Lecture (4)
Introduction: key concepts in stylistics
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Page (38) Cognitive models in and for stylistic analysis
Stylistics focus on the methods of compositional technique has tended
to make stylistics writerly in its general theoretical orientation.
However, what has largely been missing from this approach has
been any account of the mental processes that inform, and are
affected by, the way we read and interpret literary texts. Stylistics
has in other words lacked a readerly dimension.
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Page (40) Cognitive models in and for stylistic analysis
what an analysis of discourse would not account for is the way we are
able to store a mental picture of a ‘things’ which can be activated for
the understanding of this utterance in context.
This mental picture develops out of past experience of such places,
experience gathered either through direct contact or through indirect
sources.
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Page (40) Cognitive models in and for stylistic analysis
Pub
 Could I have a pint of lager, please?
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Page (40) Cognitive models in and for stylistic analysis
Mosque
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Schema theory and discourse deviation
Schema theory is an umbrella term covering a range of individual
cognitive models at the heart of which are situated the core concept
schema and the attendant concepts frame, scenario and script.
a script (and by imputation a schema) is a chunk of knowledge which
describes ‘a predetermined, stereotyped sequence of actions that
defines a well-known situation’ (Schank and Abelson 1977: 41).
Scripts are expectation-based, preexisting knowledge stores, but
they are also subject to modification in the course of an individual
subject’s experience and development.
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Schema theory and discourse deviation
Mosque
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there is more to comprehending a
discourse than knowing the words on
the page,
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attempts to provide theoretical models
that can explain the ways in which our
knowledge of the world guides our
efforts to comprehend a discourse ..
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work has been carried out by
researchers in the field of artificial
intelligence to develop programs that
will enable computers to comprehend
and produce natural discourse.
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Human memory consists of sets of stereotypical
situations, or 'frames‘, which are constructed out of
our past experiences.
These provide a framework which we use to make
sense of new experiences.
e.g. _ going to the doctor
_ buying a car
_ planning a wedding party
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
One major problem is that it provides no
explanation of why one frame might be selected
rather than another.
Recession or no recession, retailers were preparing
yesterday for the expected onslaught of thousands of
bargain hunters. Shops around the country were getting
ready to open their doors for the first day of traditional
after-Christmas clearance sales, with one large retail
chain already predicting record trading levels.
(The Australian, Friday 27 December 1991)
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a 'recession' frame, ?
a 'Christmas' frame, ?
an 'economy' frame, ?
a 'shopping' frame, ?
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the more text one has, the greater the chance of
selecting the appropriate frame, and often, as
listener or reader, we have to reserve judgement
for some time until we have enough information to
make a choice.
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the knowledge we carry around in our heads is
organized into interrelated patterns.
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These interrelated patterns are constructed from all
our previous experiences and they enable us to
make predictions about future experience.
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meaning does not come neatly pre-packaged in
aural and written texts.
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texts are little more than elaborate 'signposts' to the
speaker or writer's original meanings,
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the reader or listener must use his or her linguistic
and content knowledge to reconstruct the original
meanings of the creator of the discourse.
Schema
• two dimensions or levels to any
given discourse:
1. Systematic level: includes the
reader or listener's linguistic
knowledge
2. Schematic level: relates to
background content knowledge
• In making sense of a given piece of
discourse, we try and match our
own schematic knowledge with that
of the writer or speaker.
the importance of interpretation to
comprehension
we use procedure of interpretation to supply
meanings that do not actually appear in the
discourse itself.
the importance of interpretation to comprehension
we use procedure of interpretation to supply meanings
that do not actually appear in the discourse itself.
The case of cohesive devices
references
[antecedent]
[reference]
I saw John yesterday. He gave me his hat.
the importance of interpretation to
comprehension
Statistical probability was discovered in a teapot. A
postman saw it there and connected in to a petrol
pump. He was wearing silk pyjamas at the time. They
were old and dusty.
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

it  Statistical probability
there  teapot
He  postman
NO
DIFFICULTY
the importance of interpretation to
comprehension
Statistical probability was discovered in a teapot. A
postman saw it[1] and connected it[2] to a petrol pump.
It[3] was old and dusty.
MORE
DIFFICULTY
1.
2.
3.
it  Statistical probability , teapot
it teapot, Statistical probability
it teapot, a petrol pump
the importance of interpretation to
comprehension
Statistical probability was discovered in a teapot. A
postman rinsed it[1] out. He has no idea what it[2] was
of course.
appeal to our knowledge of the world
1. it  teapot
2. It Statistical probability
NO
DIFFICULTY
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Schema theory and discourse deviation
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that restaurant
(1) Cafe. Chorus of kitchen cafe menu sounds and phrases.
EDDY: One coffee please and croissant and butter.
WAITRESS: Right. Cream?
EDDY: Please.
(. . .)
(2) EDDY: Where’s my fucking coffee? I’ve nearly finished this cheesecake
and then my whole purpose in life at this particular
moment will be lost. I’ll be drinking hot coffee with nothing
to wash it down with.
WAITRESS: Here you are, sorry I forgot you!
EDDY: About fucking time!
WAITRESS: Oh shut your mouth, you complaining heap of rat’s shit.
(Berkoff 1983: 35f)
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Page (42) Metaphor
Metaphors are not some kind of distorted literal thought,
but rather are basic schemes by which people
conceptualise their experience and their external world.
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Page (43) Metaphor
Writers consciously strive for novelty in literary expression
and this requires developing not only new conceptual
mappings but also new stylistic frameworks through
which these mappings can be presented.
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Examples of Conceptual Metaphors
•A PROBLEM IS A BODY OF
WATER
•ANGER IS HEAT
•BELIEFS ARE FASHIONS
•BELIEFS ARE GUIDES
•COMPETITION IS A RACE
•DESIRE IS HUNGER
•EMOTIONS ARE FORCES
•FEAR IS COLD
•HOPE IS LIGHT
•IDEAS ARE FOOD
•IDEAS ARE LIGHT SOURCES
•IDEAS ARE OBJECTS
•INTELLIGENCE IS A LIGHT
SOURCE
•LIGHT IS A FLUID
•LOVE IS MAGIC
•LUST IS HEAT
•MORALITY IS PURITY
•PEOPLE ARE PLANTS
•PEOPLE ARE MACHINES
•SOCIETY IS A BODY
•THE MIND IS A BODY
•THEORIES ARE CONSTRUCTED OBJECTS
•TIME IS A CONTAINER (BOUNDED)
•WORDS ARE WEAPONS
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Examples of Conceptual Metonyms
• PART FOR WHOLE+ (all hands on deck)
• WHOLE FOR PART+ (to fill up the car)
• CONTAINER FOR CONTENT+ (I'll have a glass)
• MATERIAL FOR OBJECT+ (a glass, an iron)
• PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT+ (have a Lowenbrau, buy a Ford)
• PLACE FOR INSTITUTION+ (talks between Washington and Moscow)
• PLACE FOR EVENT+ (Watergate changed our politics)
• CONTROLLED FOR CONTROLLER+ (the buses are on strike)
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Metaphor and style
The following poem is by the Liverpudlian poet Roger McGough:
A HUMAN RELATIONSHIP
IS A GAME OF SPORT.
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Metaphor development
Extending and elaboration (Kövecses 2002: 48).
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Extending a metaphor means expressing it through
linguistic resources which introduce new conceptual
elements from the source domain.
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Elaboration involves capturing an existing component of
the source domain in an unusual or unconventional way.
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Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts
1) Downing Street is thought to be furious over the International Development
Secretary’s radio interview.
(from British newspaper, The Guardian 2003)
2) I have other irons in the fire but I am keeping them close to my chest.
(British football manager discussing his plans for the forthcoming season)
3) My luve is like a red, red rose
That’s newly sprung in June:
My luve is like the melodie
That’s sweetly played in tune.
(from a song by Robbie Burns)
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Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts
4) Top rod for the day was visiting angler Mr. Simpson who had eight trout
(Angling Reports Wales; Tallylyn)
5) When the evening is spread out against the sky
Like a patient etherised upon a table
(from ‘The Long Song of J. Alfred Prufrock’ by T. S. Eliot)
6) Houllier targets £13m Cissé. Gérard Houllier has reacted to Liverpool’s
costly failure to qualify for the Champions’ League by pledging to lure the
France International striker Djibril Cissé. The Liverpool manager is also
preparing to swoop on Blackburn Rovers’ Damien Duff . . .
(from British newspaper, The Guardian 2003))
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Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts
7) When the still sea conspires an armor
And her sullen and aborted
Currents breed tiny monsters . . .
(from ‘Horse Latitudes’ by Jim Morrison of rock band The Doors
8) Of course, with the Soviets’ launch of Sputnik, the Americans had been
Pearl Harbored in space.
(Arthur C. Clarke, interviewed in 2001)
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Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts
9) Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,
And by opposing end them?
(from Hamlet by William Shakespeare)
10) The exercises developed in this sub-unit are more an appetiser than a
main course.
(the first sentence of a sub-unit in your textbook)
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Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts
Instructions
A. For each of 1–10, decide whether the example represents metonymy or
metaphor. If you are in doubt, you should apply the ‘simile test’ which was
set out in A11.
B. Specify which type of associated concept is the vehicle of the metonymy.
For example, is the metonymy based on a part-for-whole relationship, a
locationfor-institution relationship, or on a more contingent ‘one-off’
connection between the associated concepts?
C. Specify the source domain and the target domain for the metaphor. Follow
this procedure even if there is more than one metaphor in the example.
(Remember, the same target domain may be mapped through different
source domains.)
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Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts
1) Downing Street is thought to be furious over the
International Development Secretary’s radio
interview.
(from British newspaper, The Guardian 2003)
THE PLACE FOR THE INSTITUTION
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Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts
2) I have other irons in the fire but I am keeping them
close to my chest.
(British football manager discussing his plans for the forthcoming season)
THE CHEST (HEART) IS THE CONTAINER (OF
SECRETS)
PLANNING IS WORKING IN A BLACKSMITH’S
WORKSHOP
(Describing a blacksmith working on several pieces at
the same time.)
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Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts
3) My luve is like a red, red rose
That’s newly sprung in June:
My luve is like the melodie
That’s sweetly played in tune.
(from a song by Robbie Burns)
Concretisation: LOVE IS A PLANT
Novel metaphor: LOVE IS A MELODY
arrangement of single notes to form a satisfying
sequence.
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Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts
4) Top rod for the day was visiting angler Mr. Simpson
who had eight trout
(Angling Reports Wales; Tallylyn)
A PRIZE IS A PERSON
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Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts
5) When the evening is spread out against the sky
Like a patient etherised upon a table
(from ‘The Long Song of J. Alfred Prufrock’ by T. S. Eliot)
Concretisation: TIME (EVENING) IS A PERSON
Novel metaphor: EVENING IS A PATIENT
Novel metaphor: THE SKY IS A (SURGERY) TABLE
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Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts
6) Houllier targets £13m Cissé.
Gérard Houllier has reacted to Liverpool’s costly
failure to qualify for the Champions’ League by
pledging to lure the France International striker
Djibril Cissé. The Liverpool manager is also
preparing to swoop on Blackburn Rovers’ Damien
Duff . . .
(from British newspaper, The Guardian 2003))
Concretisation: COMPETITION IS HUNTING
Novel metaphor: FOOTBALLERS TRANSFER IS
BIRD HUNTING
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Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts
7) When the still sea conspires an armor
And her sullen and aborted
Currents breed tiny monsters . . .
(from ‘Horse Latitudes’ by Jim Morrison of rock band The Doors
Novel metaphor: THE SEA IS A (FEMALE) PERSON
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Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts
8) Of course, with the Soviets’ launch of Sputnik, the
Americans had been Pearl Harbored in space.
(Arthur C. Clarke, interviewed in 2001)
THE PLACE FOR THE EVENT
Novel metaphor: SPACE RACE IS A CONFLICT
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Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts
9) Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,
And by opposing end them?
(from Hamlet by William Shakespeare)
Novel metaphor: FORUNE IS A WARRIOR
Novel metaphor: TROUBLES ARE UNCONTROLLABLE NATURAL
PHENOMENA \ TROUBLES IS AN ARMY
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Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts
10) The exercises developed in this sub-unit are more
an appetiser than a main course.
(the first sentence of a sub-unit in your textbook)
Concretisation: IDEAS ARE FOOD
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Page (45) Puns and verbal play
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humour requires an incongruity.
the concept applies more generally to
(i)
any kind of stylistic twist in a pattern of language
(ii) any situation where there is a mismatch between what
someone says and what they mean.
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The stylistic analysis of humour therefore involves
identifying an incongruity in a text and pinpointing
whereabouts in the language system it occurs.
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Page (45) Puns and verbal play
A pun is a form of word-play in which some feature of
linguistic structure simultaneously combines two
unrelated meanings.
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Page (45) Puns and verbal play
“I [The British PM] cannot ask the Queen to break the
law.” ... He [The French Ambassador] smiled. “I do not
want the Queen to break the law, I merely ask the Prime
Minister to bend it.”
(A Diplomatic Incident, 350)
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Page (45) Parody and satire
Parody and satire are forms of verbal humour which draw
on a particular kind of irony for the design of their stylistic
incongruity.
Irony is situated in the space between what you say and
what you mean, as embodied in an utterance like ‘You’re
a fine friend!’ when said to someone who has just let you
down.