a guess, at what time B thinks that it
would be wise to start studying French in order to get the most out of it.
FR647. Turn 78.
B says that B thinks so, B has to start with English and then another one
has to come later. B says that B thinks that it is too much to learn two
languages when B is that small.
FR648. Turn 77.
A asks how early B is to start then, and wonders if B has talked about that.
A emphasises that the question refers to having Norwegian first as a mother
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Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
tongue and then English that A reckons that B is interested in learning. If
they also include a third language, A asks if B would be able to manage three
languages and learn the two languages at the same time that are not the mother
tongue.
FR649. Turn 76.
B says that what B says not only refers to languages. But B learns to skate
when B is little, and even if B does not practise it for some years, B still
masters it when B tries, just like children’s songs and those kinds of things.
B does not sing them during the whole childhood and adolescence, but B still
masters them. The things B learned as a child are mastered longer.
FR650. Turn 75.
A says yes.
FR651. Turn 74.
B says yes.
FR652. Turn 73.
A asks if B wants to comment on that.
FR653. Turn 72.
B states that B had discussed the idea that it is wise to start learning
languages at a young age. B notices that B has had English for quite some
time now and it is quite natural, but French, which is a language they started
to study in lower secondary school, is something they have more difficulties
with. B guesses that it may be partly due to age, so starting early may be
good.
FR654. Turn 71.
A says yes.
FR655. Turn 70.
B says that they had been the whole group.
FR656. Turn 69.
A asks if B has some thoughts in addition to what has been said so far.
FR657. Turn 68.
B says that the more B acquires the subject B learns without language, the
more words B learns, because of the more concepts B needs to use in order to
master the subject.
FR658. Turn 67.
A says that A also thinks about the fact that when young, B writes simple
sentences, and then B needs more subordinate clauses and constructs a more
complicated period that corresponds with a more nuanced way of thinking.
FR659. Turn 66.
B says that B must not forget the words, but B thinks that this becomes more
automatic after a while. B thinks that B discovers a new word all the time,
be it on television, in the newspaper or in a book. Or that B feels that
“oops”, there should be a word for that. B thinks that it goes more
automatically after a while and that B thinks that there are not that many
words to read in a book.
FR660. Turn 65.
A says that B is at an age where B might develop more nuanced thoughts and
feelings. As a consequence, B might develop a need for more nuanced language
as well.
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Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR661. Turn 64.
B says that it depends completely on what B wants to write. If B is to answer
a task in a learning book at home, then it depends completely on the subject.
B also says that it is always possible to become much better and to develop.
The point is really to explore B’s own possibilities because B has the
language integrated, B has learned it. But B has to teach B how to use it in
the best possible way. And B does this by writing on B’s own. And it is of
course difficult to get through such a process, but it is just a question of
getting started. It is not impossible in any way.
FR662. Turn 63.
A says yes.
FR663. Turn 62.
B asks if the question is about writing.
FR664. Turn 61.
A asks if B sometimes feels that it is difficult.
FR665. Turn 60.
B asks what A is referring to.
FR666. Turn 59.
A says yes and that in addition to perhaps reading books and newspapers,
writing as well, producing language. A asks B if B feels it is easy to write,
if it is easy to express oneself, for instance in the mother tongue Norwegian.
FR667. Turn 58.
B says that it is only a matter of reading and writing and especially the
two things B would have said.
FR668. Turn 57.
A asks if B can be even more active, even more precise.
FR669. Turn 56.
B says reading and writing.
FR670. Turn 55.
A asks what B has to do in order to improve. A refers to the fact that B has
mentioned reading newspapers and reading books.
FR671. Turn 54.
B says that B masters the language creatively as well to a certain extent. B
can always become a better writer and a better reader. There is always a lot
to learn in terms of how B can express oneself the best in writing - not only
knowing the language, but also being able to use it as creatively as possible,
and develop, for instance. B can always improve.
FR672. Turn 53.
A says yes and elicits more information from B.
FR673. Turn 52.
B says that in addition to words B thinks of in terms of deepening in a way,
that B is able to interpret what B reads. So B does not think, that is if B
thinks that B is supposed to learn something during the Norwegian lessons.
Then B would have preferred to give an interpretation, not that many words,
even if words are important.
FR674. Turn 51.
A says yes, there are many ways to say things, that is what B is saying.
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Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
FR675. Turn 50.
B says that B then deletes the whole sentence and starts all over again. Then
B manages to do things in a completely different way. B does not have the
habit of mending things.
FR676. Turn 49.
A asks what B can do if B feels that the sentence becomes bad.
FR677. Turn 48.
B says that B experiences that B’s vocabulary simply fails. B knows a word
in English which simply fits perfectly, but then B does not have a clue in
terms of what this word is in Norwegian.
FR678. Turn 47.
A asks if B has experienced that sometimes when B tries to express oneself,
for instance in Norwegian or in English, and then in French as well, then in
the latter there is a communication problem.
FR679. Turn 46.
B says that achieving better fluency in the language is very important. B
thinks that this is achieved simply by being conscious when B writes – by,
for instance, not using the same word over and over again and placing a full
stop and comma in the nice places. Because even if it is not necessarily
wrong, it may be that it does not fit that well or that another comma could
also have been suitable. It is simply possible to develop fluency in the
language simply by being conscious, just like watching TV in order to learn.
FR680. Turn 45.
A organises B’s input.
FR681. Turn 44.
B says that what they have said, reading newspapers, books and different
kinds of texts as well.
FR682. Turn 43.
A says a more precise language.
FR683. Turn 42.
B says that then B would say … .
FR684. Turn 41.
A asks what B does in order to develop, to achieve that, in order to develop
better fluency.
FR685. Turn 40.
B says that yes, everybody probably knows the basic ones. It is a matter of
developing, such as learning more words, more advanced sentences, that is a
good language, good fluency. The things B can always develop.
FR686. Turn 39.
A says yes and elicits more information from B.
FR687. Turn 38.
B says that B cannot, B does not think that everybody, there are some learners
here who are able to explain all the words in the dictionary, advanced words,
make the language more advanced. B also says that if B reads a new word in
television and sees a new word, then B may, if B wonders about something,
for instance, and wants to expand B’s vocabulary, then B may look it up and
what it means.
FR688. Turn 37.
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Appendix 3A: Backwards induction of the French Case (FR)
A asks what B, for instance, refers to and how B can develop the Norwegian
language.
FR689. Turn 36.
B says yes.
FR690. Turn 35.
A says that some talk. A is an old Norwegian teacher, and some talk about
the fact that A has the impression that when coming from lower secondary
school, they write Norwegian flawlessly, and do not get any of those red
lines on their written mistakes. Then they feel that Norwegian is something
they know. Is there anything more to learn in Norwegian now? B comes directly
from lower secondary school.
FR691. Turn 34.
B says that perhaps not on a daily basis, and wonders if they are talking
about, for instance, Norwegian. In that case, new words are acquired from the
news, for instance, or the media and those kinds of things - more advanced
words in a way.
FR692. Turn 33.
A mentions the general principle of using the language and says that some
people use it automatically on a daily basis and some have to do it actively
in order to use it. A asks if B talks English on a daily basis.
FR693. Turn 32.
B says that