SPECTATOR RESPONSES TO PERCEPTIONS OF THE SPORT PRODUCT
Mark Pritchard, Arizona State University
Daniel C. Funk, Griffith University
What then is time?
If no one asks me, I know what it is.
If I wish to explain it to him who asks, I do not know.
~Saint Augustine
Similar to Saint Augustine’s reference to time back in 354-430 AD, free time
spent viewing a leisure experience, and more narrowly spectator sports, remains difficult
to understand or define. Few settings or experiences in our society record greater
exposure or have such a pervasive influence as sports do (Michener, 1976). Herbert
Hoover’s observation, that “next to religion, baseball has furnished a greater impact on
American life than any other institution”, still rings true. Indeed, for many the experience
of going to a stadium is half like going to a political rally, half like going to church
(Novak, 1976). What is the universal language of these experiences? Why do they grab
so many millions? Where is its secret power of attraction, and why do we care so much?
While casual social observers may find it tough to define what constitutes the [sport
product] experience, participants certainly know when these experiences take on greater
meaning than others. Perceptions of a spectator experience (its attributes and their
meaning) have been suggested as central to the description of how people become
increasingly involved with different leisure activities (Funk & James, 2001; James, 2001;
Laurent & Kapferer, 1987), and what sort of behavioral and attitudinal responses may be
undertaken as a result of this interaction. One theoretical model developed by Bloch and
Richins (1983) has been used to explain how sources of stimuli (i.e. Situational and
Personal Characteristics) impact on perceptions of a leisure experience [product], and
how these in turn impact on a consumer’s response.
The purpose of this paper is to examine how different personal and situational
factors influence perceptions of a sport experience, and how these sources relate to
certain attitudinal and behavioral outcomes within a context of experiential consumption
(Havitz & Dimanche, 1999; Hirshman & Hoolbrook, 1983). Leisure consumption and
spectator sport in particular reflect emotional and subjective reactions to objects that are
predominately experiential (Gantz & Wenner,1991; Holt, 1995). As such, the area
provides a fruitful arena for examining how different stimuli alter perceptions of a leisure
experience. Results of the inquiry will not only contribute new information on the nature
of spectator involvement, but help practitioners develop experience-driven strategies for
managing events effectively.
Literature Review
Product perceptions represent a psychological phenomenon evoked by interaction
with a given stimuli in a particular situation (Mitchell, 1979; Rothschild, 1984).
Researchers have begun to examine the ongoing and task-related behavioral and
cognitive consequences of enduring involvement (Burton & Netemeyer, 1992; Celsi &
Olsen, 1988). While involvement and consumption of sport is experiential (Mullin,
Hardy, & Sutton; 2000), with noted consequences being amusement, fantasy, sensory
stimulation, and enjoyment (e.g., Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982), research has
characterized these outcomes of product perceptions as being derived from both desired
benefits and the meaning which the individual derived from their symbolic association
with the experience (Duncan 1983; Gladden & Funk 2002). Janiszewski and Cunha, Jr.
(2004) studies on evaluating product bundles revealed that consumers subjectively value
attributes in a bundle and then sum the values to arrive at an overall importance. Bloch
and Richins (1983) had early theorized that product perceptions could be understood by
dividing factors into source and response sectors. The sources sector represented causes
of product perceptions, which included product characteristics, situational variables, and
consumer characteristics. Whereas, the response sector represented cognitive and
behavioral outcomes associated with key perceptions of the product. Although empirical
studies have utilized this framework to examine the relationship between enduring
[product] involvement and response involvement (Burton & Netemeyer, 1997; Richins &
Bloch, 1991), efforts have not examined the impact situational and consumer
characteristics have on product perceptions and responses to that experience. Iwasaki and
Havitz (1998) theorized that two sources (i.e., antecedents) individual characteristics and
social situational factors "influence the formation of an individual's involvement with
recreational activities or products" (p. 260). Individual characteristics include attitudes,
values, motivation, needs, initial formation and preference, and behavioral experience.
Social situational factors represent social support for significant others, situational
incentives, social and cultural norms, interpersonal and structural constraints, and
anticipation of social benefits. The relationships discussed in the previous review of
sources and responses to the sport product experience are summarized in Figure 1.
Method
The data for the study were collected using the following procedures. Five home
contests during a season of a professional sport team were randomly selected. For each
contest, seat numbers were randomly selected and the Sport Interest Inventory was
randomly distributed by team personal to 100 individuals aged 12 years old and above
during halftime. Average home attendance for the season was approximately 2,150 for
the year. Of the 500 surveys distributed, 370 were usable for a 74% response rate. Funk,
Mahony, Nakazawa, and Hirakawa (2001) developed the Sport Interest Inventory (SII) to
measure factors of sporting event, with 62 Likert-type items attached to 5-point “strongly
disagree and strongly agree” scales. Confirmatory factor analysis provided evidence to
support the uniqueness of the constructs. These source factors included: Team
Identification, Sport Identification, Community Pride, Wholesome Environment, Support
Women’s Opportunity in Sport, Players Serve as Role Models, Drama, Entertainment
Value, Aesthetics, Player Interest, Food Service, Cleanliness of Facility, Parking,
Excitement, Socialization and Bonding. Each source sector dimension was measured
using three items. Behavioral responses assessed information and media search behavior
as well as repeat attendance. Attitudinal responses used 3-item scales to examine product
importance and vicarious achievement.
Results
The majority of the sample (n=370) did not hold season ticket (80.3%), but were
white (90%), females (65.1%), between the ages of 33 and 42 years old. A confirmatory
factor analysis was conducted using Joreskog and Sorbom's (1999) Linear Structural
Relations (LISREL) 8.3 to examine the measurement model of 62 manifest items
representing 18 source and response dimensions. A covariance matrix taken from these
respondents was used as the input data. Structural equation modeling analysis was next
employed to examine the plausibility of Figure 1. The model specified a series of
relationships between the source factors Consumer Characteristics & Situational
Characteristics, perceptions of Product Meaning & Product Attributes, along with key
attitudinal and behavioral reponses. Hu and Bentler’s (1998) two-index combinational
presentation strategy supported the model’s fit (see Table 1). The two indices reported,
Root Mean Squared Error of Approximation (RMSEA) and Standardized Root Mean
Squared Residual (SRMR), both satisfied recommend cutoff values of ≤ .08 and ≤ .06
respectively, and suggest model provided an acceptable fit to the data (Hu & Bentler,
1999). All of the paths held (p< .01) except the link between the consumer characteristic
and perceptions of the product attributes.
Discussion
As in Kim, Scott, and Crompton’s work (1997), understanding the drive
properties behind how people view different leisure activities offers insights to theory and
practice (Havitz & Dimanche, 1999). In this case, situational and consumer
characteristics both helped explain product perceptions. Strong positive views of the
product increased spectator attitudes of importance, which in turn increased the level of
vicarious achievement participants derived from the experience. Positive behaviors were
also associated with favorable views of the product. Spectators were more likely to
review more media and search for more related information (task related behavior) if the
product was important. Ongoing repeat attendance also increased when perceptions of the
product strengthened a spectator’s sense of importance about the team (Kahle, Kambara
& Rose, 1996). Practitioners should note that hygiene factors like cleanliness, food
service and entertainment still played a strong role in determining whether spectators
became and continued to be involved (McIntyre, 1989). However, the meaning (e.g.,
symbolic representation) that spectators assigned to the event experience explained the
largest proportion of a team’s importance (Funk, Mahony, & Ridinger, 2002). These
connections aid practitioners’ intent on promoting a sport or a team (Armstrong, 1999;
Funk & James, 2001). For example, the notion that task-related (i.e., media use & search)
behavior leads to ongoing participation suggests that encouraging people to sign up for
the team’s e-newsletter should increase how often they attend games.
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ABSTRACTS
of Papers Presented at the
Eleventh Canadian Congress on Leisure Research
May 17 – 20, 2005
Hosted by
Department of Recreation and Tourism Management
Malaspina University-College
Nanaimo, B.C.
Abstracts compiled and edited by
Tom Delamere, Carleigh Randall, David Robinson
CCLR-11 Programme Committee
Tom Delamere
Dan McDonald
Carleigh Randall
Rick Rollins
and
David Robinson
Copyright © 2005 Canadian Association for Leisure Studies
ISBN 1-896886-01-9