173
Rp:sults of Gi.actation in Indiana.
By Charles W. Shannon.
Diu'iiig the past five or six
years
my
work
field
^hiciated and uuglaciated parts of Indiana.
been iu both the
lias
The work has been
chiefly
c-onceniing the surface features, such as drainage, soils, clays, gravel
sand deposits, and stone outcrops.
revealed
many
A
and
study of these surface features has
Some
contrasts between the two areas.
marked, others are not so prominent at
first
of these are very
consideration.
It
the
is
purpose of this paper to show some of these results of glaciatiou within
the State.
For the general hiformation concerning the
ice
sheets
which have
invaded the State, and their influence upon drainage and other physical
features, I
have drawn upon the works of Prof.
and investigations
studies
The work
of geologists
in glaciation
Mr.
T. C. Chamberliu,
Frank Leverett, Dr. Charles R. Dryer, and others who have made
special
within the State.
of the glaciers in Indiana has been attracting the attention
and other investigators for a number of years.
Both the
State and the United States Surveys, as well as individuals, have done a
great amount of work and are at present engaged in the investigation.
much
careful study of the glacial deposits in Indiana will throw
upon the conditions present
glaciation in general.
in
adj(;ining
States,
and on the
A
light
results of
According to Mr. Leverett, the glacial deposits and
scorings of the State have been recognized from the earliest days of settlement.
"It
is
in
Indiana that we find about the
America of the boulders as erratics and of
So long ago as 1828, granite and other
observed by geologists near
strife
first
recognition in
as products of ice action.
roclvs of distant derivation
New Harmony,
in
were
the southwestern part of
the State; at nearly as early a date (1842), stripe were noted near Rich-
mond,
tions,
in
the eastern part of the State."
very
little
attention
was given
But even with these observa-
to the deposits until within the past
twenty-five or thirty years.
About
four-fifths of the State lies in the glaciated area.
central part of the State
twenty counties.
is
a driftless area comprising
all
In the south
or a part of
174
Toposnipliy outside of induunce of Glaciers.
TopoKrapliy just outside the
Measure area, Dubois County.
(.ilacial
Knobatonc area
lioundary, but
mllurn
in
Binwn
>Ii;;htly
C
by
)unty.
out wash.
Coal
175
Two
fli.stinct
periods
third,
a
recognized
are
glaciation
of
mncli material derived from
in
\vlii(,-h
and
addition
in
the advance of the ice
many important
sheet did not reach the limits of Indiana, but produced
features by the action of wind and water upon the outwash material.
The various
The
stages producing glacial deposits are spoken of as
First Ice Invasion, chietly that of the Illinoian ice sheet
an eastern lobe which reached the eastern side of Indiana.
Loess Depositing Stage, the lowan
drift.
( 1
and probably
The Main
(2)
The Wisconsin Stage
(3)
of
Glaciation.
First Ice I)ivasion.
—The
State was invaded by ice which had
and south
ter of dispersion in the elevated districts to the east
From
Bay.
ment
surface
(aside
Indiana
and
is,
From
from
an
a part of this sheet the part
The deposit
the
area
covering
thin
almost
of
known
as the
Illi-
by this invasion constitutes the
left
of
equal
over
loess)
size
southwestern
southeastern
in
part
covers the entire area bet\A'een the glacial boundary and the
It
Wisconsin
line of the
is
cen-
Huron there was a move-
the region to the north of Lake
western Indiana.
drift
its
Hudson
the west of south over the Lake Michigan Basin, Illinois and
to
noian lobe was formed.
that
of
Many
drift.
wells and drillings have
shown that
exposure
in general
this
The
also present farther to the nortli underlying the Wisconsin.
about
thickness of this drift over the area of
its
twenty-five feet except in filled valleys.
In places the ridges carry but a
thin coating, while adjoining valleys
may
the southern limit the coating of material
while the boundary
of the soil
is
not
marked by
is
lOO feet or more.
At
is very thin in most places,
and
be
filled
a w^ell defined ridge, the character
and the natural vegetation mark approximately the
limits of
the drift.
In general, the material
fifteen feet or
is
of a yellowish
is
brown
duced the
color.
is
an altered gray
In the
filled
till,
color to a depth of
a gray or blue gray.
every transition from the brown to the gray;
that the brow'U
in
is
more, beneath w'hich the color
it
is
the oxidation of the iron having pro-
valleys sand
and gravel are often found, and
Ihc northern part of the area the drift becomes more variable.
underlying rock formations in most of the area appear
largely to the material of the
till.
Where
to
in
the
till,
The
have contributed
the underlying rocks are of a
friable nature the material has been reduced to sand or clay
any pebbles remain
There
therefore probable
and few
if
the coarse and pebbly constituents of the
176
til]
thus varies with the character of the underlying rocks.
formed pebbles and rock fragroeuts are
The
chiefly sandstone, but
locally
numerous
foreign rocks and boulders of large size are occasionally found near the
the drift.
of
limit
places, knolls
region presents^
Tlie
a
even topography.
fairly
and ridges with undulating surfaces
lu
occur, but in no place
do they become of great height.
Striae are
found
They occur in Sullivan, Vigo, Clay,
The markings are chiefly upon sandstone ex-
in several places.
Greene and Owen counties.
The drainage
posure.
many
of an area
was
of the area covered by the Illinoian Invasion
respects greatly modified.
work out the
In attempting to
whose drainage has been assisted by the invasion
sheet, the lite resolves itself into four
fundamental parts.
in
history
of the ice
First.
What
were the topographic characteristics of the area during the preglacial
history?
Third.
post
What changes
Second.
What has
glacial
took place during the glacial history?
hapi>ened since the disappearance of the ice sheet;
history?
What was
Fourth.
The drainage
uuglaciated parts of this area?
tent under the heading of "Rivers
I/f>c.s's
Dcpof<iti)if/
the Illinoian ice
Icibe
Stage.
— The
there
was
similar interval occurred at
vals were
of i)eat
marked
and
soil,
l)y
tlie
a
The surface
lie
laid
discussed to some ex-
and Lakes."
lowan
Drift.
marked
—rrior
to the invasion
interval of deglaciation
These
and
by
a
inter-
The
jtrocesses of erosion.
is
known
as
tlic
intevglacial
Sangamon
interval
Stage.
of the Illinoian drift outside the limits of the Wisconsin
term loess has been
may
is
its
produced on the
leaching and oxidation of the drift, the accumulation
and the
covered with a
is
effect
close of the Illiiinian jieridd.
following the Illinoian invasion
drift
the
grained yellowish
fine
Loess
apijlitnl.
down whenever
is
silt
or loam, to which the
a deposit wliidi. like
sand or gravel,
conditions are favorable, but since the great
bulk api>ears to have been deposited at a definite stage in the glacial period, the
loess
time of deposition
may be
may
be referred to as the Loess Stage.
as occur in glacial drift
it
juust have been derived
supposed to be from the lowan
source
is
to the
combined action of wind and water.
from a
This
of different ages, but since the materials contained are such
drift,
fine silt of a loose floury texture to
by a calcareous cement.
In
from the
drift.
The
and the distribution due
The
loess of Indiana
varies
compact masses, held firmly
some places small pebbles are found imbedded,
also fossil remains of fresh water mollnsks.
and some insects and bones
177
of
mammals
due probably
from
The
are found.
to
from yellow
color varies
modified forms of the
same
the loess material occur the faces are vertical
markings upon the face remains well preserved
varies
Where exposures
thin coating to twenty-five feet or more.
a
to almost white,
The thickness
material.
of
and compact, and any
(See photo-
indefinitely.
graph of exposures along Wabash River north of Old Fort Knox, Knox
County.)
How
Wisconsin
is
lowan
far the material from the
extends under the
drift
not known.
—Considerable
The M'lsvousin Stage.
time elapsed between the main
deposition of loess and the invasion of the Wisconsin ice sheet.
time
is
in the
designated as the Peorian Stage.
Erosion produced
surface of the loess and the underlyuig drift.
deposits of
muck and peat have been
In places extensive
Following the Peorian Stage
found.
there occurred one of the most important stages of glaciation
tire glacial period.
made
at
"It is
marked by heavier deposits
Throughout much of
any other invasion.
the United States, a prominent ridge of drift
to a height of 100 feet or
and merging
as
is
its
m
the en-
of drift than those
soutliern
boundary
in
to be seen rising in places
more above the outlying
into plains of drift
This
many changes
on the south,
districts
on the north, which are nearly as elevated
its crest.
"The southern border
of this drift sheet is
border in ^vestern Indiana
border tract, and
it
is
rises
less
The
diana than in the States to the east and west.
conspicuous in In-
ridge on
its
southern
twenty feet above the outer
scarcely
no more conspicuous
in central
Indiana.
from near Greencastle to the vicinity of Columbus there
is
Indeed,
not a well
defined ridging of drift along the border, the limits there being determined
by the concealment of the loess beneath
From
northeastward
tliere
feet
thin sheet of bouldery drift.
a
the east border of East White River a few miles below Columbus,
is
to
W'hitewater Valley at Alpine, in southern Fayette County,
a sharply defined ridge of drift standing twenty feet to forty
above outer border
tracts.
border leads southeastward,
though there
is
Thickness
it is
Upon
crossing Whitewater
where the
not so well defined as west of the river,
usually a ridge about twenty feet in height."
of
the
Drift.
— "There
are
thickness of the drift within the State.
surprising
The
differences
in
the
portion of the older drift
exjiosed to view has, as already noted, an average of about thirty feet.
The
additional 100 feet of the newer drift
[12— 29034[
is,
however, deposited very
178
In the belt of thick drift ^Yhich leads from Benton County
irregularly.
southeast to Marion County, and thence east into Ohio, the thickness
probably 200
this belt
The portion
feet.
of the
has an average of about
from this
tract extending north
newer
and the west flowing portion of the Wabash, has only
five feel,
A
fifty to seventy-five feet.
still
belt of thick drift as far as Allen
with limited areas where
its
is
drift area to the south of
thickness
fifty
larger
County
to seventy-
but twenty to thirty
is
In northwestern White, southwestern I'ulaski, and southern Jasper
feet.
counties there are several townships in which scarcely any drift appears
excepting boulders and sandy deixisits.
very thick.
average thickn(>ss for
Its
boiuidary of the State
.''00
is
it
4sr>
feet,
south
miles
fifty
probably not less than
is
At Kendallville
feet.
In nin'tlicrn Indiana the drift
and may exceed
feet
2.^10
and at several
cities
on the
uioraine which leads northeast from Fulton County to Steuben County,
shown by gas
thickness has been
is
seldom reached
in that region
exceed 300
jjorings to
is
Were
the drift
altitude would be
its
much
about as low as the surface of Lake Michigan, though
surface
its
The rock
feet.
at less than 20O feet.
from the northern [wrtion of Indiana
to be stripi)ed
is
the north
of
of the present
200 to 300 feet above the lake"'
TOPOGRAPHY.
The
stirface
The
features.
tion of the
Indiann
of
elcv.-itimi
Ohio
of
east,
and west forks
elevation of the State
is
has a comparatively
formed
is
aliout Tco
ranges from
.'>1."!
feet,
l,2sr»
feet.
liave
The
their
soui'ce.
surface,
or oidy gently
to the
and large boulders
»
level area of old
sand covered area to the west.
Marsh with an area
See U.
Geography,"
S.
G.
S.
Monograpli XXXVIII,
The average
iinicli
bills
In
and
of the drift.
fe(>t,
is
a
of the area
the
ridges,
These
stand out in
Lake Maumee on the south, and
Here on the west, the Kajikakee
of 1,000 s«iuare miles
Di-jer, pp. 29-40.
the southern
niidulaling.
morainie ridges, some of which reach a height of 200
sharp contrast to the
in
greater part of the State
State are some considerable
frf)m the coarser materials
t;ip(igrai)lii('
feet at the jnnc-
on this height of land that both the
North of the glacial l)oundary
level
part of the
northeiistern
II
White Kiver
of
of accumulation.
jilain
level
Wai>asii rivers to almut
.-ind
Randolph County.
jiart
presents no great diversity of
above sea
is
very
I.cvcr.'tt.
flat,
and the
Also "Studios
in
are.a to
Indi.Tiia
179
Showing topography
in level till plains
near Princeton, Gibson County.
180
When
the north has scarcely any significant ridges.
on the area they are usually not more
sand ridges occur
tliau 30-50 feet higli.
area some of the elevations will exceed 100
In the dune
The lower moraine
feet.
of
the Wisconsin sheet presents a distinct ridging in places, with a gently
undulating surface, but the range in elevation
is
The area
slight.
lying
between the Wi-sconsin drift boundary and the farthest advance of the
early ice sheet
is
a
flat.
to ;geiitly rolling surface.
Exposures, wells and borings show that the preglacial surface of the
drift area
was much
surface could be seen
eroded, and drainage lines well advanced.
it
If the
would perhaps have much the same appearance as
the surface of the driftless area.
The unglaciated
ranges from
tion
at
feet,
much
in
region
is
Weedpatch
in
Ilill
Ilmwn County.
The
hills
iuul
ridges
may
tracts of very large size occur, and
In general the
the surface
more
level
work
vary
formations.
general characteristics, according to the geological
cultivation.
eleva-
350 feet at the southwest corner, along the Ohio, fo 1.147
r.ut the greater part of the area
make
The
a thoroughly dissected plateau.
be classed as very rugged, no level
much
of the surface
is
too hilly for
Indiana has been to
of the' glacier in
and of much greater value from an
agri-
cultural standpoint.
DRAINAGE.
The drainage has been greatly
inthienccd by the glaciers whicli have
invaded the State.
Many
and have been able
to cut out only a
ca.ses
have followed new
much on
olrl
of the preglacial valleys
were
filled
with drift
part of the material, or in
lines entirely.
(liacial
many
water streams have done
the surface, but most of these lines are represented only by the
channels,
oi
by streams which arc insignificant as compared with the
flow from the ice front.
In the driftless area doe]) valleys, gorges
vines, are characteristic of the drainage,
some of the
and
ra-
special drainage fea-
tures will be considered under the heading of Rivers and Lakes.
liiicrs.
—All
the rivers of the State have been more or less influenced
by the glacial action.
drainage lines;
in
In the glaciated part there
is
no uniformity in the
the driftless area a section of drainage worked out in
detail will present a perfect dendritic system.
in
a
The Ohio River forms the southern boundary of the State, and flows
winding course for 352 miles. The valley of the Ohio is very nar-
181
row except
for
few miles near Louisville where
ji
it
has developed a
valley several juiles wide on the Devonian shales and again widens in
measures.
the southwestern part of the State, in the area of the coal
There are a few places between Pittsburg and Louisville where the width
two
of the valley exceeds
The narrows above
and usually
Louisville range in depth
Louisville the average
from 100 to 150
miles,
is
from 300
than a mile wide.
below
to 450 feet,
about 300 and in the wider parts the depth
The lower Ohio appears
feet.
less
is
it
to be a very old
is
drainage
line.
The course
of the lower Ohio
is
almost parallel with the dip of the
formations.
There has been almost a
total disregard of topographic features; the
part of the river as boundary which has been directly affected by the
glaeiation
between Louisville and the Indiana-Ohio
is
The
line.
history of the stream has been largely obliterated by glacial
The
entire part of the Ohio
early
deposits.
which has been influenced by the result of
glaeiation extends from Louisville to Maysville, Ky., a distance of 190
miles,
and including the abandoned channel near Cincinnati the
extent
is
about 225 miles.
to the rock floor at a
the material
The
lower level than the present bed of the
unmodified the
is
stage of glaeiation.
White Water.
full
river,
This work was done during the Illinoian period.
—White
in a
is
and as
excavation of the valley precedes the
Water River
in
the eastern part of the State
drains an area of about 1,500 square miles, partly from Ohio.
of the stream
glacial
found to extend down
drift deposits are
moraine
in southern
The source
Randolph County.
The
east
and west forks unite near Brookville.
"The head water portion for 15-20 miles
ill
The
drift.
carved
east fork, then, near
course partly in
its
rocks from that point
fork encounters rock at only a few points.
partially filled
on either
ai'e
flowing in channels cut
Richmond enters the
and has
roclc
to Brookville.
Below Connersville
The west
it
is in
a
preglacial valley, with broad bottom and elevated uplands
side.
"The west
forli,
with
its
head waters, constituted an important
line of
drainage for the waters from the ice sheet at the time the moraine above
referred to
epoch.
was forming and probably
It is in
consequence a
also at earlier stages in the glacial
gi'avel -filled valley,
and the work
of the
present stream has been merely a removal of a small portion of these
182
Above Cambridge
gravel deposits.
The
these deposits.
Brookville and below
depth."
—
(
city
th;it
lias
cut scarcely twenty feet into
and
in oil
However, the width and depth of the lower White Water
would require
a drainage area almost as large as the present.
Blue River has a drainage area of 450 square miles, which
the unglaciated.
ground
in
northern part of the river basin drained west
Wabash, as would be indicated by channels encountered
gas borings.
in
At
has formed a chennel G0-7o feet
it
Leverett.
It is possible that the
to the
valley
it
gradually increases toward Brookville.
deiith
cliannels.
The flow of the stream
fall
T]i(>
cstiniMted
is
is
liy
lies
wholly
greatly influenced by under-
Tucker to be 5.34 feet per
mile.
The WItitc River
(Irnins
{^i/slciii
are two main hranchcs, the
e;ist
its
forks,
junction with the
Wabash through
of the Illinoi;m drift.
The west
rnaxinnun elevation
1.2S5 feet; the elevation of the
The
is
total length of the
stream
100 miles of windings.
or
'IMic
more than twice that
the glacial area.
source
in a
feet
avcriigc fall
in
mouth
about 275 miles, with
of the Walcish.
The two main
cascade ten
County.
It flows
The
entire course
are
stone region in
Owen
rises in
at Pcndiclon. ;ind
Hendricks
feet.
another
is
througli
Creek having
Fall
lOcl
its
River which
is
over the edge of the Wisconsin drift
The eastern fork
375
nearly three feet per mile
is
trihut.iries
lieighl
where the
is
i)roI)ably
hns a length of 100 miles; the source of the west fork
Boone County.
.stream flows
the lower part
fork rises in Randolph County,
is
There
which unite at the south-
Below the point of union the
west corner of Daviess County.
the entire distance to
about onc-lhird of the State.
and west
in
in
southern
Putnam
through the lime-
tind Ihiws
County, where a series of falls are produced.
Eel
is
a
very meandering stream with a sand-cjioked channel.
material
is
derived in part from glacial material but largely from the
River
The
heavy sandstone formations exposed along the course, and especially on
the tributaries.
The
of
east fork of While River rises Just below the southwest corner
Randolph County,
The main streams
a
short distance from the
of these forks
liciul
grow farther
Shelby and Marion counties, where they approach
of west fork.
:iiinrt
ciicli
until they reach
other tlien again
turn from one another until the east fork reaches the southeast corner of
Bnrtholomow County.
This
fork
then turns
in
a
southwest direction
183
Showing polished surface
of sandstons.
Glacial Striae on Mansfield sandstone.
The marks
James Campbell farm north
Bowling Green.
of Bowling Green.
Markings are filled with
James Campbell farm, north
to the left running at right angles to the scorings are cracks.
white sand to give contrast.
of
184
and crosses the
boundary near Brownstowu, Jackson County.
glacial
cut to a comparatively low gradient, although
The
rock formations of great hardness.
extent that the present stream
rock
The
floor.
is
many
has cut through
it
It
and
a west-southwest direction,
cuts across the unglaclated area in
valley has been filled to such an
on the average about 100 feet above
is
bluffs are 200 to 300 feet
above the present valley
thus giving the preglacial valley a depth of 300 to 400
floor,
In the un-
feet.
glaclated area the east fork receives only one important tributary from
the north, that
nuich
wliich passed through
tiie
of
iiiiiplc
Iliihli.-ird's Ciij),
s;iii(i
water I'nun
divides
and gravel
filliiiir
in
wholly
Tliis creek lies
Salt Creek.
is
hut probably carried
ti»
in
unglnciated area
the melting heads of glaciers
the imrtheast. as
is
evidenced by the
the upiier cimrse of the triliutaries, as ex-
Monroe ('ounty and cnstcni
The streams leading down from these
gajis iiavc
part of lirown County.
strewn along their courses
glacial boulders of considerable size.
the Salt Creek basin the valleys are cut to great deptli and a
In
dendritic system of drainage lias been developed which stands out in contrast to the irregular
within the
area to
dril't
channel.
and for
In
east.
I
(if
is
lick,
of tlie
[lart
a
lai'ge
Seymour
triluitary
tlie lied
a
subterranean
wnter tiows over the old surface
from the
compared with the neighboring part of the east
crossing soutii of
entirely out of drift
through
a distance of 12-ir) miles flr)ws
limes
llnod
Mu sea
TIk
and
tlu' nortli
an eastern triliutary to east fork,
Lof<t h'ircr,
limits area
and unsyinmetrical drainage system of the streams
of
tlu'
east,
fork.
Muscatatucic
is
has
is
due
to a
from the Wisconsin
sin
ll
drift
filling
l)e<l.
fall
At the railway
forty feet lower
than at the crossing on the east fork to the north of Seymour.
f(>rence
little
The
dif-
of the east fork valley by deposits of gravel
glacier.
'I'iie
.Mnscatntuck
lindts ;ind the rea<'h of its waters
lies
outside of the Wiscon-
and the vnlley
reni;iins
nu-
lied.
The
and
principMl trilmlaries of east foi-k to the northeast are Blue River
Little Flat
about
five feet
drift to the
mile.
Rock Creek.
mouth
These tributaries have an average
From Columbus near
per mile.
of the
Muscatatuck the
fall
of
the edge of the Wisconsin
fall is
about twenty inches per
In the old preglacial valley through the driftless area the fall is
about ten inches per mile.
however, increase the
fall.
Riffles
and rapids
in this
part of the course,
The Iliudostan Falls below Shoals give
a
185
descent of about
is
cutting
down
The Patolca
feet
fiA'e
;
here the stream has cut
an old oxbow and
oft"
the rocli in the ridge encircled by the oxbow.
a sluggish stream flowing along to the south of east
is
fork of White River for a distance of about 100 miles, with a very nar-
row drainage
basin,
nowhere exceeding twenty miles
The
in width.
river
rises in the Huron Sandstone of southern Orange County, thus having
source in the driftless area, but in the vicinity of Jasiier, Dubois
its
County,
is
it
The present drainage system
conies in contact with the drift.
made up
of three small drainage systems
and the waters of which flowed
forks of White River.
to the
which were fonuerly
northwestward
to
distinct
west and east
"The upper system embraced the portion above
The
Jasper, the old divide being at the northeast border of that village.
middle system embraced the portion between Jasper and Velpen and the
The
lower part from Velpen down to the vicinity of Princeton.
age
way
old drain-
there turned north to White River near Hazelton, but the pres-
sent stream continues westward across a rock pass into the Wabash."
Leverett.
These streams which had then a northwestern discharge have been
turned westward, just outside the glacial boundary to form the present
Patoka River.
The Wahash River has a large drainage area within the
The
State.
river rises in the western part of Ohio, flows across central Indiana then
turns south and from a point a few miles below Terre Haute forms the
Indiana-Illinois
.stream
lies
boundary
to
within
entirely
its
junction
the glaciated
with
area
waters from the system come from the drift surface.
a preglacial valley just north of Lafayette,
for a
few
glacial
miles, turns
valley takes
river at the
a
The main
Ohio.
the
and practically
The
and after following
southwestward across a rock
all
the
river enters
this valley
point, while the pre-
longer route to the west and south, joining the
bend near Covington.
From
follows the preglacial valley to the Ohio.
this \yom\. southwest the river
Above Terre Haute the
pres-
ent stream has cut out only a part of the old valley, while to the south
the river bottoms extend from bluff to bluff of the old valley.
Haute the valley
is
five
miles wide, to the north from
increases to the south to about fifteen miles near the
In the upper part of
outlet
of glacial
its
2-4
mouth
At Ten-e
miles,
and
of the river.
course at Huntington the river enters the old
Lake Manmee.
The
old valley
here
is
several times
186
aW^
^-
^TSm,i\At:.^-.
htters which have been
cut, in
face for long time remain unchanged.
187
as wide as that occupied by the river above
it
tliis
where
far as Lafayette,
it
its
main tributary
an area of about 50O square miles.
Raccoon Creek drain
Little
At the southern edge
Wabash and
the stream enters an old channel of the
Parke County
of
follows this chan-
northward before entering the Wabash.
nel for about fifteen miles
Busseron Creek, a tributary of the Wabash, has
The general
line.
source near the
its
direction of the stream
the stream probably occupies a i)reglacial channel, otherwise
is
it
not
in-
drainage.
There are two Eel rivers within the
Wabash
southwest
is
For a few miles near the mouth
across Sullivan County into the Wabash.
fluenced by preglacial
Hnntiiigton
post glacial line as
a
joins a preglacial channel as mentioned above.
Big Raccoon Creek and
Clay and Vigo
From
point.
westward course and has opened up
flows in a
State.
One
a tributary of the
entering at Logansport and the other a tributary of White River
entering just aI)ove Worthington.
Along the
latter
and
its
posures in southern Indiana.
field
sandstone.
i-eceiving
is
From
counties.
These exposures are
of the best rock exchiefly in the
Mans-
very meandering stream and at present the ques-
It is a
some
tion of the drainage of
overflow
some
tributaries are
serious
of the bottom lands
consideration
which are subject
Clay,
in
the great bend westward to the
Vigo and
Wabash
there
to
Greene
is
a con-
tinuous strip of almost level country.
The Salamonic River enters the Wabash from the southeast near the
city
of
The
Wabash.
river
is
about seventy-flve miles
flows alojig a plain along the south side of a moraine.
enters near Peru.
It has a length of
about 100 miles and
cut mainly in drift, but in a few places
canoe River
in
is
the main
down
tributary from
trolled
by the moraines.
From
the northwest.
the moraines
length
its
to solid rock.
the moraines in the northeast part of the State.
plain of "Old
in
it
and
The Mississinewa
channel
is
The Tippesource
Its
is
Its course is con-
passes through a sand
Lake Kankakee" then again follows the course of
along the northwest side of the Wabash, and enters
it
a
a
moraine
few miles below
Delphi.
The Kankakee River
Is
a very sluggish stream, flowing a distance of
about seventy-five miles in Indiana by a very meandering course
the river
is
said to
make
2,000 bends
in whicli
188
\Va~lii-s in (Ihicial till, (•:istc'rn
Glacial
County.
till
Gibson Count\-.
Thickness about 50
feet.
interniinelod with large fragments of sandstone from local formations.
Gibson
189
The
Kaiikakee unites with the DesIMaines to form the
the
Illinois
111
Illinois.
an area of ahout 3,040 square miles in Indiana.
river drains
The general trend
of the watershed
from east
is
to
west with an entire
length of 200 miles and a north and south width of seventy miles.
All
the north tributaries have their source in the Valparaiso morainlc sys-
The southern
tem.
moraines.
seilles
watershed
limit of the
There
in the
is
shed of the Kankakee from that of the Wabash.
marsh near South Bend
Iroquois and Mar-
no well defined ridge separating the water-
is
edge
the
in
of
Tlie river rises in a
The Kankakee
moraine.
a
marshes comprise the most extensive body of swamp land
in
Indiana.
In the seven counties drained by the river the original area of the marsh
was almost a
many
In
half million acres.
and grasses grow so abimdantly
lilies
places wild rice, rushes, water-
in
as to cause the
the channel
summer freshet. In former years
the river could scarcely be approachetl but now more than a dozen railways cross the stream and numerous highways bridge its waters. The
flooding of the marshes even during a
surface of the marsh land
is
for the
most part a
treeless plain except
along the Immediate border of the river, where some trees are found.
soil
is
in
general a dark, sandy clay
According to
of soil types.
would be classed as swamp, marsh,
The
The
rich in organic matter.
number
sand content varies, and presents a
situation the soils
soil,
island,
peat and
muck.
The
St.
Joseph River,
nov\'
tributary to Lake Michigan, formerly dis-
charged througli the Kankakee.
square miles.
tributary.
It
has a drainage area of about 4,000
It
Papaio Ricer which joins
has
paraiso Moraine.
its
source in the
I'iiicstone
it
near the mouth
swampy
is
the chief
region to the east of Val-
Creek and Doicagiac River are other
trib-
utaries.
Yelloiv River drains
an area of about TOO square miles lying
east of the moraine in which the
About 800 miles
Kankakee
of the area
is
watershed
of the Iroquois
of its course the stream is sluggish
a sandy loam and
is
The Calumet River has
south of Michigan City.
The course
of the stream
its
lies
in Indiana.
and the drainage imperfect.
largely under cultivation.
waterways have been greatly assisted
in
to the
also has its source.
In most
The
soil
The natural
drainage by systems of ditching.
source in the Valparaiso morainic system
All the tributaries enter from the south side.
and tributaries are controlled
by the sand dunes along the beaches of the old
lake.
to
some extent
The stream now
190
The
discharges at South Chicago in Illinois.
County on the southeast border of the
fiOws in an almost straight line
and Lake
it
Lake
river
it
After flowing across the counties
its
Illinois, it
first
line
makes
two and
entered Lake County.
first
From
source.
a sharp curve, then flows north-
sists of sliglitly elevated
Lake County about three miles
then continuing eastward for fourteen miles to
old point of discharge, but
its
its
flows in a northwesterly direction, for about seven miles
and then at Blue Island,
north of
artificial
crosses the State line but three miles south of
east then southeast and again crosses into
it
in
entry into Porter County and almost due west of
its
the State line
was
Near the source the
old discharge
and has the appearance of an
ditch rather than a natural stream.
of Porter
lake.
a half miles
The area Inchided
from the
this
in
where
ixiint
meander
con-
morainie tracts, sandy beaches and marshes.
LAKES.
In the nortliern part of the State are
counties.
drift.
hundreds of lakes varying much
These lakes are chiefly confined
in size.
These lakes are
due
.ill
irregular deposition of glacial
They occupy basins within the morainie
vided into three classes.
formed by
tlie
four northern tiers of
to the
to the
They may be
area.
di-
Kettle Hole Lakes, those which have been
(1)
melting of detached blocks of
ice.
(2)
which the basins are the abandoned channels of
Channel Lakes,
glacial
streams.
in
(3)
Irregular lakes, those with no general form of outline but are due to the
irregular
depressions formed
in
the
accumulated
drift.
The abundant vegetation has pnidnced considerable
about the margins of
many
have been completely
filled.
the lakes and
is
of the lakes,
and many
Good marl deposits
deposits of ])eat
of the smaller ones
many
also occur in
of
being utilized for the manufacture of cement, brick and
tile.
No lakes
many basins
the Illinoian.
occur outside the limits of the Wisconsin drift, although
of
extinct
lakes
occur
over
the
southwestern
erable proportions in wet .seasons but are not permanent.
less
area numerous small ponds are found, which
to sink hole depressions in
owe
of
consid-
In the drift-
their origin chiefly
which the outlet has become clogged.
For (loscrlption of Indiana Stroams, see U.
XLI.— Leverett.
border
Some small ponded areas are found which take
S.
G. S.
Monographs XXXVII and
191
Niagara limestone exposed
Niagara limestone exposed
in
in
the
Wabash Arch
the channel of the
Wabash
at Wabasli
river at Logansport.
192
SOILS.
The
the State are of two general classes.
soils of
Sedentari/ or Residual
First.
Soils.
—These
are the hoils in place,
they have not been removed from the parent rock.
They vary much
throughout the driftless area.
in
Such
occur
soils
texture struc-
color,
ture and natural fertility, according to the nature of the formation of
which they have been derived.
fertile,
The
The poor
and the sandstones.
the shales
are those derivetl from
soils
Those from the limestones are rather
but will not stand continuous cropping, but soon become depleted.
residual soils are as a rule not very deep
and do not withstand
drouth very well.
Another group of
soils
to be classed as sedentary are
muck and swamp,
deposits as peat,
accumulation of material "in
Tliough differening
and origin from those just described
tion
northern part of the State
Peat occurs only
Muck
boundary.
in
Kankakee
and
sucli
soils
the gradual
both cdinposi-
common
are
in
Transported
the
Soils.
outside of the Wisconsin drift
many
lakes
areas of the lake region and the
—Those
which have been transported by
These are known as
drift soils.
collnvial, alluvial
The two
latter classes are of
most importance.
.M! of the alluvial soils of the State are fertile both in the glaciated
A
di'iftless areas.
slilt'cst
to
and
swamp
ice.
wind and
uf water,
glacial
(lillicnlt
the
the Wisconsin drift.
very limited areas
in
in
cumulous
basin.
Second.
power
in
areas occur about the margins of the
thousands of acres are
tlic
situ."
In
since they result from
drain.
clay.s,
but
and
large part of the river Ixittom soils are low lying and
These
in
soils
vary from the sands and gravel to the
Corn
general they are a giKxl clay loam.
is
the
principal crop.
Tlic drift soils an'
composed of a great variety of
The black loam
of good to fair fertility.
take
first
place
staple crops.
and permanent
of clay, gravel
among
The
The
drift is for the
most part a
drift deposits are varied
and sand, so that what
tirely different in another.
But
of material derived from
many
necessary plant foods.
of the drift has
and mostly
made Indiana
the States in the production of corn and other
glacial
soil.
types,
in
is
in
verj'
true in one locality
general
it
sources and
productive
the arrangement
may
be en-
consists of a confused
is
usually rich
in
mass
all
the
193
The
liue
between the residual types and the loess covered tracts
well defined as to differences of plant growth
the line between the pale
is
silt
and the black
is
and crop production, but
the Wisconsin drift
soils of
very conspicuous.
The
loess soils are easily cultivated,
tilled ilekl
is
frequently a loose
The
they are easily broken.
worked
easily be
much
tioiu'y dust,
soil
may
of the surface of a well
and when small clods occur
when wet and yet
a marked deficiency
amount becomes less the
be plowed
to a loose pliable condition.
There
of organic matter in the virgin soil .and as this
soils get in a
A
age.
poor physical
of the land
few years the
The
their tributaries
streams w'hlch
soils
in
difficult
to
man-
good condition for cultivation.
used for pasture, but when
is
gi'ouiid
principal
keep the
to
uncultivated for a
left
becomes covered with a browth of
alluvial
briars.
the State are those of the White
of
soils
Wabash and Ohio
niver,
and are sometimes
con.ditioi'
systematic rotation of crops and good application of stable ma-
nure are necessary
Much
is
The
Valleys.
valleys
of
these
streams and
are the results of stream erosion, and chiefly by the
now occupy them.
During the
largely choked with drift, only a small part of
glacial
period they were
which has been removed
gorges and ravines exist in great numbers along the White Water, White
and Ohio
bash
in
rivers
and
their tributaries.
the sandstone.
The streams
flow'ing
valleys flooded with glacial waters
effett of this is
from the
ti*ibutaries of tlie
Wa-
border their present channels.
glacial debris.
of sand
in
area had their
glacial
and choked with
shown by the extensive terraces
lands, large areas of
A
The eastern
Fountain and Parke comities flow through deep gorges cut
The
and gravel which
Between these terraces are the bottom
which contain very productive
soils.
larger percentage of the drift so/Is are suited for cultivation than
those of the driftless area, but there are, however, large areas of the
former which are either too rough for agricultural purposes, as in the
boulder morainic belts, or too wet, as in the lake and marsh districts of
the northern part of the State.
ROCK OUTCROPS.
In the northern part of the State rock outcrops are few.
mence,
Illinois,
occurs the
and from that point
[13—29034]
to
its
first
At Mo-
limestone outcrop along the Kankakee,
junction with the Iroquois there
is
a solid
194
Oolitic- liiinstone weatln'ring into soil.
Typical example of the source of the residual
Cleveland Quarry near Harrodsburg, Monroe County.
soils of
the driftless area.
195
rock bed.
an
At Momence some
effort to give a better
How
away in
The Wabash arch presents
of the rook ledge has been bhisted
to the Kaiilvakee.
the best exposure in the central and northern part of the State.
Follow-
down the Wabash numerous outcrops occur, at Logansport, CovingThe rock gorges along
ton, Merom, Vincennes and l>elow New Harmony.
Sugar Creek below Crawfordsville afford some of the most picturesque
ing
Above Crawfordsville the channel
scenery within the State.
Rocky Fork,
and touches rock only at a few places.
in
is
shallow
Parke County,
many erosive features of similar apiJearance. In Vigo County
many exposures occur along the tributaries of the Wabash. Along Eel
River in Putnam County and Clay County are some excellent examples
also has
of erosion in the Mansfield Sandstone.
Croy's Creek, a main tributary,
lined with gorges, undercuts, vertical walls,
The
falls of the east fork of Eel
and
River at Cataract
cliffs
in
is
with steep slopes.
Owen County
are over
the limestone. In the eastern part of the State along Clifty Creek, Big Flat
Rock and
Little Flat
bank exposures
of
in the
Rock there are long stretches of rock bottom and
Devonian and Tapper Silurian.
White Water and at Madison
The rock
bluffs
is
found some of
along the Muscatatuck,
as
tlie
at
Along the channel
very best of scenery.
Vernon, and the shale
in the beds of the streams to the south, as about Henryville, are also
of prominence in the southeastern part of the State.
the bluffs of the Patoka are si>ecially noted.
In the southwest
These are only a part of
the rock outcrops within the drift area, and in addition to the
posures of natural ledges
may
many
ex-
also be mentioned the great deposits of
conglomerate gravel which presents some rugged surfaces, as along the
upper Wabash and along White River to the northeast of Xoblesville.
In the driftless area the bare rock surfaces give
ered forms.
The sandstone areas have the most
the almost vertical
cliffs,
rising in
scenery of the driftless area
is
some cases
to
all sorts
of weath-
striking features, with
200 feet or more.
not excelled by any
in
The
the State, or along
the Ohio Valley, or indeed, by any in the Middle West.
Most
of the streams of the State
many examples
with
little cost.
greater
works
fall
and
of good
power
Rock exposures
at the
to be constructed.
sites
in
would afford good water power;
are present which could be utilized
the bed of some of the streams afford
same time good
solid bases
for
dams
or other
196
An
accurate topographic
map
ter than
person
any other description or
whoh had
would show the contrast
of the State
and the unglaciated portions
iu the physical features of the glaciated
bet-
illustration that could be given to
not been over the area
investigate
to
a
the contrast.
In the glaciated area the lines would run in large regular curves and
far apart, showing the snioothncss
of the drift limit the lines would
coui'se
and sharp curves, showing
regular divides and abrupt
four-lifths of Indiana
is in tlie
unglaciated
region of deep, narrow valleys,
AM)
is
Excluding Indianapolis, almut
State
a
in
tlie glaci.-iti'd area.
one-eiglitli
New
ai'c;i.
are river valley towns and
tlie
The next
surrounding
liy
less
the unglaciated
tlie
cultivation
is
abont
^40 per acre, wiiile
•',(»
in
than
area
95
i)er
cent,
d<i
lu'cn
Ji.-is
the
in
tiial
class but
increased by the
ai'e.
IMooniington and
with no other towns com-
cacli.
;i.(H)(»
aver.ige
is
.$S5
per
Lake County.
under
cent,
jier
"."i
.acre.
of
the
l;ind
jier cent,
is
under
The average
is
and nuich of
its
culti-
lowered
In the central counties
cultivation,
under
on the average at about
valneil
the glaciated area over
of the land is
belong
not
unglaciated area
and
vation and sells on the aver.age at
greatly by the sand hills of
of
lialf.
the
cent,
jier
pnpulafion
the
.irea.
Bedford, with jKipnlations of alioul
In
<if
Alliank ;ind Jefferson ville, although
jpoiiiilation
tlieir
largest towns in
ing up to this size
ir-
LAX1> VALUES.
included in the unglaciated area, really
condition of
South
surface.
close together with a very winding
cliffs.
I'OITLATIO.X
About
and regularity of the
l)e
about
sells at
prices ranging from $10f) to $ir)0 per acre, or even nioic where within a
few miles of good market
centers.