Review sheet for the material covered by exam II
WARNING: Like last time, I have tried to be complete, but I may have missed something.
You are responsible for all the material discussed in class. This is only a guide.
1) Cell function I
What is energy? What are the two kinds of energy? Make sure you can give examples of each.
What are the laws of thermodynamics? What do we mean when we say energy can not be
destroyed?
What is the difference between usable and unusable energy?
Where does all our energy (on earth) ultimately come from?
What is chemical energy? Be familiar with the following terms: endergonic, exergonic,
anabolic, and catabolic.
Which of these terms would you use to describe making glucose?
What is cellular metabolism?
What is ATP? What is it made up of? What is the ATP cycle? What is ADP? What is
phosphorylation?
What three kinds of work can we use ATP for? Where does the energy for making ATP
come from.
What is an enzyme? What is a catalyst? What is the difference (if any)?
What is the energy of activation? What is the substrate? active site? product?
What happens to the shape of the enzyme when it attaches to the substrate?
Make sure you understand the example we gave in class (sucrase).
What do we mean when we say an enzyme can be denatured? How can enzymes be denatured?
What are co-factors? Co-enzymes? How can enzymes be inhibited? What is the difference
between non-competitive and competitive inhibitors? What can be done to minimize the effects
of a competitive inhibitor? Make sure you are familiar with the examples of inhibitors (mostly
poisons) we gave in class.
What else can affects the speed with which enzymes carry out reactions?
2) Cell function II
What are membranes? What do they do? How do they do it? What are membranes composed
of?
What is the fluid mosaic model? What is a phospholipid bilayer? What other molecules make
up the membrane?
- What functions do membrane proteins have (there's a bunch here (some given below))?
- What do carbohydrates do? What are glycoproteins? glycolipids?
- What is signal transduction? How do proteins aid in transport? In anchoring cells? In
facilitating enzyme function?
What is diffusion? Osmosis? What do the following terms mean: hypotonic, hypertonic,
isotonic? If a cell is in a hypertonic solution, does water move in or out of the cell?
What affects diffusion? What caused diffusion to speed up? Slow down?
What is a semi-permeable membrane?
What can cause a cell to implode? Explode? Why do organisms need the correct water
balance?
How can substances which can not move across the phospholipid bilayer move across
the cell membrane?
How can transport proteins speed up movement? What is facilitated diffusion?
What is active transport? How is it different from diffusion or osmosis? Why does it require
ATP?
What about larger molecules? How can a cell get rid of or take up larger molecules? What is
exocytosis? Endocytosis? Phagocytosis? Pinocytosis? Receptor mediated endocytosis?
3) Cellular respiration
What is the basic equation for cellular respiration? How does oxygen get into the cells? What
do lungs do?
What is a calorie? A kilocalorie? (Incidentally, be aware that the calorie content on food is
actually “kilocalories”.)
What is the efficiency of converting energy from a molecule of sugar into ATP (efficiency, not
how many ATP's we get?
What is oxidation? Reduction? What role do electrons play in this? Hydrogen atoms? Why
do we always have oxidation and reduction in the same reaction?
What happens to NAD+ when it is reduced? What happens to NADH when it is oxidized?
What is the electron transport chain? What ultimately accepts electrons? What does the
sequence of proteins do?
- What role does NADH play in the electron transport chain? What happens to the H in
NADH?
- Make sure you understand the overheads describing the formation of NADH and the
electron transport chain. What is the role of hydrogen ions?
What is chemiosmosis? How can chemiosmosis make ATP? What is the role of hydrogen ions
in chemiosmosis? What is ATP synthase? What happens to ADP?
What is substrate level phosphorylation? How is it different from chemiosmosis? Which is
more important (more common)?
What are all the steps in going from sugar to ATP?
What is glycolysis - what do we need to do to get the process started? How many ATP's
does glycolysis produce? How many net ATP's glycolysis produce (make sure you
know the difference). What about NADH?
What is the end product of glycolysis? What happens to this? What other substances
are made between the end of gycolysis and the beginning of the Krebs cycle.
What is the Krebs cycle? What enters the Krebs cycle? What exits the Krebs cycle?
What does the Krebs cycle make? How many NADH's? FADH2's? ATP's? Why is it
called a “cycle”?
What role does the electron chain play in this process? Chemiosmosis?
What poisons can interfere with this process? How do they work?
How many total ATP's does cellular respiration produce? Where do they all come from
(i.e., which parts of cellular respiration actually makes these ATP's?)
- How many ATP's can NADH make? FADH2?
What is fermentation? Does it always make alcohol? What is the difference between
strict and facultative anaerobes?
- What is yeast fermentation? What products are made?
- What kind of fermentation do your muscle cells do? What products do they
make?
- What is our best guess about the cause of muscle soreness?
Can we use other molecules, other than sugar for respiration? How? What happens to fats (or
lipids)? Proteins? How are proteins used?
How can we make proteins? Carbohydrates? Lipids? Other complicated molecules? Does this
require energy? Where does this energy come from?
What is photosynthesis? Where does all biological energy come from? What does all life on
the planed depend on? What is the equation for photosynthesis? What does photosynthesis
require?
4) Mitosis
What is sexual reproduction? Asexual reproduction? What are the differences? What are some
examples of each?
Where does an asexual organism get it's chromosomes from? A sexual organism?
What is “spontaneous generation”? What are daughter cells?
How do prokaryotes reproduce? What is binary fission? How many chromosomes do
prokaryotes have?
What is chromatin? About how many genes do humans have? Where are these genes? How
many chromosomes do humans have?
What is a chromosome? Chromatid? What is the difference? What is a duplicated
chromosome? Centromere? When are chromosomes duplicated?
What is the cell cycle? What is interphase, and what happens during interphase? What is G1,
G0, S, G2 ? What is mitosis? Cytokinesis? How accurate is mitosis?
What are the steps in mitosis? What happens during each phase? Know the details of what is
going on with the chromosomes, spindles, centrioles, centrosomes, kinetochores and
centromeres during the following phases:
- prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.
- incidentally, what do all these parts do during interphase?
What is cytokineses? During what phase does this usually occur? Does it always occur during
this phase? How is cytokineses different in animals in plants? Why?
What factors control cell division? What is anchorage dependence? What is density dependent
inhibition? What role does growth factor play?
What are checkpoints? Where are these checkpoints? Why do we have these checkpoints?
What is the role of growth factor? Signal transduction?
What happens when the checkpoints don't work? What is a tumor? Cancer? How can cells
spread from a tumor to the rest of the body?
How are cancers named? How can cancers be further subdivided (i.e., what are
sarcomas, carcinomas, leukemias, lymphomas)?
Why do cancers occur? What usually keeps cells from dividing out of control? What is
the role of the immune system? growth factor? checkpoints?
How can cancers be treated?
5) Meiosis
Briefly, how does meiosis differ from mitosis? Why do we have meiosis? How many cells
result from meiosis? mitosis?
What is a homologous pair? How many chromosomes do humans have? How many pairs do
humans have? What kind of information is carried on chromosomes? What kind of
information is carried on homologous pairs? Is the information on homologous chromosomes
identical (are homologous chromosomes identical)? Why or why not? Explain.
What is a somatic cell? What are autosomes? Sex chromosomes? What is the difference? Do
all organisms control sex with sex chromosomes?
- What are gametes? How many chromosomes do gametes have? How do gametes get
back to a full set of chromosomes?
- What is diploid? Haploid? What do we mean by “n”? “2n”?
- What process makes gametes?
What is meiosis I? Meiosis II?
- Again, make sure you know what happens during each phase of both meiosis I and
meiosis II: prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I, interphase (if present),
prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II.
- How are all these different from the phases in mitosis?
- Again, make sure you know what happens to the chromosomes, centrioles,
spindles, cell membranes, etc. during each of the phases.
- What is so critical about meiosis I. Why is metaphase I so critical to
understanding the formation of gametes and mendelian genetics?
- Why does this phase scramble chromosomes?
- How can this step (metaphase I) yield 8,388,608 different gametes?
- Incidentally, how many gametes can we make if we have 2 pairs of
homologous chromosomes? Three pairs?
- How many different possible offspring can a pair of humans (say, husband and
wife) make? Why?
- What is the role of crossing over in all of this? How can one crossing over
event double the number of gametes that can be produced?
- Make sure you understand that genes (and alleles) are carried on
chromosomes, and how they are located on chromosomes (i.e., what is a
loci). If you don't understand this, a lot of Mendelian genetics simply
won't make sense.
- Be able to describe crossing over and how it occurs.
What is Karyotyping? How can we get a karyotype? Make sure you understand how we can go
from white blood cells to a karyotype (i.e., understand all the steps and how they work).
- What genetic defects can we detect with karyotyping? What else can we tell about a
person by looking at a person's karyotype?
- What is Down's syndrome? What genetic defects can occur in the sex chromosomes?
Do they always cause symptoms? In which cases do they cause symptoms, and what are
these symptoms? What names do these conditions have?
- What is a risk factor for Down's syndrome?
- What is non-disjunction? When can it occur? What happens to the gametes that
result? What happens during fertilization? What about the resulting zygote?
- What are breakages? Deletions? Duplications? Inversions? Which of these can cause
serious problems? Why or why not?
- What is a translocation? What can happen as a result of a translocation? Give an
example in humans.
6) Mendelian genetics
- Why do we call this section “Mendelian” genetics?
- Who was Gregor Mendel? What did he do? What was he trained in? (Know the
basics about Mendel, as presented in class).
- What organism did Mendel study? What characteristics of this organism did he examine?
- How did Mendel come to his conclusions? What do P, F1, and F2 mean?
- What four hypotheses did Mendel develop? Make sure you understand these. How can these
be used to explain Mendel's results?
- How do we get purple flowers in F1 when we start with pure breeding purple and white
parents?
- How do we get 3 purple to 1 white flower when we cross these F1 offspring?
- Again, what do Mendel's four hypothesis have to do with this? How do they explain
this?
- What is dominant? recessive? heterozygous? homozygous? phenotype? genotype?
- Obviously, you need to know what alleles and genes are to explain any of this.
- If P = purple and p = white, what would Pp look like? PP? pp?
- How many gametes can an individual flower make that is PP? pp? Pp?
- How can we use this to figure out the number of different kinds of offspring that can
result? What is a Punnet square and how can we use it to answer the last question?
- What is a phenotype ratio? A genotype ratio? How are they different? Can we figure
out the phenotype from the genotype? The genotype from the phenotype? Explain.
- What do we mean when we say Mendel “cheated” a bit?
- Where are these alleles? What is a gene loci? (you should know this from the section on
meiosis).
- Suppose we look at two traits at the same time.
- If we start with a pure breeding P generation (e.g., YYRR x yyrr), what do we get in
F1? What do we get in F2?
- What do we need to know before we can answer the question about F2?
- Answer: we need to know whether or not the genes for Y (or y) and R
(or r) are on the same Chromosome or on different chromosomes.
- if Y and y are two different colors and R and r two different
textures (Y dominant to y, R dominant to r), what we are saying is
that we need to know if the genes for color and texture are on the
same or different chromosomes.
- If they are on different chromosomes, what do we expect in F2? If they are on
the same chromosomes, what do we expect in F2? (What ratios do we expect?
Why?)
- What is the “law if independent assortment”? When is it true?
- Know how coat colors in Labradors work.
- How do Mendel's hypothesis explain two traits at a time?
- What is a testcross? How can we use a testcross to determine whether or not an individual
organism is homozygous or heterozygous? Why would we want to do this?
- You don't need to know anything about probability except that it's another way of solving
genetics problems.
- What are some simple human genetic traits that follow a dominant/recessive realtionship?
- Finally, is a dominant allele always more common?