LABOUR
AND AUTOMATION
INTERNATIONAL HB^OR OFFICE
CENTRAL LIBRARY Vf)
DOCUMENTATION CF.ANCH
BULLETIN No. 3
Technological Change
and Manpower in a
Centrally Planned Economy
A Study Based on Soviet Literature
Dealing with the Metalworking Industry
in the U.S.S.R.
LABOUR AND AUTOMATION
In view of the widespread interest and concern attaching to the economic and social problems of automation and advanced technological
change, the I.L.O. decided to publish a series of bulletins, of which this
is the third. These bulletins form part of a broader programme for
the study of the economic and social effects of automation, and provide
a means for the dissemination of information on an international basis.
The bulletin series will include papers on new developments, reviews
of published material, and reports on research findings, and will endeavour to present a broad picture of international experience and
opinion.J[No specific periodicity is planned ; the issues will be published
according to the availability of appropriate material.
_ The series is designed for scholars and research workers but will also
be of value to others interested in this field, such as persons associated
with employers' or workers' organisations or government officials
responsible for developing and implementing manpower policy. Each
issue is available singly.
The following issues have already appeared :
No. 1 : Automation : A Discussion of Research Methods (1964)
No. 2: A Tabulation of Case Studies on Technological Change
(1965)
Cover photograph : The automated eyllnder-head machining line for " Volga " automobiles In the Zavolzhsk
engine factory, Gorky region (TASS).
PRINTED BY IMPRIMERIE CENTRALE S.A., LAUSANNE (SWITZERLAND)
CONTENTS
Introduction
1
1. Preliminary Notes on Methodology
A. Technical Progress and the Mechanisation and Automation of Production
B. Quantitative Determination of the Degree of Mechanisation and
Automation
S
11
2. Changes in the Nature of Work and Its Content
A. General Trends
B. Analysis of Certain Occupations
(i) Machine Operator
(ii) Tool Setter
(iii) Fitter-Repairman
(iv) Electrician
C. Occupational Enlargement
D. Broadening of Skill Profiles
19
19
22
22
27
30
32
32
35
3. Changes in Manpower Skills
A. Required Skill Levels
B. Existing Skill Levels
C. Effect of Higher Standards of Skill on Technological Progress ....
39
39
42
52
4. Changes in the Employment Pattern
A. Manpower Classification
B. Changes in Occupational Groups
C. Changes Relating to Specialists with Higher or Specialised Secondary
Education
55
55
57
66
Conclusions
69
5
APPENDICES
Appendix I. Occupational Descriptions
Appendix II. Bibliography
73
79
m
TABLES
I. Application of Formulae in Determining the Degree of Mechanisation
and Automation in the U.S.S.R
II.
16
Level of Mechanisation in the Metalworking Industry in the Economic
Region of Kherson
18
Actual and Planned Levels of Mechanisation in Three Factories
18
IV. Breakdown of Machine Operator's Working Time on Mechanised
Manual Production and on Automated Lines
23
V. Number of Technological Operations and Units of Equipment per
Operator on Integrated Mechanised Lines in the Volgograd Tractor
Factory
25
VI. Breakdown of Tool Setter's Working Time on Mechanised and Automated Lines
28
III.
VII. Changes in the Complexity of Repair Work as a Result of the Increasing Automation of Equipment
VIII.
30
Syllabus of Vocational and Technical Schools for Certain Occupations
41
IX. Percentage Breakdown of Industrial Workers in the U.S.S.R. by
Degree of Skill, 1925-59
43
X. Percentage Breakdown of Workers Recruited by the " Uralmash "
Factory by Standard of General Education
44
XI.
Percentage Breakdown by Standard of Education of Workers on
Automated Production in Different Factories of the Same Type
46
Average Skill Grade of Workers in Plants with Different Degrees of
Automation
50
XIII. Breakdown of Skilled Workers in Certain Plants by Type of Technical
Training
52
XIV. Increase in the Number of Workers in the Metalworking Industry,
1948-59
58
XV. Changes in Classification of Workers According to the Degree of
Mechanisation in the Metalworking Industry, 1948-59
59
XVI. Changes in Classification of Workers in the Metalworking Industry
According to the Nature of Their Relationship with Production
and the Degree of Mechanisation of Their Work, 1948-59 ...
60
XVII. Employment Pattern According to the Degree of Automation and
Specialisation of Equipment
62
XVIII. Ratio of Tool Setters to Operators in the Metalworking Industry . .
63
XII.
FIGURES
IV
A. Classification of Different Levels of Mechanisation and Automation
in the Metalworking Industry in the U.S.S.R
10
B. Changes in the Level of General Education of the Workforce at the
" Uralmash " Factory, 1950-60
45
C. Size of Occupational Groups in the Moscow Bearing Factory, No. 1,
1958
64
INTRODUCTION
One of the most pressing needs that have resulted from the application
of modern technology, and in particular of automation, is for a better
understanding of the changes which it is likely to bring about in skill
requirements and manpower structure. Such information is essential
for the preparation of rational training and re-training plans that will
permit distribution of labour without hardship according to the changing
needs of industry.
In industrialised countries automated equipment is being introduced
on an increasing scale in many sectors of the economy, and the implications for training and future occupational structure are being extensively
studied. This is true of the U.S.S.R.1, where the extension of automation
and the plans for its development on a massive scale over the next two
decades have given rise to a considerable body of literature in the
Russian language.
The present bulletin, which has been prepared by Mr. C. BEYAZOV,
a member of the Automation Unit of the Research Department of the
International Labour Office, seeks to analyse existing Soviet material
relating to the effects of automation on occupations, with special reference to one sector—the metalworking industry—which is of importance
because of the size of its work force and of the needs that it supplies
throughout the community.2 The analysis is the result of an examination of the 163 Soviet publications listed at the end of the bulletin.
1
For a contribution to Labour and Automation by a Russian author see
A. ZVORYKIN: "Methods of Statistical Calculation and Determination of Levels
of Mechanisation, Automation and New Technology in the U.S.S.R. ", in Bulletin
No. 1, pp. 173-183.
2
According to the official classification of the Central Statistical Authority, this
industry comprises 28 branches, producing: boilers; electrical equipment; metalcutting equipment; presses and sheet-metal working equipment; equipment for the
(footnote continues on following page)
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
Chapter 1 provides some information on the methodology used by
Soviet research workers in this field. It gives the definitions and classifications used for different degrees of mechanisation and automation,
and describes methods used for calculating these levels.
Chapter 2 is devoted to the effects of technological progress on the
division of labour and on the occupational characteristics of workers in
different groups. It discusses four occupations which are most affected
by advanced technology in the metalworking industry and to which
repeated references are made in subsequent chapters.
Chapter 3 deals with the relationship between improved equipment
and manpower skills and considers how skill gradings reveal the impact
of automation.
Chapter 4 takes as its starting point certain proposals in the U.S.S.R.
for a new classification of manpower in industry before examining the
material on changes in the groupings.
A final section summarises conclusions emerging from the literature
on the subject. There are also two appendices, the first of which contains
descriptions of two of the occupations referred to most frequently in the
body of the work 1, the second consisting of a bibliography in Cyrillic
characters together with English transliteration of authors' names and
translation of titles.2
It is worth noting that general conclusions set forth by Soviet authors
about the occupational changes that can be foreseen for the metalworking industry and for the economy as a whole are based both on
their examination of past trends and on the plans formulated by the
Congresses of the Communist Party for the future utilisation of automation techniques.
Reliance upon Soviet literature for the preparation of this study has
made it possible to present statistical data for many factories in the
metalworking industry, and to show the differing viewpoints of various
iron and steel, mining and chemical industries; equipment for the wood and paper
industries; equipment for light industry; equipment for the food industry; equipment
for the printing industry; equipment for the building and road construction industries;
equipment for the metal and woodworking industries; lifting and transport equipment;
farm machinery; tractors; railway equipment; automobiles and trucks; ships; radio
and television equipment; pumps and compressors; control and measuring apparatus;
ball and roller bearings; fire-fighting equipment; safety equipment; other productive
machinery; household appliances; medical equipment; typewriters and calculating
machines; and other non-productive equipment. All these branches of the economy
can be classified in groups Nos. 360, 370, 380, 390 and to some extent 391 of the
International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities, Series M,
No. 4 (United Nations, New York, 1964).
1
In 1963 there were 348 occupations listed for the metalworking industry.
8
In the text the figures in heavy type within square brackets refer to the works
listed in this bibliography.
2
Introdnction
researchers. It has also resulted in certain difficulties. In some cases,
for example, translation of a text or of certain technical definitions failed
to provide an adequate explanation of the concept at issue. In most
instances this problem has been resolved by clarifying the English text
in the light of the total context in which the doubtful passage appeared.
Furthermore it has been necessary to resist the temptation to draw
comparisons (or contrasts) between the studies of Soviet authors and
those of researchers in market economics. There is a common interest
in the problem discussed in this study, and the multiplicity of definitions
of automation for example, is as evident in the West as in the U.S.S.R.
This study, however, is confined to Soviet experience, as described in
publications.
While numerous words and phrases are defined in Chapter 1, they
may not always be used in later chapters with exactly the same meaning.
This difficulty arises from the fact that the material has been drawn from
publications of a number of authors, who may apply different meanings to
the same words. Caution is also required with respect to job titles.
It was not always found possible to analyse the exact nature of job
content since the same job title may be applied to types of work which
differ somewhat although they entail basically the same kind of skill
requirements. Several of the tables included in the text bear no reference
to the year to which the data relate, because the original source gives no
such date. However, the date of the publication in which the data were
given provides some indication of the reference period.
In spite of these difficulties and in spite of the fact that all questions
have not yet been answered, research studies and statistical analyses
reported in the Soviet literature can provide an interesting picture of
recent trends and of the present situation concerning the occupational
pattern of manpower in the metalworking industry.
PRELIMINARY NOTES
ON METHODOLOGY
A.
1
TECHNICAL PROGRESS AND THE MECHANISATION
AND AUTOMATION OF PRODUCTION
In studying the social consequences of technological progress and
automation, it is first necessary to decide what is meant by these terms.
In the U.S.S.R. a number of definitions are in use.
For example, OSIPOV takes as the general criterion of technological
progress the labour time socially necessary to manufacture one unit of
production.1 This socially necessary labour time is constantly falling,
owing to the introduction of new techniques, new working methods
or forms of production organisation and new scientific discoveries. In
other words, the socially necessary labour time varies with the level
of labour productivity [109, p. 97].2
In KHROMOV'S view, technological progress is a continuous process
of change and improvement in the means of production 3 during their
utilisation [150, p. 324]. DZHAMANKULOVA regards technological
progress as a constant evolution of science, combined with a continual
improvement in the instruments of work, in the subjects of labour and
in the methods of manufacture as well as in conditions of work and
production : in short, as a continuous improvement in all the factors in
the production process, on the basis of scientific progress [46, p. 11].
1
The " socially necessary labour time ", as expounded by Marx, is the time
required to produce an article with an average level of technique, degree of skill and
speed of working.
2
The figures in heavy type within square brackets refer to the works listed in the
bibliography at the end of this Bulletin.
a
The Soviet concept of the means of production embraces the means of labour
and the subject of labour. The means of labour include all the factors which enable
a producer to work on the subject of his labour and to change it: above all, the instruments of labour, but also land, production plant, roads, canals, etc. By subjects of
labour are meant the materials, especially raw materials, processed by human labour.
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
These variations in analysis do not alter the fact that all Soviet
writers consider technological progress as a normal historical process
of improving the tools and methods of production, which in turn results
in higher labour productivity. Every advance in this field, whether
deliberate or fortuitous, is adopted by society because it saves the time
devoted to work and releases new energies.
In modern times technological progress has come to be practically
synonymous with mechanisation and automation which, in the U.S.S.R.,
are regarded as the keys to future development [88, p. 14]. The evolution
of the means of production has gone through a number of stages, the
nature of which has often been defined in different ways, causing confusion
and controversy, especially over the definition of automation as the
highest degree of mechanisation. Practically every author has had his
own classification of production equipment and his own definition of
automation.
Thus, ZVORYKIN [54, p. 12] distinguishes between four forms of
automation (automatic systems with a fixed cycle; automatic feedback systems; automatic systems involving computers and decisionmaking devices; and systems combining the first three). KHOVANSKY
[148, p. 23] lists five forms (universal automatic machines; automatic lines
using existing tools ; special automatic lines ; automatic lines with rotary
tools, the number of rotors depending on the number of operations;
and automated sections, shops and factories). FYODOROVICH [144,
pp. 42-44] identifies six forms (automatic machines with a fixed cycle;
automatic lines; automatic lines feeding each other and constituting
an automated shop; linked automated shops constituting an automated
production unit; automated control of all production units in a plant;
and the automated factory characterised by automation of manufacture
and ancillary services). SHAUMYAN [158, pp. 15-17] distinguishes between seven different forms (universal automatic and semi-automatic
machines; specialised automatic and semi-automatic machines; batteries
of machines; automatic lines using batteries of machines; automatic lines
using universal automatic and semi-automatic machines; integrated automatic lines ; and universal machines programmed by numerical control).
Obviously this state of affairs tends to impede mutual understanding
between authors, and it complicates quantitative surveys of the effects of
automation. Moreover, the mere existence of such different concepts
makes it impossible to draw a clear line of demarcation between mechanisation and automation, which hampers the study of the social and
economic consequences of automation proper.
An initial attempt to combine and standardise different concepts
and classifications concerning the stages of mechanisation and automa6
Preliminary Notes on Methodology
tion in the U.S.S.R. was made in 1962 in a document drawn up by
eight scientific institutes with a view to establishing research into the
social and economic effects of technological progress on a more solid
foundation [37]. The definitions and classifications proposed in that
study were approved by the State Committee for Instruments of Measurement, Means of Automation and Control Systems and are presented
below.
Technological evolution is classified as follows:
(a) Mechanised manual production (the simplest form of mechanisation). Manual labour is used to perform the work with the
assistance of tools or machinery, powered manually, electrically,
hydraulically, or by compressed air. Some manual labour may be
needed to place machines or instruments in position.
(b) Mechanised production. The work is performed by machines powered
electrically, hydraulically, or by compressed air. The operation of
the machines and the performance of ancillary operations are
partly manual.
(c) Integrated mechanised production. The whole cycle of the production process is performed by machinery. Basic and ancillary
processes are linked and carried out at a co-ordinated speed. Control,
adjustment and regulation of the machines are manual.
(d) Automated production. Certain basic and ancillary operations are
performed by machines and mechanical devices without human
intervention. The worker is only needed to regulate machinery, to
watch it and to make adjustments during production.
(e) Integrated automated production. This system covers a complete
production process, in which the basic or ancillary regulatory
operations are carried out by machines or mechanical devices, so that
the desired quality and output are achieved without human intervention. The only functions of the worker are to watch the operations and manipulate the control apparatus. Integrated automated
production excludes any form of mechanised or manual work,
except in the case of operations in which, for technical or economic
reasons, automation is considered inappropriate.
Obviously, this evolution does not follow a single pattern; it simultaneously involves the development of wholly automated plants and
the extension of mechanisation.
The above classification of technological evolution into five main
levels is not sufficient to give a precise picture of the nature of the equipment. In addition, an exact definition of automated lines and units is
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
needed in order to avoid any misunderstanding with regard to the type
of automation employed in each individual case.
BOGUSLAVSKY [11, pp. 21-22] gives some indications on the subject,
and KATSENELINBOIGEN [68, pp. 9-11] even more, but both publications
are now largely out of date. The following definitions are quite recent,
and have been officially accepted [37].
A semi-automatic machine is a unit of equipment which performs
automatically all the operations involved in the direct processing of the
work piece. However, repetition of the manufacturing process requires
human intervention, especially in loading and unloading and in setting
the equipment in motion; in certain semi-automatic systems the worker
also sets and controls the machine, changes the cutting tools, and removes
waste matter from the machine.
An automatic machine is a unit of equipment which performs automatically at least the following operations: movement of the work
piece to the work zone, loading, all operations involved in the direct
processing of the work piece, ancillary adjustments, unloading, and
removal of waste matter. The worker still has to operate the feed apparatus, regulate the machine, supervise its operation, change the cutting
tools and dispose of the waste matter. With some machines, control
functions, ancillary regulation, changes of cutting tools and waste disposal
are performed automatically.
A transfer line is a unit performing basic and ancillary operations,
and comprising a conveyor system, technical installations, and other
machinery. The operations of manufacture or assembly are performed
with the assistance of workers at the appropriate work stations. The
equipment and work stations are normally laid out in accordance with
the sequence of operations.
A mechanised transfer line is characterised by the fact that the greater
part of manufacturing and assembly operations are performed by
machines or mechanical apparatus. The transfer of seiñi-finished or
finished items from one work station to another is also mechanised.
It is only done manually in cases where mechanisation is not considered
to be technically or economically worth while. Assembly lines on which
the essential operations are performed with the help of very simple
mechanical apparatus are also classified as mechanised transfer lines.
An integrated mechanised transfer line performs all the manufacturing
and assembly operations, using mechanical apparatus, machines and
other equipment as an integrated whole. The transfer of finished and
semi-finished items during manufacture is also mechanised.
An automated line consists of items of automated equipment combined
for the performance of basic and ancillary operations and comprising
8
Preliminary Notes on Methodology
technical installations, conveyor systems and machinery performing
various operations. This combined equipment performs a portion of the
entire production process without direct human participation, the sequence
and pace being governed by technical requirements. The transfer of
finished and semi-finished goods during manufacture is also automatic.
Human effort is limited to adjustment and control. In special cases
loading and unloading may be manual.
An integrated automated line performs all the manufacturing and
assembly operations in an order and at a speed governed wholly by
technical requirements, and without any direct human participation.
Figure A has been constructed on the basis of these definitions and
classifications to show their interrelationship.
Soviet analysts have also developed the following plant classification
[37]:
In an integrated mechanised section, shop or factory, all the basic and
ancillary processes of production are mechanised, viz. transport,
loading, unloading and storage (at shop or factory level); cleaning of
premises ; and the setting up and control of production (technical documents, planning, accounts, remote control, etc.). The work is done
manually only in the case of individual operations which it would not be
technically or economically advisable to mechanise at that particular
stage.
In an automated section, shop or factory, all the main technical
processes are performed by automatic machinery, automated lines and
other automatic production systems, while the ancillary operations
(tool manufacture, repairs, power, transport, loading and unloading,
storage, cleaning of premises, and setting up and control of production)
are mechanised or partly automated. Mechanised or manual methods
are employed in individual operations and processes which it would
not be technically or economically advisable to automate at that particular stage.
An integrated automated section, shop or factory consists of automated
equipment and apparatus combined to perform all the basic and ancillary
operations of production. Control and regulation are centralised under
human supervision. Mechanised or manual methods are employed in
individual operations and processes which it would not be technically
or economically advisable to automate at that particular stage.
This framework can provide a starting point for any study of the
social impact in the U.S.S.R. of technological developments in general,
and automation in particular. It utilises a compatible set of concepts
yielding comparable results. These definitions and classifications do not
claim to be perfect or definitive. Nevertheless, the fact that they have
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.SJl.
FIGURE A. CLASSIFICATION OF DIFFERENT LEVELS
OF MECHANISATION AND AUTOMATION
IN THE METALWORKING INDUSTRY IN THE U.S.S.R.
Levels of mechanisation
and automation
Machinery and installations
UNIVERSAL MACHINES
MECHANISED
MANUAL
PRODUCTION
SPECIALISED MACHINES
TRANSFER LINES
MECHANISED
PRODUCTION
MECHANISED TRANSFER UNES
INTEGRATED
MECHANISED
PRODUCTION
INTEGRATED MECHANISED TRANSFER LINES
SEMI-AUTOMATIC MACHINES
BATTERIES OF SEMI-AUTOMATIC MACHINES
AUTOMATED
PRODUCTION
AUTOMATIC MACHINES
BATTERIES OF AUTOMATIC MACHINES
AUTOMATED LINES
INTEGRATED
AUTOMATED
PRODUCTION
10
INTEGRATED AUTOMATED LINES
Pielimlnary Notes on Methodology
been centrally approved and are in use throughout the country marks a
considerable step forward.
B.
QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF THE DEGREE
OF MECHANISATION AND AUTOMATION
Soviet authors consider that accurate determination of the degree
of mechanisation and automation is essential before any worth-while
study can be made of the impact of technological change on occupational
patterns and skills. They are agreed that, in a planned economy, there
should be an accepted method for accurately assessing the degree
of mechanisation and automation of any given work station, section,
shop, factory or even industry. It is then possible [133, p. 44; 4, p. 150]:
to determine the actual degree of mechanisation and automation of
production;
to compare the level of mechanisation and automation in the manufacture
of an article in similar factories, or to make comparisons between
different industries;
to work out programmes and priorities for the mechanisation and
automation of complete shops and factories ;
to collect data which can be used for planning the level of mechanisation
and automation;
to compare the various effects of a given level of mechanisation and
automation on the labour force in a number of similar undertakings,
etc.
Despite the difficulties involved in working out such a quantitative
method of measurement that is both sufficiently accurate and easy to
apply, the joint efforts of several scientific institutes have resulted in the
development of a method which Soviet researchers do not advance as
perfect but which is considered to have proved its value in practice [37].
This method of determining the level of mechanisation and automation which was first devised for the metalworking industry is based on
the above classification and definitions. It uses a system of three interrelated indices expressed in percentages:
— the proportion of the work force performing mechanised work (Pm) ;
— the level of mechanised work (Lm) ;
— and the level of mechanisation of the production process (Lmp).
By appropriate modifications, the same indices can be used to
measure the degree of automation.
11
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
(a) The purpose of calculating the index Pm is to ascertain the
percentage of workers performing mechanised work in a given work unit
(section, shop, factory or industry) ; the formula employed is :
P ==
W
W
100 = — • 100
Wm + Wk
W
where the symbols have the following meanings:
Wm — the number of workers performing mechanised work1 ;
Wk — the number of workers performing manual work1 ;
W — the total number of workers in the work unit concerned.
It is considered that the index Pm must be used with caution, because
it ignores the qualitative aspect of mechanisation, and is therefore hable
to distort the true picture. For example, there are plants in which the
workers performing mechanised work include turners on universal
lathes and others on semi-automatic lathes. The formula does not make
any distinction between these two types of workers, despite the obvious
fact that the proportion of manual labour to the total labour input is
not the same in the two cases.
(b) One way of achieving greater precision is to calculate the index
Lm—the level of mechanised work in relation to total labour input—
according to the formula:
Lm =
—— • 100 = — • 100
Tm + Tk
T
where the symbols have the following meanings :
Tm — the time spent on mechanised work;
Tk — the time spent on manual work;
T — the total time (labour input) of all workers.
For practical purposes, it is found preferable to use a different formula
for calculating the level of mechanised work (Lm). This other formula
is based on consideration of the particular type of equipment being
utilised—in particular, the extent to which it entails mechanised work.
1
Mechanised work is performed by workers who use machinery or apparatus
having an independent drive or who work on chemical apparatus and supervise
the operation of automatic machinery.
Manual work is performed by workers who either do not use machinery or use
hand-held machinery having no independent drive.
Workers who perform part of their work by mechanised means and part by
manual means are classified according to whichever proportion is predominant. If
the proportion of manual and mechanised work is equal, they are classified as performing mechanised work.
12
Preliminary Notes on Methodology
This formula is:
L = —!—^—- • 100 = —!—-—- • 100
Wm+Wk
W
where the symbols have the following meanings :
^m ^it ^ — as previously defined ;
Wme — the number of workers performing mechanised work on a
piece of equipment or at a work-station;
B — the coefficient of mechanisation expressing the relationship
between the time of mechanised work and total labour
input on a given piece of equipment or for a given workstation.1
When the formula is applied to a single piece of equipment or workstation Wme = Wm; when larger units are under consideration, S Wme
= W
The index Lm supplements and clarifies the information yielded by
the previous index (Pm) by measuring the actual level of mechanised
work. However it does not make allowance for the productivity of the
equipment, which might in some cases lead to an under-estimate of the
degree of mechanised operations.
(c) In order to allow more accurately for this last factor, the index
Lmp is used which indicates the level of mechanisation of the production
process. This is calculated according to the formula:
T
mp
=
|
""'
i
. IQQ
I.(lVme-B-C-D)+I.(lVme (\-B)) + Wk
where the symbols have the following meanings:
B Wme Wk — as previously defined;
C — the coefficient of use indicating the number of units of equipment
operated by one worker (may be equal to 1, or a greater or
lesser number) ;
D — the coefficient of productivity of the equipment, which expresses
the relationship between the productivity of the equipment
under average conditions and the productivity of the basic
(least productive) equipment employed. For example, in
engineering, where the I A 62 single-spindle drilling machine
is used as a yardstick, the coefficient for a multi-spindle machine
is 2.0.
L
The value of B is calculated at a central agency and made available to plants.
13
Technical Change and Maapowei in the U.S.S.R.
Since
•L(Wme(\.B))+ Wk=w(\-^
the formula1 can be re-written:
Lmp =
{
-^
-
• 100
•ZdV^-B-C-DJ + Wil--^)
The denominator is commonly denoted by T'; making the formula:
_-L(Wme-B-C-D)
With the help of these three indices, used as weighted averages for
different work units, it is possible to calculate the degree of mechanisation
in either undertakings or a whole industry. However, the work-station
must be taken as the basis for the calculations.
In utilising the formulae for measuring the extent of automation, the
first formula becomes:
Pfl = — • 100
where Wa represents the number of workers engaged in automated
operations.
The other formulae can be expressed as follows:
^ = y • 100
where Ta is time spent by workers on automated work.
where Wae represents the number of workers engaged in automated
operations on a piece of equipment or at a work-station ; and
Lap —
1
-Z(Wae-B-C-D)
— —
i
• 100
•L(Wme-B-C-D) + -L (Wme (l-B)) + Wk
2 (lVme (\-Bj)+ Wk can be simplified to the form W- 2 (Wme B).
After substituting ' ^°" ' B) • 100 for Lm in the expression w(\-^\ \ht
W
\ 100/
latter can also be simplified to the same form.
14
Preliminary Notes on Methodology
Table I is designed to illustrate the use of the formulae described
above. It provides details of a hypothetical engineering factory with
a total labour force of 472 workers, of whom 124 are engaged in manual
work (WJ and 348 in mechanised work (Wm). Of this latter group,
130 are engaged in the operation of automated equipment (W0).
The figures show that, for the entire factory, the proportion of workers
performing mechanised work (Pm) equals 73.7 per cent., while the
proportion of workers performing automated work (PJ equals 27.5
per cent. The level of mechanised work in relation to total labour
input (Lm) equals 51.9 per cent. Analysis has shown that the smaller
the difference between Pm and Lm, the more advanced is the technology
in use. The difference between 73.7 per cent, and 51.9 per cent, indicates,
therefore, that the equipment in this undertaking is relatively advanced.
The high levels of mechanisation and automation of the production
process (Lmp = 86.2 per cent, and Lap — 78.9 per cent.) also point to
the same conclusion.
Assessment of the degree of mechanised and automated production
demands extensive calculation, but Soviet authors indicate that experience
has shown that in most cases the last two indices are sufficient, and
sometimes only the final one is needed. On the other hand, some types
of manufacture require an additional index for " the degree of mechanisation (or automation) of the operation ", expressed in quantitative
terms (tons, cubic metres, items, etc.).
The above method has been used to assess the degree of mechanisation and automation in a large number of factories in 14 branches of the
Soviet metalworking industry, accounting for 24 per cent, of the workers,
22 per cent, of the equipment and 25.7 per cent, of the total output of
the industry [136, p. 18]. An extract from the results of this analysis is
given in table 11.
On this basis, planning organisations prepare detailed plans for the
expansion of mechanisation and automation. Table 111 gives a general
idea of the way in which the indices are issued for planning technical
progress at the factory level.
Writers on the subject are unanimous that the results obtained by this
method of quantitative determination of the degree of mechanisation
and automation are very promising. Further research is being carried
out with a view to making the method more precise and universal so
that it will be applicable to all branches of production, and all levels
of mechanisation [12; 39; 47; 119; 141; 162].
A report on the general application in the Latvian S.S.R. of the method
described is contained in a study published in 1963, which indicates that
Soviet specialists judged the results to be entirely satisfactory [128].
15
Technical Change and Manpower in the IT.S.S.R.
TABLE I. APPLICATION OF FORMULAE IN DETERMINING T
Occupational group
yv
wk
wm
fVa
%
%
B
c
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
130
—
130
130
100.0
100.0
1.0
5
0.7
1
—
—
0.3
1
—
—
0.4
1
1. Machine operators on automated
equipment
2. Machine operators on mechanised equipment
Sub-total — machine operators
(1-2)
118
248
—
248
32
58
32
4
54
Sub-total— Workforce on machining operations (1-4)
338
36
302
3. Other workers
4. Maintenance workers
100.0
118
130
100.0
—
52.4
—
93.1
130
89.3
38.5
5. Assembly-line workers ....
6. Auxiliary assembly-line workers.
60
28
60
2
26
Sub-total — Assembly-line workers (5-6)
88
62
26
—
29.5
—
—
—
7. Auxiliary service workers (power,
instruments,transport,repair,etc)
46
26
20
—
43.5
—
0.3
/
Total work force . . .
472
124
348
130
73.7
27.5
—
—
—
92.9
W/»( represents the number of workers performing mechanised work on a piece of equipment or at
a work station while fVm represents the total of such workers, for a section, shop or factory. For purposes
of this presentation, each category of worker is assumed to utilise the same type of equipment and therefore the value of the coefficients B, C and D is identical for each category. From this it follows that
S Wn, • B is identical, for each category, to Wm • B. Similar considerations apply to Wai and Wa.
Col. 6: Proportion of the work force performing mechanised work
i
'"=^-
100
Col. 7 : Proportion of the work force performing automated work
i> =i^ • 100
16
Preliminary Notes on Methodology
GREE OF MECHANISATION AND AUTOMATION IN THE U.S.S.R.
2 (Wsc-B)
%
A,
%
L (WmeB-C-D)
T,(W„„(l-B))
11
12
13
14
15
16
30.0
130.0
100.0
100.0
1 300.0
Wme-B)
82.6
12.6
70.0
130.0
85.7
—
y!
27.9
130.0
67.7
38.5
L
%
17
18
100,0
100,0
82.6
35,4
70,6
1 382.6
35.4
97,5
16.2
37,8
27,9
1 398.8
73.2
92.8
10.4
15,6
37,1
91,7
—
—
16.2
28.8
52.4
L
86.2
—
37.1
10.4
J0.4
—
11.8
-,—
10.4
15.6
11.8
—
6.0
—
13.0
•<—
12.0
14.0
23.1
—
45.2
130.0
51.9
27.5
1 421.2
102,8
86,2
78,9
Col. 13 : Level of mechanised work in relation to the total labour input
Col. 14: Level of automated work in relation to the total labour input
Col. 17: Level of mechanisation of the production process
•¡:(wml-B-c-D)
• 100
mp =
ZiW^B-C-D) + Z(Wm(\-B)) + Wk
Col. 18: Level of automation of the production process
,
IKW^B-C-D)
=
ap
i:(w^-B-c-D)+i:(w„lt(\.B)) + Wk
17
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
TABLE II. LEVEL OF MECHANISATION IN THE METALWORKING
INDUSTRY IN THE ECONOMIC REGION OF KHERSON
Indices
Undertakings
Lmp
Total for all metalworking undertakings in
the region :
Mechanical
Foundry
Forging and stamping
Assembly
Tool production
Transport
Not specified
%
56.8
64.8
49.2
61.8
28.7
41.2
24.7
40.6
%
33.6
38.6
24.8
23.2
17.6
22.4
20.8
18.3
%
36.8
41.7
27.0
24.8
25.0
33.0
23.7
23.4
Source: [39, p. 42].
TABLE III. ACTUAL AND PLANNED LEVELS OF MECHANISATION
IN THREE FACTORIES
Level of mechanised
work (Lm)
Factory
Engineering plant (Berislav) .
Engineering plant (Pervomaisk)
Electrical machinery plant
(Novaya-Kakhovka) . . .
Level of mechanisation
of the
production process
(Lmp)
Actual
1.1.1962
Planned
1.1.1971»
Actual
1.1.1962
Planned
1.1.1971»
34.0
26.7
52.4
60.8
38.6
33.1
65.6
63.6
41.8
68.7
48.0
70.8
Source: [39, p. 43].
1
These figures represent goals established by the State Planning Committee (Gosplan) after
consideration of proposals from factory management. Choice of the specific changes to be introduced
in order to attain these objectives is the responsibility of the plant managers.
18
CHANGES IN
THE NATURE OF WORK
AND ITS CONTENT
A.
2
GENERAL TRENDS
Many Soviet authors refer to the far-reaching changes brought about
in the content and nature of work by technological progress in general
and by mechanisation and automation in particular. Research on the
effect of these changes on workers'jobs is of great importance in detecting
broad trends in patterns of employment and job requirements. At the
present time, however, broad study is impeded by the fact that the new
techniques are not applied to the same extent in different industries, as
well as by the lack of comparative studies on the subject. Nevertheless,
the available literature on the metalworking industry is sufficient to
permit certain generalisations, to suggest trends and to point to the
long-term implications of such changes.
Before turning to the impact of technological progress on job characteristics in the metalworking industry, it would be useful to review the
subject of work content in general. Disregarding the individual's particular
trade, the complexity of his job, and the technical level of the undertaking, a worker's job can be defined in terms of a set of operations and
specific duties which must be carried out constantly or successively in the
course of the production process. These operations and duties, constituting the actual work content, are regarded by SOLUYANOV as a kind of realisation of labour potential or the way of applying the worker's mental and
physical aptitudes to the production process [38, p. 118; cf. also 46,
p. 39].
The work content depends on a number of factors: the degree of
development of productive forces 1, the degree of complexity of industrial
1
The term " productive forces " covers the means of production and the labour
force.
19
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
equipment in use, the character of the materials, the technical methods
of processing them, the complexity of the goods manufactured, and the
organisation of work. Among these factors, however, it is industrial
equipment which plays the decisive part, all the others being to a greater
or lesser extent dependent on it.
Soviet writers treat automation as the latest (and, to some extent,
a qualitatively new) phase in the long history of technological progress.
The degree of automation varies from one industry to another and has
not attained its maximum even in the best-equipped undertakings.
Since technological development is a continuous process, any study
of work content in the abstract and without reference to the historical
background is liable to be incomplete or misleading.
It may be helpful to outline in a general way how Soviet literature
describes the changes in work content brought about by the evolution
of production, especially by the shift from manual to mechanised production and from there to automation.
In unmechanised production, for example, the object to be processed
is transformed into the finished article directly by the workers, using
simple equipment. The success of this process—in terms of quality,
form, finish, as well as other features—depends upon workers' competence and skill. This means that the worker must acquire the manual
dexterity needed to use his tools efficiently, while theoretical knowledge
is less necessary. A long apprenticeship on the job is needed to acquire
the necessary practical experience. Complete mastery of a complicated
manual trade is so difficult that, once achieved, the worker tends to
spend his whole life performing the same sort of operations.
When manual work is replaced by mechanised work, fundamental
changes take place in work content. The qualitative change lies in
the fact that machinery takes over much of the worker's former function
of direct processing with tools, the impact of mechanisation on work
content varying according to the complexity of the equipment. At first,
when universal tools predominated, skills were similarly " universal ".
In metalworking, for instance, workers operating the same type of
machine manufactured a wide range of finished or semi-finished articles
demanding extensive practical knowledge and considerable manual
skills but not requiring great technical knowledge because of the relative
simplicity of the equipment. Compared with unmechanised production,
the worker's technical horizon was broadened, while with the simplification of many operations the machine greatly reduced the need for
manual dexterity.
The introduction of specialised machines and mechanised production
lines marked the appearance of narrow specialisation in the occupational
20
Changes in the Nature of Work and Its Content
structure. In the manufacture of a given article each worker was required
to perform simple, repetitive operations. It was at this stage that the
" universal " occupations—universal in the same sense as in the case
of machine-tools—became increasingly subdivided.1 In the metalworking industry, for example, well-defined occupations (such as the
lathe operator's) have been split up to form specialised jobs. The fact that
the machine performs the operation with a speed and precision unattainable formerly by the most highly skilled worker has led to a decline in
the importance of experience. The worker needs a relatively low level
of specialised training, a limited basic training and only an elementary
knowledge of the equipment. On the other hand, dexterity is still
necessary if articles of good quality are to be produced. The more
complicated tasks of maintenance and of regulating and checking
machinery are undertaken by other workers with specialised qualifications (tool setters, fitter-repairmen, inspectors, etc.).
Finally, integrated mechanised production, and the more advanced
automated form, link in a unified system a number of processes which
were previously carried out separately on specialised machines and
tend to broaden the worker's occupational profile. Soviet writers on the
subject are unanimous that this development has an appreciable influence on occupational content and requirements, and consider that many
factors account for this.
In the first place, integrated mechanised production eliminates all
manual labour in loading and unloading operations, and eliminates
heavy manual labour in both essential and ancillary operations. The
workers are primarily concerned with controlling the operation of the
machinery. At the automation stage it becomes possible to leave
additional functions, such as control, supervision and tool setting, to
automatic devices. This eliminates not only strenuous manual labour
but also certain monotonous and tiring mental activities. Consequently,
most of the time previously devoted to manual labour is now spent
on supervising machinery. Since such supervision is not inherently
necessary for the production process but is, to some extent, wasted time,
it has been pointed out that part of this time could be used for other
purposes.
The way in which machine-tools are functionally linked together on
integrated mechanised transfer lines or integrated automated lines
means, in the view of Soviet writers, that a new type of worker is needed
who must be thoroughly familiar with the whole process of manufacture.
1
By 1937 there were over 2,000 trades and specialised jobs in the U.S.S.R. metalworking industry. There were more than 150 specialised job descriptions for the
trade of fitter-repairman [9, p. 31 ; 109, p. 38].
21
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
as well as with the operation of the machine-system itself. Thus, the new
techniques, by leading to job enlargement, are tending to break down
lines of demarcation between occupations. By doing so they have
turned a new page in the history of the division of labour. Once again,
occupations are tending to become " universal ", but at a higher and
qualitatively quite different technical level. Where, in the early stages
of mechanisation, a " universal " occupation was based on one particular
machine, today integrated machine-systems form the basis for occupations
with a broader skill profile.
The same writers point out that workers having such qualifications
are less directly concerned with actual processing than with the supervision, regulation and repair of the equipment. Thus, the job content
of these occupations is qualitatively new and requires greater theoretical
knowledge. Since a long apprenticeship to acquire the necessary manual
dexterity is no longer needed, there is time to provide a more thorough
basic and technical training.
In short, Soviet research shows that integrated mechanised production
and, above all, integrated automated production lead to considerable
changes in job content. They entail greater emphasis on theoretical
knowledge and enlarge the scope for its application, diversifying workers'
functions and stressing the mental component of their work.
B.
ANALYSIS OF CERTAIN OCCUPATIONS
Apart from these general observations on the changes in job content
resulting from technological progress, Soviet literature provides a more
detailed analysis of certain occupations, namely machine operator,
tool setter, fitter-repairman and electrician.
Since the impact of
mechanisation and automation on the occupational requirements of
other trades in the metalworking industry is less marked, the following
sections will deal with the available analysis of these four occupations
[9, pp. 74 et seq.].
(i)
Machine Operator
In many different ways modern technology leads to changes in the
job content of machine operators. In the case of ordinary mechanised
transfer lines constructed on the principle of subdivision of operations,
the operators' jobs are highly subdivided as well, and each workman
constantly repeats the same operation. The arrival of automatic-cycle
machines and their inclusion in integrated systems shifts the emphasis
Changes in the Nature of Work and Its Content
from manual labour to supervision of the technical process carried out
by automatic means. Table IV, which is based largely on time studies,
compares the main duties of workers performing manual operations on
machines with those of workers assigned to more advanced equipment.1
It shows that in mechanised manual production a great deal of time
(69.6 per cent.) is spent on manual production with machine-tools.
<
Working time relating
to production tasks
i
ill
o— o
3 sa
SES
Automated
engine block
line in
" ZIL " factory
B
Automated
engine block
line in
" MSMA " factory
TABLE IV. BREAKDOWN OF MACHINE OPERATOR'S WORKING TIME
ON MECHANISED MANUAL PRODUCTION AND ON AUTOMATED LINES
(Percentage of total working time)
1. Making-ready and finishing-up time
2. Operating time:
(a) inserting
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
and
removing
work
active supervision
quality control
additional machine adjustments
manual production with machinetools
Total operating time . . .
23.0
1
7.4
1
69.6 '
100.0
2
3. Housekeeping time
11.1
81.9
18.9
50.6
0.7
28.13
14.2
79.9
1.3
93.0
98.3
95.4
a
3
7.0
4, Idle time .
4.6
1.7
Total. . .
100.0
100.0
100.0
Source: [29, p. 11; 9, p. 75; 131, pp. 61-62].
1
Data regrouped and calculated from a detailed breakdown of working time by
for item 3 included under 1(e). • Data for item 3 included under 2(d).
100.0
VORONIN.
'Data
1
In tables IV and VI individual or group working time relating to production
tasks is composed, in accordance with a recently established method, of all labour
input necessary, by character and content, for the performance of jobs assigned to
workers. (It is not the same as the working day because it excludes time lost, e.g. for
organisational or technical reasons or through violation of labour discipline.) It
breaks down into the following four categories:
(footnote continues on following page)
23
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
Although other manual work is not entirely eliminated, this form disappears completely on automated lines where active supervision of the
technical process becomes the most important task (50.6 to 81.9 per
cent.). Such supervision requires very little activity on the operator's
part, so that man-hours spent on productive work account for only a
portion of the working day—according to VORONIN, barely 50 per cent.
[29, p. 11].
Soviet experience shows that, when a machine operator is not fully
occupied on his main duties, the spare time may be put to other uses.
For instance, it may be possible for a single worker to tend several
machines at the same time. Where a series of machines is controlled
by one worker the manual operations on one machine may be carried
out while the other machines are working automatically. An investigation by BALOVA, RODRIGES and KHAIKIN in the machining shops of
the Gorky automobile factory, the Moscow small c.c.1 automobile factory
and the Minsk and " Likhachov " (Moscow) automobile factories has
shown that between 60 and 85 per cent, of the operators tend several
machines at the same time [7, p. 69].
A single operator may be responsible for—
(a) machines of the same type;
(b) machines of different types performing the same technical function;
or
(c) machines of different types performing different technical functions.
By way of illustration, the analysis reproduced in table V shows
that, out of the 45 workers studied, there were ten who each operated
two or more machines of the same type. Clearly, productivity is increased
by such an arrangement without any significant change in job content.
On the other hand, a worker who tends machines of different types
performing the same technical function must acquire new technical
Making-ready andfinishing-up time — Time spent in getting equipment ready after
repair; in initial setting of machinery; in receiving inspection apparatus or other
special instruments; and in returning these at the end of the working day. Since all
of these operations could be performed, particularly where production is automated,
by other workers before the arrival of the shift, this category is sometimes not included
under machine operators' working time.
Operating time —• Inserting and removing work pieces, manual work on machine
tools (bringing the tool holder to the work piece, starting the lathe, machining the
work piece, etc.), active supervision of the operation of equipment, random quality
control of pieces machined, additional adjustment of equipment during operation.
The last of these functions is often performed by tool setters and is therefore not
included in the working time for certain machine operators.
Housekeeping time — Removing waste matter, cleaning, wiping and sweeping up,
and handing over equipment for the next shift.
Idle time — During automated operation the worker can temporarily absent
himself from the machine and do other work elsewhere [132, pp. 61-62].
1
Cubic capacity.
24
Changes in the Nature of Work and Its Content
knowledge and skills. This applies even more in the case of a worker
tending machines performing different functions. In greater or lesser
degree, the job content is changed and the skill range is broadened.
Table V shows that this was the case for 35 out of the 45 machine operators. A similar situation is found in many other plants. In the chassis
shop of the Moscow small c.c. automobile factory 176 out of the 266
operators each tend two, three, four or, in some cases, up to eight machines
of different types.
TABLE V.
NUMBER OF TECHNOLOGICAL OPERATIONS AND UNITS
OF EQUIPMENT PER OPERATOR ON INTEGRATED
MECHANISED LINES IN THE VOLGOGRAD TRACTOR FACTORY
Number of operators
1
g
1
Integrated
mechanised
lines
•ëc
1
2
í
13-1
ii
si
§í
•a-g g
c es a
oai
Pistons
Connecting rods .
Rear-axle housings
Transmissions . .
Clutch levers . . .
Cam rollers . . .
10
14
11
5
3
2
4
2
2
1
1
i
2
1
4
1
—
—
Total. . .
45
10
9
o
.So
2
8,
•3°
•— x
a
'3
•§S
C
o u
§3
Iis
M
C
la
•ê-g
ï&l
*•- «
1°
a esta
O E5
es
II 11
n
V u
Sa
ie
o o
h&
i!
C p
< o
«•s
1
2
23
50
27
16
9
8
23
42
22
15
9
5
2.3
3.5
2.4
3.2
3.0
4.0
2.3
3.0
2.0
3.0
3.0
2.5
26
133
116
2.9
2.6
5
10
8
—
Source: [123, p. 54].
In the past operators on integrated mechanised lines did not normally
perform ancillary functions such as replacement of blunted tool parts
or simple adjustments (e.g. of cutting speed, tolerances). These were
the responsibility of tool setters, while minor repair and maintenance
work was left to fitter-repairmen and electricians. However, the increasing
use of pneumatic or hydraulic devices and the mechanisation of transport
between successive operations have made it possible to combine some
of the jobs in those trades without eliminating the traditional division of
labour. As a result machine operators whose direct labour on production
has been lightened and simplified by technological progress have begun
to dispense with the aid of tool setters and fitter-repairmen for daily
maintenance and sometimes even for preventive repair work.
25
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
In the U.S.S.R. this practice of carrying out tasks belonging to
related occupations began in the Minsk automobile factory, the Volgograd tractor factory, the " Krasny Ekskavator " factory, Kiev, and the
" Frezer " factory, Moscow, and spread rapidly throughout the engineering industry. Some figures give an idea of the proportion of operators
who have taken over such related operations. For example, 60 per cent,
of the machine operators in the bearing shop of the Moscow small ex.
automobile factory and of those on the integrated mechanised crankshaft production line in the Minsk tractor factory also perform certain
tasks of tool setters, fitters or electricians. The corresponding figures
are 35 per cent, on integrated mechanised lines producing piston-rods
in the Volgograd tractor factory, 20 per cent, in the chassis shop of the
" Likhachov " automobile factory and 20 per cent, in the chassis shop
of the Moscow small c.c. automobile factory [109, p. 96; cf. also 23, p.
150].
MERKIN and RODRIGES list the reasons why operators should take
over certain functions of related occupations as follows :
(a) the work becomes more interesting and less tiring;
(b) the variety of jobs stimulates creative effort and improves each
operation;
(c) polyvalence of qualifications ensures that the line is kept working
even if a worker is unavoidably absent ;
(d) manpower is used more rationally [9, p. 80].
The economic aspect of this tendency towards assimilation of allied
occupations is illustrated by the fact that in some undertakings the
productivity of operators has gone up by between 20 and 30 per cent.
[13, p. 48].
As workers learn to operate a number of machines of different types
and perform jobs belonging to a number of related trades, their skills
are developed, the nature of the work changes and skill ranges are
broadened. Several Soviet authors have pointed out that, by performing
all these new jobs, operators are preparing the way to becoming tool
setters on integrated automated lines.
But this enlargement of job content to include work previously
performed by other occupations is not confined to operators, nor to
the absorption of higher-skilled work. As will be seen in the following
section, the work of tool setters has also been expanding ; in some cases
this has led to the inclusion of activities which were formerly the responsibility of a less skilled operator. This two-way development of job
content, which varies in intensity according to the complexity of equipment, is noticeable in the analysis of the four occupations under review.
26
Changes in the Nature of Work and Its Content
(ii)
Tool Setter
Changes are also taking place in the skill range of tool setters. Recent
technological progress, especially the growth in the number of automated
lines, has greatly modified the role of tool setters and the content of their
work. Modern automated lines consist of a number of machine-tools
of different types performing a variety of functions (viz. universal
machines, special machines, standard-unit machines, automatic and
semi-automatic machines, etc.) which are combined to form a single
production system linked by transfer lines and other automatic apparatus.
Unlike the tool setters of the past, who specialised on automatic lathes,
milling machines, gear-cutting machines or other specialised machines,
the tool setter on an automated line has to look after a whole set of
machines with different characteristics and functions. At the same time
automatic lines are becoming increasingly adaptable, so that they can
be used to machine a number of different products. For example, the
automated gear wheel line in the " Krasny Proletary " plant can be
adapted to turn out ten products; the automated line in the " Frezer "
factory can turn out taps of 16 sizes. This inevitably increases the time
required for tool setting and, by rendering the duties more complex,
tends to modify skill ranges.
Table VI shows the marked trend for more time to be spent on initial
setting (1) and additional adjustment (2 (d)) which accompanies the
introduction of advanced equipment (increase from 2.5 to 49.4 per
cent.).
In addition there is a tendency on integrated automated lines for
the tool setter to combine various trades, so that the old division of
labour is gradually disappearing. This process cannot yet be fully
analysed because experience is still limited in this field. Nevertheless,
the existing information makes it possible to put forward certain
generalisations.
The work of machine operators is being gradually taken over by
tool setters as automation is extended to processing, loading, unloading,
transport, inspection, packaging, etc. Similarly, the elimination of
loading and unloading time on all the automated lines referred to in
table VI and the reduction or elimination of time devoted to active
supervision or quality control on some of these lines afford examples
of the growing opportunities for job enlargement. On integrated automated lines the job of machine operator can be eliminated altogether,
and the tool setter can perform the few operator functions that remain
[82, p. 94; 68, pp. 41-43]. This is the case, for example, on the automated
pinion line in the "Krasny Proletary " factory, certain shops in the
2Z
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
TABLE VI. BREAKDOWN OF TOOL SETTER'S WORKING TIME
ON MECHANISED AND AUTOMATED LINES
(Percentage of total working time)
o
•2&
•S&
so
s
¿I
Working time relating to
production tasks
r
2. Operating time:
(a) inserting and
removing work
pieces
(b) active supervision .
(c) quality control . .
(d) additional machine
adjustments . . .
•a-
a«
•Si
1. Making-ready and
finishing-uptime. .
.Si
5&
A o
1.0 '
48.8
28.9
7.5
2.1'
Ss
se
0.9'
45.6
33.9
6.0
1.6'
Si-2
vo .
S „• o
-SZ
•S&o
3:
«2
ES
o_
E,S
o
< JJO¿
<3
7.2 '
lo
8.0 '
14.6
4.5
40.4
15.3
38.4
13.1
19.3
12.7
13.3'
14.9'
34.8
14.9
66.8
16.4
Total operating time .
87.3
87.1
69.0
66.4
3. Housekeeping time.
2.5
2.2
3.3
3.4
4. Idle time
....
9.2
9.8
20.5
22.2
1 "•6 {
79.1
Total . . .
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Source: [132, p. 161; 9, p. 82].
1
The data provided in the original source do not differentiate between initial setting time and additional adjusting time (items t and 2 (a)). Those figures have consequently been divided between the two
categories in accordance with an average relationship determined from other data. While these figures
are therefore approximations, they nevertheless illustrate the trend in time allocation.
. = figures not available.
" Frezer " factory and the No. 1 bearing factory in Moscow, and the
Gorky automobile factory.
In addition to this absorption of machine operator functions, the
job of tool setter is also enlarged in another direction as a result of
automation through the inclusion of fitters' and electricians' functions.
This is due first to the fact that maintenance work on automated equipment
is substantially increased with the introduction of hydraulic, electromechanical and electronic apparatus. SHUBKINA emphasises that in
these new conditions the tool setter must be familiar with the construction
of the equipment in order to track down defects and either repair or
replace faulty parts [161, p. 131].
28
Changes in the Nature of Work and Its Content
At the same time, automation of some of the tool setter's functions
(automatic measurement of wear on cutting tools and their replacement,
automatic selection of the best machining speed, etc.) makes his work
simpler, cuts down operating time (as shown in table VI, from around 87
per cent, to 69, 66 or even 16 per cent.), increases the amount of time
when no work is required on automated equipment (from under 9 per
cent, to 20 or as much as 79 per cent.) and so makes it easier for the
tool setter to perform other jobs as well [46, p. 73; 20, p. 19].
Owing to the way the machine tools are laid out on automated lines,
tool setters are not fully occupied while repairs are being carried out
by fitters and electricians [67, p. 55]. This lowers their productivity
and leads to a relative increase in costs. According to KATSENELINBOIGEN,
this is one of the reasons why productivity on an automated line in
the Gorky automobile factory is nearly the same as in a similar shop
without any automated line [68, p. 86].
There is a clear incentive for tool setters to acquire a broader range
of skills, and it is increasingly common for them to work as fitterrepairmen and electricians as well. The work of tool setters on the
automated engine-block line in the Minsk automobile factory, the
automated line producing rotor-shafts for electric motors in the " Volt "
factory, in the piston shop of the Ulyanovsk small c.c. automobile
factory, in certain shops at the " Ordzhonikidze " machine-tool factory,
Moscow, and elsewhere is organised on these principles [161, p. 132;
68, pp. 86-87]. Sometimes tool setters also help to carry out major
repairs in conjunction with the fitters and electricians.
On automated lines, therefore, the tool setter's job is very different
from that of the tool setter of the past who dealt with specialised machinetools. His main duties are now [9, pp. 84-85] —
— setting up the automatic cycle for machining of parts on automated
lines ;
— adjusting, assembling and setting machine-tool apparatus;
— setting hydraulic or pneumatic transport, loading and unloading
apparatus ;
— checking and adjusting inspection and measurement apparatus;
— setting the machines for the most efficient cutting speed;
— sharpening and fixing cutting tools;
— carrying out routine maintenance and repairs.
In order to perform all these complex duties, extensive knowledge
is required. It is considered that a tool setter must be thoroughly familiar with the following :
— the construction, operation and control of the machine-tools ;
29
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
— the construction and operation of hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical
and electronic components of the equipment;
— the purpose and use of any universal or specialised apparatus and
of inspection and measurement apparatus ;
— the calculation of the most efficient cutting-speed;
— methods of measurement and inspection ;
— permissible tolerances;
— safety standards and instructions ;
— interpretation of drawings, cyclograms, hydraulic or electrical
layouts, diagrams, etc.
This new concept of the tool setter's functions means that, apart
from setting machine-tools and watching the dials and lights of a complicated switch panel, he must perform a number of additional jobs as
well. The tool setter is becoming the essential production worker,
typifying the new class of worker with the broad skill range necessitated
by automated production lines.
(in)
Fitter-Repairman
Automation has also been accompanied in the Soviet Union by
enlargement of the special skills required of the fitter-repairman. This
is due to the steadily increasing number of types of machinery employed
and to the growing complexity of the equipment, which in turn makes
repair work more difficult. Table VII gives some examples of the
growing complexity of repair work.
TABLE VII. CHANGES IN THE COMPLEXITY OF REPAIR WORK AS
A RESULT OF THE INCREASING AUTOMATION OF EQUIPMENT
Factory shop
Micrometer shop, " Kalibr " factory
Slide calliper shop, " Kalibr " factory
Machine shop, " ATE-2 " factory
Shop No. 2, " Frezer " factory
Shop No. I, " Frezer " factory
Chassis shop, Ulyanovsk automobile factory . .
Automatic-machine shop, " ATE-2 " factory . .
Piston shop, Ulyanovsk small c.c. automobile
factory
Percentage of
automated and
specialised
equipment
Average
complexity
of repairs '
24.6
36.0
60.0
60.8
65.5
5.3
6.8
7.6
7.7
8.0
9.9
10.0
100.0
J0.8
Source: [82, p. 202].
1
Equipment in the U.S.S.R. has been classified according to complexity of repairs. The unit of
calculation is one-eleventh of the work time needed to repair a tapping machine model 1K-62 produced
by the " Krasny Proletary " factory [49, p. 22],
30
Changes in the Nature of Work and Its Content
Since dismantling, assembly and adjustment of equipment during
repairs, especially major repairs, have been found to take up to 30 per
cent, of the total time devoted to repairs, there has also been a trend
toward mechanisation of repair operations through the introduction of
special electrical or pneumatic tools. This in turn means that the fitterrepairman must have wider skills and technical knowledge.
His main function is to repair complex parts, which demands a
thorough knowledge of electric-arc or gas welding, spray coating of
metal surfaces, etc. He must be familiar with modern methods of
tempering, heat treatment and surface-protection treatment (hardening
by high-frequency current, chromium plating, nitrogen treatment,
spark erosion, etc.). When parts have to be replaced, a good deal of
his time is spent on fitting jobs (setting, polishing, sanding, etc.). These
manualjobs are increasingly being mechanised through the introduction
of electric or pneumatic tools which are reported as raising productivity
by 5 to 20 times. At the same time the higher standards of accuracy,
speed and stability of equipment make more extensive inspection necessary, and the fitter has to use a large number of precision instruments
and measuring devices, which also calls for a thorough knowledge of
their construction and operation.
The maintenance and repair of the modern cranes, hoists, electric
trolleys, etc., used to move heavy components when equipment is dismantled or reassembled, place further demands on the fitter's knowledge.
The same is also true of lubrication and hydraulic drive equipment.
During the final stages of the repairs, the fitter-repairman has to
check the interplay of parts, the working of automatic apparatus and
locking devices, the operation of the control panel, etc. In addition
he has to perform other adjustments, make trial runs and test actual
machining.
Thus, the work performed nowadays by a fitter-repairman is likely
to include certain complex tasks formerly coming within the responsibilities of tool setters. Soviet analysts note that the introduction of modern
equipment has helped to bring the two occupations together by expanding
the fitter-repairman's duties. However, as noted on page 27, there are
also instances of tool setters carrying out the work of fitter-repairmen.
At the same time the fitter-repairman has had to learn some electrician's functions such as adjusting electric motors, hydraulic systems,
relays or switches. The fact that the hydraulic and electric apparatus
on automated lines is so closely linked as to form a single control system
means that the fitter-repairman must understand the purpose, construction and operation of the electrical equipment as well.
31
Technical Change and Manpower in the V.S.S.R.
(iv)
Electrician
The tendency for work content to change is also apparent in the
case of the electrician. The importance and responsibilities of this
occupation are also increasing as electrical devices come to play a
steadily growing part in modern production.
Automatic control of the electrical part of the equipment is achieved
by means of a wide range of apparatus such as starters, switches and
relays linked by vast and complex wiring of all types and sizes.
Soviet authors note that a large part of the electrician's time is
spent on adjustment of the equipment, viz. checking the operation of
electric motors and apparatus and the calibration of wiring systems;
measuring the resistance of the insulation in electric motors, windings
and relays ; adjusting relays and switches, etc.
Technical diagrams of modern electrical equipment, especially in the
case of automated lines, are extremely complicated and difficult to
interpret, so that electricians must also have a thorough knowledge of
the way assembly and operating diagrams are constructed.
Apart from this growing complexity in the electrician's work, a
new situation is being created by the application of electronics to automated production. This entails a major change in the nature of his
work since he now has to maintain and carry out major repairs on both
electrical and electronic equipment. Moreover, the introduction of
electronic control devices means that the electrician must be familiar
not only with their mechanism and operation but also with that of
hydraulic and pneumatic equipment with which they are closely linked.
In addition to these new responsibilities the electrician also has to be
able to perform the whole operation of dismantling and reassembling
electrical equipment, replacing any worn parts in the process. Depending
on the complexity of the equipment, his work will therefore include a
greater or lesser number of functions which might otherwise be performed
by tool setters or fitter-repairmen.
C.
OCCUPATIONAL ENLARGEMENT
Changes in work content such as those affecting machine operators,
tool setters, fitter-repairmen and electricians have been variously described
by Soviet writers as combination of occupations [109, p. 96; 20, p. 18;
19, p. 16; 161, p. 131; 23, p. 149; 15, p. 154], combination of functions
[69, p. 14; 20, p. 19; 67, p. 56; 68, p. 37; 161, p. 133; 23, p. 150; 63,
p. 197; 55, p. 260], combination of specialised trades [69, p. 15; 20, p. 21 ;
32
Changes in the Nature of Work and Its Content
19, p. 14; 68, pp. 15 and 19], combination of operations [20, p. 19] or
fusion of related occupations [109, p. 96]. This variety of terminology
sometimes makes it difficult to compare opinions, especially since writers
may employ two or more of the terms to describe the same idea, or the
same expression for different ideas.
ZVORYKIN recently made an attempt to standardise this terminology.
He first of all distinguished between the two main types of change
occurring in work content as a result of automation ; despite their superficial resemblance he argues that these two types of change are fundamentally different. As his yardstick for distinguishing between them,
ZVORYKIN uses the direction in which specialisation is enlarged.
He notes that, when automation is not very advanced, the skill
range expands " horizontally " by absorbing functions of related occupations ; e.g. each worker specialises in a particular feature (mechanical,
electrical, electronic, etc.) of different types of machines. Thus, a lathe
operator may work at times with a milling machine because he is not
fully occupied with lathe work. This arrangement aims to reduce both
time lost and fatigue. But the expansion of the skill range is quantitative
rather than qualitative, as the duties of setting and maintaining the
equipment are still carried out by other types of worker.
Once automation is complete (i.e. integrated automation), occupational specialisation tends to develop "vertically" and leads to a combination of occupations. The worker now begins to take over entire
responsibility for a particular type of machine or group of machines,
both operating them and carrying out maintenance of the mechanical,
electrical, electronic or other parts [56, pp. 36-37].
This approach, which is also employed by VARSHAVSKY [20, p. 21]
and MANEVICH [90, p. 28], is based on the fact that the opportunity and
the need to enlarge occupational specialisation are closely related to the
nature of the equipment and the degree of automation of the technical
process. However, in the present stage of research, the information
available in the U.S.S.R. is not yet sufficient for a detailed analysis of
the changes taking place in occupational content along such lines.
Accordingly, it seems best to stick to a single concept—that of " combination of occupations ", taken in a broad sense to mean the performance
by a worker of tasks falling within several different occupations : a job
enlargement which is both horizontal and vertical. The term is wide
enough to cover changes in the content of work as a result of technological progress in general and sufficiently precise at the present stage
to designate certain changes peculiar to the automation of production.
It should be emphasised that combination of occupations is also
characteristic of advanced mechanised production. But whereas in the
33
Technical Change and Manpower in ihe Ü.S.S.R.
initial stages concentration of operations to be performed by the same
equipment leads to the combination of jobs in similar and allied occupations, once the automation stage is reached the worker also comes to
perform jobs belonging to quite different occupations. In both cases,
however, the new job is a good deal more than a mere combination of
parts of previously separate trades ; according to the practical experience
of Soviet undertakings, it is qualitatively new.
The process described can be regarded as the inevitable outcome of
technological progress, but improvements in equipment do not always
have a direct impact on the occupational division of labour. This is
due to the fact that new techniques have to be introduced against the
background of a particular pattern of employment and new occupations
cannot simply be created in a vacuum. It follows that the existing skill
range first of all only changes by stages as similar jobs are absorbed.
Later, as large-scale automation is introduced, the process appears to
take place much faster and more easily as the influence of the former
division of labour is less and less noticeable.
It is not suprising, therefore, that the particular combination of
occupations should vary in accordance with the type of production,
the nature of the equipment and the skill level of the work force. It has
been found in the metalworking industry in the U.S.S.R. that the process
often takes conflicting forms. In some situations less skilled workers
are employed part of the time on more complicated jobs (e.g. a machine
operator may make simple adjustments, replace a worn tool, set the
equipment or make simple repairs), while highly skilled workers may be
employed part of the time on routine work (e.g. tool setters acting as
operators). There are also cases where a worker simultaneously performs
a number of fairly complicated jobs (e.g. electricians or fitter-repairmen
acting as operators and tool setters) [68, pp. 37-38]. Obviously these
examples do not exhaust all the possibilities but they give some idea of
the combinations that can occur.
Insufficient awareness of the problems involved appears to have led
in some cases to excessive fragmentation of jobs on automated lines,
resulting in inefficient use of labour. SHUBKINA quotes as one example
the case of the tool setters on lines No. 6S01 (ball bearings) and No. 6S02
(roller bearings) in the No. 1 bearing plant in Moscow. The tool setters
in this case did not perform any of the functions of fitters or electricians,
so that the pre-established coefficient of use for the equipment was not
achieved. A similar case is quoted by VARSHAVSKY for the automated
piston-ring line in the Ulyanovsk automobile factory [20, pp. 22-23].
KABANOV describes in this connection how force of habit makes it
difficult to move away from long-standing division of labour [67, p. 56].
34
Changes in the Nature of Work and Its Content
Nevertheless, writers unanimously regard the benefits resulting from
combination of occupations as unquestionable. For example, in the
Uralsk automobile factory, where full use was made of the opportunities
afforded by the new methods, productivity rose, according to DUMLER,
by 40 per cent, and output by 68 per cent., while costs simultaneously
fell [48, p. 83].
Despite certain initial difficulties, therefore, the process of combining
occupations is going ahead rapidly. Tool setters in many metalworking
plants now usually act also as operators, fitter-repairmen, electricians
and inspectors [62, p. 96].
The need to ensure that this process develops along the right lines
raises a number of problems, which have not yet been adequately explored.
This has led VARSHAVSKY to call for a thorough survey of the history of
combination of occupations and the general trends involved. He calls
special attention to the following questions, which in his view are among
the most significant: classification of the different types of combination
of occupations; the requisite prior conditions and efficiency of the
process; special features in different industries; and the scientific basis
for the organisation of the process [19, p. 15]. Clarification of these
points would, he argues, make it possible to lay down certain principles
and to forecast more accurately the nature, tempo and scope of future
developments.
D.
BROADENING OF SKILL PROFILES
By analysing the work content of the main occupations in the metalworking industry in the U.S.S.R. it is possible to take stock of the present
position. It can be seen from the foregoing account that integrated
mechanisation and automation make it possible to enlarge the skill
profiles of machine operators, tool setters, fitter-repairmen and electricians.
RODRIGES and VUL go so far as to consider that in the future a single
worker will probably perform all the jobs involved in supervising the
process, setting the tools and maintaining the equipment. They argue
that the existing division of labour between these occupations is due to
the incomplete automation of ancillary operations, to the inadequate
mechanisation and automation of repair work, to the lack of interchangeable spare parts and to certain inadequacies in vocational training [123,
pp. 83-84].
Although this extreme view may not be fully accepted, it is widely
acknowledged that the trend is towards the training of workers with
a broad skill profile. However, while most writers on the subject
consider that extension of automatic operation of equipment is the main
35
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
factor in this process, MERKIN and LOZNEVAYA take a different approach.
Without denying the great importance of this factor, they assert that the
main reason for the broadening of skill profiles is the use of hydraulic,
pneumatic and electronic equipment controlling and co-ordinating the
working of machinery [94, p. 47]. Certainly the conditions in which
broad skill occupations can emerge are not exactly the same for each
trade. For example, in the case of the operator and tool setter on a
mechanised transfer line, it is obvious that the broadening of skill profile
is the consequence of the longer automatic operation of the equipment.
But in the case of fitter-repairmen and electricians, the development
is mainly due to the greater complexity of repairs and the larger number
of machines and items of apparatus which have to be maintained.
Despite certain special conditions affecting individual occupations,
all broad-profile occupations involve :
—
—
—
—
the operation of machinery and equipment of a particular type;
the use of certain materials (metals, alloys, plastics, mineral oils, etc.);
the setting and adjustment of automatic apparatus;
the use, and to some extent the preparation, of technical documents
(technical drawings, pneumatic, hydraulic, and electrical layouts);
•— technical calculation [9, pp. 74 et seq.].
Despite their apparent similarity, the " universal " and the broadprofile occupations are fundamentally different and reflect different
stages in technological evolution. Training in the " universal " occupations involves the acquisition of knowledge and dexterity enabling the
worker to perform various jobs of the same type. In addition, " universal"
work is mainly manual, and its quality largely depends on the worker's
manual skill. On the other hand, training for the broad-profile occupations involves the acquisition of technical knowledge and a variety of
experience enabling workers to perform a number of tasks coming
within different occupations which may or may not be related. Workers
in broad-profile occupations are relieved of arduous physical exertion.
They make wide use of mechanised equipment and apparatus so that
manual dexterity does not have so decisive an influence on the quality
of their work. In consequence, the fusion of manual and mental work
in these occupations is very pronounced and is raised to a higher level.
In the U.S.S.R. the importance of broad-profile occupations is
growing fast, although workers with narrow skill profiles still predominate
because of the limited scale of automation, as stressed by ZELENKO
[61, p. 16]. In actual automated plants workers of the new type are in
the majority, but taking the economy as a whole, the more narrowly
specialised workers still predominate and their numbers are continuing
36
Changes in the Nature of Work and Its Content
to increase, though less rapidly. It is expected, therefore, that within ten
or 15 years the older occupations will exist side by side with the broadprofile occupations in all sections of the economy.
In any event, both the number and the proportion of workers in
broad-profile occupations are increasing rapidly, especially in the metalworking industry, and this creates a number of problems, particularly in
connection with vocational training.
If apprenticeship is to be standardised on, a nation-wide basis the
characteristics of each broad-profile occupation must first be defined.
In the Soviet Union each job performed in a particular industry is
classified in a schedule in accordance with the skill requirements. This
schedule is used in grading the workers and consequently in fixing their
wage scales. The schedules are also used as a basis for planning vocational training programmes. However, experience has shown Soviet
specialists that the schedules are too general to give the full picture of
the content and nature of individual occupations which is necessary
under present-day conditions.
BELKIN [10, p. 114] has, accordingly, suggested systematic classification for broad-profile occupations on the following lines, intended
largely as a basis for organising the training and retraining of workers.
Model Classification of a Broad-Profile Occupation
A.
DESIGNATION OF THE OCCUPATION
B.
PRODUCTION CONDITIONS
1. Technical Conditions:
(a) instruments of production;
(b) subject of work ;
(c) technical process and methods.
2. Conditions of Organisation:"^
(a) relationship between workers during operations;
(b) character and organisation of the pre-production stage.
3. Conditions of Work: ^
(a) external conditions (temperature, light, cleanliness, etc.) ;
(b) safety;
(c) responsibility.
C.
EXPERIENCE AND KNOWLEDGE OF THE OCCUPATION
1. Working Experience:
(a) operations (processing, tool-setting, inspection) ;
(b) operating methods ;
(c) complex operations constituting the final stage of the technical
process.
37
Technical Change and Manpower in the Ü.S.S.R.
2. Technical Experience:
(a) mathematical calculation;
(b) preparation and interpretation of technical drawings;
(c) technical competence;
(d) design.
3. Organisational Experience:
(a) organisation of work station;
(b) organisation of working time ;
(c) organisation of collective work;
(d) instructions for the preparation and assimilation of new tasks.
4. Knowledge:
(a) standard of general and technical education ;
(b) knowledge related to the experience required;
(c) additional practical and theoretical knowledge.
D.
SKILL GRADE
Skill grade in accordance with job schedules.
E.
VOCATIONAL TRAINING NEEDS
1. Need for preliminary training.
2. Types and length of training.
3. Additional information.
Using this model BELKIN, MERKIN, LOZNEVAYA and RODRIGES
worked out the detailed characteristics of the main occupations in the
metalworking industry; the results were then discussed and improved
by other experts at meetings held in various parts of the U.S.S.R. Two
examples of occupational classification—for a tool setter and an electrician—are shown in Appendix I.
Far from being excluded, a certain degree of specialisation is implicit
in the emergence of broad-profile occupations. This is true for all
workers in automated production, including those carrying out pushbutton operations or watching control panels. Operation of control
panels calls for workers with a broad skill profile whose work is akin to
that of engineers. Nevertheless, the control panel is simply a means of
directing a pre-established production process within a particular
technical framework; only a worker who is thoroughly familiar with the
technology it incorporates is capable of operating it competently. In
broad-profile occupations, therefore, it is impossible for workers to
switch from one type of production or one industry to another without
retraining. Even in the case of plants manufacturing similar products,
a worker cannot change his job without first making a careful study of
the techniques employed in his new workplace [56, pp. 34-40; 19, p. 19].
38
CHANGES IN
MANPOWER SKILLS
3
In the view of Soviet writers the broadening of occupational profiles
and the rise in levels of skill are two facets of the same process. In
general terms, therefore, technological progress leads to occupational
promotion. The practical situation is more complex, however, and it
is advisable first of all to draw a distinction between the required skill
levels and existing skill levels.
A.
REQUIRED SKILL LEVELS
The skill level may be said to express the stage of development of
the workers themselves: their production experience, their theoretical
knowledge and their working habits. Writers commonly point out
that the use of high-precision automated equipment places greater skill
demands on production workers.
Technological progress is also resulting in far-reaching changes in
the requisite skill composition. Analysis of the literature on the subject
shows that whereas formerly a high degree of skill was synonymous
with the worker's manual dexterity, acquired as a result of long practical
experience, it now entails an extensive general education and technical
training, combined with the ability to control, supervise and even repair
a synchronised machine system. Of course, skill requirements are
bound to vary in accordance with the degree of automation (semiautomation or integrated automation); even on fully automated lines
processes vary in complexity and require different standards of training.
There has been some slight controversy in the past over the question
whether automation entails an increase or a decline in the skill requirements of the work force. However, all known Soviet literature which
39
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
holds to the latter viewpoint goes back more than ten years [3, p. 18;
40, p. 139]. Current writings, based in large measure on recent research,
all note that higher standards of skill are required.
At the present time any differences of opinion relate to the secondary
question whether any temporary or exceptional decline in skill requirements is possible as a result of automation. Some authors, such as
MNUSHKIN and ZAITSEV do not deny that such cases do exist in practice
in the U.S.S.R. but argue that they are due to partial or incomplete
automation [97, p. 37; 51, p. 20]. Others, however, do not rule out
the possibility that the conflicting trends of modern technology may lead
in isolated cases to a decline in the standard of skill required [64, pp. 99100; 46, p. 68; 61, p. 9].
However, this controversy deals only with a very limited aspect of
the question. All Soviet writers consider that extension of general
education and vocational training is made essential by technological
progress and that the need is being met by the economic and social
system [26, pp. 1 et seq.].
The broad-profile occupations which are of increasing importance
as new technology is more widely introduced and which increase the
mental component in workers' functions require that workers should
have the following qualifications:
•— a general knowledge of mechanics, hydraulics, pneumatics, electricity
and electronics;
— a general education in mathematics, physics and chemistry equivalent
to secondary-school standard;
— a detailed knowledge of the technical process of machining, the
replacement and repair of worn tools, and the dismantling, assembly,
setting and examination of equipment ;
— the ability to combine manual and mental work on the job.
According to the literature on the subject, all these requirements
apply equally to machine operators, tool setters, fitter-repairmen and
electrician-assemblers. The modern worker, in other words, not only
has to supervise the operation of automated equipment but also has to
understand the process he is watching and be able to intervene if necessary.
This greatly increases the mental effort required, so that the relationship
between manual work and mental work is undergoing a far-reaching
change. In fact Soviet literature speaks of a process that will culminate
in the disappearance of the main differences between manual and mental
work [5; 6; 44; 51; 77; 90; 91; 92; 96; 107; 113].
Several writers add that, in order to be able to discharge these new
duties, a worker in charge of automated equipment must first have a
40
Changes in Manpower Skills
TABLE VIII.
SYLLABUS OF VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS
FOR CERTAIN OCCUPATIONS
(In number of hours)
Subjects
Whole course
1. Practical training
2. Theoretical training
Special technology
Metals technology
Mechanics
Technical calculation and permissible
tolerances
Industrial electricity and electronics . .
Technical drawing
Principles of mechanisation and automation
Mathematics
Principles and assembly of electrical
equipment
Use and repair of electrical equipment .
Electro-technical materials
Principles of production organisation .
Civics
3. Miscellaneous courses :
Cultural activities
Physical training
Examinations and consultations . . .
Tool
setters
Fitterrepairmen
Electricians
077
2 968
¡510
421
117
156
4 977
2 968
1510
421
117
156
4 977
2968
1510
78
126
156
78
126
156
268
112
108
112
108
112
114
112
48
188
499
188
188
123
48
188
499
188
188
123
329
244
95
48
188
^99
If
123
Source: [94, p. 56; 142, pp. 13-14].
broad basic education. Whereas the semi-skilled workers of the past
only needed a primary education (three to four years), this standard
would be quite inadequate to cope with modern techniques. VOLKOV
and other specialists state that for broad-profile occupations on automated
lines a secondary education1 has become essential [26; 36; 38; 147].
In view of this, many Soviet undertakings have already laid down
minimum basic standards of education for a number of occupations
[63, pp. 202-203], but this is only a short-term answer. In order to solve
the problem at national level, the programme of the Communist Party
of the Soviet Union provides for the introduction of compulsory general
secondary education by 1970.
The vocational training system is required to produce highly skilled
workers with the thorough theoretical grounding needed to cope with
modern technology. The decisions taken by the June 1959 plenary
session of the Central Committee of the Communist Party with regard to
1
This now consists of ten years' schooling.
41
Technical Change and Manpower in the Ü.S.S.R.
mechanisation and integrated automation state: "The widespread use
of complex machines and equipment in modern industry demands
extensive specialised knowledge on the part of each worker. Accordingly,
vocational training cannot be confined to imparting the necessary
minimum of technical knowledge. It must include subjects normally
coming within the competence of engineers and technicians." [81, p. 519].
At the present time the task of training a proportion of workers for
broad-profile occupations is the responsibility of the day or evening
vocational and technical schools, which provide three-year courses
comprising 5,000 hours' training after the eight years of compulsory
schooling. Table VIII gives details of the syllabus in these schools.
According to the former Chairman of the State Committee for
Vocational and Technical Training, G. ZELENKO, this type of school
will gain in importance in the years ahead [61, p. 20]. The possibihty
is also being considered of setting up at an early date vocational training
schools in which the course will last four years, so as to provide a training
which is better suited to the steady development of science and technology.
B.
EXISTING SKILL LEVELS
The raising of existing skill levels takes two forms. In the first place,
the general improvement in production methods progressively eliminates
unskilled or semi-skilled work and thereby increases the proportion of
skilled work. And in the second place, as automation gains ground the
technical and educational standards of the labour force gradually rise,
enabling workers to master modern production technology.1
Soviet statistics show a trend in both of these directions. The last
census, taken in 1959, indicates, for example, the changes that have
1
" The accelerated mechanisation, automation and ' chemicalisation ' of production, the innumerable applications of electronics and mechanical calculation, the
universal development of electrification and the other achievements of science and
technology are bringing about radical changes in the nature of work. The work of
production workers and collective farm workers is becoming increasingly similar
to that of engineers, technicians, agronomists and other specialists. Under a system
of socialist production, production workers must be able to operate modern machine
tools, use the most sensitive instruments of measurement and control, understand
complex calculations and technical drawings... .
" Technological progress in all sectors of the economy demands constant improvement in the level of competence of the working masses. The shortcomings in the
vocational and technical training of certain workers is already holding back the
development of production in certain cases. It is therefore particularly essential to
develop the technical and vocational training of young persons and to improve the
training of skilled workers. " (Act of 24 December 1958 concerning strengthening
of the links between schools and life and the development of education in the
U.S.S.R.)
42
Changes in Manpower Skills
taken place in the proportions of skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled
workers employed throughout industry.
Table IX shows the general trend for industry as a whole, including
the metalworking industry. Soviet authors agree that the driving force
behind this process is technological progress in general. They account
for the conflicting tendencies in the proportion of semi-skilled workers
as follows: the upward trend of 1925-50 is related to the spread of
mechanisation in that period while the downward trend of 1950-59 is
due to automation.
TABLE IX.
PERCENTAGE BREAKDOWN OF INDUSTRIAL WORKERS
IN THE U.S.S.R. BY DEGREE OF SKILL, 1925-59
Category
1925
1950
1959
Skilled and highly skilled
Semi-skilled
Unskilled
18.5
41.3
40.2
49.6
47.9
2.5
51.7
46.4
1.9
Source: [38, p. 145].
The table is based on the grading system which is used in ñxing wage
rates in the various economic branches arid for the various categories of
workers. For the period in question most workers were graded according
to eight occupational skill categories. Following this method, the table
considers as unskilled workers those in grades I and II; as semi-skilled
those in grades III and IV; as skilled those in grades V and VI; and as
highly skilled those in grades VII and VIII [34, p. 255].
In step with the constant increase in the relative and absolute number
of skilled and highly skilled workers, there is also an upward trend in
the average standard of skill of the workers in general. KHROMOV and
other writers refer to the importance of the general level of education
for workers' skills [149, p. 119; 9, p. 72].
In this connection the rise in standards of education may be illustrated by the following examples. In the Nizhny Tagil factory during
the period 1952-59 the number of workers with six years' schooling fell
from 46.5 to 31.4 per cent. Simultaneously, the number with between
seven and nine years' general schooling went up from 22.2 to 41.8 per
cent, and the number with a complete secondary education from 1.1 to
18.4 per cent. [63, p. 205]. In the " Likhachov " automobile factory the
average number of years of schooling of the 1957 work force was 50 per
cent, higher than the figure for 1931. The number of workers with only
43
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
a primary education fell by 40 per cent., while the number with more
than six years' schooling went up by 270 per cent. [26, p. 9]. In the
" 40 let Oktyabrya " factory, the number of workers who had not
completed their primary or secondary schooling declined by 34 and 14
per cent, respectively between 1959 and 1962. Simultaneously, the
number who had received a complete general education or specialised
training increased by 80 and 43 per cent, respectively [46, p. 99].
Changes in the general standard of education of workers in a highly
mechanised and automated plant are shown in figure B. It again illustrates the fall in the percentage of less educated workers and the marked
rise in the percentage with between seven and ten years' general schooling.
This can be accounted for by the growth in evening classes and
correspondence courses, by the increasing intake of workers with a
complete secondary education. IOVCHUK mentions that in the Sverdlovsk
region alone the number of school leavers who had completed secondary
studies and voluntarily entered industry as production workers was 8,000
in 1957, 12,000 in 1958 and over 11,000 in 1959. In 1954, 24 per cent,
of the secondary-school leavers in Nizhny Tagil entered factories or
in-plant apprenticeship courses. Three years later the corresponding
proportion was as high as 57 per cent. [63, pp. 205-206; cf. also 149,
pp. 119-120].
The different trends involved are shown even more clearly by the
figures in table X, which also relate to the " Uralmash " factory but
concern the percentages of workers recruited during the years 1950-59,
by standard of education. They indicate that the recruitment of persons
with one to six years' schooling fell, while the intake of those with seven
to ten years' schooling rose. Furthermore, while there is some fluctuation in the respective trends in the first three categories in the table,
the figures for the last category show a steady rise from 2 per cent, in
1950 to 22.1 per cent, in 1959.
TABLE X. PERCENTAGE BREAKDOWN OF WORKERS RECRUITED
BY THE "URALMASH" FACTORY BY STANDARD OF GENERAL
EDUCATION l
1-4
5-6
7-9
10
Number of years'
schooling
1950
1957
1958
1959
years
years
years
years
21.6 14.2 34.1 31.1 24.4 18.0 16.6 14.4
49.9 51.9 33.4 32.2 30.9 31.1 27.4 32.2
26.5 31.1 29.1 33.0 37.4 41.7 43.8 39.2
2.0 2.8 3.4 3.7 7.3 9.2 12.2 14.2
17.1
22.0
42.7
18.2
14.0
20.2
43.7
22.1
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
Source: [64, p. 512],
1
Not including workers with a craft training or specialised secondary education.
44
Changes in Manpower Skills
FIGURE B. CHANGES IN THE LEVEL OF GENERAL EDUCATION
OF THE WORKFORCE AT THE " URALMASH " FACTORY, 1950-60
(Percentages)
•II6-9!
M ^l13-
36.0
1950
1952
1956
1956
1960
Source: [64, p. 514].
' Illiterate workers. • Workers with one to three years' schooling. • Workers with four to six
years' schooling. * Workers with seven years' schooling. * Workers with eight to nine years' schooling.
'Workers having completed secondary schooling.
GRIGORIEV has pointed out that seven years' general schooling is
equivalent to 25 years' practical experience. This means that by recruiting
staff with an adequate general education it becomes possible to shorten
the period of vocational training [36, p. 18; cf. also 46, p. 100]. Research
45
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
by VOLKOV has shown that workers with ten years' general education
can be trained 20 per cent, faster than those with only seven years'
schooling [26, p. 9].
Soviet writers stress the fact that, despite the steady rise in the general
educational level of the labour force, including that of the metalworking
industry, general standards of education among industrial workers are
in certain cases far from satisfactory.
Table XI contains, as an example, composite statistics concerning
workers in the four main occupations tending single and multi-spindle
automatic machines in one of the shops at the Yaroslav engine factory,
as well as on ten automated lines in the following undertakings: the
Moscow small c.c. automobile factory (engine-block line), the Yaroslav
engine factory (engine-block line), the Yaroslav electrical engineering
factory (electric-motor frame line), the " Serp i molot " factory in
Kharkov (engine-block line) and the " Oktyabr " factory in Krasnodar
(cylinder-head Une).
TABLE XI. PERCENTAGE BREAKDOWN BY STANDARD OF EDUCATION
OF WORKERS ON AUTOMATED PRODUCTION IN DIFFERENT
FACTORIES OF THE SAME TYPE
Occupation
Machine operator. .
Tool setter ....
Fitter-repairman . .
Electrician ....
Less than
Ten
Seven Eighttoten
seven
years'
years'
years'
years*
schooling
schooling
schooling
schooling
53.2
40.4
46.6
45.0
25.8
30.0
31.1
31.6
8.8
7.6
12.7
5.2
11.1
18.0
9.6
15.6
Specialised
technical
training
1.1
3.1
Advanced
training
0.9
2.6
Source: [36, p. 18].
Table XI shows that in the cases in question, a large proportion of
the workers (78.0-90.4 per cent.) did not have a full secondary education.
Only 22 per cent, of the tool setters had one, whereas this is the minimum
standard of education required for the occupation, which is predominant
in automated production.
Side by side with workers who perform highly responsible jobs
without the necessary secondary education, Soviet industry also contains
workers with a higher standard of secondary education than is necessary
for the tasks they perform. Table XI shows, for example, for the factories
in question, that the percentage of machine operators who had completed
ten or more years' schooling was greater than that of fitter-repairmen.
46
Changes in Manpower Skills
Composite statistics for certain shops at the No. 1 bearing factory in
Moscow, the Moscow small c.c. automobile factory, the Ulyanovsk and
Moscow small c.c. engine factories, the " Likhachov " automobile
factory, and the Sverdlov bearing factory show the same. The percentage of operators with a complete secondary education was higher
(10.8) than for tool setters (4.2), fitter-repairmen (6.3) and electricians
(9.4) [64, p. 108]. This situation can be accounted for by the fact that
in the last three occupations there are numbers of older workers whose
shorter general education is offset by long practical experience. At the
same time many young people who have completed their secondary
studies but have not yet achieved a high level of specialised training
work as operators.
The steady rise thus noted in the general standard of education is
nevertheless too general an index to measure changes in workers' qualifications and needs to be supplemented by information about their special
skills.
Reference has already been made in connection with table IX to
the wage-skill schedules covering all occupations and jobs. For each
grade there is a detailed description of the qualifications required and
the knowledge that must be possessed by a worker in any given
occupation. Thus the wage-skill schedule is a reference manual which
regulates the grading of workers according to skill and also the payment
of workers employed in different occupations but having the same degree
of skiU.
This system provides a uniform yardstick for measuring different
degrees of skill in the same occupation or similar degrees of skill in
different occupations. AU the duties performed by workers are classified
under five main headings (technical calculation, preparation and organisation of the work and the work station, performance of the work,
operation of the equipment, degree of responsibility) which together
cover the work process, irrespective of its specific form. For each occupation each of these five duties is given a number of points according to
the degree of difficulty (very difficult, difficult, average, not difficult and
simple). It is a simple matter to add up the number of points for a given
job and to establish its grade according to the points brackets as listed
below[41, pp. 30-32]:
Grade
I
II
111
IV
V
VI
Points
100
101-113
114-129
130-148
149-172
173-200
47
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R,
Thus, for each occupation the grade awarded depends on the complexity and precision of the work. No single occupation covers all six
grades. For example, the range for machine operators goes from grade
I to grade IV, and for tool setters from grade III to grade VI [106,
pp. 243-252, 625].
Skill grades are therefore the first factor taken into account in
establishing wage differentials. The second factor is the wage coefficient,
as illustrated by the following example of the scale now in force in the
metalworking industry:
I
1.00
II
1.13
HI
1.29
IV
1.48
V
1.72
VI
2.00
The roman figures indicate the grade, while the decimal figures
underneath are the wage coefficients. These show the extent to which
the wage in the grade concerned is higher than that of the first, or lowest,
grade. In this case, the coefficient for grade VI is twice that for grade I.
This difference is not the same, however, for all sections of the economy.
In the food industry, for example, the coefficient for grade VI is only I.8.1
Since the wage coefficient indicates the level of skill, the average skill
grade of workers can be determined by first calculating the average
wage coefficient according to the following formula :
ZC-W
Ca
2 W
where :
C0
= the average wage coefficient of a group of workers ;
YiC-W = the number of workers weighted according to their wage
coefficient :
ïc-w=cl-wl + cu-wn + ... +
YAW
C-N;
= the total number of workers :
Y¡W=Wl+Wll+ ... + Wn
1
The coefficient should not be confused with the wage rate. The coefficient
merely shows that in the metalworking industry a grade III worker's wage is 29 per
cent, higher than a grade I worker's. Accordingly, in order to calculate the wage for
any grade one must first know the wage for grade I. This wage, i.e. the absolute remuneration per unit of time for a grade 1 worker, is used as a basis. It is determined for
each industry according to the working conditions for the industry. Thus the wage
rate for grade I jobs is higher in mines, or the chemical industry, etc. than in watchmaking. In fixing wage rates, allowance is also made for the importance of an
industry to the national economy. Where working conditions are the same, higher
are rates payable in the more vital industries.
48
Changes in Manpower Skills
For example, in the case of a metalworking factory employing
200 workers, of whom 50 are in grade I, 60 in grade II, 40 in grade III,
30 in grade IV, 15 in grade V and 5 in grade VI, the average wage coefficient is calculated as follows :
c
_=
(50 x 1.00) + (60 x 1.13) + (40 x 1.29) + (30 x 1.48)
+(15x1.72)+ (5x2.00).
__
200
i 248
Once the average wage coefficient has been calculated, the average
grade can be determined by using the following formula:
Ca-C,
Ga = G/ +
c.-c,
where :
Ga
G,
Ca
C,
Ch
— the average grade ;
= the skill grade corresponding to the lower of the two adjacent
wage coefficients between which the average wage coefficient falls;
= the average wage coefficient;
= the lower of the two adjacent wage coefficients between
which the average wage coefficient falls ;
= the higher of the two adjacent wage coefficients between
which the average wage coefficient falls.
Example : taking the average wage coefficient calculated above
(Ca = 1.248), the average grade will be as follows :
(7=2+
1.248 — 1.13
1.29 — 1.13
= 2.7
Calculation of the average skill grade in accordance with this method
is common practice in the Soviet Union [42, pp. 54-61]. Table XII,
which contains figures showing the evolution of average skill grade in
different undertakings, has been worked out on this basis.
Table XII shows first of all that machine operators have not yet
been displaced. In fact, their average grading is shown as rising from
3.6 to 5.0 points in step with the development of automation because
they also perform certain jobs belonging to kindred occupations
(tool setters, fitter-repairmen, electricians) in order to make better use
of their working time. An example quoted by KATSENELINBOIGEN
shows the influence of the general skill level upon the ability of machine
operators to broaden their occupational profiles. According to the
figures he quotes, the grading of operators in shop No. 4 of the Kuibyshev
49
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
TABLE XII. AVERAGE SKILL GRADE OF WORKERS IN
PLANTS WITH DIFFERENT DEGREES OF AUTOMATION
Average grade1
It
3 IT
eg U
Factory and shop
28
c a.
Slide callipers shop in " Kalibr " factory .
Micrometer shop in " Kalibr " factory . .
Screw-cutting shop in " Frezer " factory .
Drill shop in " Frezer " factory
Chassis shop in Moscow small c.c. automobile factory
No. 1 engine shop in the " Likhachov "
automobile factory
Piston shop in the Ulyanovsk small c.c.
engine factory
Automated machine shop in No. 1 national
bearing factory, Moscow
25
60
3.6
3.6
3.7
4.0
6.4
6.6
3.8
4.7
5.6
5.3
5.0
4.5
3.4
3.7
4.0
4.3
73
3.9
7.0
5.7
5.7
4.5
90
4.7
7.6
6.2
6.5
5.2
100
5.0
6.4
6.6
6.8
5.9
100
5.0
7.2
6.8
6.8
6.6
Source:[l09. pp. 99-112].
1
Calculation is based on the earlier scale consisting of eight grades, which has now been replaced
by the six-grade scale.
bearing factory who also act as tool setters is between 6 and 8 points,
whereas that of operators in the No. 1 national bearing factory in Moscow
does not exceed 5 points [68, p. 47].
Table XII further shows that the development of automation has
also had an impact on the skill grading of tool setters, as reflected in a
rise from 6.4 to 7.6 points. This is due to the fact that they are increasingly
tending to do some of the jobs of fitter-repairmen and electricians as
well. The complexity of tool setters' work and their skill requirements
depend upon the nature of the automatic equipment. Formerly, tool
setters were workers with many years' service and extensive experience
as machine operators. Nowadays, it is increasingly common for this
work to be performed by persons with a general or technical secondary
education, which does much to explain the high average standard of
skill of workers in this category. Table XII clearly reveals the higher
skill grading of tool setters as compared with machine operators.
A similar trend can be observed in the grading of fitter-repairmen
(3.8 and 4.7 points in the factory without automatic equipment as compared with 6.6 and 6.8 in the most automated factories covered by the
table), and in that of electricians (rising from 5.0 to 6.8 points).
SO
Changes in Manpower Skills
The examples quoted reveal that automation entails a marked general
increase in the skill of the occupational groups examined but that this
increase may vary in accordance with the occupation, the equipment
and the particular production conditions. Similarly the average skill
grade for the whole work force in the shop is seen to rise as production
is automated (from 3.4 and 3.7 where there is no automatic equipment
to 5.9 and 6.6 in the most highly automated shops).
Similar examples are quoted in other publications. For instance,
VOLKOV mentions that as equipment in various undertakings became
more advanced, the average skill grade rose as follows :
— by 67 per cent, between 1930 and 1956 in the " Kirov " factory;
— by 48 per cent, between 1934 and 1957 in the " Likhachov " automobile factory;
— by 50 per cent, between 1934 and 1958 in the " Krasny Proletary "
factory, Moscow [26, p. 14; cf also 3, pp. 18 et seq.].
MERKIN and RODRIGES state that in 1959 the average grading in a
number of metalworking plants amounted to 6.7 points for tool setters,
6.2 for the fitter-repairmen and 5.9 for electricians [9, p. 71].
On the basis of a number of investigations, MNUSHKIN asserts that
the average grading in the main occupations is between 6 and 7 points
in automated production and between 3 and 3.5 points in non-automated
production [97, p. 36].
Similarly an investigation by VARSHAVSKY covering 5,000 workers
in four different occupations in ten shops in Lemngrad plants showed
that the average length of time they spent in each grade was between 1.5
and 1.6 years. This indicates a fairly rapid rise in skills under the stimulus
of automation [19, p. 16].
OSIPOV has touched on a point closely Unked with the subject under
discussion, but without examining it thoroughly. This concerns the
range of grades within individual occupations, which, according to his
observations, tends to narrow as automation increases, and at a fairly
advanced stage of automation does not exceed 2-3 grades [109, pp. 112113].
Despite the general tendency noted for skill levels to rise as a result
of automation, a number of authors acknowledge that the results obtained
still leave a good deal to be desired. For example, GORODETSKY points
out that between 31.5 and 100 per cent, of the tool setters on the automated Unes in the Krasnodar tractor spare-parts factory, the Yaroslav
electrical engineering factory and the " Serp i Molot " factory in Kharkov
are in grades III or IV, whereas the standard level for their occupation
would be grades V and VI [36, p. 17].
51
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
MERKIN and RODRIGES also call attention to certain shortcomings
in the vocational and technical training of machine operators, tool
setters, fitter-repairmen and electricians in 12 shops in eight metalworking plants investigated in 1959. This is brought out by table XIII.
TABLE XIII. BREAKDOWN OF SKILLED WORKERS IN
CERTAIN PLANTS BY TYPE OF TECHNICAL TRAINING
(Percentage of total of workers in the same occupation)
Occupation
Machine operator
Tool setter
Fitter-repairman
Electrician
Factory
Individual
apprenticeship
or group
school
or
apprenticeship vocational school
65.8
72.1
69.0
63.2
32.3
23.0
28.5
27.5
Technical
secondary
school
1.9
4.9
2.5
9.3
Source: [9, p. 73].
The authors note the very low percentage of workers with a secondary
technical training, most of whom began with a practical training in the
form of an individual or group apprenticeship and improved their skills
subsequently.
Many other such cases could be quoted, and are in fact inevitable in
view of past deficiencies in the field of vocational training and the acute
need to modernise production techniques with the available labour
force. However, they are not characteristic of the general trend for
workers' skills to rise considerably as a result of the growing demands
of automated production. This development is seen by Soviet authors
as giadually raising production workers to the level of engineers and
technicians, the main difference between manual and mental work
thereby being eliminated. The final disappearance of this difference is
regarded as one of the essential conditions for the move from socialism
to communism and the authorities are endeavouring to hasten this
development by every possible means.
C.
EFFECT OF HIGHER STANDARDS OF SKILL ON
TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS
Soviet authors consider that the high standards of education and
technical training demanded by modern technology are themselves a
stimulus to technological development. Improved skills lead to many
52
Changes in Manpower Skills
technological innovations and suggestions for increasing the efficiency
of existing equipment. The close connection between workers' standards
of skill and the number of rationalising proposals they put forward is
borne out by figures relating to (a) skill gradings, (b) degree of automation of different shops, (c) occupations, and (d) educational levels :
(a) Investigations in a number of Moscow factories have shown
for example that 80 per cent, of the workers making such suggestions
for improving operations belonged to grades VI, VII and VIII (under
the former grading system), whereas these groups together accounted
for only 40 per cent, of the labour force. At the " Likhachov " automobile factory the numbers of suggestions from the workers in grades V
to VIII were respectively 115, 354, 800 and 1,810 per cent, higher than
the number put forward by workers in grade IV [26, p. 19].
(b) The proportion of workers making rationalisation proposals in
the No. 1 national bearing factory totalled 12-13 per cent, of the labour
force in the non-automated shops in 1958-59 as compared with 30 per cent,
in the automated shops. In the Ulyanovsk small c.c. engine factory it
was found in 1960 that, whereas the average for all the workers was
18 per cent., it was 24 per cent, in the automated shop [97, p. 39].
(c) In the armature shop at the " Gaz " factory, the percentage of
workers making rationalisation proposals as compared with the total
number of workers in the same occupation was 30 in the case of tool
setters, 27.6 in the case of fitters, 8.0 in the case of machine operators,
and 0.35 in the case of press operators: among the tool setters with
advanced technical qualifications, every third worker made suggestions
for improving equipment, whereas of the 284 largely unskilled press
operators only one put forward any suggestions. However, in one of
the shops at the " Krasnaya Etna " factory, where the press operators
also do some tool setting, the proportion of such workers making suggestions was 14 per cent. [51, pp. 16-18].
(d) At the Vladimirov tractor works, there was an average of nine
rationalisation proposals from every ten tool setters. However, the
number of such proposals from tool setters with eight to ten years'
schooling was two-and-a-half times greater than from tool setters with
no more than seven years' primary schooling [16, p. 62].
Efforts to improve techniques have thus become a further responsibility of skilled workers, who collaborate closely with technicians and
scientists on various collective socialist bodies, including voluntary
design groups, joint rationalisation groups and voluntary research
institutes. To mention only one example, half the automated and
53
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
semi-automated lines in the No. 4 bearing factory, Kuibyshev, have been
designed by joint rationalisation groups [100, pp. 21-23].
The State encourages such display of initiative by production workers
and intends to foster it still further in order to hasten the introduction
of technical improvements. The programme of the Communist Party
of the Soviet Union states that the utmost importance must be attached
to measures which provide a moral and material incentive to rationalisation and invention by the masses, by undertakings, by shops, by groups
of workers and by individuals in a position to devise new technical
methods [80, p. 282].
54
CHANGES IN THE
EMPLOYMENT PATTERN
A.
4
MANPOWER CLASSIFICATION
The far-reaching changes which technological progress and especially
the installation of automated production lines have brought about in
the nature and content of work (occupational profile) may in turn lead
to substantial changes in the occupational pattern of manpower. Consistent analysis and correct interpretation of such changes demand a
clear system of manpower classification.
In Soviet literature and practice, industrial manpower is traditionally
divided into two main categories: basic workers and auxiliary workers.
Basic workers are directly concerned with the processing of the work
piece whereas auxiliary workers contribute to the performance of production tasks through such functions as positioning, adjusting and maintaining equipment.
This system of classification has been used to distinguish the labour
input for the main production activities of the undertaking from the
labour input for general maintenance operations, with a view to determining productivity. It has also been the basis for achieving a proper
balance between these two types of work in an industrial undertaking.
Soviet authors have, however, pointed to serious shortcomings in
the system. The majority consider that the division of workers into
basic and auxiliary no longer corresponds to the requirements of modern
technology and industrial organisation. To quote VAISMAN : " Because
of the mechanisation and automation of production, certain categories
of workers previously classed as auxiliary should now be included among
the basic workers. This refers particularly to tool setters who, with the
advent of automation, have become principal workers" [28, p. 137].
Similar views are stated by a number of other writers [24, p. 18; 25, p. 35;
55
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
62, p. 70; 67, p. 53; 68, p. 14; 95, p. 27]. Although some undertakings
with automated production lines have already started to classify tool
setters as basic workers, this is by no means general practice yet throughout the U.S.S.R.
Under the Soviet system the term " auxiliary workers " includes
a number of workers who are performing maintenance operations [24,
p. 16]. This makes the system different from the classification utilised
in Czechoslovakia, for example, where a part of the maintenance workers are included in the category of " production workers ". Furthermore, the Soviet classification is quite different from the system used
in Western countries.
Many authors have therefore attempted to work out a new classification better adapted to the requirements of modern production. Their
various proposals may be summarised as follows:
KATSENELINBOIGEN: two groups (workers producing machinery for
the manufacture of the final product; workers engaged in the manufacture of the final product) [71, p. 77];
SOLUYANOV: three groups (manual work; mechanised work; preparatory or auxiliary work) [38, pp. 134-138];
GALTSOV and KULIKOVA: three groups (basic workers; maintenance
workers; auxiliary workers) [31, p. 34; 83, p. 17];
OSIPOV: three groups (workers directly engaged in operating machinery ; maintenance workers ; auxiliary workers) [109, pp. 84-85] ;
ZVORYKIN: five groups (workers carrying out manual operations
without the help of machinery ; workers carrying out manual operations
on machines; workers performing subdivided work on a flow line;
workers operating automatic or semi-automatic machinery and control
panels; workers operating fixed or mobile machines) [56, pp. 29 et seq.];
KABANOV: eight groups (basic workers; repair workers; workers
manufacturing tools; power production workers; workers carrying out
control operations; transport workers; store workers; housekeeping
workers) [67, pp. 56-57].
However, there are other writers who consider that it would be wrong
to discard the distinction between basic and auxiliary workers right away
since it has not yet lost its economic raison d'être. They believe this
question will not arise until integrated automation is more widely in use
[103, p. 38; 125, pp. 123 et seq.; 23 pp. 39, 178; 62, p. 70; 95, p. 25].
Up to the present, general acceptance has not been forthcoming
for any of the substitute classification systems put forward. Several
authors have, however, stressed the necessity, in the formulation of any
new system, to give appropriate consideration to recent technological
changes and improvements in the organisation of production.
56
Changes in the Employment Pattern
B.
CHANGES IN OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS
In order to analyse changes in the employment pattern brought about
by advanced technology at the plant, industry or national level, it is
first necessary to have an adequate occupational classification system.
The existing two-part classification is not appropriate to the new technological conditions and no substitute has gained acceptance. However,
in order to channel nation-wide research in a particular direction, the
Office for the Development of Vocational Training has recently evolved
a methodical scheme of manpower classification that consists of combining
groups of workers according to the nature of their relationship with the
process of production and the degree of mechanisation of their work.1
This approach calls for preliminary study of the role of workers in various
occupations in the process of production and of the content of their
work, as described in Chapter 2.
To ensure comparability the effect of automation on the pattern
of employment must be studied not through data concerning employment
in general, but separately for each industry, and within each industry
for each occupation and type of work.
The categories in which workers are grouped according to the nature
of their relationship with the process of production comprise:
(a) workers directly engaged in processing the work piece. In the
metalworking industry the dominant occupation, that of machine
operator, is being gradually displaced by that of tool setter as
automation becomes more widespread;
(b) workers assisting indirectly in processing the work piece. This
includes auxiliary unskilled or semi-skilled workers performing by
hand such operations as loading, unloading, transport, lifting or
stacking;
(c) workers engaged in the maintenance and repair of equipment.
In the metalworking industry these are mainly fitter-repairmen
and electricians.
Study of changes in the pattern of these three categories not only
shows the trends and rates of change but also makes long-term forecasting
possible [9, p. 37]. Table XIV gives some idea of the pattern of change
in the metalworking industry. The general numerical increase in all
three categories of workers during the period under review should not
1
This classification is very different from international classifications. See in
particular United Nations: International Standard Industrial Classification of All
Economic Activities, Statistical Papers, Series M, No. 4 (1949), and I.L.O.: International Standard Classification of Occupations (Geneva, 1958).
57
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
be misinterpreted. While the changes affecting the first and third
categories can easily be explained by an increase in the volume of production and the use of modern techniques, the changes in the second
category have nothing to do with technological progress. In fact, they
are the result of inadequate mechanisation of the auxiliary operations,
because this has developed less quickly than in the case of the basic
work [55, p. 355].
TABLE XIV. INCREASE IN THE NUMBER OF WORKERS
IN THE METALWORKING INDUSTRY, 1948-59
Category of workers
1. Workers directly engaged in processing
the work piece
2. Workers assisting indirectly in processing
the work piece
3. Workers engaged in the repair and maintenance of equipment
Index of number Average annual
of workers in 1959
increase
(1948 = 100)
(%)
309.9
10.9
238.8
8.2
235.6
8.1
Source: [9, p. 62].
In order to obtain more detailed data of greater practical significance
capable of explaining the changes occurring in the main occupational
groups and in selected occupations, analysis can be extended to cover
changes in the occupational pattern for different work units, technological processes, types of work, etc.
For this purpose workers have been classified according to the degree
of mechanisation of their work, in order to measure changes in the
technical level of industry and the rate of spread of mechanisation and
automation of work.
Although the present system of classification in the Soviet Union
recognises five levels in the process of mechanisation and automation of
production, the census data of 1948, 1954 and 1959 listing numbers of
workers by occupation permit classification only according to the
criteria of manual work, mechanised work and automated work.
Table XV shows in particular how substantially the numbers of
workers on automated equipment increased during the period under
review.
The fact that automation work is being carried out in all branches
of industry, and particularly in the metalworking industry, indicates
that the high rate of average annual increase in the number of workers in
58
Changes in the Employment Pattern
TABLE XV. CHANGES IN CLASSIFICATION OF WORKERS ACCORDING
TO THE DEGREE OF MECHANISATION IN THE
METALWORKING INDUSTRY, 1948-59
Percenlage
of work force
Category of work
Manual work
Mechanised work
Automated work
1948
1959
61.8
37.4
0.8
54.6
44.0
1.4
Index of number
of workers in
1959
(1948 = 100)
Average
annual
increase
233.6
327.1
490.4
8.0
11.4
15.6
(%)
Source: [9, p. 61].
mechanised and automated production will be maintained and even
extended in the coming years. According to the programme of the
Soviet Union Communist Party " in the course of the next two decades
integrated automation of production will be carried out on a massive
scale, accompanied by an increasingly rapid changeover to fully automated shops and undertakings which will yield a high economic and
technical output " [80, p. 280].
Consolidation of the two classifications described above produces
the following system [9, p. 42] :
1. Workers directly engaged in processing the work piece—
(a) manual work; .
(b) mechanised work with the help of non-automatic machines, instruments and apparatus;
(c) automated work with the help of automatic machines, instruments
and apparatus and automated production lines.
2. Workers assisting indirectly in processing the work piece—
(a) manual work;
(b) mechanised work with the help of non-automatic machines, instruments
and apparatus;
(c) automated work with the help of automatic instruments and apparatus.
3. Workers engaged in the maintenance and repair of equipment—
(a) manual work;
(b) mechanised work with the help of non-automatic machines, instruments
and apparatus;
(c) automated work with the help of automatic instruments and apparatus.
This consolidated system is used in table XVI relating to the 12-year
period between 1948 and the end of 1959, when the number of workers
engaged in mechanised or automated work increased considerably.
The table emphasises the increase in mechanised and automated work
59
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
for categories 1 and 3 and in mechanised work for category 2, as well
as the decrease in the proportion of manual work in each category.
TABLE XVI. CHANGES IN CLASSIFICATION OF WORKERS IN THE
METALWORKING INDUSTRY ACCORDING TO THE NATURE OF THEIR
RELATIONSHIP WITH PRODUCTION AND THE DEGREE OF
MECHANISATION OF THEIR WORK, 1948-59
Category of workers
1. Workers directly engaged in
processing the work piece:
Manual work
Mechanised work ....
Automated work
2. Workers assisting indirectly
in processing the work piece:
Manual work
Mechanised work ....
Automated work
3. Workers engaged in the maintenance and repair of equipment:
Manual work
Mechanised work
....
Automated work
Percentage of
work force in
each category
Index of number
of workers in
1939
(1948 = 100)
Average
annual
increase
(%)
1948
1959
38.3
60.2
1.5
36.8
60.9
2.3
297.3
313.8
475.6
10.4
10.9
15.3
79.9
20.1
70.4
29.6
210.4
351.3
7.0
12.2
97.7
2.3
94.8
4.2
1.0
228.8
423.0
7.5
13.7
Source: [9, p. 62].
The data presented in table XV show the total proportion of manual
work in the metalworking industry as 54.6 for 1959, but more recent
figures indicate a decrease to 49 per cent. [38, p. 126]. In certain advanced
undertakings such as the " Uralmash " factory and the Uralsk turbine
factory the proportion of manual work has dropped to 33 and 36 per
cent, respectively [64, pp. 87, 504].
However, several writers believe that the degree of mechanisation in
industry in general and in the metalworking industry in particular cannot
be regarded as satisfactory because the percentage of manual work is
still fairly high [64, p. 126; 46, p. 62; 55, p. 355].
The programme of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union provides
for the introduction of integrated mechanisation throughout industry
during the period between 1961 and 1970 in order to eliminate manual
60
Changes in the Employment Pattern
work connected with handling, as well as strenuous work in both basic
and auxiliary operations [80, p. 280]. Work coming within category 2
in the above classification is gradually to be taken over by machines.
With regard to categories 1 and 3, the figures available can give only
a general picture of the evolution now taking place. In order to determine
the impact of mechanisation and automation on the occupational
pattern of manpower, more detailed study is needed for examination of
trends in the main occupations, differentiating between the various
types of production.
In factories producing single items or limited series the possibilities of
integrated mechanisation and automation are fairly restricted because
of their low degree of specialisation, their equipment consisting entirely
of universal machines.
The degree of specialisation is considerably higher in undertakings
engaged in large-scale production of certain products, where closedcircuit sections and shops equipped with specialised high-ouput machinery
represent a more advanced stage of mechanisation.
Mass-production undertakings are highly specialised in their exclusive manufacture of a given product. Not only does specialised and
automated equipment then predominate; it is also possible to install
automated lines, sections and whole shops on a major scale.
The occupational pattern of manpower obviously cannot be the
same in each of these three types of production with different levels of
mechanisation and automation. In the absence of published data giving
a complete picture of the situation for the whole metalworking industry
the results of certain case studies are presented in table XVII to indicate
the general trend.
In spite of small differences due to the diversity of the production
activities analysed, table XVII reveals the changes taking place in the
relative importance of different occupations within category 1 (workers
directly engaged in processing the work piece). For the two main occupations in this group, the trend is for the proportion of machine operators
to decrease while the proportion of tool setters increases as more automated equipment is in use. In the two most highly automated plants the
proportion of 41 and 51 per cent, for tool setters compares with 19.6
and 7 per cent, respectively for operators. At so advanced a stage of
automation machine operators are strictly speaking simply assistant
workers, and the need for them will gradually disappear once certain
organisational imperfections have been overcome and the process of
production is entirely automated. This means that, with integrated
automation, tool setters become the only workers directly engaged in
actual processing [57, p. 259; 67, p. 55; 131, p. 68; 64, p. 99].
61
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
TABLE XVII. EMPLOYMENT PATTERN ACCORDING TO THE DEGREE
OF AUTOMATION AND SPECIALISATION OF EQUIPMENT
(Percentages)
Occupation
Factory and shop
a." S
o -- û-
= il
Single-item and small-scale production
" Kalibr " factory, slide calliper shop . .
Minsk automated line factory, machine
shop
" Ordzhonikidze " machine-tool factory,
machine shop No. 1
" A.M. Kirov " machine-tool factory,
machine shop
" Ordzhonikidze " machine-tool factory,
machine shop No. 2
Large-scale production
Minsk machine-tool factory, machine shop
No. Í
Gorky milling machine factory, machine
shop No. 1
" Krasny Ekscavator " factory, machine
shop
'
" Krasny Proletary " factory, machine
shop No. 1
" Dynamo " metalworking factory shop .
MaiJ production
" Frezer " factory, drill shop
Krasnodar combine harvester factory,
machine shop
National bearing factory No. 2, ballbearing shop
National bearing factory No. 2, roller
bearing shop
Moscow small c.c. automobile factory,
engine shop
Gorky automobile factory, engine shop
No. 1
Gorky automobile factory, chassis shop
No. 1
" Likhachov " automobile factory, engine
shop No. 1
Ulyanovsk small c.c. automobile factory,
piston shop
National bearing factory No. 1, automated
shop
0.0 84.0
4.8 0.6
10.6
2.0 65.3
3.5
1.5
29.7
2.3 64.5
1.5
4.8
1.7
27.5
2.8 63.6
1.3
4.7
1.9
28.5
3.2 68.2
1.7
5.4
1.8
22.9
3.6
1.6
37.6
Í4.9 57.2
17.1 50.5
2.8
4.5
1.8
40.4
28.4 51.2
3.2
5.3
2.2
38.1
44.4 48.3
44.6 71.5
7.9
8.4
6.5 2.1
3.0 9.3
35.2
7.8
60.0 62.4 12.7 11.0
2.3
11.6
70.4 48.6
8.2
5.8
2.3
35.1
70.9 45.4
9.3
4.1
2.1
39.1
71.2 52.2 11.2
4.6
2.6
29.4
72.8 52.7 11.3 11.8
4.5
19.7
73.0 51.0 14.3 11.1
3.8
19.8
75.0 50.4 15.0
6.9
2.6
25.1
90.0 52.2 11.5 13.8
6.6
15.9
100.0 19.0 41.0 15.0 9.1
15.9
7.6 51.0 24.0 7.0
10.4
100.0
Source: [109, pp. 88-90; 7, p. 69; 9, pp. 64-65; 60, p. 60; 123, p. 37].
62
Changes in the Employment Pattern
The greater importance of tool setters in connection with the more
technologically advanced equipment is further demonstrated by the
figures collected by KATSENELINBOIGEN and KLIMENKO, as shown in table
XVUI.
TABLE XVIII.
RATIO OF TOOL SETTERS TO OPERATORS IN THE
METALWORKING INDUSTRY
Type of equipment
Universal tools
Specialised tools
Automatic machines
Automated lines
Range of variation
from
from
from
from
1:15
1:8
1:2
6: 1
to
to
to
to
1:12
1:5
1:1
16: 1
Source: [68, pp. 24, 75; 73, p. 20].
Table XVU also shows that fitter-repairmen and electricians (category 3 occupations) are of more importance in plants using automated
methods. The figures quoted in the table suggest that the proportion
of electricians is increasing more rapidly than that of fitter-repairmen,
and this is confirmed by BREEV, on the basis of different figures [16, pp. 2829].
It should be noted that the increase in the proportion of electricians
and fitter-repairmen is greater than the increase in their numbers, because
fewer workers are needed when production is automated. Moreover,
the rise in the number of fitter-repairmen is due not so much to an
increase in the number of units of equipment as to the nature of automated
apparatus, which is characterised by a substantial increase in the average
complexity of repairs.
The evolution of the pattern of employment as described here is
illustrated in figure C, prepared from data relating to certain shops
in the Moscow bearing factory No. 1, for 1958.
Figure C shows that the proportion of category 1 workers is 69.6
(57.8 + 11.8) per cent, in semi-automated production but only 58.6
(7.6 + 51.0) per cent, in automated production and that the figures for
category 2 workers are 18.0 and 10.4 per cent, respectively. However,
the respective proportions for category 3 workers are 12.4 and 31 per cent.
Once again, the occupation of tool setter is observed to become predominant.
Such changes in the employment pattern are not limited to any one
situation: whatever the precise figures, they indicate the broad lines of
the general development. But they have so far taken place against the
background of an absolute increase in the level of employment, so that
63
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
FIGURE C. SIZE OF OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS IN THE MOSCOW
BEARING FACTORY, No. 1, 1958
(Percentages)
100
E@
•®
100
><â/_
i
i
50-
Sr
y'
®A
'%
0
Source: [109, p. 93].
A: Tool setters; B: fitter-repairmen; C; electricians; D: machine operators; E: other workers.
On the left: semi-automated production; on the right: automated production. (These two categories
may be supposed to correspond respectively to automated production and to complex automated production as described in Chapter I.
there is not yet any question of seeing an absolute fall in numbers in
any particular occupation. In fact, as compared with 1959 the number
of category 1 workers in the metalworking industry was 22 per cent.
64
Changes in the Employment Pattern
higher in 1962 (tool setters: + 36 per cent.; operators: + 22 per cent.)
and the number of category 3 workers was 35 per cent, higher (fitterrepairmen: + 36 per cent., electricians: +29 per cent.), although the
total work force in the industry rose by only 28 per cent. [9, p. 27; 159,
p. 30]. The figures for industry as a whole do not show any over-all
increase during the same period [154, pp. 461-462].
Changes in the occupational pattern, as described above, will lead
to changes in the relative and absolute size of the three categories of
the work force. In the years to come these structural changes will be
accompanied more and more by an absolute decrease in the production
work force. As explained by KORNIENKO, this means that, as automation
progresses, both the relative and the absolute numbers of tool setters,
fitter-repairmen and electrician-assemblers will constantly increase,
whilst those of machine operators and auxiliary workers will fall. Then,
with integrated automation, the occupations of operator and auxiliary
worker will disappear altogether, while the tool setter assumes the key role
[82, pp. 93-94].
MERKIN and RODRIGES have noted that, as automation gains ground,
proper analysis of the situation will depend on a broad classification of
occupations. They have therefore proposed that classification of workers
should be extended according to the degree of mechanisation of their
work, so that it may correspond to present-day production conditions.
These are the categories they suggest [9, pp. 44-46]:
1. Workers carrying out operations by hand without the help of machines or
apparatus.
This group includes workers who use elementary means of labour (shovels,
axes, hammers, hand-saws, etc.).
2. Workers carrying out operations by hand with the help of machines or
apparatus.
These are unskilled auxiliary workers who are not concerned with the
operation or supervision of the means of labour (workers feeding machines,
conveyer belts, etc.).
3. Workers carrying out operations with the help of mechanised apparatus.
This group includes workers working mainly by hand, using electrical,
pneumatic and other apparatus (repairmen, fitter-assemblers, assemblers,
etc.).
4. Workers carrying out operations with the help of non-automatic machines
or apparatus.
This category includes workers operating various items of apparatus and
machinery, as well as those who set and control non-automated equipment
(machine-tool operators, heavy truck drivers, tractor drivers, crane
operators, tool setters, etc.).
5. Workers carrying out operations with the help of semi-automatic machines
or apparatus.
This group includes workers performing control and setting operations, etc.
65
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
6. Workers operating automatic machines.
These are production workers using automated fixed-cycle machines
(operators, tool setters, etc.).
7. Workers using integrated automated equipment.
This group consists of workers whose main tasks are setting, controlling
and supervising an automatic system of machines which manufacture a
product without direct human intervention at any stage of the production
process.
Discussion of this problem is still in its early stages.
C.
CHANGES RELATING TO SPECIALISTS WITH HIGHER OR
SPECIALISED SECONDARY EDUCATION
In addition to the shifts which have occurred in the occupational
pattern of manpower, there have also been changes in the proportion
of production workers to specialists with a higher or specialised secondary
education.
In the first place, the planning and construction of automated equipment and the creation of new production techniques require an increase
in both the absolute and the relative number of fully qualified engineers.
Referring to extensive documentation based on practice, KOZLOV
has shown that the number of engineers in administrative functions
decreases with the growth of technological progress, whereas the number
of planners, designers and researchers increases considerably [15, p. 154].
For instance, when the Moscow No. 1 bearing factory was automated,
a design department was specially set up, under the Machine-tool and
Metalworking Industries Ministry, in which 200 engineers designed and
tested nearly 400 prototypes of machines before deciding upon the most
rational construction [126, p. 156]. ZVORYKIN mentions in this connection that in certain cases the proportion of production workers on
automated lines to the specialists who planned these lines is one to ten
[57, p. 259].
In the second place increasing numbers of engineers and technicians
are needed for the introduction and maintenance of automated equipment (programming, repairs, supervision, etc.). In an article published
in 1957 KATSENELINBOIGEN quotes the following figures relating to the
percentage of engineers and technicians: 3.8 per cent, in a shop with
largely manual operation (the foundry of a factory in Kirov); 9.4 and 10.6
respectively in two shops with a combination of manual and automatic
operation (automatic machine and shock-absorber shop at the Gorky
automobile factory; drill shop at the " Frezer " factory); and 13.8 and
15.2 respectively in two shops where most of the equipment was auto66
Changes in the Employment Pattern
mated (automated lines at the Ulyanovsk small c.c. automobile factory;
automatic machine shop at the Kuibyshev bearing factory) [69, p. 14].
A report published by ZAITSEV in 1963 on a case study carried out
in the Gorky milling machine factory provides much more recent
evidence. It shows that 50 per cent, of the workers engaged in assembling
programmed vertical milling machines were engineers and technicians
with specialised knowledge of hydraulics, electronics, transistors, computers, etc. [51, pp. 22-23]. These figures refer to specialists holding
diplomas, i.e. persons who have completed university or secondary
vocational studies; the percentage of all engineering and technical
personnel (with or without diplomas) is higher still.
In a report presented in 1961 at a scientific conference held at Gorky on
problems of technological progress, KOMAROV pointed out that in several
metalworking factories engineers and technicians accounted for 20-25
per cent, of the entire work force and in fully automated shops as much
as 50-60 per cent. [15, p. 153].
As the role of automation continues to increase, considerable efforts
are being made to step up the training of specialists with higher or
specialised secondary education. The directives approved by the
XXIIIrd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in
April 1966 provide for 7 million specialists with advanced or specialised
secondary education to be trained during the period from 1966 to 1970,
i.e. 65 per cent, more than during the previous five-year period. It is
further planned to increase the annual entry to specialised secondary
educational establishments to 1.6 million and to advanced establishments
to 940,000 by 1970.
62
CONCLUSIONS
Literature reviewed and analysed in this study has shown how technological advances have been the driving force behind substantial changes
in the nature and content of work. Soviet researchers who have examined
developments in particular establishments as well as in the metalworking
industry as a whole and in the over-all economy have noted their conclusions concerning the nature of the work associated with automation and
advanced technology, the skills required of workers and the occupational
structure of the industry. These conclusions are summarised in the following paragraphs.
1. With the increasing automation of equipment, workers in the
metalworking industry in the Soviet Union are beginning to take on
additional tasks belonging first of all to related occupations and then
more and more to quite different occupations. This process has tended
to broaden the occupational profiles of workers while at the same time
requiring that a certain degree of specialisation of manpower be retained.
Broad-profile occupations, regardless of their particular characteristics,
tend to place an increased emphasis on mental work, and manual work
is declining in importance.
2. Constant improvement in the educational, technical and occupational level of the workers is important for the progress of automation.
Since the complexity of equipment is constantly increasing, unceasing
attention must be devoted to the training of qualified staff and the
general improvement of training facilities corresponding to the rapid
progress in production techniques. Soviet research shows, moreover,
that, parallel to the growing demand for workers with a higher level of
general and specialised knowledge, there has been a rise in the average
level of skill of the work force. This increase has come about both
through an increase in the proportion of skilled workers in the work force
and through a general upgrading of the skill level of occupations.
69
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
3. Automation results in changes in the pattern of employment. In
the metalworking industry there has in the past years been an increase in
the proportion of the work force engaged in mechanised work and
automated work with a decline in the proportion engaged in manual
work. A review of the four major occupations in the metalworking
industry shows that modem technology is leading towards a decline in
the importance of machine operators while the percentage of electricians,
fitter-repairmen and tool setters has been increasing. The occupation of
tool setter is tending to become the most important single occupation on
automated lines.
4. Under the influence of technological progress the proportion of
specialists (persons with a higher education or a specialised secondary
education) has also risen. This is a consequence of the increased need for
their services both in the production process and in the assembling and
construction of automated equipment. These specialists work together
with production workers in various groups responsible for proposing
technological improvements, thereby assisting in broadening the knowledge and skill of production workers, and providing them with the
opportunity to participate in work formerly reserved for specialists. In
consideration of the changing nature of the work content of production
workers' jobs and their increased educational requirements, differences
between production workers and engineers are tending gradually to
decrease, and the Soviet Union is advancing toward the elimination of
differences between mental and manual work.
These observations have suggested to Soviet writers that a new type
of man will develop, of whom academician STRUMILIN writes [134, pp.
296-297] : "If today we see nothing amazing in the fact that a piano tuner,
after carrying out his task, shows himself to be a true musician by playing
Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata, such a combination of various functions
will be even more natural with the advent of a shorter working day ...
the 'tuners' of automated lines will use their leisure for the purpose of
design or will swell the ranks of public figures, scientists, writers, musicians or inspired artists."
70
APPENDIX I
Occupational Descriptions
OCCUPATIONAL DESCRIPTION No. 1
Designation of occupation : Tool setter, metal-cutting machines (for
automatic lines).
Type of production : Construction of machines or machine-tools and
metalworking for mass, series or unit production.
Type of shop : Engineering and mechanical assembly.
PRODUCTION CONDITIONS
Technical
Equipment used :
Universal machines (lathes, milling machines, shaping machines, drilling
machines), special machines and standard-unit machines of various types used
to machine parts and perform operations by means of various techniques;
jigs to hold a part or cutting tool in one or more positions (mechanised and
automated);
mechanical and automatic apparatus for starting and stopping machines,
installing and fixing instruments, loading and moving parts, and synchronising
various devices (mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, electric);
cutting tools used on all types of lathes, milling machines, shaping machines,
drilling machines and standard-unit machines;
measurement and inspection apparatus (hydraulic and electric);
ancillary instruments (for pneumo-hydraulic or electric fitting or assembly)
and other technical devices for assembly and repair.
Materials :
Steel and cast-iron, aluminium, copper, their alloys, etc. ; plastics, lubricating
or special oils, insulating materials, solvents.
73
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
Organisational
Works in conjunction with the section foreman and technician, the stores
manager, the fitter-repairman, the inspector, the electrician and auxiliary
workers.
BASIC TASKS
Manual
Setting of machines of different types and degrees of automation and items
of equipment, both separate and linked; dismantling and assembly of parts
of machines or equipment.
Mental
Supervision of technical processes ; inspection and checking of the quality
and accuracy of machined parts; calculation of the cutting speed and other
parameters; preparation of technical documents (drawings, diagrams, operating and now charts, etc.).
BASIC OCCUPATIONAL ABILITIES REQUIRED
Manual
Installation, fixing and checking of various components, cutting tools, etc. ;
adjustment and setting of mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, electric or
electronic equipment and apparatus;
technical operations using various universal machines;
assembly, dismantling and cleaning of parts and components;
use of electric or pneumo-hydraulic fitting and assembly instruments
(manual and mechanised), and of hoisting gear and transport equipment.
Mental
Measurement and checking of various parameters of the machined parts
(tolerances, finish, etc.) in accordance with drawings and technical specifications ;
use of measuring and inspection instruments and of tools of varying complexity ;
preparation and interpretation of drawings, sketches and charts (cinematic,
hydraulic or electric) ;
study of technical documents, operating and now charts, and lists of faults ;
performance of various calculations, including cutting speed, feed volume
and depth and number of revolutions.
organisation of the work station and co-ordination with other workers
(machine operators, fitter-repairmen, electricians, inspectors);
planning of working time;
safety and fire precautions.
TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE
General Knowledge
Mathematics, physics, chemistry (secondary-school standard).
24
Appendix I
General Technical Knowledge
Machine design, mechanics, hydraulics, pneumatics, electricity, electronics,
metal technology, technical drawing, principles of mechanisation and automation (as taught in technical schools).
Special Knowledge
Metal-working machine-tools, electrically powered parts of machines,
theory of cutting and of cutting tools, inspection and measurement instruments,
tolerances, clearance, technical measurement, operation of cutting equipment,
safety and fire precautions (as taught in technical schools).
Additional Knowledge
Production organisation and economics, planning, organisation of work,
technical standards.
OCCUPATIONAL DESCRIPTION No. 2
TITLE OF OCCUPATION
Electrician (industrial electrical equipment).
Type of Production
Construction of machines or machine-tools and metal-working in series or
unit production.
Type of Shop
Engineering, assembly, foundry, heat treatment, etc.
PRODUCTION CONDITIONS
Technical
Equipment used or repaired :
Electric parts of machine-tools, foundry machines and equipment for
electric welding, casting, heat treatment, woodworking, hoisting, transport,
etc. ; electric welding, reheating and electrolytic treatment installations ;
A.C. or D.C. electric machines, generators, motors, transformers, rectifiers,
constant current regulators, switch-gear, automatic control or circuit protection
apparatus and measuring instruments, and electronic equipment ;
apparatus for lifting, installing and machining parts for manual or mechanically operated electrical equipment;
equipment for the mechanised production of parts and the lifting and
transport of electrical machinery: various machines and mechanised devices,
electro-pneumatic drills, hammers, nut wrenches, electrical handling equipment,
electric trolleys, etc.;
miscellaneous manual or mechanical adjusting, assembly and measuring
instruments;
equipment for checking and measuring electric current.
7S
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
Materials :
Metals and alloys, metallic ceramics, insulating materials, conductors and
cables, lubricating and special oils, solvents, insulating varnishes, acids and salts.
Organisational
Works with the foreman, technician, machinist, fitter-repairman, etc.
BASIC TASKS
Manual
Dismantling, cleaning, lubrication, assembly and installation of electric
machines and equipment;
adjustment of electric control circuits in automated equipment ;
performance of a series of operations involved in the production of parts;
assembly and installation of conductors and cables.
Mental
Supervision of the operation of electric machines and equipment;
mechanical and electrical measurement;
supervision of electrical and mechanical parameters;
preparation of outline and assembly diagrams;
preparation of technical documents : lists of faults and technical repair sheets.
BASIC OCCUPATIONAL ABILITIES REQUIRED
Manual
Performance of various operations of assembly, dismantling, cleaning,
lubricating and installing electric machines or equipment ;
dynamic and static balancing of rotors of electric machines;
adjustment and setting of automatic control devices, protection and marking of switches, magnetic drives, relays, micro-switches, controllers etc. ;
cutting, welding and fitting conductors and cables, testing waterproofing
and insulation, and installation and marking; insulating the coils of electric
machines and equipment by impregnation;
use of mechanical and manual instruments and devices for purposes of
adjustment and assembly.
Mental
Use of measurement and inspection instruments, tools and apparatus;
checking and measurement of electrical and mechanical parameters;
recording of technical data concerning physical dimensions and electric
power;
preparation and examination of electric diagrams, drawings, etc. ;
preparation of lists of faults and technical repair sheets;
organisation of the job and co-ordination with other workers (fitterrepairmen, machinists, arc welders, etc);
planning of working time;
safety and fire precautions.
76
Appendix I
TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE
General Knowledge
Mathematics, physics, chemistry (secondary-school standard).
General Technical Knowledge
Mechanics, electricity, hydraulics, pneumatics, electronics, principles of
mechanisation and automation, metal technology, technical drawing (as
taught in technical schools—three-year course).
Special Knowledge
Industrial electrical equipment, special techniques of assembling and repairing electrical equipment, familiarity with electrical materials, electric and
electro-thermal welding technology, rules for using electrical equipment,
safety and fire precautions (as taught in technical schools—three-year course).
Additional Knowledge
Economics and organisation of production; planning; organisation of the
work; and technical standards.
Source: [9, pp. 94 et seq.].
77
APPENDIX II
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82
Appendix n
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69. SBOPUKHH, A. A. "ABTOiaaTHBai^HH nponsBoncTBa B CGGP H ee coiiHajibHue acneKTu" (Automation of production in the U.S.S.R. and its
social aspects, by A. A. ZVORYKIN), BecmnuK ucmopuu Mupoeoû
KyMmypu, 1957, No. 5, pp. 48-68.
60. — CoifUOJibHbie nocjiedcmeua Mexanuaai^uu u aemoMamuaaifuu e CCCP.
Also published in French under the title of: Les conséquences sociales
de la mécanisation et de l'automatisation en U.R.S.S., by A. A. ZVORYKIN,
Series "Technologie et société", No. 11. Paris, UNESCO, 1963, 207 pp.
61. 3EJIEHKO, T. "IIoHroTOBKa paÔoiHx KanpoB na coBpeMCHHOM aTane"
(Training of production workers at the present stage, by G. ZELENKO),
CoifuajiucmwiecKuü mpyd, 1962, No. 1, pp. 11-23.
62. SojiOTbKO, G. H HAMHEHOB, B. "0 KnaccH(|)HKaiiHH paöoMHx B ycnoBHHx
aBTOMaiHiecKoro npoHSBOjicTBa " (Glassification of production workers
under automated production conditions, by S. ZOLOTKO and V. NAIDENOV), CoifuajiucmwiecKuü mpyd, 1960, No. 5, pp. 68-70.
63. HOBIVK, M. T. "HenpepuBHuft noffbeM KyjibTypHO-TexHHiecKoro ypoBHH
paôoiHx — aaKOHOMepHOCTb pasBHTHH coqaajiHCTHiecKoro oômecTBa "
(Steady improvement in the cultural and technical level of production
workers: a fundamental feature in the development of socialist
society,by M. T. IOVCHUK), AKaj;eMHHHayKCCCP, CoituajibHo-aKonoMunecKue npoOMMU mexHWiecKozo npozpecca, 1961, pp. 188-276.
64. — IIo&beM KyAhmypHO-mexHUHecKoeo ypoeua coeemcKozo paóoneeo KJiacca
(Improvement in the cultural and technical level of the Soviet working
class, by M. T. IOVCHUK). Moscow, HsnaTeJibCTBO coqnajibHO-aKOHOMHlecKoll jiHTepaTypu, 1961, 552 pp.
66. HOäJIOBHI, G. H IlnHHEP, A. "3K0H0MHKa H TexHHKa" (Economics and
technology, by S. IODLOVICH and A. PLINER), dttoHOMwecKast aasema,
20 July 1963, No. 29, p. 4.
66. " K ôonee BUCOKOM ciyneuH opraHHsai^HH Tpy^a " (Towards improved
organisation of labour), Coi+wuiucmutecKuü mpyd, 1961, No. 12. pp. 3-10.
67. KABAHOB, H. " HeKOTopue sonpocu opraHH8aniin Tpy^a B ycnoBHHx
HOBOfl TCXHHKH " (Some questions relating to organisation of labour
under modern technological conditions, by N. KABANOV), CoifuajiucmuHecKuü mpyd, 1960, No. 3, pp. 53-59.
68. KAqEHEJiHHBOiirEH, A. AemoMamuaaifUJi npouaeodcmeeHWux npoifeccoe u
eonpocu opzaHuaaifuu mpyda (Automation of production processes
and questions relating to organisation of labour, by A. KATSENELINBOICEN). Moscow, 1956, 143 pp.
69. — " ABTOnaTHsaiiHH npoHSBORCTBeHHUx npoqeccoB B MamHHocTpoeHHH H
opraHHaai^HH Tpyna" (Automation of production processes in the
metalworking industry and organisation of labour, by A. KATSENELINBOIGEN), CoifuojiucmuvecKuü mpyd, 1957, No. 1, pp. 9-17.
70. — " TexHHiecKHü nporpecc H ero BnHHHHe na KyjibTypno-TexHHiecKHii
ypoBCHb paOo^Hx " (Technological progress and its impact on the cultural and technical level of production workers, by A. KATSENELINBOIGEN), HayvHbte doKitadu Bwxueû UIKOAU. <I>nnoco(|iCKne HayKH,
1959, No. 4, pp. 14-22.
84
Appendix II
71. KAUEHEjiHHBOörEH, A. " BonpocH opraHHsauHH TpyAa npH aBTOMaiHaauHH
npoHSBOHCTBa " (Questions relating to organisation of labour under
automated production conditions, by A. KATSENELINBOIGEN), Coii.uajiucmuHecKuü mpyd, 1960, No. 11, pp. 76-80.
72. KjiEmEBA, P. A. " HaMeneHHe npo^eccHonajibHoro oÔJiHKa coBeTCKoro
paôoiero KJiacca B nepnoA paaBCpnyToro CTpoHTejibCTBa KOMMyimaMa "
(Changes in the occupational composition of the Soviet working class
at the stage of expanded construction of communism, by R. A. KLESHCHEVA), HayHHhie doKjiadhi Bucuteü UIKOJIU, OHJIOCO^CKHB uayKH, 1962,
No. 1, pp. 49-56.
78. KJIHMEHKO, K. " ABTOMaTHsauHH H TexHHqecKHM nporpecc" (Automation
and technological progress, by K. KLIMENKO), Bonpocu BKOHOMUKU,
1961, No. 9, pp. 14-22.
74. — " TexHHiecKHil nporpecc B nepHOA paaBepnyToro crpoHTeJiBCTBa KOMMyHHBMa" (Technological progress at the stage of expanded construction of communism, by K. KLIMENKO), Bonpocu BKOHOMUKU, 1959,
No. 6, pp. 3-13.
76. — H PAKOBCKHM, M. " TexHHKo-aKOHOMHiecKne npoöjieMu aBTOMaTnaauHH
npoHBBOACTBa B CCCP " (Technical and economic problems of automation
of production in the U.S.S.R., by K. KLIMENKO and M. RAKOVSKY),
KoMMynucm, 1956, No. 16, pp. 49-62.
76. KOFAH, JI. H. " Haymo-TexHiwecKHil nporpecc B CCCP H BCecropoHHee
pasBHTHe JiHHHOCTH paôoiero " (Scientific and technological progress
in the U.S.S.R. and the all-round development of the personalities of
production workers, by L. N. KoGKii),HayHHuedoKjiaduBhicmeûuiKOJihi.,
<I)HJioco(¡)CKHe nayKH, 1963, No. 4, pp. 28-36.
77. — " OHaHiecKHtt TpyA cÖJiHHtaeTCH c yMCTBenHHM " (Physical work is
growing closer to mental work, by L. N. KOGAN), Mojiodoü KOMMynucm,
1961, No. 1, pp. 63-68.
78. — H KHCEJIEBA, B. A. " TexHHiecKHil nporpecc B CCCP H jiHKBHAauHH
npo^eccHona^bHOit orpaHHiennocTH paôoiero " (Technological progress in the U.S.S.R. and liquidation of the occupational limits of
production workers, by L. N. KOGAN and V. A. KISELEVA), HaynHue
doKjiadbi Bbunueü tuKO/ibi, <I)HJioco$CKHe nayKH, 1960, No. 4, pp. 12-21.
79. KOMMyHHCTIWECKAH nAPTHH COBETCKOFO C0I03A: MamepUCUlU ««eOHfipednoeo XXI cbeada KIICC (Documents of the XXIst (extraordinary)
Congress of the C.P.S.U., published by the Communist Party of the
Soviet Union). Moscow, 1959, 259 pp.
80. — XXII Chead KoMMyHucmuHecKOÛ napmuu CoeemcKoso Coioaa, 17-31
oKinaópa 1961 e. CreHorpacjwiecKHíl oTqeT (Verbatim record of the
XXIInd Congress of the C.P.S.U., 17-31 October 1961, published by the
Communist Party of the Soviet Union). Moscow, 1962, Vol. Ill, 592 pp.
81. — HjienyM IJeHmpajibHoso KoMumema KoMMyHucmuHecKOÛ napmuu CoeemcKOzo Coioaa, 19-23 Hoaopa 1962 z. CTeHorpacjmiecKHÍl OTIOT (Verbatim
record of the Plenary Session of the Central Committee of the C.P.S.U.,
19-23 November 1962, published by the Communist Party of the
Soviet Union). Moscow, 1963, 606 pp.
82. KOPHHEHKO, B. I!. OóufecmeeHHoe paadejienue mpyda e nepuod nepexoda
K KOMMyuusMy (Social division of labour during the period of transition
to communism, by V. P. KORNIENKO). MOSCOW, HsAaTejibCTBO 9KOHOMHqecKoil JiHTepaTypH, 1963, 264 pp.
85
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
88. KVJIHKOBA, E. "TexHHHecKoe paa^ejienHe Tpyjia H uayMBbie OCHOBH
KjiaccHijJHKaiviH paôoHHx Ka^poB (na aBTOMaTHsnpoBaHHOM npennpHHTHH) " (Technological division of labour and the scientific basis
for classification of production workers in automated undertakings,
by E. KULTKOVA), CoifueMUcmutecKuü mpyd, 1962, No. 3, pp. 16-24.
84. JIEPMAH, A. T. OpeaHuaaifiiJi mpyda e aemoMamwtecKOM npouaeodcmee
(Organisation of work in automated production, by A. T. LEHMAN),
Moscow, 1955, 16 pp.
85. JIHBEPMAH, M. " HoBan TexHHKa H Bonpocu noAroTOBKH KaspoB"
(New technology and manpower training, by M. LIBERMAN), CoifuajiucmuHecKuä mpyd, 1960, No. 10, pp. 63-67.
86. JIbBOB, JJ,. " SnoHOMHHecKaH oqeuKa ypoBHett Mexannsaquii H aBTOMaTHsauHH npoHBBOACTBa " (Economic evaluation of levels of mechanisation and automation of production, by D. Lvov), Jl-nanoeoe xoanûcmeo,
1963, No. 12, pp. 12-19.
87. MAAOPCKAH, H., H HAHKHH, <I>. "CoBMemenne CTaHOHHHx H Hanaflonnux
paôoT" (Combining the functions of machine operator and tool setter,
by N. MATORSKAYA and F. CHAIKIN), Coi^ucuiucmwtecKuû mpyd, 1959,
No. 5, pp. 116-118.
88. MAKCAPEB, K). E. TexHunecKuü npoepecc e CCCP. 1959-1965 (Technological progress in the U.S.S.R., 1959-1965, by Y. E. MAKSAREV).
Moscow, 1960, 257 pp.
89. MAHEBHH, E. JI. "K Bonpocy o paaneneimH Tpy^a npn KOMMyHHSMe"
(Division of labour under communism, by E. L. MANEVICH), Bonpocu
9K0H0MUKU, 1964, No. 1, pp. 124-129.
90. — " O jiHKBHjiaiíHH pasJiHmttt Mesmy yMCTBennuM H ({¡HaimecKHM TpyaoM
B nepHOj; paaBepnyToro cipoHTCJibCTBa KOMMyHHSMa " (Elimination
of the differences between mental and physical work during the period
of expanded construction of communism, by E. L. MANEVICH), Bonpocu
^ujiocogSiíií, 1961, No. 9, pp. 15-28.
91. — Tpyd yjHcmeeHHuit u mpyd tfuauHecKuü e nepuod poaeepHymozo cmpoumeAbcmea KOMMyrnisMa (Mental work and physical work during the
period of expanded construction of communism, by E. L. MANEVICH).
Moscow, 1961, 48 pp.
92. MACJIHH, A. H. H OCHHOB, T. B. " CoeAHHemie yMCTBennoro [H (JnaHqecKoro Tpyaa — onna HS BaH<HellniHx aaflai CTpoHTejibCTBa KOMMyHHSMa'," (The fusion of mental and physical work : one of the essential
tasks in the construction of communism, by A. N. MASLIN and G. V. OsiPOV), Bonpocu (ßujioco(ßuu, 1961, No. 12, pp. 12-23.
93. MACJIOBA, H. " HmKenepHo-TexHimecKHe «agpu H TexHHiecKHft nporpecc " (Engineering and technical personnel and technological
progress, by N. MASLOVA), Bonpocu 3KOHOMUKU, 1960, No. 12, pp. 49-53.
94. MEPKHH, H. H JIOSHEBAH, M. "O IKWOTOBKO paöoinx uinpoKoro npoj)HJiH B MauiHHOCTpoeHHH " (Training of polyvalent production workers
in the metalworking industry, by N. MERKIN and M. LOZNEVAYA),
CotfuajiucmuHecKuä mpyd, 1962, No. 10, pp. 47-56.
95. MmibHEP, B. "O KjiaccH(|)HKai(HH BcnoMoraTenbHHx paôoT H paöoiHx
B MamHHocTpoeHHH " (Classification of auxiliary, jobs and auxiliary
production workers in the metalworking industry, by B. MILNER),
Tpyd u sapaóomnoH nnama, 1960, No. 5, pp. 24-29.
86
Appendix II
96. MHTAEB, B. "Ornpamie cymecTBeHHux paannquit newjiy yMCTBeHHtrM
. H $H3HHecKHM Tpy^OM B nepHOA paaBepHyroro CTpoHTejibCTBa KOMMyHHaMa" (Elimination of the essential differences between mental and
physical work during the period of expanded construction of communism, by V. MITAEV), HayHHbie doKjiadu ßucmeü tunoMi, 9KOHOMHneCKHe HayKH, 1961, No. 3, pp. 14-24.
97. MnymKHH, A. B. " CoiiHajiHCTHHecKan aBTOMaTnaaiiHH H BcecTOponnee
paaBHTHe JIHHHOCTH " (Socialist automation and all-round development of the individual, by A. B. MNUSHKIN), BecmnuK MOCKOSCKOZO
yHueepcumema, CepHH8,9KOHOMHKa,<I)HJioco$HH, lOôl.No. 3, pp. 34-36.
98. MOKPHH, M. " CoBepuieHCTBOBaTb opranHaauHio Tpy^a Ha pemoHTe aBTOmaTHHecKHx H noJiyaBTOMaTHHecKHx JIHHHA " (The need to improve
organisation of work in the maintenance of automated and semi-automated lines, by M. MOKRIN), Coi^ucuiucmwiecKuû ntpyd, 1963, No. 12,
pp. 86-89.
99. MOKPOHOCOB, r. B. "OcHOBHue nym crapaHMt coiíHaJibHHx rpanett tuernny
pa6oHHM KJiaccoM H HHTeJiJiHreimHeít B nepaoA paaBepnyToro crpoHTeJibCTBa K0MMyHH3Ma" (The principal methods of eliminating the social
dividing lines between the working class and the intelligentsia during
the period of expanded construction of communism, by G. V. MOKRONOSOV), Tpydbi VpaAbCKoeo nojiumexHmecKozo ynueepcumema, Sverdlovsk. Vol. 115, 1961, pp. 127-136.
100. MOCHPHH, C. H. TexHunecKuü npoepecc u paaeumue cßopM KOMMynucmulecKozo mpyda (Technological progress and development of the forms
of communist labour, by S. I. MOSYAGIN). Moscow, Ha^aTeJibCTBO BIIIII
H AOH npH LÍK KIICC, 1963, 95 pp.
101. MVIíHHOB, r. "CoBMemeHHe npo$eccHÍt H AonHtHOCTeít " (Combination
of occupations and functions, by G. MUTSINOV), Coeemcnue npocßcowau,
1964, No. 4, pp. 42-43.
102. HAAAEHOB, C. " CounajibHO-aKOHOMHHecKHe nocjieACTBH« TexHHHecKoro
nporpecca npn co^HaJIH3Me " (The socio-economic consequences of
technological progress under socialism, by S. NAIDENOV), Bonpocu
$UMCO$UU, 1960, No. 8, pp. 14-24.
108. "HacymHue Bonpocu op^aHHaa^HH Tpy^a B ycjiOBHHx HOBOK TexHHKH"
(Vital problems relating to organisation of work in the circumstances
of modern technology),(7oifiíajiiícmiívecKií£t mpi/9,1961,No. 12, pp. 13-44.
104. HAVMOB, JI. H. "HaMeneHHe xapaKTepa Tpy^a pa6oHnx B npouecce
coawaHHH MaTepnaJibHO-TexHiwecKoil 6aau KOMMyHHama" (Changes in
the character of production workers' jobs during the creation of the
material and technological basis of communism, by L. N. NAUMOV),
HaytHue doKjiadu Bucmeü «IKOJIM, <I)Hnoco$CKHe nayKH, 1962, No. 4,
pp. 13-22.
106. HAyHHO-HCCJIEAOBATEJIbCKHÍl HHCTHTyT TPyflA KOMHTETA HO BOHPOCAM
TPVAA H aAPABOTHOÍt nnATH. MemoduKa paapaôomKu Hopjmmueoe no
mpydy (Methods of preparing labour norms, published by the Labour
Research Institute of the State Labour and Wages Committee). Moscow,
1963, 71 pp.
106. EduHuü mapwßHOKeajiucßuKaicuoHHbiü cnpaeonnuK paóotux. CneosHtM
npocßeccuu (Consolidated wage and skill schedule for production workers.
General occupations, published by the Labour Research Institute of
the State Labour and Wages Committee). Moscow, 1959, 671 pp.
87
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
107. HHKOJibCKAH, E. C. " TexHHHecKHit nporpecc H npeo^onenHe cymeCTBeHHHx paanHiHit Mewjiy yMCTBeHHHM H ^usHiecKHM TpyjioM "
(Technological progress and elimination of the essential differences
between mental and physical labour, by E. S. NIKOLSKAYA), BecmnuK
MocKoecKoeo ynueepcumema, CepHH 8, SKOHOMHKa, OHIIOCO$HH, 1960,
No. 5, pp. 3-15.
108. OHHK, fl. F. (pefl.) — JIpoÓMMU opzanusav^uu npouaeodcmea u mpyda.
MaTepHanu MeJKÄynapoÄHOtt KOH$epeHUHH HHCTHTyTOB H opramiBauHtt
eBponettCKHX couHanHCTHiecKHX crpan, BanHMawmnxcH BonpocaMH
3KOHOMHKH H opraHH3auHH npoHSBOÄCTBa. Bapuiasa, Hwnb 1962 ro^a
(Problems relating to organisation of production and work, edited
by D. G. ONIK. Documents of the international conference of institutes and organisations in the European socialist countries dealing
with questions of economics and organisation of production, Warsaw,
July 1962). Moscow, Ha^aTenbCTBO SKOHOMHiecKott HHTepaTypu, 1963,
260 pp.
109. OCHHOB, A., KOBAHEHKO, H. H IIETPOB, E. CoeemcKuû paóoHuü u aemoMamusamm (The Soviet production worker and automation, by
A. OSIPOV, I. KOVALENKO and E. PETROV). MOSCOW, 1960, 216 pp.
110. IIETPOB, A. H. Kypc anoHOMuHecnoü cmamucmuKu (Manual ol economic
statistics, by A. I. PETROV). MOSCOW, 1954, 564 pp.
111. IIETPOB, B. H JIHBEPMAH, M. " HoBoe B npo^eccHonaiibHO-TexHHiecKOM
ooyieuHH paBoiHx" (New departures in the vocational and technical
training of production workers, by V. PETROV and M. LIBERMAN),
CoijuajiucmuHecKuü mpyd, I960, No. 3, pp. 29-33.
112. IIETPOB, H. H. "Orpaue —cneunanHCTOB mnpoKoro npo^HUH (06 yieöHux nnanax no aBTOMaTHaauHH nponsBOÄCTBa) " (The country needs
polyvalent specialists: automation syllabus, by 1.1. PETROV),-Becmnii«
Buctueü tuKOAbi, 1963, No. 9, pp. 11-15.
113. nonoaoB, B.P. "IlepcneKTHBHoenjiaHnpoBanHenoRroTOBKHHHJKenepHOTexHHiecKHx KímpoB na npoMumneHHux npeRnpHHTKHx " (Long-term
planning of the training of engineers and technicians in industrial
undertakings, by V. R. POLOZOV), YneHue sanucnu Jlenumpadcttozo
ynueepcumema. CepHH SKOHOMHieCKHX nayK. Leningrad, No. 293,
Bulletin 3, 1960, pp. 43-63.
114. IIOUHKOB, H. " Bonpocbi Tpy^a B MCTHBHOM npoH3BOÄCTBe " (Labour
questions in the metalworking industry, by I. POLYAKOV), CoifuajiucmunecKuü mpyd, 1958, No. 1, pp. 51-59.
115. IIOHOMAPEBA, H. P. "O HCKOTOpiIX TeHÄBHUHHX HBMCHeHHH KaiecTBeHHoro
cocTaBa coBOKynnott paßoiett CHUU B npoMumjieHHOCTH CCCP " (Trends
of changes in the industrial skills pattern in the U.S.S.R., by I. G. PONOMAREVA), BecmnuK Jlenumpadcttoeo ynueepcumema, CepHH 3KOHOMHKH,
$HIIOCO$HH H npaBa, Bulletin No. 3, 1961, pp. 15-24.
116. ÜPOKonoBHi, A. E. "PaaBHTne KOMnneKcnott Mexannaai^HH H aBTOMaTHsauHH B MauiHHocTpoeHHH " (Development of integrated mechanisation
and automation in the metalworking industry, by A. E. PROKOPOVICH),
Mexanusav^us, u aemoMamu3ay.ua npouseodcmea, 1961, No. 2, pp. 1-8.
117. IlyHCKHit, fl. "IlyTH coBepmeHCTBOBaHHH MeTOÄOB HopMHpoBaHHH Tpyjia
na npeflnpHHTHHx MauiHHOCTpoeHHH " (Ways ol improving norm-setting
methods in metalworking undertakings, by Y. PUNSKY), CoifuajiucmuHecKuü mpyd, 1959, No. 8, pp. 76-84.
Appendix II
118. PArvaoB, B. "O KaiecTBe npo^eccHoHajiBHO-TeximqecKoro oöyieHHH
paôoHHx" (The quality of vocational and technical training tor production workers, by V. RAGUZOV), Coi^uajiucmwtecKuü mpyd, 1960,
No. 11, pp. 68-74.
118. PEBSHH, A. " IIoKaaaTeJiH ypoBHH MexaHH3ai<HH H aBT0MaTH3ai(HH npoHSBORCTBa B ManiHHocTpoeHHH " (Indices of the level of mechanisation
and automation in the metalworking industry, by A. REVZIN), BecmnuK
cmamucmuKii, 1961, No. 11, pp. 38-45.
120. PoroB, B. II. " JlHKBHjiaiiHH Tumenoro pyinoro Tpyjia B npoMumnennocTH
JlaTBHÍicKoít CCP " (Elimination of strenuous manual labour in
industry in the Latvian S.S.R., by V. P. ROGOV), MexaHuaai^un u
aemoMamuaaiçuH npouaeodcmea, 1962, No. 11, pp. 52-55.
121. PoflpiirEc, X. " HaMenemiH B xapaKTepe H coflepîKaHHB Tpy^a CTanoHHHKOB noTOHHtrx jiHHHÍl H [TpeôoBaHHH K Hx noflroTOBKe " (Changes in
the character and content of work performed by machine operators on
flow lines and their training requirements, by K. RODRIGES), CoifuajiucmuHecKuü mpyd, 1962, No. 10, pp. 63-67.
122. — "0 noflroTOBKe paßoinx jwm aBTOMaTmecKHX JIHHHM " (Training of
production workers for automated lines, by K. RODRIGES), CoifuajiucmunecKuii mpyd, 1961, No. 7, pp. 54-59.
123. — H Byji, C. (PopMupoeanue paóotux muponoso npo<ßuJui (Training
of broad-profile production workers, by K. RODRIGES and S. VUL).
Moscow, aKOHOMHBÄaT, 1964, 132 pp.
124. P03HH, B. H TEHIDMAH, P. "06 HCnOJIBSOBaHHH MaTCMaTHMeCKHX MeTOflOB
H CMeTHO-BUMHCIIHTe«I.HI>IX MaiUHH B TeXHHKO-HOpMHpOBOMHOtt pa60Te "
(The use of mathematical methods and computers in establishing
technological norms, by B. ROZIN and R. GEIFMAN), Coi^ucuiucmuHecKuü
mpyd, 1960, No. 10, pp. 83-92.
126. PycAHOB, E. C. "O BJIHHHHH TexHHiecKoro nporpecca ua CTpyKTypy
saHHTOCTH H KaiecTBo Tpyna" (The impact of technological progress
on the structure of employment and the quality of work, by E. S. RUSANOV), CoifuaJibHO-SKOHOMUvecKue npoójwMu mexHUHecKOBO npozpecca.
Moscow, AKafleMHH nayn CCCP, 1961, pp. 293-302.
126. CAMBOPCKHH, F. H. AemoMamuaaifua, ucnei^uajiiiaaicua e npoMutujieHHOcmu
CCCP (Automation and specialisation in industry in the U.S.S.R.,
by G. I. SAMBORSKY). MOSCOW, 1964, 216 pp.
127. CATEJIB, 9. "ABTOMaTHaaqHHBMauiHHOCTpoeHHHCTaBHTHOBBienpoßneMBi"
(Automation in the metalworking industry poses new problems, by
E. SATEL), Coi+uaMicmuHecKuu mpyd, 1960, No. 8, pp. 60-64.
128. CEBACTBHHOBA, M. H. (peff.) OnpedeAenue ypoeHa Mexanuaai^uu npouaeodcmea u paapaoomna njiana AUKeudai^uu mnotcejiozo pynnoeo mpyda
(Onum coenapxoea JlameuücKOÜ CCP) (Determination of the level of
mechanisation of production and preparation of plans to eliminate
strenuous physical labour (Experience in the sovnarkhoz of the Latvian
S.S.R.), edited by M. I. SEVASTYANOVA). MOSCOW, 1963, 56 pp.
129. CEMEHOBA, M.H ^VEKOB, F. "OnpeflSJieHHe iHcneHHOCTH BcnoMoraTCJiBHUX paôoHHx" (Determination of the numbers of auxiliary workers,
by M. SEMYONOVA and G. DUBKOV), CoifucumcmuHecnutí mpyd, 1962,
No. 2, pp. 93-95.
Technical Change and Manpower in the U.S.S.R.
180. CHTOB, H. "PasHeJieHHe H nepeMena ipyaa np« nepexo^e K KOMMyHHSMy"
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90
Appendix n
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91