ISSN 1554-3897
African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies: AJCJS, Vol.5, #s1 &2
ROLE OF TOBACCO PROMOTIONS ON SMOKING1
George Thomas, Ph.D.2
&
Rani George, Ph.D.3
Abstract
The major goal of the study was to examine the impact of tobacco promotions on
smoking among African American college students. The study was conducted among
undergraduate students (N=257) and incoming freshmen (N=287) in a Historically Black
University. The variables in this study include gender, membership in athletic teams;
membership in Greek organizations; staying in residence halls; tobacco promotion,
cigarette smoking among family members; and cigarette smoking among close friends.
Results of the logistic regression analyses indicate that predictors vary with the status of
the students (undergraduates versus incoming freshmen) and nature of smoking (lifetime
versus current smoking). The results of this study show that tobacco promotion is a
statistically significant predictor of smoking among African American college students
and that tobacco promotion has a more pronounced impact on current smoking than lifetime smoking.
Key Words: smoking; African American; historically black colleges and universities;
tobacco promotions
1
Acknowledgement: Funding for this study was made possible by grant # 5P20MD0001085 from the
National Center on Minority Health and Health Disparities through a Faculty Development Award at
Albany State University. The views expressed in this manuscript by the authors do not necessarily reflect
the official policies of the Department of Health and Human Services; nor does mention of trade names,
commercial practices, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.
2
Professor, Department of Criminal Justice and Forensic Sciences, Albany State University,
[email protected]
3
Professor, College Education, Albany State University, [email protected]
19
ROLE OF TOBACCO PROMOTIONS ON SMOKING by Thomas and George
Role of Tobacco Promotions on Smoking among African-American College
Students
Cigarette smoking is a major public health problem and continues to be the leading cause
of death in the U.S. (CDC, 2009). About 1 in 5 deaths in the U.S is from tobacco use
(American Lung Association, 2009). A significant segment of the U.S population uses
tobacco in spite of its health consequences. For example, it is estimated that in 2008, 46
million (20.6%) of U.S. adults were current cigarette smokers; which is nearly one in
every five people, of these 79.8% (36.7 million) smoked every day (CDC, 2008). The
CDC report shows that the cigarette smoking trend for U.S. adults had declined from
24.1% to 19.8% for the period 1998 to 2007. However, this decade-long decrease has
leveled off in recent years (CDC, 2009).
Prevalence of smoking varies by socio-demographic factors. In 2008, smoking
prevalence was lowest for adults aged >65 (9.3%). Smoking prevalence did not vary
significantly for adults aged 18-24 years (21.4%), 25-44 years (23.7%), and 45-64 years
(22.6%). Significantly higher proportion of men were current smokers (23.1%) than
females (18.3%). The prevalence of current smoking was highest among non-Hispanic
American Indians/Alaskan Natives (32.4%), followed by non-Hispanic whites (22%),
non-Hispanic blacks (21.3%) and Hispanics (15.8%). Asians had the lowest rate of 9.9%
(CDC, 2009). The National Survey on Drug Use and Health (SAMHSA, 2007) based on
combined data from 2005 and 2006 reported that “nearly one fourth of blacks aged 12 or
older were current smokers (i.e., used cigarettes in the past month).” Certain subgroups of
the population have higher prevalence rates. For example, a recent community based
study found a high prevalence of cigarette smoking among low-income African
Americans (Delva, et. al, 2005).
A CDC report on “African Americans and Tobacco Use” shows that approximately
45,000 African Americans die annually from preventable smoking related diseases (CDC,
1998). Further, research attributes smoking as the major reason for 87% of lung cancer
incidence and studies also show that African American men are more likely to develop
lung cancer than their white counterparts (American Cancer Society, 2001; CDC, 1998).
Similarly, smoking significantly increases the risk for stroke, and it is documented that
cardiovascular disease is one of the leading causes of death among African Americans
(CDC, 1998; American Lung Association, 2008; 2009; blackhealthcare.com, 2008).
Studies show that African Americans start smoking at a later age compared to whites.
Although the average age for initiation to smoking is higher for African Americans
compared to Whites, they are more likely to be diagnosed with and die from lung cancer
(CDC, 2005). One of the explanations for this disparity is genetic, it has been reported
that African Americans are genetically predisposed to lung cancer because they tend to
absorb more of the nicotine and other toxins in cigarettes than do whites (Perez-Stable,
Herrera, and Benowitz, 1998).
Cigarette smoking among college students is a major concern for researchers, public
health officials and university administrators. Because of the greater freedom associated
20
ISSN 1554-3897
African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies: AJCJS, Vol.5, #s1 &2
with college life, many students who never smoked while in high school may experiment
with cigarette smoking. Further, intensive tobacco marketing aimed at this population
may also increase the likelihood of smoking (Connolly, 2007; Balbach, Gasior, and
Barbeau, 2003; Sepe, Ling, and Glantz, 2002). In 2005, 16.8 percent of African American
high school students smoked some form of tobacco. However, African American high
school students were significantly less likely than white and Hispanic students to report
current smoking (CDC, 2006).
Previous studies indicate that African American college students have the lowest rates of
smoking compared to any other racial and ethnic group (Johnston, O’Malley, and
Bachman, 2001; American Lung Association, 2008). However; some studies predict that
African-Americans in the age category of 18-24, will have higher smoking rates in the
coming years (Patterson, Lerman, and Kaufmann, 2004). For example, the Harvard
College Alcohol Study reports show that African American college students had a 42.7%
increase in smoking between 1993 and 1999 which is the largest increase in smoking
compared to white, Hispanic and Asian-Pacific Islander students (Patterson, Lerman, and
Kaufmann, 2004).
TOBACCO PROMOTIONS
Age is an important factor in tobacco advertising and promotions. Young adults aged 18
to 24 years are the youngest legal targets of the tobacco industry, therefore, the tobacco
industry advertises in magazines with high youth readership. Other strategies include
sponsoring college social events conducted by fraternities and sororities (American
Cancer Society, 2001; blackhealth care.com; Rigotti, Moran and Wechsler, 2005) and
social events at bars and nightclubs where free samples of tobacco products are
distributed (Sepe, Ling, and Glantz, 2002; Rigotti, Moran and Wechsler, 2005).
Studies show that young adults have the highest spontaneous quitting rates. Therefore the
tobacco industry invests time and money to study their smoking patterns. Tobacco
marketers also concentrate on recapturing the young quitters. Their goal is to get quitters
back in the market place. So this group is often targeted for tobacco promotions and
advertising (American Lung Association, 2007; Ling and Galantz, 2004).
In a recent Senate hearing, Connolly (2007) indicated that after the Master Settlement
Agreement (MSA), tobacco advertising has been targeted to high-risk groups, including
low income women and African Americans. This report indicates that during the period
1998-2005, on average, every youth in the United States was exposed to 559 tobacco ads
and every adult female to 617 ads. During the same time, every African adult was
exposed to 892 ads and every Hispanic adult to 605 ads. This is further evidence that
African American communities have been aggressively targeted by the tobacco industry
for their advertising and promotional campaigns.
Gilpin, White, Messer and Pierce (2007) examined the effects of receptivity to tobacco
advertising and promotions in two longitudinal cohorts of adolescents over a period of six
21
ROLE OF TOBACCO PROMOTIONS ON SMOKING by Thomas and George
years. They found that adolescents who were willing to use a tobacco promotional item
or had a favorite advertisement had higher odds of being an established future smoker.
This study showed that there is a relationship between receptivity to tobacco
advertising/promotions during adolescence and status as a current smoker six years later
as a young adult.
Rigotti, Moran and Wechsler (2005) examined the relationship between students’
exposure to tobacco promotions at bars, nightclubs, campus social events and their
smoking behavior. The sample for this study consisted of students from 119 colleges
across the U.S. The results showed that exposure to tobacco promotions was greater in
colleges in urban areas, in the South, and in major tobacco-producing states. Students
who were exposed to tobacco promotions at a bar, nightclub or campus social event were
more likely than unexposed students to be current smokers. The exposed students were
also more likely than unexposed students to have smoked cigarettes or used a tobacco
product in the past year.
In November, 1998, the attorneys general of multiple states signed a Master Settlement
Agreement (MSA) with the four largest tobacco companies in the United States. The
agreement states that cigarette companies may not target youth in the advertising,
promotion or marketing of tobacco products (National Association of Attorneys General,
2000). King and Seigel, (2001) studied the trends in expenditure for advertisement of 15
brands of cigarettes and the exposure of youth to cigarette advertising in 38 magazines
between 1995 and 2000. They found that overall spending decreased from 1995 to 1998,
increased in 1999 and returned to pre-settlement levels in 2000. Similarly, Hamilton,
Turner-Bowker, Celebucki and Connolly (2002) found that in the 19 magazines that were
analyzed by them, the average monthly spending increased from 1998 to 2000. However
following public pressure in 2000, the average spending decreased from 2000 to 2002.
So, the MSA seemed to have had little effect on cigarette advertising in magazines with
youth readership.
PREDICTORS OF SMOKING
Several researchers have tried to identify the predictors of smoking among youth (Horn,
et. al, 2000; Morrell, Cohen, and Bacchi, 2005; Von Ah, et. al., 2005). Horn, Gao, Dino
and Kamal-Bahl (2000) found the predictors of smoking and smokeless tobacco among
adolescents to be gender (i.e., being male) and having friends who used tobacco.
Powe, Ross and Cooper (2007) examined the attitudes and beliefs about smoking and
predictors of life-time smoking among African American college students. They found
age, emotional benefits of smoking, having friends who smoked, and not being a member
of a Greek organization to be significant predictors of life-time smoking for these
students. Waters et al. (2006) found that social smoking was common among college
smokers. In their sample which consisted of almost 93 percent Caucasian college
students, lower physical and psychological dependence and higher social support are
important predictors of social smoking among college students. Studies also found that
gender is a predictor for smoking among college students. In a study on smoking in
22
ISSN 1554-3897
African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies: AJCJS, Vol.5, #s1 &2
HBCUs, it was observed that among college women, traditional African American
cultural practices was associated with abstinence from smoking cigarettes (Laws, et. al,
2006). Residence, parental, and peer smoking were found to be additional factors for
African Americans becoming lifetime smokers (Hestick, Perrino, Rhodes, & Sydnor,
2001).
The present study examines the predictors of life-time and current smoking among
African American students. The major focus of this research is to examine the role of
tobacco promotions on smoking among African American college students. The study
also examines the smoking behaviors of college students and incoming freshmen (who
just completed high school).
METHOD
The present study was conducted in a four year educational institution in rural Georgia.
This institution is classified as an Historically Black College and University (HBCU).
Sixty-eight percent of the student population at this institution is female and 91 percent
are African-Americans. A majority of the students are in the age group 18-22 and about
45 percent of the students live in campus housing.
DATA COLLECTION
The study is based on data collected from undergraduate and incoming freshmen
students. The data from undergraduate students was collected in the second and third
weeks of April 2007. Classrooms were randomly picked from the Spring 2007 semester
schedule which represents all majors. A student research assistant contacted the
respective instructors in advance and administered the survey in a classroom setting
(N=257). The Office of Student Affairs included a survey in the incoming freshmen
orientation package. During a specified time slot on June 16, 2007, student research
assistants went to the orientation, explained the objectives of the survey, and
administered the survey in a group setting (N=286).
The undergraduate students were asked about their use of tobacco, alcohol, and
marijuana; attitudes toward smoking; tobacco awareness; onset of drug use; tobacco
promotions; and role of advertisement on smoking. A slightly modified version of the
survey was administered to students during freshmen orientation for Fall 2007. Sample
questions are: (1) Do you think that tobacco companies target the African American
community? (2) Have you received tobacco promotions through the mail? (3) Do you
think tobacco advertising, promotion, and marketing influences people to use tobacco
products? (4) To what extent do you pay attention to cigarette ads and promotions in
magazines? (5) How familiar are you with specific brands of cigarettes, such as Camel or
Marlboro?
23
ROLE OF TOBACCO PROMOTIONS ON SMOKING by Thomas and George
MEASURES
The following variables are included as predictor variables in this study: gender,
membership in athletic teams; membership in Greek organizations; staying in residence
halls; tobacco promotion, cigarette smoking among family members; and cigarette smoking
among close friends. The tobacco promotion variable was measured using the question
“Have you received tobacco promotions through the mail?” All of the above variables are
measured using a dichotomous format. Incoming freshmen were not asked about their
membership in Greek organizations and whether they stay in the residence halls because
these questions are not applicable to them. An additional question was asked of incoming
freshmen which was not included for college students: “how often do you attend religious
services?”
The dependent variables (for college students and incoming freshmen) are “current
smoking” (in the past 30 days) and “lifetime smoking.” “Life-time smoking” and “current
smoking” were measured using the following questions: “Have you ever tried at least one
puff of a cigarette?” “Did you smoke cigarettes in the past 30 days?” Both dependent
variables are measured using a dichotomous format: “Yes” and “No.” Therefore, logistic
regression was used to identify the predictors of smoking.
RESULTS
All the respondents in this study are African Americans. The results show that about 44
percent of college students and 31 percent of freshmen are female. Seventeen percent of
college students are members of Greek organizations and 55 percent stay in residence
halls. Twenty eight percent of college respondents reported that they are members of
college athletic teams; while 63 percent of incoming freshmen reported that they were
part of an athletic team in high school. The modal age group for college students is 20 to
21 years (41.3%) whereas the modal age category for incoming freshmen is 18 to 19
years (96.3%).
Fifty-nine percent of college students reported lifetime cigarette use, while 31 percent of
incoming freshmen reported lifetime cigarette use. Fourteen percent of college students
reported smoking in the past 30 days and eight percent of incoming freshmen reported
smoking in the past 30 days. About 12 percent of college students reported daily smoking
and less than one percent of incoming freshmen reported smoking on a daily basis. About
12 percent of college students reported using smokeless tobacco in their lifetime. Cigar
smoking is more popular compared to smokeless tobacco; for example 26 percent of
college students reported lifetime cigar use and a little over 7 percent reported cigar use
in the past 30 days. Among incoming freshmen 9% and 3% reported lifetime cigar use
and past 30 day cigar use respectively. However, less than one percent of incoming
freshmen reported use of smokeless tobacco.
When college students were asked “my smoking habit increased since I started college,”
about 17 percent responded “True”. Similarly, when college students were asked “what is
the most popular drug of choice among your peers,” 10.5% identified tobacco products;
24
ISSN 1554-3897
African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies: AJCJS, Vol.5, #s1 &2
40.1% identified marijuana and 49.4% picked alcohol as the drug of choice among their
peers. Slightly modified versions of the same questions were asked of incoming
freshmen. For example they were asked “what is the most popular drug of choice among
African American students?” About 5.3% reported tobacco products, 72.6% identified
marijuana, and 22.1% reported alcohol as the drug of choice among African American
students.
Almost two thirds (64%) of college students and incoming freshmen reported that
tobacco companies target the African American community. Twenty nine percent of
college students reported that they received tobacco promotions through the mail. One in
ten incoming freshmen reported the same. Three fourths of respondents (76.3%) believe
that tobacco advertising, promotion and marketing influences students’ use of tobacco
products. A majority of respondents (76.2% vs. 89.4%) from both groups (college
students and incoming freshmen) reported that they do not pay much attention to
cigarette “ads” and promotions in magazines. More college students (32.4%) than
incoming freshmen (24.7%) reported that they are very familiar with specific brand
names of cigarettes. Finally, a slightly higher proportion of college students (56.5%) are
aware of anti-smoking advertisements compared to incoming freshmen (47.3%).
The next question was whether tobacco promotion has any impact on smoking among
students. Cross tabular analyses indicate that there is a statistically significant difference
in smoking among college students but no relationship between tobacco promotion and
smoking among incoming freshmen. Lifetime smoking among college students depends
on whether they had received any tobacco promotions (X2 =12.45, df =1; p< 0.001). For
example, among college students who received tobacco promotions, 38% reported
lifetime smoking. The same relationship was also evident between tobacco promotions
and cigarette smoking within the past 30 days (X2 =47.92, df =1; p< 0.001). Among
college students who received tobacco promotions about 80% reported smoking
cigarettes in the past 30 days. Further analyses also indicate that familiarity with specific
brands of cigarettes is related to smoking for college students and incoming freshmen.
PREDICTORS OF SMOKING FOR COLLEGE STUDENTS
The dependent variables, lifetime smoking and smoking in the past 30 days, are
dichotomous variables so logistic regression analysis was used to identify the predictors
of smoking among college students and incoming freshmen. Table 1 shows the results of
the logistic regression of predictors on lifetime smoking and smoking in the past 30 days
among African American college students. Membership in Greek organizations; friends’
smoking; tobacco promotions; membership in athletic teams; and being male increases
the chances of lifetime smoking among college students. For example, a respondent with
membership in Greek organization (Odds Ratio (OR) = 4.13) is four times more likely to
report lifetime smoking. Similarly having friends with history of smoking increases the
chance of lifetime smoking by four times (OR=4.05). However, the respondents’
smoking in the past 30 days depends mainly on three factors, namely, tobacco
promotions, friends with history of smoking and membership in Greek organizations.
25
ROLE OF TOBACCO PROMOTIONS ON SMOKING by Thomas and George
Table 1 shows that respondents who received tobacco promotions are almost ten times
(OR=9.95) more likely to smoke in the past 30 days than a respondent who did not
receive tobacco promotions. Similarly, a respondent with friends who smoke cigarettes
are eight times (OR=8.07) more likely to smoke in the past 30 days than a respondent
who does not have friends with a history of smoking. Finally, respondents with
membership in Greek organizations are six times (OR=6.22) more likely to smoke in the
past 30 days than students without a membership in Greek organizations.
Table 1
Results of logistic regression analyses predicting lifetime and current cigarette smoking
among African American college students
Variable
Smoking
Lifetime Smoking
Current
B
SE
Exp (B)
B
SE
0.77
0.35
2.15
2.30
0.50
0.67
0.31
1.95
0.02
0.49
0.92
0.37
2.52
-0.52
0.57
1.42
0.50
4.13
1.83
0.59
0.26
0.31
1.29
0.73
0.56
0.33
0.41
1.40
0.11
0.69
1.40
0.38
4.05
2.09
0.81
Exp (B)
Tobacco Promotion
9.95
Male
1.02
Athletic Team
0.60
Greek Organization
6.22
Residence Hall
2.07
Family Member Smoking
1.12
Close Friend Smoking
8.07
PREDICTORS OF SMOKING FOR INCOMING FRESHMEN
Table 2 shows the results of the logistic regression analysis predicting life-time and
current cigarette smoking among incoming freshmen. The predictors of lifetime smoking
for the incoming freshmen were quite different from the predictors for college students.
Friends’ smoking was the only significant predictor of lifetime smoking. Among
incoming freshmen, respondents who had friends’ with a history of smoking are almost
nine times (OR = 8.68) more likely to report lifetime smoking. Further analysis shows
that two variables were significant predictors of “past 30 day” cigarette use. Males were
twice (OR = 1.91) as likely as females to report smoking in the past 30 days.
26
ISSN 1554-3897
African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies: AJCJS, Vol.5, #s1 &2
Respondents who had friends with a history of smoking were three times (OR = 2.98)
more likely to report smoking in the past 30 days.
Table 2
Results of logistic regression analyses predicting lifetime and current cigarette smoking
among African American incoming freshmen
Variable
Smoking
Lifetime Smoking
Current
B
SE
Exp (B)
B
SE
0.21
0.46
1.23
-0.27
0.80
0.65
0.31
1.91
0.79
0.49
0.23
0.30
1.26
0.27
0.50
0.02
0.07
1.02
0.14
0.13
-0.55
0.39
0.58
-0.87
0.79
1.09
0.36
2.98
2.16
1.04
Exp (B)
Tobacco Promotion
0.77
Male
2.20
Athletic Team
1.30
Attend Religious Activities
1.15
Family Member Smoking
0.42
Close Friend Smoking
8.68
DISCUSSION
The current study examines the predictors of smoking among African American college
students and incoming freshmen. Results indicate that predictors of smoking vary with
the status of the students (college students versus incoming freshmen) and nature of
smoking (lifetime versus current smoking). For example; the study shows that predictors
of lifetime smoking are different from the predictors of current smoking. The most
significant finding of this study is the role of tobacco promotions on smoking among
college students.
The effect of tobacco promotions on smoking among African American college students
has not been addressed in previous studies. The results of this study show that tobacco
promotion is a predictor of smoking among African American college students and that
tobacco promotion has a more pronounced impact on current smoking than life-time
smoking.
27
ROLE OF TOBACCO PROMOTIONS ON SMOKING by Thomas and George
The present study shows that there is a relationship between tobacco promotions and
smoking among African American college students. This finding supports previous
research which showed that the tobacco industry targets the college population through
various promotional strategies to attract them to smoking (American Cancer Society,
2001; Sepe, Ling, and Glantz, 2002; King and Seigel, 2001). Tobacco companies
advertise heavily in minority populations, especially in the African American
communities (Connolly, 2007). There have not been adequate programs to counteract the
effect of tobacco advertisement, especially on college campuses. For example, in a
Congressional Black Caucus Foundation study, 70% of respondents from HBCUs
reported that they had never seen an anti-smoking message on campus (Bediako and
Toldson, 2007). Research also clearly shows that African Americans suffer heavily from
cancer and other cardiovascular diseases due to tobacco smoking (American Cancer
Society, 2001; 2009; CDC, 1998). Therefore the finding that African American students
who received tobacco promotions are about 10 times more likely to report current
smoking (in the past 30 days) than students who did not receive tobacco promotions has
implications for the health status of African Americans. .
Consistent with previous studies, friends’ smoking and membership in Greek organizations
are significant predictors of African American college students’ smoking. The findings of
this study show that it is important to organize assertive training programs to help students
resist peer pressures. Tobacco industries are eager to sponsor events in minority communities
and institutions (CDC, 1998; American Lung Association, 2008; blackhealthcare.com; 2000),
especially in Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU). Therefore HBCUs need
to weigh the benefits of such sponsorships with the health status of the community. Another
interesting finding is that smoking of close family member(s) did not have statistically
significant effects on respondents’ smoking for college students and incoming freshmen. This
finding is consistent with other studies on smoking in HBCUs (Horn, et al., 2000; Laws et
al., 2006). It is natural to argue that when students are in college the influence of family
decreases and peers play an important role. In the present study, even for the younger cohort
(incoming freshmen) smoking among close family members was not a significant predictor
of smoking. Traditionally, family and religion play an important role in adolescence,
especially among African Americans. Future studies should address the comparative role of
family and friends on the smoking behaviors of African American college students.
References
American Cancer Society (2009). Prevention and early detection: Cigarette smoking.
Retrieved January 22, 2009 from http://www.cancer.org/docroot/PED/content/
PED_10_2x_Cigarette_ Smoking.asp
American Cancer Society. (2001). Advocating for a tobacco-free campus: A
manual for college and university students. Retrieved January 23, 2010
from:
http://www.cancer.org/downloads/com/
advocating_for_a_tobaccofree_campus.doc.
American Lung Association (2009a). Trends in tobacco use. Retrieved January 23, 2010
from:
28
ISSN 1554-3897
African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies: AJCJS, Vol.5, #s1 &2
http://www.lungusa.org/assets/documents/publications/tobacco-policy-trendalerts/TREND_TOBACCO_JULY_08.pdf
American Lung Association (2009b). African Americans. Retrieved January 23, 2010
from:
http://www.lungusa.org/stop-smoking/about-smoking/facts-figures/africanamericans-and-tobacco.html.
American Lung Association (2008). Smoking and African Americans fact sheet: 2008.
Retrieved
November 2, 2007 from: http://www.lungusa.org/site/c.dvLUK9O0E/b.35988/
American Lung Association (2007). State of lung diseases in diverse communities.
Retrieved
November 2, 2007 from: http://www.lungusa.org.
Balbach, E. D., Gasior, R. J., & Barbeau, E. M. (2003) R.J. Reynolds’ targeting of
African
Americans: 1988-2000. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 822-827.
Bediako, L. F., & Toldson, I.A. (2007). Doing right by our people: CBCF anti-smoking
initiative
aims to curb smoking habits at HBCUs. CBCF News, 9 (4), 30-33. Retrieved
January 22, 2010 from: www.cbcfinc.org/images/pdf/newsletter/winter_07.pdf
Black Health Care.Com (n.d.). African Americans and tobacco: 2000. Retrieved on
October 14,
2008 from: http://www.blackhealthcare.com/BHC/Smoking/ Description.asp.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2009). Cigarette smoking among adults and
trends in smoking cessation --- United States, 2008. MMWR, 58(44,) 1227-1232.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2008). Cigarette smoking among adults –
United States, 2007. MMWR November 14, 2008/57(45), 1221-1226
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2007). Control and prevention cigarette
smoking among adults –United States, 2006. MMWR, 56, 1157-1161.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1998). 1998 Surgeon General's report Tobacco use among U.S. racial/ethnic minority groups, African Americans and
tobacco.
Retrieved
October
14,
2008
from:
http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco//data_statistics/sgr/gr_1998/sgr-min-afr.htm.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (n.d). Adult smoking in the United States:
Current estimates,
2006. Retrieved
November 2,
2007
from:
http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/factssheets/
Adult
Cigarette
Smoking
FactSheet.htm.
Connolly, G. N. (2007). The need for FDA regulation of tobacco products. Testimony
before the Senate HELP Committee, February, 2007.Retrireved November 2,
2007 from http://www.help.senate.gov/ Hearings/ 2007_02_27/Connolly.pdf.
Delva, J., Tellez, M., Finlayson, T. L., Gretebeckm K. A., Siefer, K., Williams, D. R., &
Ismail, A. I. (2005). Cigarette smoking among low-income African Americans: A
serious health problem. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 29(3), 218-220.
29
ROLE OF TOBACCO PROMOTIONS ON SMOKING by Thomas and George
Douglas K. A., Collins, J. L., Warren, C.W., et al. (1997). Results from the 1995
National Health Risk Behavior Survey. Journal of American College Health,.46,
55-66.
Gilpin E. A., White, M.W., Messer, K., et al. (2007). Receptivity to tobacco advertising
and promotions among adolescents as a predictor of established smoking in young
adulthood. American Journal of Public Health, 97, 1489-1495.
Hamilton, W.L., Turner-Bowker, D. M., Celebucki, C. C. & Connolly, G. N. (2002).
Cigarette advertising in magazines: The tobacco industry response to the Master
Settlement Agreement and to public pressure. Tobacco Control, 11 (Suppl II), 5458.
Hestick, H., Perrino, S. C., Rhodes, W. A., & Sydnor, K. D. (2001). Trial and lifetime
smoking risks among African American college students. Journal of American
College Health, 49 (5), 213-219.
Horn, K. A, Gao X., Dino, G. A., et al. (2000). Determinants of youth tobacco use in
West Virginia: A comparison of smoking and smokeless tobacco use. American
Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 26, 125-138.
Johnston, L. D, O’Malley, P.M., & Bachman, J.G. (2001). Monitoring the future National
Survey Results on drug use, 1975-2000.Vol 2: College students and adults ages
19-40 (NIH Pub 01-4925). Bethesda, MD: NIDA.
King, C., & Siegel, M. (2001). The Master Settlement Agreement with the tobacco
industry and cigarette advertising in magazines. New England Journal of
Medicine, 345, 504-511.
Laws, M.A., Huang, C. J., Brown, R. F. et al. (2006). Cigarette smoking among college
students attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities. Journal of Health
Care for Poor and Underserved, 17,143-56.
Ling, P. M., & Glantz, S. A. (2004). Tobacco industry research on smoking cessation:
Recapturing young adults and other recent quitters. Journal General Internal
Medicine, 19, 419-426.
Morrell, H. E. R., Cohen, L. M, Bacchi, D, et al. (2005). Predictors of smoking and
smokeless tobacco use in college students: A preliminary study using web-based
survey methodology. Journal of American College Health, 54,108-115.
National Association of Attorneys General. (2000). Master settlement. Retrieved January
22,
2010
from
http://www.naag.org/backpages/naag/tobacco/msa/msapdf/1109185724_1032468605_ cigmsa.pdf
Patterson, F., Lerman, C., Kaufmann, V.G., et al. (2004). Cigarette smoking practices
among American college students: Review and future directions. Journal of
American College Health, 62, 203-210.
Perez-Stable, E. J., Herrera, B.J., & Benowitz, N. L. (1998). Nicotine metabolism and
intake in Black and White smokers. Journal of the American Medical Association,
280,152-156.
Powe, B. D., Ross, L., & Cooper, D. L. (2007). Attitudes and beliefs about smoking
among African-American college students at Historically Black Colleges and
Universities. Journal of National Medical Association, 99, 338-344.
Rigotti, N. A., Moran, S.E., &Wechsler, H. (2005). US college students’ exposure to
tobacco promotions: Prevalence and association with tobacco use. American
Journal of Public Health, 95(1), 138-144.
30
ISSN 1554-3897
African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies: AJCJS, Vol.5, #s1 &2
Sepe, E., Ling, P.M., & Glantz, S.A. (2002). Smooth moves: Bar and nightclub tobacco
promotions that target young adults. American Journal of Public Health, 92, 414419.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies
(September, 2007). The NSDUH Report: Cigarette use among Blacks: 2005 and
2006. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Rockville, MD: Substance
Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
Von Ah, D., Ebert, S., Ngamvitroj, A., Park, N., & Kang, D.H. (2005). Factors related to
cigarette smoking initiation and use among college students. Tobacco Induced
Diseases, 3(1), 27-40.
Waters, K., Harris, K., Hall, S., et al. (2006). Characteristics of social smoking among
college students. Journal of American College Health, 55,133-139.
Wechsler, H., Rigotti, N., Gledhill-Hoyt, J., et al. (1998). Increased level of smoking
among college students, JAMA, 280, 1673-1678.
31