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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Activities
2. Babylonian Creation Myth (Mesopotamia)
3. Epic of Gilgamesh (Mesopotamia)
4. Code of Hammurabi (Mesopotamia)
5. Papyrus of Ani: The Book of the Dead (Egypt)
6. Book of Exodus, Chapter 20 (Israel)
7. Book of First Samuel, Chapter 8 (Israel)
8. The Vedas: Law of Manu (India)
9. Bhagavad Gita in the Mahabharata (India)
10. Shu Jung: The Mandate of Heaven (China)
11. Lao Tzu’s Dao De Ching (China)
12. Sun Tzu: The Art of War (China)
13. The Sayings of Mencius, Book 1, Part 1 (China)
14. Buddha’s Benares Deer Park Sermon (India)
15. Zoroaster: The Gatha of Choice (Persia)
16. Herodotus: Darius’ Organizes and Empire (Persia)
17. Plato’s Republic: The Allegory of the Cave (Mediterranean
18. Thucydides: Pericles Funeral Oration (Mediterranean)
19. Aristotle: Politics, Book III (Mediterranean)
20. Aristotle: Posterior Analytics (Mediterranean)
21. Aristophanes: The Cloud (Mediterranean)
22. Epictetus: The Enchiridion (Mediterranean)
23. Gospel of Matthew: The Sermon on the Mount (Mediterranean)
24. Gospel of John: Chapter 1 (Mediterranean)
25. St. Augustine: The City of God, Book XIX (Mediterranean)
26. The Benedictine Rule (Western Europe)
27. Popul Vuh: Mayan Creation Myth (Mesoamerica)
28. Justinian’s Code: Prologue and Sources of the Law (Eastern Europe)
29. The Quran: Sura 47 (Southwest Asia)
30. The Final Sermon of Muhammad (Southwest Asia)
31. Ibn Rushd: Religion and Philosophy (Southwest Asia)
32. Jalal ad-Din Rumi: Poems (Southwest Asia)
33. Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun: Cycles (North Africa)
34. Icelandic Edda (Iceland)
35. The Legend of Sundiata Ali of Mali (West Africa)
36. Doctrine of the Mean (China)
37. The Tale of Genji (Japan)
38. Yamamoto: Hagakure – The Way of the Warrior (Japan)
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NAME: _______________________________ DATE: __________ PERIOD: _____________
DIALECTICAL JOURNAL
Directions: Writing on the front of one page of your writing journal, divide the page in half. Write
the date at the top, Dialectical Journal and the Big Picture Question. Write on only one side of the
paper.
BIG PICTURE QUESTION:
PARAPHRASE
RESPONSE
Students should have a dialogue with their reading material.
In the left column, students briefly paraphrase ideas about
“the Big Picture Question”.
In the right column, students write their response to the idea.
This response could include stating and defending their
opinion, posing and explaining a question, or connecting the
text’s content to other people, events, literature, the arts or
historically relevant ideas.
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NAME: ____________________________________ DATE: __________ PERIOD: _____________
HALF-PAGE SOLUTION
This exercise assists students in gathering information from a secondary source such as the
textbook or outside reading and merging it with class discussion or lecture. This technique helps
students learn to take a large quality of information and synthesize it for future use. It also helps
the teacher to focus on key concepts rather than lecture on all of the chapter. It resembles a short
Cornell Notes format.
NOTES FROM READING
NOTES FROM CLASS
On the left side of the page, students take selective notes
indicating only the most significant information from the text
or reading assignment.
As the instructor facilitates class discussion, the students
decide what information not previously recorded should be
added and include this information in their own words on the
right side of the page.
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SOCRATIC SEMINAR
The Socratic method of teaching is based on Socrates' theory that it is more important to
enable students to think for themselves than to merely fill their heads with "right"
answers. Therefore, he regularly engaged his pupils in dialogues by responding to their
questions with questions instead of answers. This process encourages divergent thinking
rather than convergent. Rather than answer a question, Socrates asked questions to clarify
or questions which had no easy, readily apparent answer.
Students are given opportunities to "examine" a common piece of text, whether it is in the
form of a passage from a novel, a poem, a quotation, an historical document, a chart or
graph, piece of art, or piece of music. After "reading" the common text as a person would
"a love letter" the teacher will pose open-ended questions. Questions should NOT be able
to be answered with yes, no, or finite answers (unless it is a bridge to a larger question).
Open-ended questions allow students to think critically, analyze multiple meanings in text,
and express ideas with clarity and confidence. After all, a certain degree of emotional safety
is felt by participants when they understand that this format is based on dialogue and not
discussion/debate.
Dialogue is exploratory and involves the suspension of biases and prejudices.
Discussion/debate is a transfer of information designed to win an argument and bring
closure. Americans are great at discussion/debate. We do not dialogue well. However, once
teachers and students learn to dialogue, they find that the ability to ask meaningful
questions that stimulate thoughtful interchanges of ideas is more important than "the
answer."
Participants in a Socratic Seminar respond to one another with respect by carefully
listening instead of interrupting. Students are encouraged to "paraphrase" essential
elements of another's ideas before responding, either in support of or in disagreement.
Members of the dialogue look each other in the "eyes" and use each other names. This
simple act of socialization reinforces appropriate behaviors and promotes team building.
STEP 1: SELECTING AN APPROPRIATE ARTICLE
Our students are required to read historiographical materials about the development of
our discipline or different interpretations about an historical topic. All textbooks contain
important discussions which the students should read. Alternatively, use an article from
World History Connected, The Journal of World History, or any number of similar sources.
The articles selected should address the Big Picture Questions illustrated in the Course
Guide. They could also be based on previous essay topics or a Document Based Question.
STEP 2: PRE-SEMINAR QUESTION – THE STUDENTS
As to the students, before they come to a Socratic Seminar class, they need to read the
assigned text (novel section, poem, essay, article, etc.) and write at least one question in
each of the following categories:
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WORLD CONNECTION QUESTION: Write a question connecting the text to the real world. An
example is: what impact would telling the absolute truth have on governments?
CLOSE-ENDED QUESTION: Write a question about the text that will help everyone in the class come
to an agreement about events in the text. This question usually has a "correct" answer. Example: Why
did Hammurabi decide to write his famous code?
OPEN-ENDED QUESTION: Write an insightful question about the text that will require proof and
group discussion and "construction of logic" to discover or explore the answer to the question. An
example is: Why would the Mongols, an otherwise violent culture, have been so tolerant of merchants
and missionaries?
UNIVERSAL THEME/ CORE QUESTION: Write a question dealing with a theme(s) of the text that
will encourage group discussion: would life for women have been better under Hinduism,
Confucianism, Judaism or Buddhism in the first century BCE? :
ANALYSIS QUESTION: Write a question dealing with the point of view or personal influences on a
speaker’s written document. For example, what role did Luke’s intended audience in the Gospel of Luke
play in the writing of the Gospel?
STEP 3: COMPOSE QUESTIONS – THE TEACHER
Ideally the teacher should be prepared with questions because students have not read the
article and did not generate any questions.
STEP 4: REARRANGE THE ROOM
The best seating pattern for a classroom when doing a Socratic Question is a circle, oval or
setup where the students face each other and the teacher is at the center or on the outside
of the circle.
STEP 5: EXPLAIN AND SET UP THE RUBRIC
Students need to know how you will grade a Socratic Seminar. Ideally Socrates never
graded his students or in his world, they all received A’s because they were active
participants. Given today’s students, Socrates may have had to use a rubric himself. Set up
the rubric and explain what the columns mean. Grade holistically.
STEP 6: STAGE THE SEMINAR AND ASSESS IT
Your role as teacher is to involve all students even if you have to ask them: well, what do
you think? Or what question would you like to ask. You assign a grade based on the rubric
below but I would follow up with an essay over the topic. Remember, the essay should be a
DBQ, a Continuity and Change Over Time, or a Compare and Contrast essay.
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SOCRATIC SEMINAR SCORING RUBRIC
TOPIC: _________________________________________________________________
CLASS: ___________________ DATE: __________________
STUDENT
NAMES
This person
prepared for the
seminar and
discussion. It
was obvious
that he or she
had read and he
or she arrived
with questions.
This person
offered
relevant,
instructive, and
analytical
comments
about other
participants’
comments and
questions.
This person did
NOT interrupt
while others
were speaking.
This person
was an active
listener – he or
she made
contact with the
speaker.
He or she also
took at least
one page of
notes during
the seminar.
Before
speaking, this
person
referenced the
text or support
materials and
did not repeat
references.
TOTAL
STORE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
(Each check in a column is worth one point; grades are 5=97, 4=87, 3=77, 2=70, 1=60, 0=50)
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BABYLONIAN CREATION EPIC: ENUMA ELISH
The Babylonian or Mesopotamian creation myth, the Enuma Elish (When On High) was written
no later than the reign of Nebuchadrezzar in the 12th century B.C.E. But there is also little doubt
that this story was written much earlier, during the time of the Sumerians. Drawing some new
light on the ancients, Henry Layard found within the ruins of the library of Ashurbanipal in
Nineveh, texts that were not unlike the Genesis creation in the Bible. George Smith first
published these texts in 1876 under the title, 'The Chaldean Genesis'. This Akkadian text was
written in the old Babylonian dialect.
Big Picture Question: To what extent does the Babylonian Creation Myth embody cultural
values common to all Mesopotamian civilization? Be prepared to justify your answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
When on high the heaven had not been named,
Firm ground below had not been called by name,
Naught but primordial Apsu, their begetter,
(And) Mummu-Tiamat, she who bore them all,
Their waters commingling as a single body;
No reed hut had been matted, no marsh land had appeared,
When no gods whatever had been brought into being,
Uncalled by name, their destinies undeterminedThen it was that the gods were formed within them.
Lahmu and Lahamu were brought forth, by name they were called.
For aeons they grew in age and stature.
Anshar and Kishar were formed, surpassing the others.
They prolonged the days, added on the years.
Anu was their son, of his fathers the rival;
Yea, Anshar's first born, Anu was his equal.
Anu begot in his image Nudimmud.
This Nudimmud was of his fathers the master;
Of broad wisdom, understanding, mighty in strength,
Mightier by far than his grandfather, Anshar.
He had no rival among the gods, his brothers.
The divine brothers banded together,
They disturbed Tiamat as they surged back and forth,
Yea, they troubled the mood of Tiamat
By their hilarity in the Abode of Heaven.
Apsu could not lessen their clamour
And Tiamat was speechless at their ways.
Their doings were loathsome unto (. . .).
Unsavory were their ways; they were overbearing.
Then Apsu, the begetter of the great gods,
Cried out, addressing Mummu, his vizier:
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"O Mummu. my vizier, who rejoicest my spirit,
Come hither and let us go to Tiamat!"
They went and sat down before Tiamat,
Exchanging counsel about the gods, their first born.
Apsu, opening his mouth,
Said unto resplendent Tiamat:
"Their ways are verily loathsome unto me.
By day I find no relief, nor repose by night.
I will destroy, I will wreck their ways,
That quiet may be restored. Let us have rest!"
As soon as Tiamat heard this,
She was wroth and called out to her husband.
She cried out aggrieved, as she raged all alone,
Injecting woe into her mood:
"What? Should we destroy what we have built?
Their ways are indeed troublesome, but let us attend kindly!"
Ill wishing and ungracious was Mummu's advice:
"Do destroy, my father, the mutinous ways.
Then shalt thou have relief by day and rest by night!"
When Apsu heard this, his face grew radiant
Because of the evil he planned against the gods, his sons.
As for Mummu, by the neck he embraced him
As (that one) sat down on his knees to kiss him.
(Now) whatever they plotted between them
Was repeated unto the gods, their first born.
When the gods heard (this), they were astir,
(Then) lapsed into silence and remained speechless,
Surpassing in wisdom, accomplished, resourceful,
Ea, the all wise, saw through their scheme.
A master design against it he devised and setup,
Made artful his spell against it, surpassing and holy.
He recited it and made it subsist in the deep,
As he poured sleep upon him. Sound asleep he lay.
When Apsu he made prone, drenched with sleep,
Mummu, the adviser, was impotent to move,
He loosened his band, tore off his tiara,
Removed his halo (and) put it on himself.
Having fettered Apsu, he slew him.
Mummu he bound and left behind lock.
Having thus upon Apsu established his dwelling,
He laid hold on Mummu, holding him by the nose rope.
After he vanquished and trodden down his foes,
Ea, his triumph over his enemies secured,
In his sacred chamber in profound sleep he rested.
He named it "Apsu," for shrines he assigned (it).
In that same place his cult hut he founded.
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Ea and Damkina, his wife, dwelled (there) in splendor.
In the chamber of fates, the abode of destinies,
A god was engendered, most potent and wisest of gods.
In the heart of Apsu was Marduk created,
In the heart of holy Apsu was Marduk created.
He who begot him was Ea, his father;
She who conceived him was Damkina, his mother.
The breast of goddesses did she suck.
The nurse that nursed him filled him with awesomeness.
Alluring was his figure, sparkling the lift in his eyes.
Lordly was his gait, commanding from of old.
When Ea saw him, the father who begot him,
He exulted and glowed, his heart filled with gladness.
He rendered him perfect and endowed him with a double godhead.
Greatly exalted was he above them, exceeding throughout.
Perfect were his members beyond comprehension,
Unsuited for understanding, difficult to perceive.
Four were his eyes, four were his ears;
When he moved his lips, fire blazed forth.
Large were all hearing organs,
And the eyes, in like number, scanned all things.
He was the loftiest of the gods, surpassing was his stature;
His members were enormous, he was exceedingly tall.
"My little son, my little son!
My son, the Sun! Sun of the heavens!"
Clothed with the halo of the ten gods, he was strong to the utmost,
As their awesome flashes were heaped upon him.
Disturbed was Tiamat, astir night and day.
The gods, in malice, contributed to the storm.
Their insides having plotted evil.
To Tiamat these brothers said:
"When they slew Apsu, thy consort,
Thou didst not aid him but remaindest still.
Although he fashioned the awesome Saw,
Thy insides are diluted and so we can have no rest.
Let Apsu, thy consort, be in thy mind
And Mummu, who has been vanquished! Thou are left alone.
Then joined issue Tiamat and Marduk, wisest of gods,
They swayed in single combat, locked in battle.
The lord spread out his net to enfold her,
The Evil Wind, which followed behind, he let loose in her face.
When Tiamat opened her mouth to consume him,
He drove the Evil Wind that she close not her lips.
As the fierce winds charged her belly,
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Her body was distended and her mouth was wide open.
He released the arrow, it tore her belly,
It cut through her insides, splitting the heart.
Having thus subdued her, he extinguished her life.
He cast down her carcass to stand upon it...
The lord trod on the legs of Tiamat,
With his unsparing mace he crushed her skull.
When the arteries of her blood he had severed,
The North Wind bore (it) to places undisclosed.
On seeing this, his fathers were joyful and jubilant,
They brought gifts of homage, they to him.
Then the lord paused to view her dead body,
That he might divide the monster and do artful works.
He split her like a shellfish into two parts:
Half of her he set up and ceiled as sky,
Pulled down the bar and posted guards.
He bade them to allow not her waters to escape.
He crossed the heavens and surveyed (its) regions.
He squared Apsu's quarter, the abode of Nudimmud,
As the lord measured the dimensions of Apsu.
The Great Abode, its likeness, he fixed as Esharra,
The Great Abode, Esharra, which he made as the firmament.
Anu, Enlil, and Ea he made occupy their places.
When Marduk hears the words of the gods,
His heart prompts (him) to fashion artful works.
Opening his mouth he addresses EA
To impart the plan he addresses EA
To impart the plan he had conceived in his heart:
"Blood I will mass and cause boned to be.
I will establish a savage, 'man' shall be his name.
Verily, savage man I will create.
He shall be charged with the service of the gods
That they might be at ease! The ways of the gods I will artfully alter.
Though alike revered, into two (groups) they shall be divided."
Ea answered him, speaking a word to him.
To relate to him a scheme for the relief of the gods:
"Let but one of their brothers be handed over;"
He alone shall perish that mankind may be fashioned.
Let the great gods be here in Assembly,
Let the guilty be handed over that they may endure."
Marduk summoned the great gods to Assembly;
Presiding graciously, he issued instructions.
This utterance the gods pay heed.
The king addresses a word to the Anunnaki:
"If your former statement was true,
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Do (now) the truth on oath by me declare!
Who was it that contrived the uprising,
And made Tiamat rebel, and joined battle?
Let him be handed over who contrived the uprising.
His guilt I will make him bear that you may dwell in peace!"
The Igigi, the great gods, replied to him,
To Lugaldimmerankia, counsellor of the gods, their lord:
"It was Kingu who contrived the uprising,
And made Tiamat rebel, and joined battle."
The bound him holding him before Ea.
They imposed on him his guilt and severed his blood (vessels).
Out of his blood they fashioned mankind.
He imposed the service and let free the gods.
Source: "Enuma Elish." The Sumerian Epic of Creation. Academy for Ancient Texts, 7 June
2001. Web. 08 Aug. 2013. <http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/mesopotamian/enuma.html>.
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EPIC OF GILGAMESH
The Epic of Gilgamesh is perhaps, the oldest written story on Earth. It comes to us from Ancient
Sumeria and was originally written on 12 clay tablets in cuneiform script. It is about the
adventures of the historical King of Uruk (somewhere between 2750 and 2500 BCE).The
translator chose to eliminate Tablet XII for personal reasons, with support from many literary,
archaeological, and linguistic experts because it appears to be more of a sequel to the first
eleven tablets, containing a story about Enkidu volunteering to retrieve some objects that
Gilgamesh dropped into the Netherworld. This translation is based on the "standard" Akkadian
"edition" but is filled in with excerpts from the Old Babylonian where necessary.
Big Picture Question: If you assume that Gilgamesh is a typical Mesopotamian king,
analyze the concept of “kingship” as portrayed in this epic.
EPILOGUE, TABLET 1: GILGAMESH KING IN URUK
I WILL proclaim to the world the deeds of Gilgamesh. This was the man to whom all things
were known; this was the king who knew the countries of the world. He was wise, he saw
mysteries and knew secret things, he brought us a tale of the days before the flood. He went on a
long journey, was weary, worn-out with labour, returning he rested, he engraved on a stone the
whole story.
When the gods created Gilgamesh they gave him a perfect body. Shamash the glorious sun
endowed him with beauty, Adad the god of the storm endowed him with courage, the great gods
made his beauty perfect, surpassing all others, terrifying like a great wild bull. Two thirds they
made him god and one third man.
In Uruk he built walls, a great rampart, and the temple of blessed Eanna for the god of the
firmament Anu, and for Ishtar the goddess of love. Look at it still today: the outer wall where the
cornice runs, it shines with the brilliance of copper; and the inner wall, it has no equal. Touch the
threshold, it is ancient. Approach Eanna the dwelling of Ishtar, our lady of love and war, the like
of which no latter-day king, no man alive can equal. Climb upon the wall of Uruk; walk along it,
I say; regard the foundation terrace and examine the. masonry: is it not burnt brick and good?
The seven sages laid the foundations.
THE EPIC OF GILGAMESH, TABLET 2, THE FOREST JOURNEY
ENLIL of the mountain, the father of the gods, had decreed the destiny of Gilgamesh. So
Gilgamesh dreamed and Enkidu said, 'The meaning of the dream is this. The father of the gods
has given you kingship, such is your destiny, everlasting life is not your destiny. Because of this
do not be sad at heart, do not be grieved or oppressed. He has given you power to bind and to
loose, to be the darkness and the light of mankind. He has given you unexampled supremacy
over the people, victory in battle from which no fugitive returns, in forays and assaults from
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which there is no going back. But do not abuse this power, deal justly with your servants in the
palace, deal justly before Shamash.'
The eyes of Enkidu were full of tears and his heart was sick. He sighed bitterly and Gilgamesh
met his eye and said,' My friend, why do you sigh so bitterly? But Enkidu opened his mouth and
said, 'I am weak, my arms have lost their strength, the cry of sorrow sticks in my throat, I am
oppressed by idleness.' It was then that the lord Gilgamesh turned his thoughts to the Country of
the Living; on the Land of Cedars the lord Gilgamesh reflected. He said to his servant Enkidu, 'I
have not established my name stamped on bricks as my destiny decreed; therefore I will go to the
country where the cedar is felled. I will set up my name in the place where the names of famous
men are written, and where- no man's name is written yet I will wise a monument to the gods.
Because o£ the evil that is in the land, we will go to the forest and destroy the evil; for in the
forest lives Humbaba whose name is "Hugeness", , a ferocious giant. But Enkidu sighed bitterly
and said, ‘When I went with the wild beasts ranging through the wilderness I discovered the
forest; its length is ten thousand leagues in every direction. Enlil has appointed Humbaba to
guard it and armed him iii sevenfold terrors, terrible to all flesh is Humbaba. When he roars it is
like the torrent of the storm, his breath is like fire, and his jaws are death itself. He guards the
cedars so well that when the wild heifer stirs in the forest, though she is sixty leagues distant, he
hears her. What man would willingly walk into that country and explore its depths? I tell you,
weakness overpowers whoever goes near it: it is not an equal struggle when one fights with
Humbaba; he is a great warrior, a battering-ram. Gilgamesh, the watchman of the forest never
sleeps.'
Gilgamesh replied: 'Where is the man who can clamber to heaven? Only the gods live for ever
with glorious Shamash, but as for us men, our days are numbered, our occupations are a breath
of wind. How is this, already you are afraid! I will go first although I am your lord, an4.youmay
safely call out, "Forward, there is nothing to fear!" Then if I fall I leave behind me a name that
endures; men - will say of me, "Gilgamesh has fallen in fight with ferocious Humbaba." Long
after the child has been bony in my house, they will say it, and remember.' Enkidu spoke again to
Gilgamesh, 'O my lord, if you will enter that country, go first to the hero Shamash, tell the Sun
God, for the land is his. The country where the cedar is cut belongs to Shamash.'
Gilgamesh took up a kid, white without spot, and a brown one with it; he held them against his
breast, and he carried them into the presence of the sun. He took in his hand his silver sceptre
and he said to glorious Shamash, ‘I am going to that country, O Shamash, I am going; my hands
supplicate, so let it be well with my soul and bring me back to the quay of Uruk. Grant, I
beseech, your protection, and let the omen be good.' Glorious Shamash answered, ‘Gilgamesh,
you are strong, but what is the Country of the Living to you?
'O Shamash, hear me, hear me, Shamash, let my voice be heard. Here in the city man dies
oppressed at heart, man perishes with despair in his heart. I have looked over the wall and I see
the bodies floating on the river, and that will be my lot also. Indeed I know it is so, for whoever
is tallest among men cannot reach the heavens, and the greatest cannot encompass the earth.
Therefore I would enter that country: because I have not established my name stamped on brick
as my destiny decreed, I will go to the country where the cedar is cut. I will set up my name
where the names of famous men are written; and where no man's name is written I will raise a
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monument to the gods.' The tears, ran down his face and he said, ‘Alas, it is a long journey that I
must take to the Land of Humbaba. If this enterprise is not to be accomplished, why did you
move me, Shamash, with the restless desire to perform it? How can I succeed if you will not
succour me? If I die in that country I will die without rancour, but if I return I will make a
glorious offering of gifts and of praise to Shamash.'
So Shamash accepted the sacrifice of his tears; like the compassionate man he showed him
mercy. He appointed strong allies for Gilgamesh, sons of one mother, and stationed them in the
mountain caves. The great winds he appointed: the north wind, the whirlwind, the stone and the
icy wind, the tempest and the scorching wind. Like ' vipers, like dragons, like a scorching fire,
like a serpent that freezes the heart, a destroying flood and the lightning's fork, such were they
and Gilgamesh rejoiced.
He went to the forge and said, ..'I will give orders to the armourers; they shall cast us our
weapons while we watch them.' So they gave orders to the armourers and the craftsmen sat down
in conference. They went into the groves of the plain and cut willow and box-wood; they cast for
them axes of nine score pounds, and great swords they cast with blades of six score pounds each
one, with pommels and hilts of thirty pounds. They cast for Gilgamesh the axe ‘Might of Heroes'
and the bow of Anshan; and Gilgamesh was armed and Enkidu; and the weight of the arms they
carried was thirty score pounds.
The people collected and the counsellors in the streets and in the market-place of Uruk; they
came through the gate of seven bolts and Gilgamesh spoke to them in the market-place: ‘I,
Gilgamesh, go to see that creature of whom such things are spoken, the rumour of whose name
fills the world. I will conquer him in his cedar wood and show the strength of the sons of Uruk,
all the world shall. know of it. I am committed to this enterprise: to climb the mountain, to cut
down the cedar, and leave behind me an enduring name.' The counsellors of Uruk; the great
market, answered him, ‘Gilgamesh, you are young, your courage carries you too far, you cannot
know what this enterprise means which you plan. We have heard that Hurnbaba is not like men
who die, his weapons are such that none can stand against them; the forest stretches for ten
thousand leagues in every direction; who would willingly go down to explore its depths? As for
Humbaba, when he roars it is like the torrent of the storm, his breath is like fire and his jaws are
death itself. Why do you crave to do this thing, Gilgamesh? It is no equal struggle when one
fights with Humbaba, that battering-ram:
When he heard these words of the counsellors Gilgamesh looked at his friend and laughed, ‘How
shall I answer them; shall I say I am afraid of Humbaba, I will sit at home all the rest of my
days?' Then Gilgamesh opened his mouth again and said to Enkidu, ‘My friend, let us go to the
Great Palace, to Egalmah, and stand before Ninsun the queen. Ninsun is wise with deep
knowledge, she will give us counsel for the road we must go.' They took each other by the hand
as they went to Egalmah, and they went to Ninsun the great queen. Gilgamesh approached, he
entered the palace and spoke to Ninsun. ‘Ninsun, will you listen to me; I have a long journey to
go, to the Land of Humbaba, I must travel an unknown road and fight a strange battle. From the
day I go until I return, till I reach the cedar forest and destroy the evil which Shamash abhors,
pray for me to Shamash.'
15
Ninsun went into her room, she put on a dress becoming to her body, she put on jewels to make
her breast beautiful, she placed a tiara on her head and her skirts swept the ground. Then she
went up to the altar of the Sun, standing upon the roof of the palace; she burnt incense and lifted
her arms to Shamash as the smoke ascended: ‘O Shamash, why did you give this restless heart to
Gilgamesh, my son; why did you give it? You have moved him and now he sets out on a long
journey to the Land of Humbaba, to travel an unknown road and fight a strange battle. Therefore
from the day that he goes till the day he returns, until he reaches the cedar forest, until he kills
Humbaba and destroys the evil thing which you, Shamash, abhor, do not forget him; but let the
dawn, Aya, your dear bride, remind you always, and when day is done give him to the watchman
of the night to keep him from harm.' Then Ninsun the mother of Gilgamesh extinguished the
incense, and she called to Enkidu with this exhortation: ‘Strong Enkidu, you are not the child of
my body, but I will receive you as my adopted son; you are my other child like the foundlings
they bring to the temple. Serve Gilgamesh as a foundling serves the temple and the priestess who
reared him. In the presence of my women, any votaries and hierophants, I declare it.' Then she
placed - the amulet for a pledge round his neck, and she said to him, ‘I entrust my son to you;
bring him back to me safely.'
And now they brought to them the weapons, they put in their hands the great swords in their
golden scabbards, and the bow and the quiver. Gilgamesh took the axe, he slung the quiver from
his -shoulder, and the bow of Anshan, and buckled the sword to his belt; and so they were armed
and ready for the journey. Now all the people came and pressed on them and said, ‘When will
you return to the city? The counsellors blessed Gilgamesh and warned him, ‘Do not trust too
much in your own strength, be watchful, restrain your blows at first. The one who goes in front
protects his companion; the good guide who knows the way guards his. friend. Let Enkidu lead
the way, he knows the road to the forest, he has seen Humbaba and is experienced in battles; let
him press first into the passes, let him be watchful and look to himself. Let-Enkidu protect his
friend, and guard his companion, and bring him safe through the pitfalls of the road. We, the
counsellors of Uruk entrust our king to you, O Enkidu; bring him back safely to us.' Again to
Gilgamesh, they said, ‘May Shamash give you your heart's desire, may he let you see with your
eyes the thing accomplished which your lips have spoken; may he open a path for you where it is
blocked, and a road for your feet to tread. May he open the mountains for your crossing, and may
the nighttime bring you the blessings of night, and Lugulbanda, your guardian god, stand beside
you for victory. May you have victory in the battle as though you fought with a child. Wash your
feet in the river of Humbaba to which you are journeying; in the evening dig a well, and let there
always be pure water in your water-skin. Offer cold water to Shamash and do not forget
Lugulbanda.'
Then Enkidu opened his mouth and said, ‘Forward, there is nothing to fear. Follow me, for I
know the place where Humbaba lives and the paths where he walks. Let the counsellors go back.
Here is no cause for fear.' When the counsellors heard this they sped the hero on his way. ‘Go,
Gilgamesh, may your guardian god protect you on the road and bring you safely back to the quay
of Uruk.'
After twenty leagues they broke their fast; after another thirty leagues they stopped for the night.
Fifty leagues they walked in one day; in three days they had walked as much as a journey of a
month and two weeks. They crossed seven mountains before they came to the gate of the forest.
16
Then Enkidu called out to Gilgamesh, ‘Do not go down into the forest; when I opened the gate
my hand lost its strength.' Gilgamesh answered him, ‘Dear friend, do not speak like a coward.
Have we got the better of so many dangers and travelled so far, to turn back at last? You, who
are tried in wars and battles, hold dose to me now and you will feel no fear of death; keep beside
me and your weakness will pass, the trembling will leave your hand. Would my friend rather stay
behind? No, we will, go down together into the heart of the forest. Let your courage be roused by
the battle to come; forget death and follow me, a man resolute in action, but one who is not
foolhardy. When two go together each will protect himself and shield his companion, and if they
fall they leave an enduring name.'
Together they went down into the forest and they came to the green mountain. There they stood
still, they were struck dumb; they stood still and gazed at the forest. They saw the height of the
cedar, they saw the way into the forest and the track where Humbaba was used to walk. The way
was broad and the going was good. They gazed at the mountain of cedars, the dwelling-place of
the gods and the throne of Ishtar. The hugeness of the cedar rose in front of the mountain, its
shade was beautiful, full of comfort; mountain and glade were green with brushwood:
There Gilgamesh dug a well before the setting sun. He went up the mountain and poured out fine
meal on the ground and said, ‘O mountain, dwelling of the gods, bring me a favourable dream.'
Then they took each other' by the hand and lay down to sleep; and sleep that flows from the night
lapped over them. Gilgamesh dreamed, and at midnight sleep left him, and he told his dream to
his friend. ‘Enkidu, what was it that woke me if you did not? My friend, I have dreamed a dream.
Get up, look at the mountain precipice. The sleep that the gods sent me is broken. Ah, my friend,
what a dream I have had! Terror and confusion; I seized hold of a wild bull in the wilderness. It
bellowed and beat up the dust till the whole sky was dark, my arm was seized and my tongue
bitten. I fell back on' my knee; then someone refreshed me with water from his water-skin.'
Enkidu said, ‘Dear friend, the god to whom we are travelling is no wild bull, though his form is
mysterious. That wild bull which you saw is Shamash the Protector; in our moment of peril he
will take our hands. The one who gave water from his water-skin, that is your own god who
cares for your good name, your Lugulbanda. United with him, together we will accomplish a
work the fame of which will never die.'
Gilgamesh said, ‘I dreamed again. We stood in a deep gorge of the mountain, and beside it we
two were like the smallest of swamp flies; and suddenly the mountain fell, it struck me and
caught my feet from under me. Then came an intolerable light blazing out, and in it was one
whose grace and whose beauty were greater than the beauty of this world. He pulled me out from
under the mountain, he gave me water to drink and my heart was comforted, and he set my feet
on the-ground.'
Then Enkidu the child of the plains said, ‘Let us go down from the mountain and talk this thing
over together.' He said to Gilgamesh the young god, ‘Your dream is good, your dream is
excellent, the mountain which you saw is Humbaba. Now, surely, we will seize and kill him, and
throw his body down as the mountain fell on the plain.'
17
The next day after twenty leagues they broke their fast, and after another thirty they stopped for
the night. They dug a well before the sun had set and Gilgamesh ascended the mountain. He
poured out fine meal on the ground and said, ‘O mountain, dwelling of the gods, send a dream
for Enkidu, make him a favourable dream.' The mountain fashioned a dream for Enkidu; it came,
an ominous dream; a cold shower passed over him, it caused him to tike the mountain barley
under a storm of rain. But Gilgamesh sat with his chin on his knees till the sleep which flows
over all mankind lapped over him. Then, at midnight, sleep left him; he got up and said to his
friend, ‘Did you call me, or why did I wake? Did you touch me, or why am I terrified? Did not
some god pass by, for my limbs are numb with fear? My friend, I saw a third dream and this
dream was altogether frightful. The heavens roared and the earth roared again, daylight failed
and darkness fell, lightnings flashed, fire blazed out, the clouds lowered, they rained down death.
Then the brightness departed, the fire went out, and all was turned to ashes fallen about us. Let
us go down from the mountain and talk this over, and consider what we should do.'
When they had come down from the mountain Gilgamesh seized the axe in his hand: he felled
the cedar. When Humbaba heard the noise far off he was enraged; he cried out, ‘Who is this that
has violated my woods and cut down my cedar?' But glorious Shamash called to them out of
heaven, 'Go forward, do not be afraid.' But now' Gilgamesh was overcome by weakness, for
sleep had seized him suddenly, a profound sleep held him; he lay on the ground, stretched out
speechless, as though in a dream. When Enkidu touched him he did not rise, when he spoke to
him he did not reply. ‘O Gilgamesh, Lord of the plain of Kullab, the world grows dark, the
shadows have spread over it, now is the glimmer of dusk. Shamash has departed, his bright head
is quenched in the bosom of his mother Ningal. O Gilgamesh, how long will you lie like this,
asleep? Never let the mother who gave you birth be forced in mourning into the city square.'
At length Gilgamesh heard him; lie put on his breastplate, ‘The Voice of Heroes', of thirty
shekels' weight; he put it on as though it had been a light garment that he carried, and it covered
him altogether. He straddled the earth like a bull that snuff's the ground and his teeth were
clenched. ‘By the life of my mother Ninsun who gave me birth, and by the life of my father,
divine Lugulbanda, let me live to be the wonder of my mother, -as when she nursed me on her
lap.' A second time he said to him, ‘By the life of Ninsun my mother who gave me birth, and by
the life of my father, divine Lugulbanda, until we have fought thus man, if man he is, this god, if
god he is, the way that I took to the Country of the Living will not turn back to the city.'
Then Enkidu, the faithful companion, pleaded, answering him, ‘O my lord, you do not know this
monster and that is the reason you are not afraid. I who know him, I am terrified. His teeth are
dragon's fangs, his countenance is like a lion, his charge is the rushing of the flood, with his look
he crushes alike the trees of the forest and reeds in the swamp. O my Lord, you may go on if you
choose into thus land, but I will go back to the city. I will tell the lady your mother all your
glorious' deeds till she shouts for joy: and then I will tell the death that followed till she weeps
for bitterness.' But Gilgamesh said, ‘Immolation and sacrifice are not yet for me, the boat of the
dead shall not go down, nor the three-ply cloth be cut for my shrouding. Not yet will my people
be desolate, nor the pyre be lit in my house and my dwelling burnt on the fire. Today, give me
your aid and you shall have mine: what then can go amiss with us two? All living creatures born
of the flesh shall sit at last in the boat of the West, and when it sinks, when the boat of Magilum
sinks, they are gone; but we shall go forward and fix our eyes on this monster. If your heart is
18
fearful throw away fear; if there is terror in it throw away terror. Take your axe in your hand and
attack. He who leaves the fight unfinished is not at peace.'
Humbaba came out from his strong house of cedar. Then Enkidu called out, ‘O Gilgamesh,
remember now your boasts in Uruk. Forward, attack, son of Uruk, there is nothing to fear.' When
he heard these words his courage rallied; he answered, ‘Make haste, close in, if the watchman is
there do not let him escape to the woods where he will vanish. He has put on the first of his
seven splendours but not yet the other six, let us trap him before he is armed.' Like a raging wild
bull he snuffed the ground; the watchman of the woods turned full of threatenings, he cried out.
Humbaba came from his strong house of cedar. He nodded his head and shook it, menacing
Gilgamesh; and on him he fastened his eye, the eye of death. Then Gilgamesh called to Shamash
and his tears were flowing, ‘O glorious Shamash, I have followed the road you commanded but
now if you send no succour how shall I escape? Glorious Shamash heard his prayer and he
summoned the great wind, the north wind, the whirlwind, the storm and the icy wind, the tempest
and the scorching wind; they came like dragons, like a scorching fire, like a serpent that freezes
the heart, a destroying flood and the lightning's fork. The eight winds rose up against Humbaba,
they beat against his eyes; he was gripped, unable to go forward or back. Gilgamesh shouted,
‘By the life of Ninsun my mother and divine Lugulbanda my father, in the Country of the Living,
in this Land I have discovered your dwelling; my weak arms and my small weapons I have
brought to this Land against you, and now I will enter your house'.
So he felled the first cedar and they cut the branches and laid them at the foot of the mountain.
At the first stroke Humbaba blazed out, but still they advanced. They felled seven cedars and cut
and bound the branches and laid them at the foot of the mountain, and seven times Humbaba
loosed his glory on them. As the seventh blaze died out they reached his lair. He slapped his
thigh in scorn. He approached like a noble wild bull roped on the mountain, a warrior whose
elbows are bound together. The tears started to his eyes and he was pale, ‘Gilgamesh, let me
speak. I have never known a mother, no, nor a father who reared me. I was born of the mountain,
he reared me, and Enlil made me the keeper of this forest. Let me go free, Gilgamesh, and I will
be your servant, you shall be my lord; all the trees of the forest that I tended on the mountain
shall be yours. I will cut them down and build you a palace.' He took him by the hand and led
him to his house, so that the heart of Gilgamesh was moved with compassion. He swore by the
heavenly life, by the earthly life, by the underworld itself: ‘O Enkidu, should not the snared, bird
return to its nest and the captive man return to his mother's arms?' Enkidu answered, ‘The
strongest of men will fall to fate if he has no judgement. Namtar, the evil fate that knows no
distinction between men, will devour him. If the snared bird returns to its nest, if the captive man
returns to his mother's arms, then you my friend will never return to the city where the mother is
waiting who gave you birth. He will bar the mountain road against you, and make the pathways
impassable.'
Humbaba said, 'Enkidu, what you have spoken is evil: you, a hireling, dependent for your bread!
In envy and for fear of a rival you have spoken evil words.' Enkidu said, ‘Do not listen,
Gilgamesh: this Humbaba must die. Kill Humbaba first and his servants after.' But Gilgamesh
said, 'If we touch him the blaze and the glory of light will be put out in confusion, the glory and
glamour will vanish, its rays will be quenched.' Enkidu said to Gilgamesh, ‘Not so, my friend.
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First entrap the bird, and where shall the chicks run then? Afterwards we can search out the glory
and the glamour, when the chicks run distracted through the grass.'
Gilgamesh listened to the word of his companion, he took the axe in his hand, he drew the sword
from his belt, and he struck Humbaba with a thrust of the sword to the neck, and Enkidu his
comrade struck the second blow. At the third blow Humbaba fell. Then there followed confusion
for this was the guardian of the forest whom they had felled to the ground. For as far as two
leagues the cedars shivered when Enkidu felled the watcher of the forest, he at whose voice
Hermon and Lebanon used to tremble. Now the mountains were moved and all the hills, for the
guardian of the forest was killed. They attacked the cedars, the seven splendours of Humbaba
were extinguished. So they pressed on into the forest bearing the sword of eight talents. They
uncovered the sacred dwellings of the Anunnaki and while Gilgamesh felled the first of the trees
of the forest Enkidu cleared their roots as far as the banks of Euphrates. They set Humbaba
before the gods, before Enlil; they kissed the ground and dropped the shroud and set the head
before him. When he saw the head of Humbaba, Enlil raged at them. ‘Why did you do this thing?
From henceforth may the fire be on your faces, may it eat the bread that you eat, may it drink
where you drink.' Then Enlil took again the blaze and the seven splendours that had been
Humbaba's: he gave the first to the river, and he gave to the lion, to the stone of execration, to the
mountain and to the dreaded daughter of the Queen of Hell.
O Gilgamesh, king and conqueror of the dreadful blaze; wild bull who plunders the mountain,
who crosses the sea, glory to him, and from the brave the greater glory is Enki's!
Big Picture Question: Abraham, the patriarch of the Jews was born in Ur of the Chaldees,
the Babylonian name for Sumer. Mesopotamian civilization is much older than Jewish
culture and had a great impact on Jewish civilization. Using your knowledge of the
introduction to Genesis, identify shared cultural elements between Jewish and
Mesopotamian society. Be prepared to justify your answer.
THE EPIC OF GILGAMESH, TABLET 5, THE STORY OF THE FLOOD
‘You know the city Shurrupak, it stands on the banks of Euphrates? That city grew old and the
gods that were in it were old. There was Anu,-lord of the firmament, their father, and warrior
Enlil their counsellor, Ninurta the helper, and Ennugi watcher over canals; and with them also
was Ea. In those days the world teemed, the people multiplied, the world bellowed like a wild
bull, and the great god was aroused by the clamour. Enlil heard the clamour and he said to the
gods in council, "The uproar of mankind is intolerable and sleep is no longer possible by reason
of the babel." So the gods agreed to exterminate mankind. Enlil did this, but Ea because of his
oath warned me in a dream. He whispered their words to my house of reeds, "Reed-house, reedhouse! Wall, O wall, hearken reed-house, wall reflect; O man of Shurrupak, son of Ubara-Tutu;
tear down your house and build a boat, abandon possessions and look for life, despise worldly
goods and save your soul alive. Tear down your house, I say, and build a boat. These are the
measurements of the barque as you shall build her: let hex beam equal her length, let her deck be
20
roofed like the vault that covers the abyss; then take up into the boat the seed of all living
creatures."
‘When I had understood I said to my lord, "Behold, what you have commanded I will honour and
perform, but how shall I answer the people, the city, the elders?" Then Ea opened his mouth and
said to me, his servant, "Tell them this: I have learnt that Enlil is wrathful against me, I dare no
longer walk in his land nor live in his city; I will go down to the Gulf to dwell with Ea my lord.
But on you he will rain down abundance, rare fish and shy wild-fowl, a rich harvest-tide. In the
evening the rider of the storm will bring you wheat in torrents."
‘In the first light of dawn all my household gathered round me, the children brought pitch and the
men whatever was necessary. On the fifth day I laid the keel and the ribs, then I made fast the
planking. The ground-space was one acre, each side of the deck measured one hundred and
twenty cubits, making a square. I built six decks below, seven in all, I divided them into nine
sections with bulkheads between. I drove in wedges where needed, I saw to the punt poles, and
laid in supplies. The carriers brought oil in baskets, I poured pitch into the furnace and asphalt
and oil; more oil was consumed in caulking, and more again the master of the boat took into his
stores. I slaughtered bullocks for the people and every day I killed sheep. I gave the shipwrights
wine to drink as though it were river water, raw wine and red wine and oil and white wine. There
was feasting then as -there is at the time of the New Year's festival; I myself anointed my head.
On the seventh day the boat was complete.’
Then was the launching full of difficulty; there was shifting of ballast above and below till two
thirds was submerged. I loaded into her all that 1 had of gold and of living things, my family, my
kin, the beast of the field both wild and tame, and all the craftsmen. I sent them on board, for the
time that Shamash had ordained was already fulfilled when he said, "in the evening, when the
rider of the storm sends down the destroying rain, enter the boat and batten her down." The time
was fulfilled, the evening came, the rider of the storm sent down the rain. I looked out at the
weather and it was terrible, so I too boarded the boat and battened her down. All was now
complete, the battening and the caulking; so I handed the tiller to Puzur-Amurri the steersman,
with the navigation and the care of the whole boat.
With the first light of dawn a black cloud came from the horizon; it thundered within where
Adad, lord of the storm was riding. In front over hill and plain Shullat and Hanish, heralds of the
storm, led on. Then the gods of the abyss rose up; Nergal pulled out the dams of the nether
waters, Ninurta the war-lord threw down the dykes, and the seven judges of hell, the Annunaki,
raised their torches, lighting the land with their livid flame. A stupor of despair went up to
heaven when the god of the storm turned daylight to darkness, when he smashed the land like a
cup. One whole day the tempest raged, gathering fury as .it went, it poured over the people like
the tides of battle; a imam could not see his brother nor the people be seen from heaven. Even the
gods were terrified at the flood, they fled to the highest heaven, the firmament of Ann; they
crouched against the walls, cowering like curs. Then Ishtar the sweet-voiced Queen of Heaven
cried out like a woman in travail: "Alas the days -of old are turned to dust because I commanded
evil; why did I command thus evil in the council of all the gods? I commanded wars to destroy
the people, but are they not my people, for I brought them forth? Now like the spawn of fish they
float in the ocean." The great gods of heaven and of hell wept, they covered their mouths.
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‘For six days and six nights the winds blew, torrent and tempest and flood overwhelmed the
world, tempest and flood raged together like warring hosts. When the seventh day dawned the
storm from the south subsided, the sea grew calm, the, flood was stilled; I looked at the face of
the world and there was silence, all mankind was turned to clay. The surface of the sea stretched
as flat as a roof-top; I opened a hatch and the light fell on my face. Then I bowed low, I sat down
and I wept, the tears streamed down my face, for on every side was the waste of water. I looked
for land in vain, but fourteen leagues distant there appeared a mountain, and there the boat
grounded; on the mountain of Nisir the boat held fast, she held fast and did not budge. One day
she held, and -a second day on the mountain of Nisir she held fast and did not budge. A third
day, and a fourth day she held fast on the mountain and did not budge; a fifth day and a sixth day
she held fast on the mountain. When the seventh day dawned I loosed a dove and let her go. She
flew away, but finding no resting-place she returned. Then I loosed a swallow, and she flew
away but finding no resting-place she returned. I loosed a raven, she saw that the waters had
retreated, she ate, she flew around, she cawed, and she did not come back. Then I threw
everything open to the four winds, I made a sacrifice and poured out a libation on the mountain
top. Seven and again seven cauldrons I set up on their stands, I heaped up wood and cane and
cedar and myrtle. When the gods smelled the sweet savour, they gathered like flies over the
sacrifice. Then, at last, Ishtar also came, she lifted her necklace with the jewels of heaven that
once Anu had made to please her. "O you gods here present, by the lapis lazuli round my neck I
shall remember these days as I remember the jewels of my throat; these last days I shall not
forget. Let all the gods gather round the sacrifice, except Enlil. He shall not approach this
offering, for without reflection he brought the flood; he consigned my people to destruction."
‘When Enlil had come, when he saw the boat, he was wrath and swelled with anger at the gods,
the host of heaven, "Has any of these mortals escaped? Not one was to have survived the
destruction." Then the god of the wells and canals Ninurta opened his mouth and said to the
warrior Enlil, "Who is there of the gods that can devise without Ea? It is Ea alone who knows all
things." Then Ea opened his mouth and spoke to warrior Enlil, "Wisest of gods, hero Enlil, how
could you so senselessly bring down the flood?
Lay upon the sinner his sin,
Lay upon the transgressor his transgression,
Punish him a little when he breaks loose,
Do not drive him too hard or he perishes,
Would that a lion had ravaged mankind
Rather than the f loud,
Would that a wolf had ravaged mankind
Rather than the flood,
Would that famine had wasted the world
Rather than the flood,
Would that pestilence had wasted mankind
Rather than the flood.
It was not I that revealed the secret of the gods; the wise man learned it in a dream. Now take
your counsel what shall be done with him."
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‘Then Enlil went up into the boat, he took me by the hand and my wife and made us enter the
boat and kneel down on either side, he standing between us. He touched our foreheads to bless us
saying, "In time past Utnapishtim was a mortal man; henceforth he and his wife shall live in the
distance at the mouth of the rivers." Thus it was that the gods took me and placed me here to live
in the distance, at the mouth of the rivers.'
Source: "The Epic of Gilgamesh." AINA Books. Assyrian International News Association, Web.
08 Aug. 2013. <http://www.aina.org/books/eog/eog.htm>.
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THE CODE OF HAMMURABI
The Babylonian ruler Hammurabi (c, 1792 - 1750 B.C.E.) controlled the Fertile Crescent and
had these laws written down. Inscribed on stone stelae that were placed in various areas of the
kingdom, these laws are an early indication of the desire for order.
Big Picture Question: How does Hammurabi’s Code facilitate unity? How does
Hammurabi’s Code reflect hierarchy, inequalities and gender norms?
Prologue
When Anu the Sublime, King of the Anunaki, and Bel, the lord of Heaven and earth, who
decreed the fate of the land, assigned to Marduk, the over-ruling son of Ea, God of righteousness,
dominion over earthly man, and made him great among the Igigi, they called Babylon by his
illustrious name, made it great on earth, and founded an everlasting kingdom in it, whose
foundations are laid so solidly as those of heaven and earth; then Anu and Bel called by name
me, Hammurabi, the exalted prince, who feared God, to bring about the rule of righteousness in
the land, to destroy the wicked and the evil-doers; so that the strong should not harm the weak;
so that I should rule over the black-headed people like Shamash, and enlighten the land, to
further the well-being of mankind. Hammurabi, the prince, called of Bel am I, making riches and
increase, ... who reestablished Eridu and purified the worship of E-apsu; who conquered the four
quarters of the world, made great the name of Babylon, ... the lord who granted new life to Uruk,
who brought plenteous water to its inhabitants, raised the head of E-anna, and perfected the
beauty of Anu and Nana; shield of the land, who reunited the scattered inhabitants of Isin; ... the
divine king of the city; ... the Mighty, the lord to whom come scepter and crown, with which he
clothes himself; the Elect of Ma-ma; who fixed the temple bounds of Kesh, who made rich the
holy feasts of Nin-tu; the provident, who provided large sacrificial offerings for the temple of
Ningirsu; ... the pure prince, whose prayer is accepted by Adad; ... the sublime prince, who
makes the face of Ninni shine; who presents holy meals to the divinity of Nin-a-zu, who cared
for its inhabitants in their need, provided a portion for them in Babylon in peace; the shepherd of
the oppressed and of the slaves; whose deeds find favor before Anunit, ... who recognizes the
right, who rules by law; who gave back to the city of Ashur its protecting god; who let the name
of Ishtar of Nineveh remain in E-mish-mish; the Sublime, who humbles himself before the great
gods; successor of Sumula-il; the mighty son of Sin-muballit; the royal scion of Eternity; the
mighty monarch, the sun of Babylon, whose rays shed light over the land of Sumer and Akkad;
the king, obeyed by the four quarters of the world; Beloved of Ninni, am I. When Marduk sent
me to rule over men, to give the protection of right to the land, I did right and righteousness, and
brought about the well-being of the oppressed.
CODE OF LAWS
1. If anyone ensnare another, putting a ban upon him, but he cannot prove it, then he that
ensnared him shall be put to death.
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2. If anyone bring an accusation against a man, and the accused go to the river and leap into
the river, if he sink in the river his accuser shall take possession of his house. But if the
river prove that the accused is not guilty, and he escape unhurt, then he who had brought
the accusation shall be put to death, while he who leaped into the river shall take
possession of the house that had belonged to his accuser.
3. If anyone bring an accusation of any crime before the elders, and does not prove what he
has charged, he shall, if it be a capital offense charged, be put to death.
5. If a judge try a case, reach a decision, and present his judgment in writing; if later error
shall appear in his decision, and it be through his own fault, then he shall pay twelve
times the fine set by him in the case, and he shall be publicly removed from the judge's
bench, and never again shall he sit there to render judgment.
8. If anyone steal cattle or sheep, or an ass, or a pig or a goat, if it belong to a god or to the
court, the thief shall pay thirtyfold therefor; if they belonged to a freed man of the king he
shall pay tenfold; if the thief has nothing with which to pay he shall be put to death.
[editor's note: there is no thirteenth law in the code, the number thirteen being considered
an unlucky and evil number]
14. If anyone steal the minor son of another, he shall be put to death.
15. If anyone take a male or female slave of the court, or a male or female slave of a freed
man, outside the city gates, he shall be put to death.
16. If anyone receive into his house a runaway male or female slave of the court, or of a
freedman, and does not bring it out at the public proclamation of the major domus, the
master of the house shall be put to death.
17. If anyone find runaway male or female slaves in the open country and bring them to their
masters, the master of the slaves shall pay him two shekels of silver.
18. If the slave will not give the name of the master, the finder shall bring him to the palace;
a further investigation must follow, and the slave shall be returned to his master.
19. If he hold the slaves in his house, and they are caught there, he shall be put to death.
20. If the slave that he caught run away from him, then shall he swear to the owners of the
slave, and he is free of all blame.
21. If anyone break a hole into a house (break in to steal), he shall be put to death before that
hole and be buried.
22. If anyone is committing a robbery and is caught, then he shall be put to death.
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23. If the robber is not caught, then shall he who was robbed claim under oath the amount of
his loss; then shall the community, and . . . on whose ground and territory and in whose
domain it was compensate him for the goods stolen.
24. If persons are stolen, then shall the community and . . . pay one mina of silver to their
relatives.
25. If fire break out in a house, and someone who comes to put it out cast his eye upon the
property of the owner of the house, and take the property of the master of the house, he
shall be thrown into that self-same fire.
44. If anyone take over a waste-lying field to make it arable, but is lazy, and does not make it
arable, he shall plow the fallow field in the fourth year, harrow it and till it, and give it
back to its owner, and for each ten gan (a measure of area) ten gur of grain shall be paid.
45. If a man rent his field for tillage for a fixed rental, and receive the rent of his field, but
bad weather come and destroy the harvest, the injury falls upon the tiller of the soil.
46. If he does not receive a fixed rental for his field, but lets it on half or third shares of the
harvest, the grain on the field shall be divided proportionately between the tiller and the
owner.
47. If the tiller, because he did not succeed in the first year, has had the soil tilled by others,
the owner may raise no objection; the field has been cultivated and he receives the
harvest according to agreement.
56. If a man let in the water, and the water overflow the plantation of his neighbor, he shall
pay ten gur of corn for every ten gan of land.
59. If any man, without the knowledge of the owner of a garden, fell a tree in a garden he
shall pay half a mina in money.
108.If a tavern-keeper does not accept corn according to gross weight in payment of drink,
but takes money, and the price of the drink is less than that of the corn, she shall be
convicted and thrown into the water.
109.If conspirators meet in the house of a tavern-keeper, and these conspirators are not
captured and delivered to the court, the tavern-keeper shall be put to death.
110.If a "sister of a god" open a tavern, or enter a tavern to drink, then shall this woman be
burned to death.
111.If an inn-keeper furnish sixty ka of usakani-drink to . . . she shall receive fifty ka of corn
at the harvest.
118.If he give a male or female slave away for forced labor, and the merchant sublease them,
or sell them for money, no objection can be raised.
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126.If anyone who has not lost his goods state that they have been lost, and make false
claims: if he claim his goods and amount of injury before God, even though he has not
lost them, he shall be fully compensated for all his loss claimed. (I.e., the oath is all that
is needed.)
127. If any one "point the finger" (slander) at a sister of a god or the wife of any one, and can
not prove it, this man shall be taken before the judges and his brow shall be marked.
128.If a man take a woman to wife, but have no intercourse with her, this woman is no wife
to him.
129.If a man's wife be surprised (in flagrante delicto) with another man, both shall be tied
and thrown into the water, but the husband may pardon his wife and the king his slaves.
130.If a man violate the wife (betrothed or child-wife) of another man, who has never known
a man, and still lives in her father's house, and sleep with her and be surprised, this man
shall be put to death, but the wife is blameless.
131.If a man bring a charge against one's wife, but she is not surprised with another man, she
must take an oath and then may return to her house.
132.If the "finger is pointed" at a man's wife about another man, but she is not caught
sleeping with the other man, she shall jump into the river for her husband.
133.If a man is taken prisoner in war, and there is a sustenance in his house, but his wife
leave house and court, and go to another house: because this wife did not keep her court,
and went to another house, she shall be judicially condemned and thrown into the water.
134.If anyone be captured in war and there is not sustenance in his house, if then his wife go
to another house this woman shall be held blameless.
135.If a man be taken prisoner in war and there be no sustenance in his house and his wife go
to another house and bear children; and if later her husband return and come to his home:
then this wife shall return to her husband, but the children follow their father.
136.If anyone leave his house, run away, and then his wife go to another house, if then he
return, and wishes to take his wife back: because he fled from his home and ran away,
the wife of this runaway shall not return to her husband.
137. If a man wish to separate from a woman who has borne him children, or from his wife
who has borne him children: then he shall give that wife her dowry, and a part of the
usufruct of field, garden, and property, so that she can rear her children. When she has
brought up her children, a portion of all that is given to the children, equal as that of one
son, shall be given to her. She may then marry the man of her heart.
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138.If a man wishes to separate from his wife who has borne him no children, he shall give
her the amount of her purchase money and the dowry which she brought from her
father's house, and let her go.
139.If there was no purchase price he shall give her one mina of gold as a gift of release.
140. If he be a freed man he shall give her one-third of a mina of gold.
141. If a man's wife, who lives in his house, wishes to leave it, plunges into debt, tries to
ruin her house, neglects her husband, and is judicially convicted: if her husband offer her
release, she may go on her way, and he gives her nothing as a gift of release. If her
husband does not wish to release her, and if he take another wife, she shall remain as
servant in her husband's house.
142.If a woman quarrel with her husband, and say: "You are not congenial to me," the
reasons for her prejudice must be presented. If she is guiltless, and there is no fault on
her part, but he leaves and neglects her, then no guilt attaches to this woman, she shall
take her dowry and go back to her father's house.
143.If she is not innocent, but leaves her husband, and ruins her house, neglecting her
husband, this woman shall be cast into the water.
152.If after the woman had entered the man's house, both contracted a debt, both must pay
the merchant.
153.If the wife of one man on account of another man has their mates (her husband and the
other man's wife) murdered, both of them shall be impaled.
154.If a man be guilty of incest with his daughter, he shall be driven from the place (exiled).
155.If a man betroth a girl to his son, and his son have intercourse with her, but he (the
father) afterward defile her, and be surprised, then he shall be bound and cast into the
water (drowned).
156.If a man betroth a girl to his son, but his son has not known her, and if then he defile her,
he shall pay her half a gold mina, and compensate her for all that she brought out of her
father's house. She may marry the man of her heart.
157.If anyone be guilty of incest with his mother after his father, both shall be burned.
158.If anyone be surprised after his father with his chief wife, who has borne children, he
shall be driven out of his father's house.
159.If anyone, who has brought chattels into his father-in-law's house, and has paid the
purchase-money, looks for another wife, and says to his father-in-law: "I do not want
your daughter," the girl's father may keep all that he had brought.
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160.If a man bring chattels into the house of his father-in-law, and pay the "purchase price"
(for his wife): if then the father of the girl say: "I will not give you my daughter," he
shall give him back all that he brought with him.
162.If a man marry a woman, and she bear sons to him; if then this woman die, then shall her
father have no claim on her dowry; this belongs to her sons.
166.If a man take wives for his son, but take no wife for his minor son, and if then he die: if
the sons divide the estate, they shall set aside besides his portion the money for the
"purchase price" for the minor brother who had taken no wife as yet, and secure a wife
for him.
167.If a man marry a wife and she bear him children: if this wife die and he then take another
wife and she bear him children: if then the father die, the sons must not partition the
estate according to the mothers, they shall divide the dowries of their mothers only in
this way; the paternal estate they shall divide equally with one another.
168. If a man wish to put his son out of his house, and declare before the judge: "I want
to put my son out," then the judge shall examine into his reasons. If the son be guilty of
no great fault, for which he can be rightfully put out, the father shall not put him out.
169. If he be guilty of a grave fault, which should rightfully deprive him of the filial
relationship, the father shall forgive him the first time; but if he be guilty of a grave fault
a second time the father may deprive his son of all filial relation.
170.If his wife bear sons to a man, or his maid-servant have borne sons, and the father while
still living says to the children whom his maid-servant has borne: "My sons," and he
count them with the sons of his wife; if then the father die, then the sons of the wife and
of the maid-servant shall divide the paternal property in common. The son of the wife is
to partition and choose.
175.If a State slave or the slave of a freed man marry the daughter of a free man, and children
are born, the master of the slave shall have no right to enslave the children of the free.
181.If a father devote a temple-maid or temple-virgin to God and give her no present: if then
the father die, she shall receive the third of a child's portion from the inheritance of her
father's house, and enjoy its usufruct so long as she lives. Her estate belongs to her
brothers.
184.If a man do not give a dowry to his daughter by a concubine, and no husband; if then her
father die, her brother shall give her a dowry according to her father's wealth and secure
a husband for her.
185.If a man adopt a child and to his name as son, and rear him, this grown son cannot be
demanded back again.
186.If a man adopt a son, and if after he has taken him he injure his foster father and mother,
then this adopted son shall return to his father's house.
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187.The son of a paramour in the palace service, or of a prostitute, can not be demanded
back.
188.If an artisan has undertaken to rear a child and teaches him his craft, he can not be
demanded back.
189.If he has not taught him his craft, this adopted son may return to his father's house.
192.If a son of a paramour or a prostitute say to his adoptive father or mother: "You are not
my father, or my mother," his tongue shall be cut off.
193.If the son of a paramour or a prostitute desire his father's house, and desert his adoptive
father and adoptive mother, and goes to his father's house, then shall his eye be put out.
194.If a man give his child to a nurse and the child die in her hands, but the nurse unbeknown
to the father and mother nurse another child, then they shall convict her of having nursed
another child without the knowledge of the father and mother and her breasts shall be cut
off.
195.If a son strike his father, his hands shall be hewn off.
196.If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out
200.If a man knock out the teeth of his equal, his teeth shall be knocked out. . . .
218.If a physician make a large incision with the operating knife, and kill him, or open a
tumor with the operating knife, and cut out the eye, his hands shall be cut off. . . .
220.If he had opened a tumor with the operating knife, and put out his eye, he shall pay half
his value.
221.If a physician heal the broken bone or diseased soft part of a man, the patient shall pay
the physician five shekels in money.
229.If a builder build a house for someone, and does not construct it properly, and the house
which he built fall in and kill its owner, then that builder shall be put to death.
233. If a builder build a house for someone, even though he has not yet completed it; if then
the walls seem toppling, the builder must make the walls solid from his own means.
Source: "The Code of Hammurabi." Code of Hammurabi. Trans. L. W. King. Academy for
Ancient Texts, Web. 07 June 2001. 08 Aug. 2013. Resource on Line:
<http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/mesopotamian/hammurabi.html>.
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PAPYRUS OF ANI: THE BOOK OF THE DEAD
The Book of the Dead is the common name for the ancient Egyptian funerary texts known as The
Book of Coming [or Going] Forth By Day. The name "Book of the Dead" was the invention of
the German Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius, who published a selection of some texts in 1842.
The text was initially carved on the exterior of the deceased person's sarcophagus, but was later
written on papyrus now known as scrolls and buried inside the sarcophagus with the deceased,
presumably so that it would be both portable and close at hand. Other texts often accompanied
the primary texts including the hypocephalus (meaning 'under the head') which was a primer
version of the full text. Books of the Dead constituted as a collection of spells, charms,
passwords, numbers and magical formulas for the use of the deceased in the afterlife. This
described many of the basic tenets of Egyptian mythology. They were intended to guide the dead
through the various trials that they would encounter before reaching the underworld. Knowledge
of the appropriate spells was considered essential to achieving happiness after death. Spells or
enchantments vary in distinctive ways between the texts of differing "mummies" or sarcophagi,
depending on the prominence and other class factors of the deceased. The earliest known
versions date from the 16th century BC during the 18th Dynasty (ca. 1580 BC–1350 BC). It
partly incorporated two previous collections of Egyptian religious literature, known as the
Coffin Texts (ca. 2000 BC) and the Pyramid Texts (ca. 2600 BC-2300 BC), both of which were
eventually superseded by the Book of the Dead.
Big Picture Question: Based on the Papyrus of Ani, what social values do the Egyptians
find important? To what extent is this similar to the Christian 10 Commandments or
Jewish 613 Commandments beginning in Exodus 20 (see this reader)?
PROLOGUE: HYMN TO OSIRIS
"Homage to thee, Osiris, Lord of eternity, King of the Gods, whose names are manifold, whose
forms are holy, thou being of hidden form in the temples, whose Ka is holy. Thou art the
governor of Tattu (Busiris), and also the mighty one in Sekhem (Letopolis). Thou art the Lord to
whom praises are ascribed in the nome of Ati, thou art the Prince of divine food in Anu. Thou art
the Lord who is commemorated in Maati, the Hidden Soul, the Lord of Qerrt (Elephantine), the
Ruler supreme in White Wall (Memphis). Thou art the Soul of Ra, his own body, and hast thy
place of rest in Henensu (Herakleopolis). Thou art the beneficent one, and art praised in Nart.
Thou makest thy soul to be raised up. Thou art the Lord of the Great House in Khemenu
(Hermopolis). Thou art the mighty one of victories in Shas-hetep, the Lord of eternity, the
Governor of Abydos. The path of his throne is in Ta-tcheser (a part of Abydos). Thy name is
established in the mouths of men. Thou art the substance of Two Lands (Egypt). Thou art Tem,
the feeder of Kau (Doubles), the Governor of the Companies of the gods. Thou art the beneficent
Spirit among the spirits. The god of the Celestial Ocean (Nu) draweth from thee his waters. Thou
sendest forth the north wind at eventide, and breath from thy nostrils to the satisfaction of thy
heart. Thy heart reneweth its youth, thou producest the.... The stars in the celestial heights are
obedient unto thee, and the great doors of the sky open themselves before thee. Thou art he to
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whom praises are ascribed in the southern heaven, and thanks are given for thee in the northern
heaven. The imperishable stars are under thy supervision, and the stars which never set are thy
thrones. Offerings appear before thee at the decree of Keb. The Companies of the Gods praise
thee, and the gods of the Tuat (Other World) smell the earth in paying homage to thee. The
uttermost parts of the earth bow before thee, and the limits of the skies entreat thee with
supplications when they see thee. The holy ones are overcome before thee, and all Egypt offereth
thanksgiving unto thee when it meeteth Thy Majesty. Thou art a shining Spirit-Body, the
governor of Spirit-Bodies; permanent is thy rank, established is thy rule. Thou art the well-doing
Sekhem (Power) of the Company of the Gods, gracious is thy face, and beloved by him that
seeth it. Thy fear is set in all the lands by reason of thy perfect love, and they cry out to thy name
making it the first of names, and all people make offerings to thee. Thou art the lord who art
commemorated in heaven and upon earth. Many are the cries which are made to thee at the Uak
festival, and with one heart and voice Egypt raiseth cries of joy to thee.
"Thou art the Great Chief, the first among thy brethren, the Prince of the Company of the Gods,
the stablisher of Right and Truth throughout the World, the Son who was set on the great throne
of his father Keb. Thou art the beloved of thy mother Nut, the mighty one of valour, who
overthrew the Sebau-fiend. Thou didst stand up and smite thine enemy, and set thy fear in thine
adversary. Thou dost bring the boundaries of the mountains. Thy heart is fixed, thy legs are set
firm. Thou art the heir of Keb and of the sovereignty of the Two Lands (Egypt). He (Keb) hath
seen his splendours, he hath decreed for him the guidance of the world by thy hand as long as
times endure. Thou hast made this earth with thy hand, and the waters, and the winds, and the
vegetation, and all the cattle, and all the feathered fowl, and all the fish, and all the creeping
things, and all the wild animals therof. The desert is the lawful possession of the son of Nut. The
Two Lands (Egypt) are content to crown thee upon the throne of thy father, like Ra.
"Thou rollest up into the horizon, thou hast set light over the darkness, thou sendest forth air
from thy plumes, and thou floodest the Two Lands like the Disk at daybreak. Thy crown
penetrateth the height of heaven, thou art the companion of the stars, and the guide of every god.
Thou art beneficent in decree and speech, the favoured one of the Great Company of the Gods,
and the beloved of the Little Company of the Gods.
His sister [Isis] hath protected him, and hath repulsed the fiends, and turned aside calamities (of
evil). She uttered the spell with the magical power of her mouth. Her tongue was perfect, and it
never halted at a word. Beneficent in command and word was Isis, the woman of magical spells,
the advocate of her brother. She sought him untiringly, she wandered round and round about this
earth in sorrow, and she alighted not without finding him. She made light with her feathers, she
created air with her wings, and she uttered the death wail for her brother. She raised up the
inactive members of whose heart was still, she drew from him his essence, she made an heir, she
reared the child in loneliness, and the place where he was not known, and he grew in strength
and stature, and his hand was mighty in the House of Keb. The Company of the Gods rejoiced,
rejoiced, at the coming of Horus, the son of Osiris, whose heart was firm, the triumphant, the son
of Isis, the heir of Osiris."
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THE NEGATIVE CONFESSION
Hail, Usekh-nemmt, who comest forth from Anu, I have not committed sin. Hail, Hept-khet, who
comest forth from Kher-aha, I have not committed robbery with violence. Hail, Fenti, who
comest forth from Khemenu, I have not stolen. Hail, Am-khaibit, who comest forth from Qernet,
I have not slain men and women. Hail, Neha-her, who comest forth from Rasta, I have not stolen
grain. Hail, Ruruti, who comest forth from heaven, I have not purloined offerings. Hail, Arfi-emkhet, who comest forth from Suat, I have not stolen the property of God. Hail, Neba, who comest
and goest, I have not uttered lies. Hail, Set-qesu, who comest forth from Hensu, I have not
carried away food. Hail, Utu-nesert, who comest forth from Het-ka-Ptah, I have not uttered
curses. Hail, Qerrti, who comest forth from Amentet, I have not committed adultery, I have not
lain with men. Hail, Her-f-ha-f, who comest forth from thy cavern, I have made none to weep.
Hail, Basti, who comest forth from Bast, I have not eaten the heart. Hail, Ta-retiu, who comest
forth from the night, I have not attacked any man. Hail, Unem-snef, who comest forth from the
execution chamber, I am not a man of deceit. Hail, Unem-besek, who comest forth from Mabit, I
have not stolen cultivated land. Hail, Neb-Maat, who comest forth from Maati, I have not been
an eavesdropper. Hail, Tenemiu, who comest forth from Bast, I have not slandered [no man].
Hail, Sertiu, who comest forth from Anu, I have not been angry without just cause. Hail, Tutu,
who comest forth from Ati (the Busirite Nome), I have not debauched the wife of any man. Hail,
Uamenti, who comest forth from the Khebt chamber, I have not debauched the wife of [any]
man. Hail, Maa-antuf, who comest forth from Per-Menu, I have not polluted myself. Hail, Heruru, who comest forth from Nehatu, I have terrorized none. Hail, Khemiu, who comest forth
from Kaui, I have not transgressed [the law]. Hail, Shet-kheru, who comest forth from Urit, I
have not been wroth. Hail, Nekhenu, who comest forth from Heqat, I have not shut my ears to
the words of truth. Hail, Kenemti, who comest forth from Kenmet, I have not blasphemed. Hail,
An-hetep-f, who comest forth from Sau, I am not a man of violence. Hail, Sera-kheru, who
comest forth from Unaset, I have not been a stirrer up of strife. Hail, Neb-heru, who comest forth
from Netchfet, I have not acted with undue haste. Hail, Sekhriu, who comest forth from Uten, I
have not pried into matters. Hail, Neb-abui, who comest forth from Sauti, I have not multiplied
my words in speaking. Hail, Nefer-Tem, who comest forth from Het-ka-Ptah, I have wronged
none, I have done no evil. Hail, Tem-Sepu, who comest forth from Tetu, I have not worked
witchcraft against the king. Hail, Ari-em-ab-f, who comest forth from Tebu, I have never stopped
[the flow of] water. Hail, Ahi, who comest forth from Nu, I have never raised my voice. Hail,
Uatch-rekhit, who comest forth from Sau, I have not cursed God. Hail, Neheb-ka, who comest
forth from thy cavern, I have not acted with arrogance. Hail, Neheb-nefert, who comest forth
from thy cavern, I have not stolen the bread of the gods. Hail, Tcheser-tep, who comest forth
from the shrine, I have not carried away the khenfu cakes from the Spirits of the dead. Hail, Anaf, who comest forth from Maati, I have not snatched away the bread of the child, nor treated
with contempt the god of my city. Hail, Hetch-abhu, who comest forth from Ta-she (the
Fayyum), I have not slain the cattle belonging to the god.
Hail, Usekh-nemmt, who comest forth from Anu, I have not committed sin. Hail, Hept-Shet, who
comest forth from Kher-aha, I have not robbed with violence. Hail, Fenti, who comest forth from
Khemenu, I have done no violence. Hail, Am-khaibitu, who comest forth from Qerrt, I have not
stolen. Hail, Neha-hau, who comest forth from Rasta, I have not slain men. Hail, Ruruti, who
comest forth from heaven, I have not made light the bushel. Hail, Arti-f-em-tes, who comest
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forth from Sekhem, I have not acted deceitfully. Hail, Neba, who comest and goest, I have not
stolen the property of the god. Hail, Set-qesu, who comest forth from Hensu, I have not told lies.
Hail, Uatch-nesert, who comest forth from Het-ka-Ptah, I have not carried away food. Hail,
Qerti, who comest forth from Amenti, I have not uttered evil words. Hail, Hetch-abhu, who
comest from Ta-she, I have attacked no man. Hail, Unem-snef, who comest forth from the
execution chamber, I have not salin a bull which was the property of the god. Hail, Unem-besku,
who comest [forth from the Mabet chamber], I have not acted deceitfully. Hail, Neb-maat, who
comest forth from Maati, I have not pillaged the lands which have been ploughed. Hail,
Thenemi, who comest forth from Bast, I have never pried into matters [to make mischief]. Hail,
Aati, who comest forth from Anu, I have not set my mouth in motion. Hail, Tutuf, who comest
from from A, I have not been wroth except with reason. Hail, Uamemti, who comest forth from
the execution chamber, I have not debauched the wife of a man. Hail, Maa-anuf, who comest
forth from Per-Menu, I have not polluted myself. Hail, Heri-uru, who comest forth from
[Nehatu], I have terrorized no man. Hail, Khemi, who comest forth from Ahaui, I have not made
attacks. Hail, Shet-kheru, who comest forth from Uri, I have not been a man of anger. Hail,
Nekhem, who comest forth from Heq-at, I have not turned a deaf ear to the words of truth. Hail,
Ser-Kheru, who comest forth from Unes, I have not stirred up strife. Hail, Basti, who comest
forth from Shetait, I have made none to weep. Hail, Her-f-ha-f, who comest forth from thy
cavern, I have not committed acts of sexual impurity, or lain with men. Hail, Ta-ret, who comest
forth from Akhkhu, I have not eaten my heart. Hail, Kenmti, who comest forth from Kenmet, I
have cursed no man. Hail, An-hetep-f, who comest forth from Sau, I have not acted in a violent
or oppressive manner. Hail, Neb-heru, who comest forth from Tchefet, I have not acted [or
judged] hastily. Hail, Serekhi, who comest forth from Unth, I have not.... my hair, I have not
harmed the god. Hail, Neb-abui, who comest forth from Sauti, I have not multiplied my speech
overmuch. Hail, Nefer-Tem, who comest forth from Het-ka-Ptah, I have not acted with deciet, I
have not worked wickedness. Hail, Tem-Sep, who comest forth from Tetu, I have not done
things to effect the cursing of [the king]. Hail, Ari-em-ab-f, who comest forth from Tebti, I have
not stopped the flow of water. Hail, Ahi-mu, who comest forth from Nu, I have not raised my
voice. Hail, Utu-rekhit, who comest forth from thy house, I have not curse God. Hail, NehebNefert, who comest forth from the Lake of Nefer, I have not acted with insufferable insolence.
Hail, Neheb-kau, who comest forth from [thy] city, I have not sought to make myself unduly
distinguished. Hail, Tcheser-tep, who comest forth from thy cavern, I have not increased my
wealth except through such things are [justly] my own possessions. Hail, An-a-f, who comest
forth from Auker, I have not scorned [or treated with contempt] the god of my town.
Source: "Egyptian Book of the Dead." Egyptian Book of the Dead. Trans. E. A. Wallis Budge.
Academy for Ancient Texts, 07 June 2001. Web. 08 Aug. 2013. Resource on Line:
<http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/egyptian/bookodead/book7.htm>.
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THE BOOK OF EXODUS, CHAPTER 20
The second book of the Pentateuch is called Exodus, from the Greek word for “departure,”
because its central event was understood by the Septuagint’s translators to be the departure
of the Israelites from Egypt. Its Hebrew title, Shemoth (“Names”), is from the book’s opening
phrase, “These are the names….” Continuing the history of Israel from the point where the
Book of Genesis leaves off, Exodus recounts the Egyptian oppression of Jacob’s everincreasing descendants and their miraculous deliverance by God through Moses, who led
them across the Red Sea to Mount Sinai where they entered into a covenant with the Lord.
Covenantal laws and detailed prescriptions for the tabernacle (a portable sanctuary
foreshadowing the Jerusalem Temple) and its service are followed by a dramatic episode of
rebellion, repentance, and divine mercy. After the broken covenant is renewed, the tabernacle
is constructed, and the cloud signifying God’s glorious presence descends to cover it. These
events made Israel a nation and confirmed their unique relationship with God. The “law”
(Hebrew torah) given by God through Moses to the Israelites at Mount Sinai constitutes the
moral, civil, and ritual legislation by which they were to become a holy people.
Big Picture Question: How do the 10 Commandments unify the Jews but set the Jews
apart as a chosen people? Be prepared to defend your answer.
I am the LORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of
slavery. You shall not have other gods beside me. You shall not make for yourself an idol or a
likeness of anything in the heavens above or on the earth below or in the waters beneath the
earth; you shall not bow down before them or serve them. For I, the LORD, your God, am a
jealous God, inflicting punishment for their ancestors’ wickedness on the children of those
who hate me, down to the third and fourth generation; but showing love down to the
thousandth generation of those who love me and keep my commandments. You shall not
invoke the name of the LORD, your God, in vain. For the LORD will not leave unpunished
anyone who invokes his name in vain. Remember the sabbath day—keep it holy. Six days
you may labor and do all your work, but the seventh day is a sabbath of the LORD your God.
You shall not do any work, either you, your son or your daughter, your male or female slave,
your work animal, or the resident alien within your gates. For in six days the LORD made the
heavens and the earth, the sea and all that is in them; but on the seventh day he rested. That is
why the LORD has blessed the sabbath day and made it holy. Honor your father and your
mother, that you may have a long life in the land the LORD your God is giving you.
You shall not kill.
You shall not commit adultery.
You shall not steal.
You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.
You shall not covet your neighbor’s house. You shall not covet your neighbor’s wife, his
male or female slave, his ox or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbor.
From "The Book of Exodus, Chapter 20, Verses 1 - 17." New Jerusalem Bible. United States
Conference of Catholic Bishops, Web. 08 Aug. 2013
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FIRST SAMUEL, CHAPTER 8
These books (First and Second Samuel) describe the rise and development of kingship in
Israel. Samuel is a pivotal figure. He bridges the gap between the period of the Judges and
the monarchy, and guides Israel’s transition to kingship. A Deuteronomistic editor presents
both positive and negative traditions about the monarchy, portraying it both as evidence of
Israel’s rejection of the Lord as their sovereign and as part of God’s plan to deliver the
people. Samuel’s misgivings about abuse of royal power foreshadow the failures and
misdeeds of Saul and David and the failures of subsequent Israelite kings.
Big Picture Question: According to the writer of 1st Samuel how do the liabilities of
kingship outweigh the benefits of kingship?
In his old age Samuel appointed his sons judges over Israel. His firstborn was named Joel, his
second son, Abijah; they judged at Beer-sheba. His sons did not follow his example, but
looked to their own gain, accepting bribes and perverting justice. Therefore all the elders of
Israel assembled and went to Samuel at Ramah 5and said to him, “Now that you are old, and
your sons do not follow your example, appoint a king over us, like all the nations, to rule us.”
Samuel was displeased when they said, “Give us a king to rule us.” But he prayed to the
LORD. The LORD said: Listen to whatever the people say. You are not the one they are
rejecting. They are rejecting me as their king. They are acting toward you just as they have
acted from the day I brought them up from Egypt to this very day, deserting me to serve other
gods. Now listen to them; but at the same time, give them a solemn warning and inform them
of the rights of the king who will rule them.
Samuel delivered the message of the LORD in full to those who were asking him for a king.
He told them: “The governance of the king who will rule you will be as follows: He will take
your sons and assign them to his chariots and horses, and they will run before his chariot. He
will appoint from among them his commanders of thousands and of hundreds. He will make
them do his plowing and harvesting and produce his weapons of war and chariotry. He will
use your daughters as perfumers, cooks, and bakers. He will take your best fields, vineyards,
and olive groves, and give them to his servants. He will tithe your crops and grape harvests to
give to his officials* and his servants. He will take your male and female slaves, as well as
your best oxen and donkeys, and use them to do his work. He will also tithe your flocks. As
for you, you will become his slaves. On that day you will cry out because of the king whom
you have chosen, but the LORD will not answer you on that day.”
The people, however, refused to listen to Samuel’s warning and said, “No! There must be a
king over us. We too must be like all the nations, with a king to rule us, lead us in warfare,
and fight our battles.” Samuel listened to all the concerns of the people and then repeated
them to the LORD. The LORD said: Listen to them! Appoint a king to rule over them.
Source: 1 Samuel. The New Jerusalem Bible. United States Council of Catholic Bishops, n.d.
Web. 08 Aug. 2013. <http://usccb.org/bible/1samuel/8>.
36
THE LAW OF MANU (EXERPTS)
Traditionally accepted as one of the supplementary arms of the Vedas, Laws of Manu or Manava
Dharma Shastra is one of the standard books in the Hindu canon, and a basic text for all gurus to
base their teachings on. This 'revealed scripture' comprises 2684 verses, divided into twelve
chapters presenting the norms of domestic, social, and religious life in India (circa 500 BC)
under the Brahmin influence, and is fundamental to the understanding of ancient Indian society.
Big Picture Question: To what extent does the Law of Manu organize society and reinforce
social stability?
On account of his pre-eminence, on account of the superiority of his origin, on account of his
observance of particular restrictive rules, and on account of his particular sanctification, the
brahmin is the lord of all castes.
The brahmin, the kshatriya, and the vaisya castes are the twice-born ones, but the fourth, the
sudra, has one birth only. . . .
But for the sake of the prosperity of the worlds, [the Creator] caused the brahmin, the kshatriya,
the vaisya, and the sudra to proceed from his mouth, his arms, his thighs, and his feet.
But in order to protect this universe He, the most resplendent one, assigned separate duties and
occupations to those who sprang from his mouth, arms, thighs, and feet.
In all castes those children only which are begotten in the direct order on wedded wives, equal in
caste and married as virgins, are to be considered as belonging to the same caste as their fathers.
By adultery committed by persons of different castes, by marriages with women who ought not
to be married, and by the neglect of the duties and occupations prescribed to each, are produced
sons who owe their origin to a confusion of the castes.
Men who commit adultery with the wives of others, the king shall cause to be marked by
punishments which cause terror, and afterwards banish.
For by adultery is caused a mixture of the castes among men; thence follows sin, which cuts up
even the roots and causes the destruction of everything.
It is better to discharge one's own appointed duty incompletely than to perform completely that
of another; for he who lives according to the law of another caste is instantly excluded from his
own.
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Duties of a Brahmin
Teaching, studying, sacrificing for himself, sacrificing for others, making gifts and receiving
them are the six acts prescribed for a brahmin. But among the six acts ordained for him three are
his means of subsistence, sacrificing for others, teaching, and accepting gifts from pure men. But
a brahmin, unable to subsist by his peculiar occupations just mentioned, may live according to
the law applicable to kshatriyas; for the latter is next to him in rank. If it be asked, "How shall it
be, if he cannot maintain himself by either of these occupations?" the answer is, he may adopt a
vaisya's mode of life, employing himself in agriculture and rearing cattle. But a brahmin, or a
kshatriya, living by a vaisya's mode of subsistence, shall carefully avoid the pursuit of
agriculture, which causes injury to many beings and depends on others.
But he who, through a want of means of subsistence, gives up the strictness with respect to his
duties, may sell, in order to increase his wealth, the commodities sold by vaisyas, making
however the following exceptions: By selling flesh, salt, and lac [resin] a brahmin at once
becomes an outcaste; by selling milk he becomes equal to a sudra in three days. But by willingly
selling in this world other forbidden commodities, a brahmin assumes after seven nights the
character of a vaisya. As all living creatures subsist by receiving support from air, even so the
members of all orders subsist by receiving support from the householder. Because men of the
three other orders are daily supported by the householder with gifts of sacred knowledge and
food, therefore the order of householders is the most excellent order. And in accordance with the
precepts of the Veda and of the traditional texts, the householder is declared to be superior to all
of [the other three orders]; for he supports the other three.
Duties of a Kshatriya
I will declare the duties of kings, and show how a king should conduct himself, . . . and how he
can obtain highest success. A kshatriya who has received according to the rule the sacrament
prescribed by the Veda, must duly protect this whole world. For, when these creatures, being
without a king, through fear dispersed in all directions, the Lord created a king for the protection
of this whole creation. For the king's sake the Lord formerly created his own son, Punishment,
the protector of all creatures, an incarnation of the law, formed of Brahman's glory. Punishment
alone governs all created beings, punishment alone protects them, punishment watches over them
while they sleep; the wise declare punishment to be identical with the law. If punishment is
properly inflicted after due consideration, it makes all people happy; but inflicted without
consideration, it destroys everything. If the king did not, without tiring, inflict punishment on
those worthy to be punished, the stronger would roast the weaker, like fish on a spit.
The king has been created to be the protector of the castes and orders, who, all according to their
rank, discharge their several duties. A king who, while he protects his people, is defied by foes,
be they equal in strength, or stronger, or weaker, must not shrink from battle, remembering the
duty of kshatriyas. Not to turn back in battle, to protect the people, to honour the brahmins, is the
best means for a king to secure happiness. Those kings who, seeking to slay each other in battle,
fight with the utmost exertion and do not turn back, go to heaven.
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Duties of a Vaisya
After a vaisya has received the sacraments and has taken a wife, he shall be always attentive to
the business whereby he may subsist and to that of tending cattle. For when the Lord of creatures
created cattle, he made them over to the vaisya; to the brahmins and the the king he entrusted all
created beings. A vaisya must never conceive this wish, "I will not keep cattle"; and if a vaisya is
willing to keep them, they must never be kept by men of other castes. A vaisya must know the
respective value of gems, or pearls, of coral, of metals, of cloth made of thread, of perfumes, and
of condiments. He must be acquainted with the proper wages of servants with the various
languages of men, with the manner of keeping goods, and the rule of purchase and sale. Let him
exert himself to the utmost in order to increase his property in a righteous manner, and let him
zealously give food to all created beings.
Duties of a Sudra
To serve brahmins who are learned in the Vedas, householders, and famous for virtue, is the
highest duty of a sudra, which leads to beatitude. A sudra who is pure, the servant of his betters,
gentle in his speech, and free from pride, and always seeks a refuge with brahmins, attains a
higher caste. But a sudra . . . may [be compelled] to do servile work; for he was created by the
Self-existent [Lord] to be the slave of a brahmin. A sudra, though emancipated by his master, is
not released from servitude; since that is innate in him, who can set him free from it?
Source: "The Laws of Manu." The Laws of Manu. Ed. George Buhler. The Internet Sacred Text
Archives. Web. 08 Aug. 2013. <http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu.htm>.
39
BHAGAVAD GITA: THE SONG OF OUR LORD
The war of Mahabharata has begun after all negotiations by Lord Krishna and others to avoid it
failed. The blind King (Dhritarashtra) was never very sure about the victory of his sons
(Kauravas) in spite of their superior army. Sage Vyasa, the author of Mahabharata, wanted to
give the blind king the boon of eyesight so that the king could see the horrors of the war for
which he was primarily responsible. But the king refused the offer. He did not want to see the
horrors of the war; but preferred to get the war report through his charioteer, Sanjaya. Sage
Vyasa granted the power of clairvoyance to Sanjaya. With this power Sanjaya could see, hear,
and recall the events of the past, present, and the future. He was able to give an instant replay of
the eye witness war report to the blind King sitting in the palace. Bhishma, the mightiest man
and the commander-in-chief of the Kaurava’s army, is disabled by Arjuna and is lying on
deathbed in the battleground on the tenth day of the eighteen day war. Upon hearing this bad
news from Sanjaya, the blind King looses all hopes for victory of his sons. Now the King wants
to know the details of the war from the beginning, including how the mightiest man, and the
commander-in-chief of his superior army ¾ who had a boon of dying at his own will ¾ was
defeated in the battlefield. The teaching of the Gita begins with the inquiry of the blind King,
after Sanjaya described how Bhishma was defeated.
Big Picture Question: This tale is often called Arjuna’s Dilemma. Using terms associated
with Hinduism, what exactly is Arjuna’s ‘Dilemma’ and how will Arjuna’s actions impact
his future within his understanding of his faith?
CHAPTER 1
The King inquired: Sanjaya, please now tell me, in details, what did my people (the Kauravas)
and the Pandavas do in the battlefield before the war started? Sanjaya said: O King, After seeing
the battle formation of the Pandava’s army, your son approached his guru and spoke these words:
O Master, behold this mighty army of the Pandavas, arranged in battle formation by your other
talented disciple! There are many great warriors, valiant men, heroes, and mighty archers. Also
there are many heroes on my side who have risked their lives for me. I shall name few
distinguished commanders of my army for your information. He named all the officers of his
army, and said: They are armed with various weapons, and are skilled in warfare. Our army is
invincible, while their army is easy to conquer. Therefore all of you, occupying your respective
positions, protect our commander-in-chief.
The mighty commander-in-chief and the eldest man of the dynasty, roared as a lion and blew his
conch loudly, bringing joy to your son. Soon after that; conches, kettledrums, cymbals, drums,
and trumpets were sounded together. The commotion was tremendous. After that, Lord Krishna
and Arjuna, seated in a grand chariot yoked with white horses, blew their celestial conches.
Krishna blew His conch first, and then Arjuna and all other commanders of various divisions of
the army of Pandavas blew their respective conches. The tumultuous uproar, resounding through
the earth and sky, tore the hearts of your sons.
40
Seeing your sons standing, and the war about to begin with the hurling of weapons; Arjuna,
whose banner bore the emblem of Lord Hanumana, took up his bow and spoke these words to
Lord Krishna: O Lord, please stop my chariot between the two armies until I behold those who
stand here eager for the battle and with whom I must engage in this act of war. I wish to see
those who are willing to serve and appease the evil-minded Kauravas by assembling here to fight
the battle.
Sanjaya said: O King; Lord Krishna, as requested by Arjuna, placed the best of all the chariots in
the midst of the two armies facing Arjuna's grandfather, his guru and all other Kings; and said to
Arjuna: Behold these assembled soldiers! Arjuna saw his uncles, grandfathers, teachers, maternal
uncles, brothers, sons, grandsons, and other comrades in the army.
After seeing fathers-in-law, companions, and all his kinsmen standing in the ranks of the two
armies, Arjuna was overcome with great compassion and sorrowfully spoke these words: O
Krishna, seeing my kinsmen standing with a desire to fight, my limbs fail and my mouth
becomes dry. My body quivers and my hairs stand on end. The bow slips from my hand, and my
skin intensely burns. My head turns, I am unable to stand steady, and O Krishna, I see bad
omens. I see no use of killing my kinsmen in battle. I desire neither victory, nor pleasure nor
kingdom, O Krishna. What is the use of the kingdom, or enjoyment, or even life, O Krishna?
Because all those ¾ for whom we desire kingdom, enjoyments, and pleasures ¾ are standing
here for the battle, giving up their lives. I do not wish to kill my teachers, uncles, sons,
grandfathers, maternal uncles, fathers-in-law, grandsons, brothers-in-law, and other relatives who
are about to kill us, even for the sovereignty of the three worlds, let alone for this earthly
kingdom, O Krishna. O Lord Krishna, what pleasure shall we find in killing our cousin brothers?
Upon killing these felons we shall incur sin only. Therefore, we should not kill our cousin
brothers. How can we be happy after killing our relatives, O Krishna? Though they are blinded
by greed, and do not see evil in the destruction of the family, or sin in being treacherous to
friends. Why should not we, who clearly see evil in the destruction of the family, think about
turning away from this sin, O Krishna?
Eternal family traditions and codes of moral conduct are destroyed with the destruction of the
family. And immorality prevails in the family due to the destruction of family traditions. And
when immorality prevails, O Krishna, the women of the family become corrupted; when women
are corrupted, unwanted progeny is born. This brings the family and the slayers of the family to
hell, because the spirits of their ancestors are degraded when deprived of ceremonial offerings of
love and respect by the unwanted progeny. The everlasting qualities of social order and family
traditions of those who destroy their family are ruined by the sinful act of illegitimacy. We have
been told, O Krishna, that people whose family traditions are destroyed necessarily dwell in hell
for a long time. Alas! We are ready to commit a great sin by striving to slay our relatives because
of greed for the pleasures of the kingdom. it would be far better for me if my cousin brothers kill
me with their weapons in battle while I am unarmed and unresisting. Sanjaya said: Having said
this in the battlefield and casting aside his bow and arrow, Arjuna sat down on the seat of the
chariot with his mind overwhelmed with sorrow.
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CHAPTER 2
Sanjaya said: Lord Krishna spoke these words to Arjuna whose eyes were tearful and downcast,
and who was overwhelmed with compassion and despair. Lord Krishna said: How has the
dejection come to you at this juncture? This is not fit for a person of noble mind and deeds. It is
disgraceful, and it does not lead one to heaven, O Arjuna. Do not become a coward, O Arjuna,
because it does not befit you. Shake off this trivial weakness of your heart and get up for the
battle, O Arjuna.
Arjuna said: How shall I strike my grandfather, my guru, and all other relatives, who are worthy
of my respect, with arrows in battle, O Krishna? It would be better, indeed, to live on alms in this
world than to slay these noble personalities, because by killing them I would enjoy wealth and
pleasures stained with their blood. We do not know which alternative ¾ to fight or to quit ¾ is
better for us. Further, we do not know whether we shall conquer them or they will conquer us.
We should not even wish to live after killing our cousin brothers, who are standing in front of us.
My senses are overcome by the weakness of pity, and my mind is confused about duty (Dharma).
Please tell me what is better for me. I am Your disciple, and I take refuge in You. I do not
perceive that gaining an unrivaled and prosperous kingdom on this earth, or even lordship over
all the celestial controllers will remove the sorrow that is drying up my senses.
Sanjaya said: O King, after speaking like this to Lord Krishna, the mighty Arjuna said to
Krishna: I shall not fight, and became silent. O King, Lord Krishna, as if smiling, spoke these
words to the distressed Arjuna in the midst of the two armies.
Lord Krishna said: You grieve for those who are not worthy of grief, and yet speak words of
wisdom. The wise grieves neither for the living nor for the dead. There was never a time when
these monarchs, you, or I did not exist; nor shall we ever cease to exist in the future. Just as the
soul acquires a childhood body, a youth body, and an old age body during this life; similarly, the
soul acquires another body after death. This should not delude the wise. The contacts of the
senses with the sense objects give rise to the feelings of heat and cold, and pain and pleasure.
They are transitory and impermanent. Therefore, one should learn to endure them. Because a
calm person ¾ who is not afflicted by these sense objects, and is steady in pain and pleasure ¾
becomes fit for salvation. The invisible Spirit is eternal, and the visible physical body, is
transitory. The reality of these two is indeed certainly seen by the seers of truth. the Spirit by
whom this entire universe is pervaded is indestructible. No one can destroy the imperishable
Spirit. The physical bodies of the eternal, immutable, and incomprehensible Spirit are perishable.
Therefore fight, O Arjuna. The one who thinks that the Spirit is a slayer, and the one who thinks
the Spirit is slain, both are ignorant. Because the Spirit neither slays nor is slain. The Spirit is
neither born nor does it die at any time. It does not come into being, or cease to exist. It is
unborn, eternal, permanent, and primeval. The Spirit is not destroyed when the body is
destroyed.
O Arjuna, how can a person who knows that the Spirit is indestructible, eternal, unborn, and
immutable, kill anyone or causes anyone to be killed? Just as a person puts on new garments
after discarding the old ones; similarly, the living entity or the individual soul acquires new
bodies after casting away the old bodies. Weapons do not cut this Spirit, fire does not burn it,
42
water does not make it wet, and the wind does not make it dry. The Spirit cannot be cut, burned,
wetted, or dried. It is eternal, all pervading, unchanging, immovable, and primeval. The Spirit is
said to be unexplainable, incomprehensible, and unchanging. Knowing the Spirit as such you
should not grieve. Even if you think that the physical body takes birth and dies perpetually, even
then, O Arjuna, you should not grieve like this. Because death is certain for the one who is born,
and birth is certain for the one who dies. Therefore, you should not lament over the inevitable.
All beings are unmanifest, or invisible to our physical eyes before birth and after death. They
manifest between the birth and the death only. What is there to grieve about?
Some look upon this Spirit as a wonder, another describes it as wonderful, and others hear of it
as a wonder. Even after hearing about it very few people know what the Spirit is. O Arjuna, the
Spirit that dwells in the body of all beings is eternally indestructible. Therefore, you should not
mourn for anybody.
Considering also your duty as a warrior you should not waver like this. Because there is nothing
more auspicious for a warrior than a righteous war. Only the fortunate warriors, O Arjuna, get
such an opportunity for an unsought war that is like an open door to heaven. If you will not fight
this righteous war, then you will fail in your duty, lose your reputation, and incur sin. People will
talk about your disgrace forever. To the honored, dishonor is worse than death. The great
warriors will think that you have retreated from the battle out of fear. Those who have greatly
esteemed you will lose respect for you. Your enemies will speak many unmentionable words and
scorn your ability. What could be more painful to you than this? You will go to heaven if killed
on the line of duty, or you will enjoy the kingdom on the earth if victorious. Therefore, get up
with a determination to fight, O Arjuna. Treating pleasure and pain, gain and loss, and victory
and defeat alike, engage yourself in your duty. By doing your duty this way you will not incur
sin.
The science of transcendental knowledge has been imparted to you, O Arjuna. Now listen to the
science of selfless service, endowed with which you will free yourself from all Karmic bondage,
or sin. no effort is ever lost in selfless service, and there is no adverse effect. Even a little
practice of the discipline of selfless service protects one from the great fear of repeated birth and
death. A selfless worker has resolute determination for God-realization, but the desires of the one
who works to enjoy the fruits of work are endless.
Source: "American International Gita Society." Bhagavad Gita. Trans. Edwin Arnod. American
International Gita Society Bhagavad Gita, 1984. Web. 08 Aug. 2013. <http://www.sacredtexts.com/hin/gita/agsgita.htm>.
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BOOK OF DOCUMENTS, CLASSIC OF HISTORY OR SHUJING:
THE MANDATE OF HEAVEN
The Book of Documents, Classic of History or Shujing is one of the Five Classics of ancient
Chinese literature. It is a compilation of speeches of major figures and records of events in
ancient China. The 58 chapters of the received text are divided into New Text and Old Text
chapters based on their history. The entire work was accepted by most scholars until the 17th
century, when Yan Ruoqu showed that the Old Text chapters had been forged in the 3rd or 4th
centuries AD. In contrast, some of the New Text chapters are among the earliest examples of
Chinese prose, recording speeches from the early years of the Zhou dynasty in the late 11th
century BC. Other New Text chapters are of later composition, with those relating to the earliest
periods being as recent as the 4th century BC.
Big Picture Question: According to the writer of the Shujing, how does the Mandate of
Heaven work? When do the mean people and leaders know that the ruler has lost the
Mandate of Heaven or gained it?
1. When Kung Khang commenced his reign over all within the four seas, the marquis of Yin was
commissioned to take charge of the (king's) six hosts. (At this time) the Hsî and Ho had
neglected the duties of their office, and were abandoned to drink in their (private) cities; and the
marquis of Yin received the king's charge to go and punish them.
2. He made an announcement to his hosts, saying, 'Ah! ye, all my men, there are the wellcounselled instructions of the sage (founder of our dynasty), clearly verified in their power to
give stability and security:--"The former kings were carefully attentive to the warnings of
Heaven, and their ministers observed the regular laws (of their offices). All the officers
(moreover) watchfully did their duty to assist (the government), and their sovereign became
entirely intelligent." Every year, in the first month of spring, the herald, with his woodentongued bell, goes along the roads, (proclaiming), "Ye officers able to instruct, be prepared with
your admonitions. Ye workmen engaged in mechanical affairs, remonstrate on the subjects of
your employments. If any of you do not attend with respect (to this requirement), the country has
regular punishments for you."
'Now here are the Hsî and Ho. They have allowed their virtue to be subverted, and are besotted
by drink. They have violated the duties of their office, and left their posts. They have been the
first to let the regulating of the heavenly (bodies) get into disorder, putting far from them their
proper business. On the first day of the last month of autumn, the sun and moon did not meet
harmoniously in Fang. The blind musicians beat their drums; the inferior officers galloped, and
the common people (employed about the public offices) ran about. The Hsî and the Ho, however,
as if they were (mere) personators of the dead in their offices, heard nothing and knew nothing;-so stupidly went they astray (from their duties) in the matter of the heavenly appearances, and
rendered themselves liable to the death appointed by the former kings. The statutes of
government say, "When they anticipated the time, let them be put to death without mercy; when
(their reckoning) is behind the time, let them be put to death without mercy."
44
'Now I, with you all, am entrusted with the execution of the punishment appointed by Heaven.
Unite your strength, all of you warriors, for the royal House. Give me your help, I pray you,
reverently to carry out the dread charge of the Son of Heaven.
'When the fire blazes over the ridge of Khwăn, gems and stones are burned together; but if a
minister of Heaven exceed in doing his duty, the consequences will be fiercer than blazing fire.
While I destroy, (therefore), the chief criminals, I will not punish those who have been forced to
follow them; and those who have long been stained by their filthy manners will be allowed to
renovate themselves.
'Oh! when sternness overcomes compassion, things are surely conducted to a successful issue.
When compassion overcomes sternness, no merit can be achieved. All ye, my warriors, exert
yourselves, and take warning, (and obey my orders)!'
The king said, 'Come, ye multitudes of the people, listen all to my words. It is not I, the little
child 1, who dare to undertake a rebellious enterprise; but for the many crimes of the sovereign of
Hsiâ, Heaven has given the charge to destroy him.
'Now, ye multitudes, you are saying, "Our prince does not compassionate us, but (is calling us)
away from our husbandry to attack and punish Hsiâ." I have indeed heard (these) words of you
all; (but) the sovereign of Hsiâ is guilty, and. as I fear God, I dare not but punish him.
'Now you are saying, "What are the crimes of Hsiâ to us?" The king of Hsiâ in every way
exhausts the strength of his people, and exercises oppression in the cities of Hsiâ. His multitudes
are become entirely indifferent (to his service), and feel no bond of union' (to him). They are
saying, "When wilt thou, O sun, expire? We will all perish with thee." Such is the course of (the
sovereign) of Hsiâ, and now I must go (and punish him).
Assist, I pray you, me, the One man, to carry out the punishment appointed by Heaven. I will
greatly reward you. On no account disbelieve me;--will not eat my words. If you do not obey the
words which I have thus spoken to you, I will put your children to death with you;--you shall
find no forgiveness.'
1. When Thang the Successful was keeping Kieh in banishment in Nan-khâo, he had a feeling of
shame on account of his conduct, and said, 'I am afraid that in future ages men will fill their
mouths with me, (as an apology for their rebellious proceedings.)'
2. On this Kung-hui made the following announcement: 'Oh! Heaven gives birth to the people
with (such) desires. that without a ruler they must fall into all disorders; and Heaven again gives
birth to the man of intelligence to regulate them. The sovereign of Hsiâ had his virtue allobscured, and the people were (as if they had fallen) amid mire and (burning) charcoal. Heaven
hereupon gifted (our) king with valour and prudence, to serve as a sign and director to the myriad
regions, and to continue the old ways of Yü. You are now (only) following the proper course,
honouring and obeying the appointment of Heaven. The king of Hsiâ was an offender, falsely
and calumniously alleging the sanction of supreme Heaven, to spread abroad his commands
45
among the people. On this account God viewed him with disapprobation, caused our Shang to
receive his appointment, and employed (you) to enlighten the multitudes (of the people).'
3. 'Contemners of the worthy and parasites of the powerful,--many such followers he had indeed:
(but) from the first our country was to the sovereign of Hsiâ like weeds among the springing
corn, and blasted grains among the good. (Our people), great and small, were in constant
apprehension, fearful though they were guilty of no crime. How much more was this the case,
when our (prince's) virtues became a theme (eagerly) listened to! Our king did not approach to
(dissolute) music and women; he did not seek to accumulate property and wealth. To great virtue
he gave great offices, and to great merit great rewards. He employed others as if (their
excellences) were his own; he was not slow to change his errors. Rightly indulgent and rightly
benevolent, from the display, (of such virtue), confidence was reposed in him by the millions of
the people.
'When the earl of Ko showed his enmity to the provision-carriers, the work of punishment began
with Ko. When it went on in the east, the wild tribes of the west murmured; when it went on in
the south, those of the north murmured:--they said, "Why does he make us alone the last?" To
whatever people he went, they congratulated one another in their families, saying, "We have
waited for our prince; our prince is come, and we revive." The people's honouring our Shang is a
thing of long existence.'
4. 'Show favour to the able and right-principled (among the princes), and aid the virtuous;
distinguish the loyal, and let the good have free course. Absorb the weak, and punish the wilfully
blind; take their states from the disorderly, and deal summarily with those going to ruin. When
you (thus) accelerate the end of what is (of itself) ready to perish, and strengthen what is itself
strong to live, how will the states all flourish! When (a sovereign's) virtue is daily being
renewed, he is cherished throughout the myriad regions; when his mind is full (only) of himself,
he is abandoned by the nine branches of his kindred. Exert yourself, O king, to make your virtue
(still more) illustrious, and set up (the standard of) the Mean before the people. Order your
affairs by righteousness; order your heart by propriety;--so shall you transmit a grand example to
posterity. I have heard the saying, "He who finds instructors for himself, comes to the supreme
dominion; he who says that others are not equal to himself, comes to ruin. He who likes to put
questions, becomes enlarged; he who uses only his own views, becomes smaller (than he was)."
Oh! he who would take care for the end must be attentive to the beginning. There is
establishment for the observers of propriety, and overthrow for the blinded and wantonly
indifferent. To revere and honour the path prescribed by Heaven is the way ever to preserve the
favouring appointment of Heaven.'
1. When the king returned from vanquishing Hsiâ and came to Po, he made a grand
announcement to the myriad regions.
2. The king said, 'Ah! ye multitudes of the myriad regions, listen clearly to the announcement of
me, the One man. The great God has conferred (even) on the inferior people a moral sense,
compliance with which would show their nature invariably right. To make them tranquilly
pursue the course which it would indicate is the work of the sovereign.
46
'The king of Hsiâ extinguished his virtue, and played the tyrant, extending his oppression over
you, the people of the myriad regions. Suffering from his cruel injuries, and unable to endure the
wormwood and poison, you protested with one accord your innocence to the spirits of heaven
and earth." The way of Heaven is to bless the good, and make the bad miserable. It sent down
calamities on (the House of) Hsiâ, to make manifest its guilt. Therefore I, the little child, charged
with the decree of Heaven and its bright terrors, did not dare to forgive (the criminal). I
presumed to use a dark-coloured victim-bull, and, making clear announcement to the Spiritual
Sovereign in the high heavens, requested leave to deal with the ruler of Hsiâ as a criminal. Then I
sought for the great Sage, with whom I might unite my strength, to request the favour (of
Heaven) for you, my multitudes. High Heaven truly showed its favour to the inferior people, and
the criminal has been degraded and subjected. What Heaven appoints is without error;-brilliantly (now), like the blossoming of plants and trees, the millions of the people show a true
reviving.'
3. 'It is given to me, the One man, to secure the harmony and tranquillity of your states and clans
and now I know not whether I may not offend against (the Powers) above and below. I am
fearful and trembling, as if I were in danger of falling into a deep abyss. Throughout all the
regions that enter on a new life under me, do not, (ye princes), follow lawless ways; make no
approach to insolence and dissoluteness; let everyone be careful to keep his statutes;--that so we
may receive the favour of Heaven. The good in you I will not dare to keep concealed; and for the
evil in me I will not dare to forgive myself. I will examine these things in harmony with the mind
of God. When guilt is found anywhere in you who occupy the myriad regions, let it rest on me,
the One man. When guilt is found in me, the One man, it shall not attach to you who occupy the
myriad regions.
'Oh! let us attain to be sincere in these things, and so we shall likewise have a (happy)
consummation.'
Source: "The Shû King, Shih King and Hsiâo King." Sacred Texts of the East, Volume 3. Trans.
James Legge. Internet Sacred Text Archive, 2011. Web. 17 Aug. 2013. <http://www.sacredtexts.com/cfu/sbe03/index.htm>.
47
LAO TZU: DAO DE CHING
The Dao De Ching was written in the sixth century BCE by Lao Tzu. This period in Chinese
history is known as the period of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. This was a time in which the power
of the Zhou emperors was on the decline. Foreign, "barbarian" invaders began to encroach on
Chinese imperial territory. Local Chinese warlords began to fight amongst themselves and to
challenge the authority of the emperors. Ancient Chinese historians themselves refered to this
time as The Period of the Warring States. The Dao De Ching was written in this time of civil war
and upheaval. It presents a philosophy that can be viewed as a response to the disruption of
Chinese society. Significantly, the philosophy of Daoism was only one of numerous philosophical
systems that developed during the period of the Warring States. Ancient Chinese historians also
had another name for this time: The Period of the Hundred Flowers. What were these "Hundred
Flowers"? These were the flowers of philosophy.
Big Picture Question: Daoism can be summarized as “no action” and “not doing” as well as
dualistic – the balances of opposites. In your own words explain how a Daoist would solve
widespread problems in society. Justify your answer.
1
The tao that can be told
is not the eternal Tao
The name that can be named
is not the eternal Name.
The unnamable is the eternally real.
Naming is the origin
of all particular things.
Free from desire, you realize the mystery.
Caught in desire, you see only the manifestations.
Yet mystery and manifestations
arise from the same source.
This source is called darkness.
Darkness within darkness.
The gateway to all understanding.
2
When people see some things as beautiful,
other things become ugly.
When people see some things as good,
other things become bad.
48
Being and non-being create each other.
Difficult and easy support each other.
Long and short define each other.
High and low depend on each other.
Before and after follow each other.
Therefore the Master
acts without doing anything
and teaches without saying anything.
Things arise and she lets them come;
things disappear and she lets them go.
She has but doesn't possess,
acts but doesn't expect.
When her work is done, she forgets it.
That is why it lasts forever.
3
If you overesteem great men,
people become powerless.
If you overvalue possessions,
people begin to steal.
The Master leads
by emptying people's minds
and filling their cores,
by weakening their ambition
and toughening their resolve.
He helps people lose everything
they know, everything they desire,
and creates confusion
in those who think that they know.
Practice not-doing,
and everything will fall into place.
4
The Tao is like a well:
used but never used up.
It is like the eternal void:
filled with infinite possibilities.
It is hidden but always present.
I don't know who gave birth to it.
It is older than God.
49
5
The Tao doesn't take sides;
it gives birth to both good and evil.
The Master doesn't take sides;
she welcomes both saints and sinners.
The Tao is like a bellows:
it is empty yet infinitely capable.
The more you use it, the more it produces;
the more you talk of it, the less you understand.
Hold on to the center.
6
The Tao is called the Great Mother:
empty yet inexhaustible,
it gives birth to infinite worlds.
It is always present within you.
You can use it any way you want.
7
The Tao is infinite, eternal.
Why is it eternal?
It was never born;
thus it can never die.
Why is it infinite?
It has no desires for itself;
thus it is present for all beings.
The Master stays behind;
that is why she is ahead.
She is detached from all things;
that is why she is one with them.
Because she has let go of herself,
she is perfectly fulfilled.
8
The supreme good is like water,
which nourishes all things without trying to.
It is content with the low places that people disdain.
Thus it is like the Tao.
In dwelling, live close to the ground.
In thinking, keep to the simple.
In conflict, be fair and generous.
In governing, don't try to control.
50
In work, do what you enjoy.
In family life, be completely present.
When you are content to be simply yourself
and don't compare or compete,
everybody will respect you.
9
Fill your bowl to the brim
and it will spill.
Keep sharpening your knife
and it will blunt.
Chase after money and security
and your heart will never unclench.
Care about people's approval
and you will be their prisoner.
Do your work, then step back.
The only path to serenity.
10
Can you coax your mind from its wandering
and keep to the original oneness?
Can you let your body become
supple as a newborn child's?
Can you cleanse your inner vision
until you see nothing but the light?
Can you love people and lead them
without imposing your will?
Can you deal with the most vital matters
by letting events take their course?
Can you step back from you own mind
and thus understand all things?
Giving birth and nourishing,
having without possessing,
acting with no expectations,
leading and not trying to control:
this is the supreme virtue.
11
We join spokes together in a wheel,
but it is the center hole
that makes the wagon move.
We shape clay into a pot,
but it is the emptiness inside
51
that holds whatever we want.
We hammer wood for a house,
but it is the inner space
that makes it livable.
We work with being,
but non-being is what we use.
12
Colors blind the eye.
Sounds deafen the ear.
Flavors numb the taste.
Thoughts weaken the mind.
Desires wither the heart.
The Master observes the world
but trusts his inner vision.
He allows things to come and go.
His heart is open as the sky.
14
Look, and it can't be seen.
Listen, and it can't be heard.
Reach, and it can't be grasped.
Above, it isn't bright.
Below, it isn't dark.
Seamless, unnamable,
it returns to the realm of nothing.
Form that includes all forms,
image without an image,
subtle, beyond all conception.
Approach it and there is no beginning;
follow it and there is no end.
You can't know it, but you can be it,
at ease in your own life.
Just realize where you come from:
this is the essence of wisdom.
15
The ancient Masters were profound and subtle.
Their wisdom was unfathomable.
There is no way to describe it;
all we can describe is their appearance.
They were careful
52
as someone crossing an iced-over stream.
Alert as a warrior in enemy territory.
Courteous as a guest.
Fluid as melting ice.
Shapable as a block of wood.
Receptive as a valley.
Clear as a glass of water.
Do you have the patience to wait
till your mud settles and the water is clear?
Can you remain unmoving
till the right action arises by itself?
The Master doesn't seek fulfillment.
Not seeking, not expecting,
she is present, and can welcome all things.
16
Empty your mind of all thoughts.
Let your heart be at peace.
Watch the turmoil of beings,
but contemplate their return.
Each separate being in the universe
returns to the common source.
Returning to the source is serenity.
If you don't realize the source,
you stumble in confusion and sorrow.
When you realize where you come from,
you naturally become tolerant,
disinterested, amused,
kindhearted as a grandmother,
dignified as a king.
Immersed in the wonder of the Tao,
you can deal with whatever life brings you,
and when death comes, you are ready.
17
When the Master governs, the people
are hardly aware that he exists.
Next best is a leader who is loved.
Next, one who is feared.
The worst is one who is despised.
If you don't trust the people,
53
you make them untrustworthy.
The Master doesn't talk, he acts.
When his work is done,
the people say, "Amazing:
we did it, all by ourselves!"
18
When the great Tao is forgotten,
goodness and piety appear.
When the body's intelligence declines,
cleverness and knowledge step forth.
When there is no peace in the family,
filial piety begins.
When the country falls into chaos,
patriotism is born.
Source: "Selections from the Dao De Ching." Trans. S. Mitchell. World Civilization 101Q.
George Ouwendijk and Bill Rednour. City College of New York, 1999. Web. 13 Aug. 2013.
<http://www.humanities.ccny.cuny.edu/history/reader/tao.htm>.
54
SUN TZU: THE ART OF WAR
Although almost nothing is known of the life of Sun-tzu, The Art of War, has been one of the
most influential military handbooks in world history. Legend has it that he served the Wu dynasty
after being challenged by the emperor to make an effective army out of his concubines. Sun-tzu
placed the emperor's two favorites at the head of two different files of concubines and when they
failed to discipline their charges he cut their heads off despite the protests of the emperor. After
that the concubines drilled effectively. He became known as Sun the warrior and is reputed never
to have lost a battle. The Art of War is noted for its realistic assessment of the political
constraints of warfare. It is part drill book, part tactical survey, and part political treatise. Its
advice has been followed for centuries and it continues to be consulted by modern Chinese
leaders. In recent years it has been promoted as a tool in business schools in Japan and the
United States.
Big Picture Question: Sun Tzu understood warfare and humans as well as any philosopher
of either Greece or China. To what extent is Sun Tzu realistic in his assessment of the
constraints of human nature and politics on warfare?
II. Waging War
1. Sun Tzu said: In the operations of war, where there are in the field a thousand swift
chariots, as many heavy chariots, and a hundred thousand mail-clad soldiers, with
provisions enough to carry them a thousand li, the expenditure at home and at the front,
including entertainment of guests, small items such as glue and paint, and sums spent on
chariots and armor, will reach the total of a thousand ounces of silver per day. Such is the
cost of raising an army of 100,000 men.
2. When you engage in actual fighting, if victory is long in coming, then men's weapons
will grow dull and their ardor will be damped. If you lay siege to a town, you will exhaust
your strength.
3. Again, if the campaign is protracted, the resources of the State will not be equal to the
strain.
4. Now, when your weapons are dulled, your ardor damped, your strength exhausted and
your treasure spent, other chieftains will spring up to take advantage of your extremity.
Then no man, however wise, will be able to avert the consequences that must ensue.
5. Thus, though we have heard of stupid haste in war, cleverness has never been seen
associated with long delays.
55
6. There is no instance of a country having benefited from prolonged warfare.
7. It is only one who is thoroughly acquainted with the evils of war that can thoroughly
understand the profitable way of carrying it on.
8. The skillful soldier does not raise a second levy, neither are his supply-wagons loaded
more than twice.
9. Bring war material with you from home, but forage on the enemy. Thus the army will
have food enough for its needs.
10. Poverty of the State exchequer causes an army to be maintained by contributions from a
distance. Contributing to maintain an army at a distance causes the people to be
impoverished.
11. On the other hand, the proximity of an army causes prices to go up; and high prices cause
the people's substance to be drained away.
12. When their substance is drained away, the peasantry will be afflicted by heavy exactions.
13. 14. With this loss of substance and exhaustion of strength, the homes of the people will
be stripped bare, and three-tenths of their income will be dissipated; while government
expenses for broken chariots, worn-out horses, breast-plates and helmets, bows and
arrows, spears and shields, protective mantles, draught-oxen and heavy wagons, will
amount to four-tenths of its total revenue.
15. Hence a wise general makes a point of foraging on the enemy. One cartload of the
enemy's provisions is equivalent to twenty of one's own, and likewise a single picul of his
provender is equivalent to twenty from one's own store.
16. Now in order to kill the enemy, our men must be roused to anger; that there may be
advantage from defeating the enemy, they must have their rewards.
17. Therefore in chariot fighting, when ten or more chariots have been taken, those should be
rewarded who took the first. Our own flags should be substituted for those of the enemy,
and the chariots mingled and used in conjunction with ours. The captured soldiers should
be kindly treated and kept.
18. This is called, using the conquered foe to augment one's own strength.
56
19. In war, then, let your great object be victory, not lengthy campaigns.
20. Thus it may be known that the leader of armies is the arbiter of the people's fate, the man
on whom it depends whether the nation shall be in peace or in peril.
III. Attack by Stratagem
1. Sun Tzu said: In the practical art of war, the best thing of all is to take the enemy's
country whole and intact; to shatter and destroy it is not so good. So, too, it is better to
recapture an army entire than to destroy it, to capture a regiment, a detachment or a
company entire than to destroy them.
2. Hence to fight and conquer in all your battles is not supreme excellence; supreme
excellence consists in breaking the enemy's resistance without fighting.
3. Thus the highest form of generalship is to balk the enemy's plans; the next best is to
prevent the junction of the enemy's forces; the next in order is to attack the enemy's army
in the field; and the worst policy of all is to besiege walled cities.
4. The rule is, not to besiege walled cities if it can possibly be avoided. The preparation of
mantlets, movable shelters, and various implements of war, will take up three whole
months; and the piling up of mounds over against the walls will take three months more.
5. The general, unable to control his irritation, will launch his men to the assault like
swarming ants, with the result that one-third of his men are slain, while the town still
remains untaken. Such are the disastrous effects of a siege.
6. Therefore the skillful leader subdues the enemy's troops without any fighting; he captures
their cities without laying siege to them; he overthrows their kingdom without lengthy
operations in the field.
7. With his forces intact he will dispute the mastery of the Empire, and thus, without losing
a man, his triumph will be complete. This is the method of attacking by stratagem.
8. It is the rule in war, if our forces are ten to the enemy's one, to surround him; if five to
one, to attack him; if twice as numerous, to divide our army into two.
9. If equally matched, we can offer battle; if slightly inferior in numbers, we can avoid the
enemy; if quite unequal in every way, we can flee from him.
57
10. Hence, though an obstinate fight may be made by a small force, in the end it must be
captured by the larger force.
11. Now the general is the bulwark of the State; if the bulwark is complete at all points; the
State will be strong; if the bulwark is defective, the State will be weak.
12. There are three ways in which a ruler can bring misfortune upon his army:-13. (1) By commanding the army to advance or to retreat, being ignorant of the fact that it
cannot obey. This is called hobbling the army.
14. (2) By attempting to govern an army in the same way as he administers a kingdom, being
ignorant of the conditions which obtain in an army. This causes restlessness in the
soldier's minds.
15. (3) By employing the officers of his army without discrimination, through ignorance of
the military principle of adaptation to circumstances. This shakes the confidence of the
soldiers.
16. But when the army is restless and distrustful, trouble is sure to come from the other
feudal princes. This is simply bringing anarchy into the army, and flinging victory away.
17. Thus we may know that there are five essentials for victory: (1) He will win who knows
when to fight and when not to fight. (2) He will win who knows how to handle both
superior and inferior forces. (3) He will win whose army is animated by the same spirit
throughout all its ranks. (4) He will win who, prepared himself, waits to take the enemy
unprepared. (5) He will win who has military capacity and is not interfered with by the
sovereign.
18. Hence the saying: If you know the enemy and know yourself, you need not fear the result
of a hundred battles. If you know yourself but not the enemy, for every victory gained
you will also suffer a defeat. If you know neither the enemy nor yourself, you will
succumb in every battle.
Source: Tzu, Sun. "The Art of War." The Internet Classics Archive. Daniel Stevenson,
1994. Web. 12 Aug. 2013. <http://classics.mit.edu/index.html>
58
THE SAYINGS OF MENCIUS, BOOK I, PART 1
Better known in China as “Master Meng” (Chinese: Mengzi), Mencius was a fourth-century
BCE Chinese thinker whose importance in the Confucian tradition is second only to that of
Confucius himself. In many ways, he played the role of St. Paul to Confucius’ Jesus, interpreting
the thought of the master for subsequent ages while simultaneously impressing Confucius’ ideas
with his own philosophical stamp. He is most famous for his theory of human nature, according
to which all human beings share an innate goodness that either can be cultivated through
education and self-discipline or squandered through neglect and negative influences, but never
lost altogether.
Big Picture Question: Analyze Mencius’ concept of human nature. For Mencius, what
would an ideal Chinese government and state resemble?
Mencius went to see King Huy of Lang. The king said, "Venerable Sir, since you have not
counted it far to come here a distance of a thousand li, may I presume that you are likewise
provided with counsels to profit my kingdom?" Mencius replied, "Why must your Majesty used
that word 'profit'? What I am likewise provided with are counsels to benevolence and
righteousness; and these are my only topics.
"If your Majesty say, 'What is to be done to profit my kingdom?' the great officers will say,
'What is to be done to profit our families?' and the inferior officers and the common people will
say, 'What is to be done to profit our persons?' Superiors and inferiors will try to take the profit
the one from the other, and the kingdom will be endangered. In the kingdom of ten thousand
chariots, the murderer of his ruler will be the chief of a family of a thousand chariots. In the State
of a thousand chariots, the murderer of his ruler will be the chief of a family of a hundred
chariots. To have a thousand in ten thousand, and a hundred in a thousand, cannot be regarded as
not a large allowance; but if righteousness be put last and profit first, they will not be satisfied
without snatching all.
"There never was a man trained to benevolence who neglected his parents. There never was a
man trained to righteousness who made his ruler an after consideration. Let your Majesty
likewise make benevolence and righteousness your only themes—Why must you speak of
profit?"
When Mencius, another day, was seeing King Hwuy of Lëang, the King went and stood with
him by a pond, and, looking round on the wild geese and deer, large and small, said, "Do wise
and good princes also take pleasure in these things?" Mencius replied, "Being wise and good,
they then have pleasure in these things. If they are not wise and good, though they have these
things, they do not find pleasure." It is said in the 'Book of Poetry':—
'When he planned the commencement of the Marvellous tower,
He planned it, and defined it,
And the people in crowds undertook the work,
59
And in no time completed it.
When he planned the commencement, he said, "Be not in a hurry."
But the people came as if they were his children.
The king was in the Marvellous park,
Where the does were lying down—
The does so sleek and fat;
With the white birds glistening.
The king was by the Marvellous pond;—
How full was it of fishes leaping about!'
King Wan used the strength of the people to make his tower and pond, and the people rejoiced to
do the work, calling the tower 'the Marvellous Tower,' and the pond 'the Marvellous Pond,' and
being glad that he had his deer, his fishes and turtles. The ancients caused their people to have
pleasure as well as themselves, and therefore they could enjoy it.
"In the Declaration of T'ang it is said, 'O Sun, when wilt thou expire? We will die together with
thee.' The people wished for Këeh's death, though they should die with him. Although he had his
tower, his pond, birds and animals, how could he have pleasure alone?"
King Hwuy of Lëang said, "Small as my virtue is, in the government of my kingdom, I do indeed
exert my mind to the utmost. If the year be bad inside the Ho, I remove as many of the people as
I can to the east of it, and convey grain to the country inside. If the year be bad on the east of the
river, I act on the same plan. On examining the governmental methods of the neighboring
kingdoms, I do not find there is any ruler who exerts his mind as I do. And yet the people of the
neighboring kings do not decrease, nor do my people increase—how is this?"
Mencius replied, "Your Majesty loves war; allow me to take an illustration from war. The
soldiers move forward at the sound of the drum; and when the edges of their weapons have been
crossed, on one side, they throw away their buff coats, trail their weapons behind them, and run.
Some run a hundred paces and then stop; some run fifty paces and stop. What would you think if
these, because they had run but fifty paces, should laugh at those who ran a hundred paces?" The
king said, "They cannot do so. They only did not run a hundred paces; but they also ran."
Mencius said, "Since your Majesty knows this you have no ground to expect that your people
will become more numerous than those of the neighboring kingdoms.
"If the seasons of husbandry be not interfered with, the grain will be more than can be eaten. If
close nets are not allowed to enter the pools and ponds, the fish and turtles will be more than can
be consumed. If the axes and bills enter the hill-forests only at the proper times, the wood will be
more than can be used. When the grain and fish and turtles are more than can be eaten, and there
is more wood than can be used, this enables the people to nourish their living and do all offices
for their dead, without any feeling against any. But this condition, in which the people nourish
their living, and do all offices to their dead without having any feeling against any, is the first
step in the Royal way.
"Let mulberry trees be planted about the homesteads with their five acres, and persons of fifty
years will be able to wear silk. In keeping fowls, pigs, dogs, and swine, let not their time of
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breeding be neglected, and persons of seventy years will be able to eat flesh. Let there not be
taken away the time that is proper for the cultivation of the field allotment of a hundred acres,
and the family of several mouths will not suffer from hunger. Let careful attention be paid to the
teaching in the various schools, with repeated inculcation of the filial and fraternal duties, and
gray-haired men will not be seen upon the roads, carrying burdens on their backs or on their
heads. It has never been that the ruler of a State where these results were seen, persons of seventy
wearing silk and eating flesh, and the black-haired people suffering neither from hunger nor cold,
did not attain to the Royal dignity.
"Your dogs and swine eat the food of men, and you do not know to store up of the abundance.
There are people dying from famine on the roads, and you do not know to issue your stores for
their relief. When men die, you say, 'It is not owing to me; it is owing to the year,' In what does
this differ from stabbing a man and killing him, and then saying, 'It was not I; it was the
weapon'? Let your Majesty cease to lay the blame on the year and instantly the people, all under
the sky, will come to you."
King Hwuy of Lëang said, "I wish quietly to receive your instructions." Mencius replied, "Is
there any difference between killing a man with a stick and with a sword?" "There is no
difference," was the answer.
Mencius continued, "Is there any difference between doing it with a sword and with
governmental measures?" "There is not," was the answer again.
Mencius then said, "In your stalls there are fat beasts; in your stables there are fat horses. But
your people have the look of hunger, and in the fields there are those who have died of famine.
This is leading on beasts to devour men. Beasts devour one another, and men hate them for doing
so. When he who is called the parent of the people conducts his government so as to be
chargeable with leading on beasts to devour men, where is that parental relation to the people?
Chung-ne said, 'Was he not without posterity who first made wooden images to bury with the
dead?' So he said, because that man made the semblances of men and used them for that purpose;
what shall be thought of him who causes his people to die of hunger?"
King Hwuy of Lëang said, "There was not in the kingdom a stronger State than Ts'in, as you,
venerable Sir, know. But since it descended to me, on the east we were defeated by Ts'e, and
then my eldest son perished; on the west we lost seven hundred li of territory to Ts'in; and on the
south we have sustained disgrace at the hands of Ts'oo. I have brought shame on my departed
predecessors, and wish on their account to wipe it away once for all. What course is to be
pursued to accomplish this?"
Mencius replied, "With a territory only a hundred li square it has been possible to obtain the
Royal dignity. If your Majesty will indeed dispense a benevolent government to the people,
being sparing in the use of punishments and fines, and making the taxes and levies of produce
light, so causing that the fields shall be ploughed deep, and the weeding well attended to, and
that the able-bodied, during their days of leisure, shall cultivate their filial piety, fraternal duty,
faithfulness, and truth, serving thereby, at home, their fathers and elder brothers, and, abroad,
their elders and superiors, you will then have a people who can be employed with sticks which
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they have prepared to oppose the strong buff-coats and sharp weapons of the troops of Ts'in and
Ts'oo.
"The rulers of those States rob their people of their time, so that they cannot plough and weed
their fields in order to support their parents. Parents suffer from cold and hunger; elder and
younger brothers, wives and children, are separated and scattered abroad. Those rulers drive their
people into pitfalls or into the water; and your Majesty will go to punish them. In such a case,
who will oppose your Majesty? In accordance with this is the saying, 'The benevolent has no
enemy!' I beg your Majesty not to doubt what I said."
Mencius had an interview with King Sëang[2] of Lëang. When he came out he said to some
persons, "When I looked at him from a distance, he did not appear like a ruler; when I drew near
to him, I saw nothing venerable about him. Abruptly he asked me, 'How can the kingdom, all
under the sky, be settled?' I replied, 'It will be settled by being united under one sway,'
"'Who can so unite it?' he asked.
"I replied, 'He who has no pleasure in killing men can so unite it.'
"'Who can give it to him?' he asked.
"I replied, 'All under heaven will give it to him. Does your Majesty know the way of the growing
grain? During the seventh and eighth months, when drought prevails, the plants become dry.
Then the clouds collect densely in the heavens, and send down torrents of rain, so that the grain
erects itself as if by a shoot. When it does so, who can keep it back? Now among those who are
shepherds of men throughout the kingdom, there is not one who does not find pleasure in killing
men. If there were one who did not find pleasure in killing men, all the people under the sky
would be looking towards him with outstretched necks. Such being indeed the case, the people
would go to him as water flows downwards with a rush, which no one can repress."
King Seuen of Ts'e asked, saying, "May I be informed by you of the transactions of Hwan of Ts'e
and Wan of Ts'in?"
Mencius replied, "There were none of the disciples of Chung-ne who spoke about the affairs of
Hwan and Wan, and therefore they have not been transmitted to these after-ages; your servant
has not heard of them. If you will have me speak, let it be about the principles of attaining to the
Royal sway."
The king said, "Of what kind must his virtue be who can attain to the Royal sway?" Mencius
said, "If he loves and protects the people, it is impossible to prevent him from attaining it."
The king said, "Is such an one as poor I competent to love and protect the people?" "Yes," was
the reply. "From what do you know that I am competent to that?" "I have heard," said Mencius,
"from Hoo Heih the following incident:—'The king,' said he, 'was sitting aloft in the hall, when
some people appeared leading a bull past below it. The king saw it, and asked where the bull was
going, and being answered that they were going to consecrate a bell with its blood, he said, "Let
it go, I cannot bear its frightened appearance—as if it were an innocent person going to the place
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of death." They asked in reply whether, if they did so, they should omit the consecration of the
bell, but the king said, "How can that be omitted? Change it for a sheep."' I do not know whether
this incident occurred."
"It did," said the king, and Mencius replied, "The heart seen in this is sufficient to carry you to
the Royal sway. The people all supposed that your Majesty grudged the animal, but your servant
knows surely that it was your Majesty's not being able to bear the sight of the creature's distress
which made you do as you did."
The king said, "You are right; and yet there really was an appearance of what the people
imagined. But though Ts'e be narrow and small, how should I grudge a bull? Indeed it was
because I could not bear its frightened appearance, as if it were an innocent person going to the
place of death, that therefore I changed it for a sheep."
Mencius said, "Let not your Majesty deem it strange that the people should think you grudged
the animal. When you changed a large one for a small, how should they know the true reason? If
you felt pained by its being led without any guilt to the place of death, what was there to choose
between a bull and a sheep?" The king laughed and said, "What really was my mind in the
matter? I did not grudge the value of the bull, and yet I changed it for a sheep! There was reason
in the people's saying that I grudged the creature."
Mencius said, "There is no harm in their saying so. It was an artifice of benevolence. You saw
the bull, and had not seen the sheep. So is the superior man affected towards animals, that,
having seen them alive, he cannot bear to see them die, and, having heard their dying cries, he
cannot bear to eat their flesh. On this account he keeps away from his stalls and kitchen."
The king was pleased and said, "The Ode says,
'What other men have in their minds,
I can measure by reflection,'
This might be spoken of you, my Master. I indeed did the thing, but when I turned my thoughts
inward and sought for it, I could not discover my own mind. When you, Master, spoke those
words, the movements of compassion began to work in my mind. But how is it that this heart has
in it what is equal to the attainment of the Royal sway?"
Mencius said, "Suppose a man were to make this statement to your Majesty, 'My strength is
sufficient to lift three thousand catties, but is not sufficient to lift one feather; my eyesight is
sharp enough to examine the point of an autumn hair, but I do not see a wagon-load of fagots,'
would your Majesty allow what he said?" "No," was the king's remark, and Mencius proceeded,
"Now here is kindness sufficient to reach to animals, and yet no benefits are extended from it to
the people—how is this? is an exception to be made here? The truth is, the feather's not being
lifted is because the strength was not used; the wagon-load of firewood's not being seen is
because the eyesight was not used; and the people's not being loved and protected is because the
kindness is not used. Therefore your Majesty's not attaining to the Royal sway is because you do
not do it, and not because you are not able to do it."
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The king asked, "How may the difference between him who does not do a thing and him who is
not able to do it be graphically set forth?" Mencius replied, "In such a thing as taking the T'ae
mountain under your arm, and leaping with it over the North Sea, if you say to people, 'I am not
able to do it,' that is a real case of not being able. In such a matter as breaking off a branch from a
tree at the order of a superior, if you say to people, 'I am not able to do it,' it is not a case of not
being able to do it. And so your Majesty's not attaining to the Royal sway is not such a case as
that of taking the T'ae mountain under your arm and leaping over the North Sea with it; but it is a
case like that of breaking off a branch from a tree.
"Treat with reverence due to age the elders in your own family, so that those in the families of
others shall be similarly treated; treat with the kindness due to youth the young in your own
family, so that those in the families of others shall be similarly treated—do this and the kingdom
may be made to go round in your palm. It is said in the 'Book of Poetry,'
'His example acted on his wife,
Extended to his brethren,
And was felt by all the clans and States;'
Telling us how King Wan simply took this kindly heart, and exercised it towards those parties.
Therefore the carrying out of the feeling of kindness by a ruler will suffice for the love and
protection of all within the four seas; and if he do not carry it out, he will not be able to protect
his wife and children. The way in which the ancients came greatly to surpass other men was no
other than this, that they carried out well what they did, so as to affect others. Now your kindness
is sufficient to reach to animals, and yet no benefits are extended from it to the people. How is
this? Is an exception to be made here?
"By weighing we know what things are light, and what heavy. By measuring we know what
things are long, and what short. All things are so dealt with, and the mind requires specially to be
so. I beg your Majesty to measure it.—Your Majesty collects your equipments of war, endangers
your soldiers and officers and excites the resentment of the various princes—do these things
cause you pleasure in your mind?"
The king said, "No. How should I derive pleasure from these things? My object in them is to
seek for what I greatly desire."
Mencius said, "May I hear from you what it is that your Majesty greatly desires?" The king
laughed, and did not speak. Mencius resumed, "Are you led to desire it because you have not
enough of rich and sweet food for your mouth? or because you have not enough of light and
warm clothing for your body? or because you have not enough of beautifully colored objects to
satisfy your eyes? or because there are not voices and sounds enough to fill your ears? or because
you have not enough of attendants and favorites to stand before you and receive your orders?
Your Majesty's various officers are sufficient to supply you with all these things. How can your
Majesty have such a desire on account of them?" "No," said the king, "my desire is not on
account of them." Mencius observed, "Then what your Majesty greatly desires can be known.
You desire to enlarge your territories, to have Ts'in and Ts'oo coming to your court, to rule the
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Middle States, and to attract to you the barbarous tribes that surround them. But to do what you
do in order to seek for what you desire is like climbing a tree to seek for fish."
"Is it so bad as that?" said the king. "I apprehend it is worse," was the reply. "If you climb a tree
to seek for fish, although you do not get the fish, you have no subsequent calamity. But if you do
what you do in order to seek for what you desire, doing it even with all your heart, you will
assuredly afterwards meet with calamities." The king said, "May I hear what they will be?"
Mencius replied, "If the people of Tsow were fighting with the people of Ts'oo, which of them
does your Majesty think would conquer?" "The people of Ts'oo would conquer," was the answer,
and Mencius pursued, "So then, a small State cannot contend with a great, few cannot contend
with many, nor can the weak contend with the strong. The territory within the seas would
embrace nine divisions, each of a thousand li square. All Ts'e together is one of them. If with one
part you try to subdue the other eight, what is the difference between that and Tsow's contending
with Ts'oo? With the desire which you have, you must turn back to the proper course for its
attainment.
"Now, if your Majesty will institute a government whose action shall all be benevolent, this will
cause all the officers in the kingdom to wish to stand in your Majesty's court, the farmers all to
wish to plough in your Majesty's fields, the merchants, both travelling and stationary, all to wish
to store their goods in your Majesty's market-places, travellers and visitors all to wish to travel
on your Majesty's roads, and all under heaven who feel aggrieved by their rulers to wish to come
and complain to your Majesty. When they are so bent, who will be able to keep them back?"
The king said, "I am stupid and cannot advance to this. But I wish you, my Master, to assist my
intentions. Teach me clearly, and although I am deficient in intelligence and vigor, I should like
to try at least to institute such a government."
Mencius replied, "They are only men of education, who, without a certain livelihood, are able to
maintain a fixed heart. As to the people, if they have not a certain livelihood, they will be found
not to have a fixed heart. And if they have not a fixed heart, there is nothing which they will not
do in the way of self-abandonment, of moral deflection, of depravity, and of wild license. When
they have thus been involved in crime, to follow them up and punish them, is to entrap the
people. How can such a thing as entrapping the people be done under the rule of a benevolent
man?"
"Therefore, an intelligent ruler will regulate the livelihood of the people, so as to make sure that,
above, they shall have sufficient wherewith to serve their parents, and below, sufficient
wherewith to support their wives and children; that in good years they shall always be
abundantly satisfied, and that in bad years they shall not be in danger of perishing. After this he
may urge them, and they will proceed to what is good, for in this case the people will follow
after that with readiness.
"But now the livelihood of the people is so regulated, that, above, they have not sufficient
wherewith to serve their parents, and, below, they have not sufficient wherewith to support their
wives and children; even in good years their lives are always embittered, and in bad years they
are in danger of perishing. In such circumstances their only object is to escape from death, and
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they are afraid they will not succeed in doing so—what leisure have they to cultivate propriety
and righteousness?
"If your Majesty wishes to carry out a benevolent government, why not turn back to what is the
essential step to its attainment?
"Let mulberry trees be planted about the homesteads with their five acres, and persons of fifty
years will be able to wear silk. In keeping fowls, pigs, dogs, and swine, let not their times of
breeding be neglected, and persons of seventy years will be able to eat flesh. Let there not be
taken away the time that is proper for the cultivation of the field-allotment of a hundred acres,
and the family of eight mouths will not suffer from hunger. Let careful attention be paid to the
teaching in the various schools, with repeated inculcation of the filial and fraternal duties, and
gray-haired men will not be seen upon the roads, carrying burdens on their backs or on their
heads. It has never been that the ruler of a State, where these results were seen, the old wearing
silk and eating flesh, and the black-haired people suffering neither from hunger nor cold, did not
attain to the Royal dignity."
Source: "Chinese Literature Comprising The Analects of Confucius, The Sayings of Mencius,
The Shi-King, The Travels of Fâ-Hien, and The Sorrows of Han." The Project Gutenberg EBook
of Chinese Literature. Trans. Unknown. The Library of Congress Project Gutenberg, 17 Nov.
2003. Web. 08 Aug. 2013. <http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/10056/pg10056.html>.
66
BUDDHA’S BENARES DEER PARK SERMON: SETTING THE WHEEL IN MOTION
By tradition, around the fifth century BCE, Siddharta Guatama, a young Indian prince upon
seeing startling images for the first time fled his palace and sought the truth of existence. He
journeyed amongst ascetics – most likely Jains – and finding their doctrines too harsh, continued
his quest for another forty years. After achieving enlightenment while seated under a Boh tree,
Siddharta preached his first sermon in the Deer Park (Sarnath) at Benares. From this first
sermon sprang the Sangha or community of monks who followed Buddha – the Enlightened One
– and became his disciples.
Big Picture Question: Buddha taught that in order to avoid rebirth and reincarnation that
his followers should follow the Eight Fold Path. Identify Buddha’s universal truths. Why
might Buddhism be a threat to Hinduism? Justify your answer.
ON seeing their old teacher approach, the five bhikkus (monks who had apprenticed under
Siddharta Gotama) agreed among themselves not to salute him, nor to address him as a master,
but by his name only. "For," so they said, "he has broken his vow and has abandoned holiness.
He is no bhikkhu, but Gotama, and Gotama has become a man who lives in abundance and
indulges in the pleasures of worldliness." But when the Blessed One approached in a dignified
manner, they involuntarily rose from their seats and greeted him in spite of their resolution. Still
they called him by his name and addressed him as "friend Gotama."
When they had thus received the Blessed One, he said: "Do not call the Tathagata by his name
nor address him as 'friend,' for he is the Buddha, the Holy One. The Buddha looks with a kind
heart equally on all living beings, and they therefore call him 'Father.' To disrespect a father is
wrong; to despise him, is wicked. The Tathagata, the Buddha continued, does not seek salvation
in austerities, but neither does he for that reason indulge in worldly pleasures, nor live in
abundance. The Tathagata has found the middle path.
"There are two extremes, O bhikkhus, which the man who has given up the world ought not to
follow-the habitual practice, on the one hand, of self-indulgence which is unworthy, vain and fit
only for the worldly-minded and the habitual practice, on the other hand, of self-mortification,
which is painful, useless and unprofitable.
"Neither abstinence from fish and flesh, nor going naked, nor shaving the head, nor wearing
matted hair, nor dressing in a rough garment, nor covering oneself with dirt, nor sacrificing to
Agni, will cleanse a man who is not free from delusions. Reading the Vedas, making offerings to
priests, or sacrifices to the gods, self-mortification by heat or cold and many such penances
performed for the sake of immortality, these do not cleanse the man who is not free from
delusions. Anger, drunkenness, obstinacy, bigotry, deception, envy, self-praise, disparaging
others, superciliousness and evil intentions constitute uncleanness; not verily the eating of flesh.
"A middle path, O bhikkhus avoiding the two extremes, has been discovered by the Tathagata-a
path which opens the eyes, and bestows understanding, which leads to peace of mind, to the
higher wisdom, to full enlightenment, to Nirvana! What is that middle path, O bhikkhus,
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avoiding these two extremes, discovered by the Tathagata-that path which opens the eyes, and
bestows understanding, which leads to peace of mind, to the higher wisdom, to full
enlightenment, to Nirvana? Let me teach you, O bhikkhus, the middle path, which keeps aloof
from both extremes. By suffering, the emaciated devotee produces confusion and sickly thoughts
in his mind. Mortification is not conducive even to worldly knowledge; how much less to a
triumph over the senses!
"He who fills his lamp with water will not dispel the darkness, and he who tries to light a fire
with rotten wood will fail. And how can anyone be free from self by leading a wretched life, if
he does not succeed in quenching the fires of lust, if he still hankers after either worldly or
heavenly pleasures? But he in whom self has become extinct is free from lust; he will desire
neither worldly nor heavenly pleasures, and the satisfaction of his natural wants will not defile
him. However, let him be moderate, let him eat and drink according to the need of the body.
"Sensuality is enervating; the self-indulgent man is a slave to his passions, and pleasure-seeking
is degrading and vulgar. But to satisfy the necessities of life is not evil. To keep the body in good
health is a duty, for otherwise we shall not be able to trim the lamp of wisdom, and keep our
minds strong and clear. Water surrounds the lotus flower, but does not wet its petals. This is the
middle path, O bhikkhus, that keeps aloof from both extremes." And the Blessed One spoke
kindly to his disciples, pitying them for their errors, and pointing out the uselessness of their
endeavors, and the ice of ill-will that chilled their hearts melted away under the gentle warmth of
the Master's persuasion.
Now the Blessed One set the wheel of the most excellent law rolling, and he began to preach to
the five bhikkhus, opening to them the gate of immortality, and showing them the bliss of
Nirvana.
The Buddha said: "The spokes of the wheel are the rules of pure conduct: justice is the
uniformity of their length; wisdom is the tire; modesty and thoughtfulness are the hub in which
the immovable axle of truth is fixed. He who recognizes the existence of suffering, its cause, its
remedy, and its cessation has fathomed the four noble truths. He will walk in the right path.
"Right views will be the torch to light his way. Right aspirations will be his guide. Right speech
will be his dwelling-place on the road. His gait will be straight, for it is right behavior. His
refreshments will be the right way of earning his livelihood. Right efforts will be his steps: right
thoughts his breath; and right contemplation will give him the peace that follows in his
footprints.
"Now, this, O bhikkhus, is the noble truth concerning suffering: Birth is attended with pain,
decay is painful, disease is painful, death is painful. Union with the unpleasant is painful, painful
is separation from the pleasant; and any craving that is unsatisfied, that too is painful. In brief,
bodily conditions which spring from attachment are painful. This, then, O bhikkhus, is the noble
truth concerning suffering.
"Now this, O bhikkhus, is the noble truth concerning the origin of suffering: Verily, it is that
craving which causes the renewal of existence, accompanied by sensual delight, seeking
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satisfaction now here, now there, the craving for the gratification of the passions, the craving for
a future life, and the craving for happiness in this life. This, then, O bhikkhus, is the noble truth
concerning the origin of suffering.
"Now this, O bhikkhus, is the noble truth concerning the destruction of suffering: Verily, it is the
destruction, in which no passion remains, of this very thirst; it is the laying aside of, the being
free from, the dwelling no longer upon this thirst. This, then, O bhikkhus, is the noble truth
concerning the destruction of suffering.
"Now, this, O bhikkhus, is the noble truth concerning the way which leads to the destruction of
sorrow. Verily, it is this noble eightfold path; that is to say: Right views; right aspirations; right
speech; right behavior; right livelihood; right effort; right thoughts; and right contemplation.
This, then, O bhikkhus, is the noble truth concerning the destruction of sorrow.
"By the practice of loving-kindness I have attained liberation of heart, and thus I am assured that
I shall never return in renewed births. I have even now attained Nirvana."
When the Blessed One had thus set the royal chariot wheel of truth rolling onward, a rapture
thrilled through all the universes. The devas left their heavenly abodes to listen to the sweetness
of the truth; the saints that had parted from life crowded around the great teacher to receive the
glad tidings; even the animals of the earth felt the bliss that rested upon the words of the
Tathagata: and all the creatures of the host of sentient beings, gods, men, and beasts, hearing the
message of deliverance, received and understood it in their own language.
And when the doctrine was propounded, the venerable Kondanna, the oldest one among the five
bhikkhus, discerned the truth with his mental eye, and he said: "Truly, O Buddha, our Lord, thou
hast found the truth!" Then the other bhikkhus too, joined him and exclaimed: "Truly, thou art
the Buddha, thou hast found the truth."
And the devas and saints and all the good spirits of the departed generations that had listened to
the sermon of the Tathagata, joyfully received the doctrine and shouted: "Truly, the Blessed One
has founded the kingdom of righteousness. The Blessed One has moved the earth; he has set the
wheel of Truth rolling, which by no one in the universe, be he god or man, can ever be turned
back. The kingdom of Truth will be preached upon earth; it will spread; and righteousness, goodwill, and peace will reign among mankind."
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THE SANGHA OR COMMUNITY
Big Picture Question: How would the Buddhist community of monks and nuns facilitate
the spread of Buddhism?
HAVING pointed out to the five bhikkhus the truth, the Buddha said: "A man that stands alone,
having decided to obey the truth, may be weak and slip back into his old ways. Therefore, stand
ye together, assist one another, and strengthen one another efforts. Be like unto brothers; one in
love, one in holiness, and one in your zeal for the truth. Spread the truth and preach the doctrine
in all quarters of the world, so that in the end all living creatures will be citizens of the kingdom
of righteousness. This is the holy brotherhood; this is the church, the congregation of the saints
of the Buddha; this is the Sangha that establishes a communion among all those who have taken
their refuge in the Buddha."
Kondanna was the first disciple of the Buddha who had thoroughly grasped the doctrine of the
Holy One, and the Tathagata looking into his heart said: "Truly, Kondanna has understood the
truth." Therefore the venerable Kondanna received the name "Annata-Kondanna that is,
"Kondanna who has understood the doctrine." Then the venerable Kondanna spoke to the
Buddha and said: "Lord, let us receive the ordination from the blessed One." And the Buddha
said: "Come, O bhikkhus! Well taught is the doctrine. Lead a holy life for the extinction of
suffering."
Then Kondanna and the other bhikkhus uttered three times these solemn vows: "To the Buddha
will I look in faith: He, the Perfect One, is holy and supreme. The Buddha conveys to us
instruction, wisdom, and salvation; he is the Blessed One, who knows the law of being; he is the
Lord of the world, who yoketh men like oxen, the Teacher of gods and men, the Exalted Buddha.
Therefore, to the Buddha will I look in faith.
"To the doctrine will I look in faith: well-preached is the doctrine by the Exalted One. The
doctrine has been revealed so as to become visible; the doctrine is above time and space. The
doctrine is not based upon hearsay, it means 'Come and see'; the doctrine to welfare; the doctrine
is recognized by the wise in their own hearts. Therefore to the doctrine will I look in faith.
"To the community will I look in faith; the community of the Buddha's disciples instructs us how
to lead a life of righteousness; the community of the Buddha's disciples teaches us how to
exercise honesty and justice; the community of the Buddha's disciples shows us how to practice
the truth. They form a brotherhood in kindness and charity, and their saints are worthy of
reverence. The community of the Buddha's disciples is founded as a holy brotherhood in which
men bind themselves together to teach the behests of rectitude and to do good. Therefore, to the
community will I look in faith."
The gospel of the Blessed One increased from day to day, and many people came to hear him
and to accept the ordination to lead thenceforth a holy life for the sake of the extinction of
suffering. And the Blessed One seeing that it was impossible to attend to all who wanted to hear
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the truth and receive the ordination, sent out from the number of his disciples such as were to
preach the Dharma, and said unto them:
"The Dharma and the Vinaya proclaimed by the Tathagata shine forth when they are displayed,
and not when they are concealed. But let not this doctrine, so full of truth and so excellent, fall
into the hands of those unworthy of it, where it would be despised and contemned, treated
shamefully, ridiculed and censured. I now grant you, O bhikkhus, this permission. Confer
henceforth in the different countries the ordination upon those who are eager to receive it, when
you find them worthy.
"Go ye now, O bhikkhus, for the benefit of the many, for the welfare of mankind, out of
compassion for the world. Preach the doctrine which is glorious in the beginning, glorious in the
middle, and glorious in the end, in the spirit as well as in the letter. There are beings whose eyes
are scarcely covered with dust, but if the doctrine is not preached to them they cannot attain
salvation. Proclaim to them a life of holiness. They will understand the doctrine and accept it."
And it became an established custom that the bhikkhus went out preaching while the weather
was good, but in the rainy season they came together again and joined their master, to listen to
the exhortations of the Tathagata.
Source: The Sermon At Benares and The Sangha. Internet Sacred Text Archive, n.d. Web. 08
Aug. 2013. <http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/btg/btg17.htm> and <http://www.sacredtexts.com/bud/btg/btg17.htm>.
71
ZOROASTRIANISM: THE GATHA OF CHOICE
Yasna 30 is one of the clearest and most frequently quoted Gathas. Zarathustra manifests his
powerful originality by reducing the history of the origins to that of a choice. . . . Better still, in
Zoroaster's poem this tale of the original choice is balanced by an announcement of the final
things, choice and rewards being closely interdependent. The whole human drama, reduced to its
essential structure, is contained in a few stanzas.
Big Picture Question: Zoroaster (Zarathustra) offers his followers a choice. Compare the
two choices which Zoroaster offers his followers. What other world views also offer their
followers a choice – which ones are most similar to Zoroastrianism? Explain why?
Now will I speak to those who will hear,
Of the things which the initiate should remember,
The praises and prayer of the Good Mind to the Lord
And the joy which he shall see in the light who has remembered them well.
Hear with your ears that which is the sovereign good;
With a clear mind look upon the two sides
Between which each man must choose for himself,
Watchful beforehand that the great test may be accomplished in our favor,
Now at the beginning the twin spirits have declared their nature, The better and the evil,
In thought and word and deed. And between the two
The wise ones choose well, not so the foolish.
And when these two spirits came together,
In the beginning they established life and non-life,
And that at the last the worst experience should be for the wicked,
But for the righteous one the Best Mind.
Of these two spirits, the evil one chose to do the worst things, But the most Holy Spirit, clothed
in the most steadfast heavens, joined himself unto Righteousness;
And thus did all those who delight to please the Wise Lord by honest deeds.
Between the two, the false gods also did "not choose rightly,
For while they pondered they were beset by error,
So that they chose the Worst Mind.
Then did they hasten to join themselves unto Fury,
That they might by it deprave the existence of man.
And to him came Devotion, together with Doininion, Good Mind
and Righteousness;
She gave perpetuity of body and the breath of life,
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That he may be thine apart from them,
As the first by the retributions through the metal.
And when their punishment shall come to these sinners,
Then, 0 Wise One, shall thy Dominion, with the Good Mind, Be granted to those who have
delivered Evil into the hands of Righteousness, 0 Lord!
And may we be those that re-new this existence!
- 0 Wise One, and you other Lords, and Righteousness, bring your alliance,
That thoughts may gather where wisdom is faint.
Then shall Evil cease to flourish,
While those who have acquired good fame
Shall reap the promised reward
In the blessed dwelling of the Good Mind, of the Wise One, and of Righteousness.
If you, 0 men, understand the commandments which the Wise
One has given,
Well-being and suffering-long torment for the wicked and
salvation for the righteous – All shall hereafter be for the best.
Source: Translation and introductory note by Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin, in his The Hymns of
Zarathustra (London 1952), pp. 102-7
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HERODOTUS: DARIUS’ PERSIAN EMPIRE
Herodotus was an ancient Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus, Caria (modern day
Bodrum, Turkey, which at the time was under the rule of the Persian Empire) and lived in the
fifth century BC (c. 484–425 BC). He has been called the "The Father of History" (firstly
conferred by Cicero), and was the first historian known to collect his materials systematically,
test their accuracy to a certain extent, and arrange them in a well-constructed and vivid
narrative. The Histories—his masterpiece and the only work he is known to have produced—is a
record of his "inquiry", being an investigation of the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars and
including a wealth of geographical and ethnographical information. Although some of his stories
were fanciful, he claimed he was reporting only what had been told to him. Little is known of his
personal history.
Big Picture Question: Describe the characteristics of the Persian Empire. How did the
Persians project power and control?
III.80: And now when five days were gone, and the hubbub had settled down, the conspirators
met together to consult about the situation of affairs. At this meeting speeches were made, to
which many of the Hellenes give no credence, but they were made nevertheless. Otanes
recommended that the management of public affairs should be entrusted to the whole nation. "To
me," he said, "it seems advisable, that we should no longer have a single man to rule over us--the rule of one is neither good nor pleasant. You cannot have forgotten to what lengths
Cambyses went in his haughty tyranny, and the haughtiness of the Magi you have yourselves
experienced. How indeed is it possible that monarchy should be a well-adjusted thing, when it
allows a man to do as he likes without being answerable? Such licence is enough to stir strange
and unwonted thoughts in the heart of the worthiest of men. Give a person this power, and
straightway his manifold good things puff him up with pride, while envy is so natural to human
kind that it cannot but arise in him. But pride and envy together include all wickedness---both of
them leading on to deeds of savage violence.
True it is that kings, possessing as they do all that heart can desire, ought to be void of envy; but
the contrary is seen in their conduct towards the citizens. They are jealous of the most virtuous
among their subjects, and wish their death; while they take delight in the meanest and basest,
being ever ready to listen to the tales of slanderers. A king, besides, is beyond all other men
inconsistent with himself. Pay him court in moderation, and he is angry because you do not show
him more profound respect--- show him profound respect, and he is offended again, because (as
he says) you fawn on him. But the worst of all is, that he sets aside the laws of the land, puts men
to death without trial, and subjects women to violence. The rule of the many, on the other hand,
has, in the first place, the fairest of names, to wit, isonomy; and further it is free from all those
outrages which a king is wont to commit. There, places are given by lot, the magistrate is
answerable for what he does, and measures rest with the commonalty. I vote, therefore, that we
do away with monarchy, and raise the people to power. For the people are all in all."
III.81: Such were the sentiments of Otanes. Megabyzus spoke next, and advised the setting up of
an oligarchy: "In all that Otanes has said to persuade you to put down monarchy," he observed,
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"I fully concur; but his recommendation that we should call the people to power seems to me not
the best advice. For there is nothing so void of understanding, nothing so full of wantonness, as
the unwieldy rabble. It were folly not to be borne, for men, while seeking to escape the
wantonness of a tyrant, to give themselves up to the wantonness of a rude unbridled mob. The
tyrant, in all his doings, at least knows what is he about, but a mob is altogether devoid of
knowledge; for how should there be any knowledge in a rabble, untaught, and with no natural
sense of what is right and fit? It rushes wildly into state affairs with all the fury of a stream
swollen in the winter, and confuses everything. Let the enemies of the Persians be ruled by
democracies; but let us choose out from the citizens a certain number of the worthiest, and put
the government into their hands. For thus both we ourselves shall be among the governors, and
power being entrusted to the best men, it is likely that the best counsels will prevail in the state."
III.82: This was the advice which Megabyzus gave, and after him Darius came forward, and
spoke as follows: "All that Megabyzus said against democracy was well said, I think; but about
oligarchy he did not speak advisedly; for take these three forms of government---democracy,
oligarchy, and monarchy---and let them each be at their best, I maintain that monarchy far
surpasses the other two. What government can possibly be better than that of the very best man
in the whole state? The counsels of such a man are like himself, and so he governs the mass of
the people to their heart's content; while at the same time his measures against evil-doers are kept
more secret than in other states. Contrariwise, in oligarchies, where men vie with each other in
the service of the commonwealth, fierce enmities are apt to arise between man and man, each
wishing to be leader, and to carry his own measures; whence violent quarrels come, which lead
to open strife, often ending in bloodshed. Then monarchy is sure to follow; and this too shows
how far that rule surpasses all others.
Again, in a democracy, it is impossible but that there will be malpractices: these malpractices,
however, do not lead to enmities, but to close friendships, which are formed among those
engaged in them, who must hold well together to carry on their villainies. And so things go on
until a man stands forth as champion of the commonalty, and puts down the evil-doers.
Straightway the author of so great a service is admired by all, and from being admired soon
comes to be appointed king; so that here too it is plain that monarchy is the best government.
Lastly, to sum up all in a word, whence, I ask, was it that we got the freedom which we enjoy?
Did democracy give it us, or oligarchy, or a monarch? As a single man recovered our freedom
for us, my sentence is that we keep to the rule of one. Even apart from this, we ought not to
change the laws of our forefathers when they work fairly; for to do so is not well."
III.83: Such were the three opinions brought forward at this meeting; the four other Persians
voted in favor of the last. Otanes, who wished to give his countrymen a democracy, when he
found the decision against him, arose a second time, and spoke thus before the assembly:
"Brother conspirators, it is plain that the king who is to be chosen will be one of ourselves,
whether we make the choice by casting lots for the prize, or by letting the people decide which of
us they will have to rule over them, in or any other way. Now, as I have neither a mind to rule
nor to be ruled, I shall not enter the lists with you in this matter. I withdraw, however, on one
condition---none of you shall claim to exercise rule over me or my seed for ever." The six agreed
to these terms, and Otanes withdraw and stood aloof from the contest. And still to this day the
family of Otanes continues to be the only free family in Persia; those who belong to it submit to
the rule of the king only so far as they themselves choose; they are bound, however, to observe
the laws of the land like the other Persians.
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III.84: After this the six took counsel together, as to the fairest way of setting up a king: and first,
with respect to Otanes, they resolved, that if any of their own number got the kingdom, Otanes
and his seed after him should receive year by year, as a mark of special honor, a Median robe,
and all such other gifts as are accounted the most honorable in Persia. And these they resolved to
give him, because he was the man who first planned the outbreak, and who brought the seven
together. These privileges, therefore, were assigned specially to Otanes. The following were
made common to them all: It was to be free to each, whenever he pleased, to enter the palace
unannounced, unless the king were in the company of one of his wives; and the king was to be
bound to marry into no family excepting those of the conspirators. Concerning the appointment
of a king, the resolve to which they came was the following: They would ride out together next
morning into the skirts of the city, and he whose steed first neighed after the sun was up should
have the kingdom.
III.85: Now Darius had a groom, a sharp-witted knave, called Oibares. After the meeting had
broken up, Darius sent for him, and said, "Oibares, this is the way in which the king is to be
chosen---we are to mount our horses, and the man whose horse first neighs after the sun is up is
to have the kingdom. If then you have any cleverness, contrive a plan whereby the prize may fall
to us, and not go to another." "Truly, master," Oibares answered, "if it depends on this whether
you shall be king or no, set your heart at ease, and fear nothing: I have a charm which is sure not
to fail." "If you have really anything of the kind," said Darius, "hasten to get it ready. The matter
does not brook delay, for the trial is to be tomorrow." So Oibares when he heard that, did as
follows: When night came, he took one of the mares, the chief favorite of the horse which Darius
rode, and tethering it in the suburb, brought his master's horse to the place; then, after leading
him round and round the mare several times, nearer and nearer at each circuit, he ended by
letting them come together.
III.86: And now, when the morning broke, the six Persians, according to agreement, met together
on horseback, and rode out to the suburb. As they went along they neared the spot where the
mare was tethered the night before, whereupon the horse of Darius sprang forward and neighed.
just at the same time, though the sky was clear and bright, there was a flash of lightning,
followed by a thunderclap. It seemed as if the heavens conspired with Darius, and hereby
inaugurated him king: so the five other nobles leaped with one accord from their steeds, and
bowed down before him and owned him for their king.
III.87: This is the account which some of the Persians gave of the contrivance of Oibares; but
there are others who relate the matter differently. They say that in the morning he stroked the
mare with his hand, which he then hid in his trousers until the sun rose and the horses were about
to start, when he suddenly drew his hand forth and put it to the nostrils of his master's horse,
which immediately snorted and neighed.
III.88: Thus was Darius, son of Hystaspes, appointed king; and, except the Arabians, all they of
Asia were subject to him; for Cyrus, and after him Cambyses, had brought them all under. The
Arabians were never subject as slaves to the Persians, but had a league of friendship with them
from the time when they brought Cambyses on his way as he went into Egypt; for had they been
unfriendly the Persians could never have made their invasion.
And now Darius contracted marriages of the first rank, according to the notions of the Persians:
to wit, with two daughters of Cyrus, Atossa and Artystone; of whom, Atossa had been twice
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married before, once to Cambyses, her brother, and once to the Magus, while the other,
Artystone, was a virgin. He married also Parmys, daughter of Smerdis, son of Cyrus; and he
likewise took to wife the daughter of Otanes, who had made the discovery about the Magus. And
now when his power was established firmly throughout all the kingdoms, the first thing that he
did was to set up a carving in stone, which showed a man mounted upon a horse, with an
inscription in these words following: "Darius, son of Hystaspes, by aid of his good horse" (here
followed the horse's name), "and of his good groom Oibares, got himself the kingdom of the
Persians."
III.89: This he set up in Persia; and afterwards he proceeded to establish twenty governments of
the kind which the Persians call satrapies, assigning to each its governor, and fixing the tribute
which was to be paid him by the several nations. And generally he joined together in one satrapy
the nations that were neighbors, but sometimes he passed over the nearer tribes, and put in their
stead those which were more remote. The following is an account of these governments, and of
the yearly tribute which they paid to the king: Such as brought their tribute in silver were ordered
to pay according to the Babylonian talent; while the Euboic was the standard measure for such as
brought gold. Now the Babylonian talent contains seventy Euboic minae. During all the reign of
Cyrus, and afterwards when Cambyses ruled, there were no fixed tributes, but the nations
severally brought gifts to the king. On account of this and other like doings, the Persians say that
Darius was a huckster, Cambyses a master, and Cyrus a father; for Darius looked to making a
gain in everything; Cambyses was harsh and reckless; while Cyrus was gentle, and procured
them all manner of goods.
III.90: The Ionians, the Magnesians of Asia, the Aeolians, the Carians, the Lycians, the Milyans,
and the Pamphylians, paid their tribute in a single sum, which was fixed at four hundred talents
of silver. These formed together the first satrapy.
The Mysians, Lydians, Lasonians, Cabalians, and Hygennians paid the sum of five hundred
talents. This was the second satrapy.
The Hellespontians, of the right coast as one enters the straits, the Phrygians, the Asiatic
Thracians, the Paphlagonians, the Mariandynians' and the Syrians paid a tribute of three hundred
and sixty talents. This was the third satrapy.
The Cilicians gave three hundred and sixty white horses, one for each day in the year, and five
hundred talents of silver. Of this sum one hundred and forty talents went to pay the cavalry
which guarded the country, while the remaining three hundred and sixty were received by
Darius. This was the fourth satrapy.
III.91: The country reaching from the city of Posideium (built by Amphilochus, son of
Amphiaraus, on the confines of Syria and Cilicia) to the borders of Egypt, excluding therefrom a
district which belonged to Arabia and was free from tax, paid a tribute of three hundred and fifty
talents. All Phoenicia, Palestine Syria, and Cyprus, were herein contained. This was the fifth
satrapy.
From Egypt, and the neighbouring parts of Libya, together with the towns of Cyrene and Barca,
which belonged to the Egyptian satrapy, the tribute which came in was seven hundred talents.
These seven hundred talents did not include the profits of the fisheries of Lake Moeris, nor the
corn furnished to the troops at Memphis. Corn was supplied to 120,000 Persians, who dwelt at
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Memphis in the quarter called the White Castle, and to a number of auxiliaries. This was the
sixth satrapy.
The Sattagydians, the Gandarians, the Dadicae, and the Aparytae, who were all reckoned
together, paid a tribute of a hundred and seventy talents. This was the seventh satrapy.
Susa, and the other parts of Cissia, paid three hundred talents. This was the eighth satrapy.
III.92: From Babylonia, and the rest of Assyria, were drawn a yousand talents of silver, and five
hundred boy-eunuchs. This was the ninth satrapy.
Agbatana, and the other parts of Media, together with the Paricanians and Orthocorybantes, paid
in all four hundred and fifty talents. This was the tenth satrapy.
The Caspians, Pausicae, Pantimathi, and Daritae, were joined in one government, and paid the
sum of two hundred talents. This was the eleventh satrapy.
From the Bactrian tribes as far as the Aegli the tribute received was three hundred and sixty
talents. This was the twelfth satrapy.
III.93: From Pactyica, Armenia, and the countries reaching thence to the Euxine, the sum drawn
was four hundred talents. This was the thirteenth satrapy.
The Sagartians, Sarangians, Thamanaeans, Utians, and Mycians, together with the inhabitants of
the islands in the Erythraean sea, where the king sends those whom he banishes, furnished
altogether a tribute of six hundred talents. This was the fourteenth satrapy.
The Sacans and Caspians gave two hundred and fifty talents. This was the fifteenth satrapy.
The Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdians, and Arians, gave three hundred. This was the sixteenth
satrapy.
III.94: The Paricanians and Ethiopians of Asia furnished a tribute of four hundred talents. This
was the seventeenth satrapy.
The Matienians, Saspeires, and Alarodians were rated to pay two hundred talents. This was the
eighteenth satrapy.
The Moschi, Tibareni, Macrones, Mosynoeci, and Mares had to pay three hundred talents. This
was the nineteenth satrapy.
The Indians, who are more numerous than any other nation with which we are acquainted, paid a
tribute exceeding that of every other people, to wit, three hundred and sixty talents of gold-dust.
This was the twentieth satrapy.
III.95: If the Babylonian money here spoken of be reduced to the Euboic scale, it will make nine
yousand five hundred and forty such talents; and if the gold be reckoned at thirteen times the
worth of silver, the Indian gold-dust will come to four yousand six hundred and eighty talents.
Add these two amounts together and the whole revenue which came in to Darius year by year
will be found to be in Euboic money fourteen yousand five hundred and sixty talents, not to
mention parts of a talent.
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III.96: Such was the revenue which Darius derived from Asia and a small part of Libya. Later in
his reign the sum was increased by the tribute of the islands, and of the nations of Europe as far
as Thessaly. The Great King stores away the tribute which he receives after this fashion---he
melts it down, and, while it is in a liquid state, runs it into earthen vessels, which are afterwards
removed, leaving the metal in a solid mass. When money is wanted, he coins as much of this
bullion as the occasion requires.
III.97: Such then were the governments, and such the amounts of tribute at which they were
assessed respectively. Persia alone has not been reckoned among the tributaries---and for this
reason, because the country of the Persians is altogether exempt from tax. The following peoples
paid no settled tribute, but brought gifts to the king: first, the Ethiopians bordering upon Egypt,
who were reduced by Cambyses when he made war on the long-lived Ethiopians, and who dwell
about the sacred city of Nysa, and have festivals in honour of Bacchus. The grain on which they
and their next neighbours feed is the same as that used by the Calantian Indians. Their dwellinghouses are under ground. Every third year these two nations brought---and they still bring to my
day---two choenices of virgin gold, two hundred logs of ebony, five Ethiopian boys, and twenty
elephant tusks. The Colchians, and the neighbouring tribes who dwell between them and the
Caucasus---for so far the Persian rule reaches, while north of the Caucasus no one fears them any
longer---undertook to furnish a gift, which in my day was still brought every fifth year,
consisting of a hundred boys, and the same number of maidens. The Arabs brought every year a
yousand talents of frankincense. Such were the gifts which the king received over and above the
tribute-money.
Source: Herodotus, The History, George Rawlinson, trans., (New York: Dutton & Co., 1862).
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PLATO: THE REPUBLIC – THE ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE
The Republic is a Socratic dialogue, written by Plato around 380 BC, concerning the definition
of justice and the order and character of the just city-state and the just man. It is Plato's bestknown work and has proven to be one of the most intellectually and historically influential works
of philosophy and political theory. In it, Socrates along with various Athenians and foreigners
discuss the meaning of justice and examine whether or not the just man is happier than the
unjust man by considering a series of different cities coming into existence "in speech",
culminating in a city (Kallipolis) ruled by philosopher-kings; and by examining the nature of
existing regimes. The participants also discuss the theory of forms, the immortality of the soul,
and the roles of the philosopher and of poetry in society.
Big Picture Question: Make sure you know what an allegory is. Analyze Plato’s allegory –
what is he saying about facts, knowledge, truth and humans? How does Plato think the best
men should deal with truth and facts?
Socrates and his student, Glaucon
Socrates. And now, I said, let me show in a figure how far our nature is enlightened or
unenlightened: Behold human beings living in an underground den, which has a mouth open
towards the light and reaching all along the den; here they have been from their childhood, and
have their legs and necks chained so that they cannot move, and can only see before them, being
prevented by the chains from turning round their heads. Above and behind them a fire is blazing
at a distance, and between the fire and the prisoners there is a raised way; and you will see, if you
look, a low wall built along the way, like the screen which marionette players have in front of
them, over which they show the puppets.
I see.
And do you see, I said, men passing along the wall, carrying all sorts of vessels, and statues and
figures of animals made of wood and stone and various materials, which appear over the wall ?
Some of them are talking, others silent. Thus the prisoners see only shadows cast by images of
real things, — not even shadows cast by real things themselves.
You have shown me a strange image, and they are strange prisoners.
Like ourselves, I replied; and they see only their own shadows, or the shadows of one another,
which the fire throws on the opposite wall of the cave?
True, he said; how could they see anything but the shadows if they were never allowed to move
their heads?
And of the objects which are being carried in like manner they would only see the shadows?
Yes, he said.
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And if they were able to converse with one another, would they not suppose that they were
naming what was actually before them?
Very true.
And suppose further that the prison had an echo which came from the other side, would they not
be sure to fancy when one of the passers-by spoke that the voice which they heard came from the
passing shadow?
No question, he replied.
To them, I said, the truth would be literally nothing but the shadows of the images.
That is certain.
And now look again, and see what will naturally follow if the prisoners are released and
disabused of their error. At first, when any one of them is liberated and compelled suddenly to
stand up and turn his neck round and walk and look towards the light, he will suffer sharp pains;
the glare will distress him, and he will be unable to see the realities of which in his former state
he had seen the shadows; and then conceive someone saying to him that what he saw be« fore
was an illusion, but that now, when he is approaching nearer to being and his eye is turned
towards more real existence, he has a clearer vision, — what will be his reply? And you may
further imagine that his instructor is pointing to the objects as they pass and requiring him to
name them, — will he not be perplexed? Will he not fancy that the shadows which he formerly
saw are truer than the objects which are now shown to him?
Far truer.
And if he is compelled to look straight at the light, will he not have a pain in his eyes which will
make him turn away to take refuge in the objects of vision which he can see, and which he will
conceive to be in reality clearer than the things which are now being shown to him?
True, he said.
And suppose once more, that he is reluctantly dragged up a steep and rugged ascent, and held
fast until he is forced into the presence of the sun himself, is he not likely to be pained and
irritated ? When he approaches the light his eyes will be dazzled, and he will not be able to see
anything at all of what are now called realities.
Not all in a moment, he said.
He will require to grow accustomed to the sight of the upper world. And first he will see the
shadows best, next the reflections of men and other objects in the water, and then the objects
themselves; then he will gaze upon the light of the moon and the stars and the spangled heaven;
and he will see the sky and the stars by night better than the sun or the light of the sun by day?
Certainly.
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Last of all he will be able to see the sun, and not mere reflections of him in the water, but he will
see him in his own proper place, and not in another; and he will contemplate him as he is.
Certainly.
He will then proceed to argue that this is he who gives the season and the years, and is the
guardian of all that is in the visible world, and in a certain way the cause of all things which he
and his fellows have been accustomed to behold?
Clearly, he said, he would first see the sun and then reason about him.
And when he remembered his old habitation, and the wisdom of the den and his fellowprisoners, do you not suppose that he would felicitate himself on the change, and pity them?
Certainly, he would.
And if they were in the habit of conferring honors among themselves on those who were quickest
to observe the passing shadows and to remark which of them went before, and which followed
after, and which were together; and who were therefore best able to draw conclusions as to the
future, do you think that he would care for such honors and glories, or envy the possessors of
them ? Would he not say with Homer, "Better to be the poor servant of a poor master," and to
endure anything, rather than think as they do and live after their manner.
Yes, he said, I think that he would rather suffer anything than entertain these false notions and
live in this miserable manner.
Imagine once more, I said, such an one coming suddenly out of the sun to be replaced in his old
situation; would he not be certain to have his eyes full of darkness?
To be sure, he said.
And if there were a contest, and he had to compete in measuring the shadows with the prisoners
who had never moved out of the den, while his sight was still weak, and before his eyes had
become steady (and the time which would be needed to acquire this new habit of sight might be
very considerable), would he not be ridiculous? Men would say of him that up he went and down
he came without his eyes; and that it was better not even to think of ascending; and if any one
tried to loose another and lead him up to the light, let them only catch the offender and they
would put him to death.
No question, he said.
This entire allegory, I said, you may now append, dear Glaucon, to the previous argument; the
prisonhouse is the world of sight, the light of the fire is the sun, and you will not misapprehend
me if you interpret the journey upwards to be the ascent of the soul into the intellectual world
according to my poor belief, which, at your desire, I have expressed — whether rightly or
wrongly God knows. But, whether true or false, my opinion is that in the world of knowledge the
idea of good appears last of all, and is seen only with an effort; and, when seen, is also inferred
to be the universal author of all things beautiful and right — parent of light and of the lord of
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light in this visible world, and the immediate source of reason and truth in the intellectual; and
that this is the power upon which he who would act rationally either in public or private life must
have his eye fixed.
I agree, he said, as far as I am able to understand you.
Moreover, I said, you must not wonder that those who attain to this beatific vision are unwilling
to descend to human affairs; for their souls are ever hastening into the upper world where they
desire to dwell; which desire of theirs is very natural, if our allegory may be trusted.
Yes, very natural.
And is there anything surprising in one who passes from divine contemplations to the evil state
of man, misbehaving himself in a ridiculous manner; if, while his eyes are blinking and before he
has become accustomed to the surrounding darkness, he is compelled to fight in courts of law, or
in other places, about the images or shadows of images of justice, and is endeavoring to meet the
conceptions of those who have never yet seen absolute justice?
Anything but surprising, he replied.
Any one who has common sense will remember that the bewilderments of the eyes are of two
kinds, and arise from two causes, either from coming out of the light or from going into the light,
which is true of the mind's eye, quite as much as of the bodily eye; and he who remembers this
when he sees any one whose vision is perplexed and weak, will not be too ready to laugh; he will
first ask whether that soul of man has come out of the brighter life, and is unable to see because
unaccustomed to the dark, or having turned from darkness to the day is dazzled by excess of
light. And he will count the one happy in his condition and state of being, and he will pity the
other; or, if he have a mind to laugh at the soul which comes from below into the light, there will
be more reason in this than in the laugh which greets him who returns from above out of the light
into the den.
That, he said, is a very just distinction.
But then, if I am right, certain professors of education must be wrong when they say that they
can put a knowledge into the soul which was not there before, like sight into blind eyes.
They undoubtedly say this, he replied.
Whereas, our argument shows that the power and capacity of learning exists in the soul already;
and that just as the eye was unable to turn from darkness to light without the whole body, so too
the instrument of knowledge can only by the movement of the whole soul be turned from the
world of becoming into that of being, and learn by degrees to endure the sight of being, and of
the brightest and best of being, or in other words, of the good.
Very true.
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And must there not be some art which will effect conversion in the easiest and quickest manner;
not implanting the faculty of sight, for that exists already, but has been turned in the wrong
direction, and is looking away from the truth?
Yes, he said, such an art may be presumed.
And whereas the other so-called virtues of the soul seem to be akin to bodily qualities, for even
when they are not originally innate they can be implanted later by habit and exercise, the virtue
of wisdom more than anything else contains a divine element which always remains, and by this
conversion is rendered useful and profitable; or on the other hand, hurtful and useless. Did you
never observe the narrow intelligence flashing from the keen eye of a clever rogue — how eager
he is, how clearly his paltry soul sees the way to his end; he is the reverse of blind, but his keen
eyesight is forced into the service of evil, and he is mischievous in proportion to his cleverness?
Very true, he said.
But what if there had been a circumcision of such natures in the days of their youth; and they had
been severed from those sensual pleasures, such as eating and drinking, which, like leaden
weights, were attached to them at their birth,** and which drag them down and turn the vision of
their souls upon the things that are below — if, I say, they had been released from these
impediments and turned in the opposite direction, the very same faculty in them would have seen
the truth as keenly as they see what their eyes are turned to now.
Very likely.
Yes, I said; and there is another thing which is likely, or rather a necessary inference from what
has preceded, — that neither the uneducated and uninformed of the truth, nor yet those who
never make an end of their education, will be able ministers of State; not the former, because
they have no single aim of duty which is the rule of all their actions, private as well as public;
nor the latter, because they will not act at all except upon compulsion, fancying that they are
already dwelling apart in the islands of the blest.
Very true, he replied.
Then, I said, the business of us who are the founders of the State will be to compel the beat
minds to attain that knowledge which we have already shown to be the greatest of all — they
must continue to ascend until they arrive at the good; but when they have ascended and seen
enough we must not allow them to do as they do now.
What do you mean?
I mean that they remain in the upper world; but this must not be allowed; they must be made to
descend again among the prisoners in the den, and partake of their labors and honors, whether
they are worth having or not.
But is not this unjust? he said; ought we to give them a worse life, when they might have a
better?
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You have again forgotten, my friend, I said, the intention of the legislator, who did not aim at
making any one class in the State happy above the rest; the happiness was to be in the whole
State, and he held the citizens together by persuasion and necessity, making them benefactors of
the State, and therefore benefactors of one another; to this end he created them, not to please
themselves, but to be his instruments in binding up the State.
Source: Plato. "The Republic." The Internet Classics Archive. 1994. Web. 09 Aug. 2013.
<http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/republic.8.vii.html>.
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PERICLES’ FUNERAL ORATION
Pericles' Funeral Oration is a famous speech from Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian
War. The speech was delivered by Pericles, an eminent Athenian politician, at the end of the first
year of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC) as a part of the annual public funeral for the war
dead. It is very similar to Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address.
Big Picture Question: According to Pericles why was Athens worthy of admiration?
In the same winter the Athenians gave a funeral at the public cost to those who had first fallen in
this war. It was a custom of their ancestors, and the manner of it is as follows. Three days before
the ceremony, the bones of the dead are laid out in a tent which has been erected; and their
friends bring to their relatives such offerings as they please. In the funeral procession cypress
coffins are borne in cars, one for each tribe; the bones of the deceased being placed in the coffin
of their tribe. Among these is carried one empty bier decked for the missing, that is, for those
whose bodies could not be recovered. Any citizen or stranger who pleases, joins in the
procession: and the female relatives are there to wail at the burial. The dead are laid in the public
sepulchre in the Beautiful suburb of the city, in which those who fall in war are always buried;
with the exception of those slain at Marathon, who for their singular and extraordinary valour
were interred on the spot where they fell. After the bodies have been laid in the earth, a man
chosen by the state, of approved wisdom and eminent reputation, pronounces over them an
appropriate panegyric; after which all retire. Such is the manner of the burying; and throughout
the whole of the war, whenever the occasion arose, the established custom was observed.
Meanwhile these were the first that had fallen, and Pericles, son of Xanthippus, was chosen to
pronounce their eulogium. When the proper time arrived, he advanced from the sepulchre to an
elevated platform in order to be heard by as many of the crowd as possible, and spoke as follows:
"Most of my predecessors in this place have commended him who made this speech part of the
law, telling us that it is well that it should be delivered at the burial of those who fall in battle.
For myself, I should have thought that the worth which had displayed itself in deeds would be
sufficiently rewarded by honours also shown by deeds; such as you now see in this funeral
prepared at the people's cost. And I could have wished that the reputations of many brave men
were not to be imperilled in the mouth of a single individual, to stand or fall according as he
spoke well or ill. For it is hard to speak properly upon a subject where it is even difficult to
convince your hearers that you are speaking the truth. On the one hand, the friend who is familiar
with every fact of the story may think that some point has not been set forth with that fullness
which he wishes and knows it to deserve; on the other, he who is a stranger to the matter may be
led by envy to suspect exaggeration if he hears anything above his own nature. For men can
endure to hear others praised only so long as they can severally persuade themselves of their own
ability to equal the actions recounted: when this point is passed, envy comes in and with it
incredulity. However, since our ancestors have stamped this custom with their approval, it
becomes my duty to obey the law and to try to satisfy your several wishes and opinions as best I
may.
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"I shall begin with our ancestors: it is both just and proper that they should have the honour of
the first mention on an occasion like the present. They dwelt in the country without break in the
succession from generation to generation, and handed it down free to the present time by their
valour. And if our more remote ancestors deserve praise, much more do our own fathers, who
added to their inheritance the empire which we now possess, and spared no pains to be able to
leave their acquisitions to us of the present generation. Lastly, there are few parts of our
dominions that have not been augmented by those of us here, who are still more or less in the
vigour of life; while the mother country has been furnished by us with everything that can enable
her to depend on her own resources whether for war or for peace. That part of our history which
tells of the military achievements which gave us our several possessions, or of the ready valour
with which either we or our fathers stemmed the tide of Hellenic or foreign aggression, is a
theme too familiar to my hearers for me to dilate on, and I shall therefore pass it by. But what
was the road by which we reached our position, what the form of government under which our
greatness grew, what the national habits out of which it sprang; these are questions which I may
try to solve before I proceed to my panegyric upon these men; since I think this to be a subject
upon which on the present occasion a speaker may properly dwell, and to which the whole
assemblage, whether citizens or foreigners, may listen with advantage.
"Our constitution does not copy the laws of neighbouring states; we are rather a pattern to others
than imitators ourselves. Its administration favours the many instead of the few; this is why it is
called a democracy. If we look to the laws, they afford equal justice to all in their private
differences; if no social standing, advancement in public life falls to reputation for capacity, class
considerations not being allowed to interfere with merit; nor again does poverty bar the way, if a
man is able to serve the state, he is not hindered by the obscurity of his condition. The freedom
which we enjoy in our government extends also to our ordinary life. There, far from exercising a
jealous surveillance over each other, we do not feel called upon to be angry with our neighbour
for doing what he likes, or even to indulge in those injurious looks which cannot fail to be
offensive, although they inflict no positive penalty. But all this ease in our private relations does
not make us lawless as citizens. Against this fear is our chief safeguard, teaching us to obey the
magistrates and the laws, particularly such as regard the protection of the injured, whether they
are actually on the statute book, or belong to that code which, although unwritten, yet cannot be
broken without acknowledged disgrace.
"Further, we provide plenty of means for the mind to refresh itself from business. We celebrate
games and sacrifices all the year round, and the elegance of our private establishments forms a
daily source of pleasure and helps to banish the spleen; while the magnitude of our city draws the
produce of the world into our harbour, so that to the Athenian the fruits of other countries are as
familiar a luxury as those of his own.
"If we turn to our military policy, there also we differ from our antagonists. We throw open our
city to the world, and never by alien acts exclude foreigners from any opportunity of learning or
observing, although the eyes of an enemy may occasionally profit by our liberality; trusting less
in system and policy than to the native spirit of our citizens; while in education, where our rivals
from their very cradles by a painful discipline seek after manliness, at Athens we live exactly as
we please, and yet are just as ready to encounter every legitimate danger. In proof of this it may
be noticed that the Lacedaemonians do not invade our country alone, but bring with them all
their confederates; while we Athenians advance unsupported into the territory of a neighbour,
and fighting upon a foreign soil usually vanquish with ease men who are defending their homes.
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Our united force was never yet encountered by any enemy, because we have at once to attend to
our marine and to dispatch our citizens by land upon a hundred different services; so that,
wherever they engage with some such fraction of our strength, a success against a detachment is
magnified into a victory over the nation, and a defeat into a reverse suffered at the hands of our
entire people. And yet if with habits not of labour but of ease, and courage not of art but of
nature, we are still willing to encounter danger, we have the double advantage of escaping the
experience of hardships in anticipation and of facing them in the hour of need as fearlessly as
those who are never free from them.
"Nor are these the only points in which our city is worthy of admiration. We cultivate refinement
without extravagance and knowledge without effeminacy; wealth we employ more for use than
for show, and place the real disgrace of poverty not in owning to the fact but in declining the
struggle against it. Our public men have, besides politics, their private affairs to attend to, and
our ordinary citizens, though occupied with the pursuits of industry, are still fair judges of public
matters; for, unlike any other nation, regarding him who takes no part in these duties not as
unambitious but as useless, we Athenians are able to judge at all events if we cannot originate,
and, instead of looking on discussion as a stumbling-block in the way of action, we think it an
indispensable preliminary to any wise action at all. Again, in our enterprises we present the
singular spectacle of daring and deliberation, each carried to its highest point, and both united in
the same persons; although usually decision is the fruit of ignorance, hesitation of reflection. But
the palm of courage will surely be adjudged most justly to those, who best know the difference
between hardship and pleasure and yet are never tempted to shrink from danger. In generosity we
are equally singular, acquiring our friends by conferring, not by receiving, favours. Yet, of
course, the doer of the favour is the firmer friend of the two, in order by continued kindness to
keep the recipient in his debt; while the debtor feels less keenly from the very consciousness that
the return he makes will be a payment, not a free gift. And it is only the Athenians, who, fearless
of consequences, confer their benefits not from calculations of expediency, but in the confidence
of liberality.
"In short, I say that as a city we are the school of Hellas, while I doubt if the world can produce a
man who, where he has only himself to depend upon, is equal to so many emergencies, and
graced by so happy a versatility, as the Athenian. And that this is no mere boast thrown out for
the occasion, but plain matter of fact, the power of the state acquired by these habits proves. For
Athens alone of her contemporaries is found when tested to be greater than her reputation, and
alone gives no occasion to her assailants to blush at the antagonist by whom they have been
worsted, or to her subjects to question her title by merit to rule. Rather, the admiration of the
present and succeeding ages will be ours, since we have not left our power without witness, but
have shown it by mighty proofs; and far from needing a Homer for our panegyrist, or other of his
craft whose verses might charm for the moment only for the impression which they gave to melt
at the touch of fact, we have forced every sea and land to be the highway of our daring, and
everywhere, whether for evil or for good, have left imperishable monuments behind us. Such is
the Athens for which these men, in the assertion of their resolve not to lose her, nobly fought and
died; and well may every one of their survivors be ready to suffer in her cause.
"Indeed if I have dwelt at some length upon the character of our country, it has been to show that
our stake in the struggle is not the same as theirs who have no such blessings to lose, and also
that the panegyric of the men over whom I am now speaking might be by definite proofs
established. That panegyric is now in a great measure complete; for the Athens that I have
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celebrated is only what the heroism of these and their like have made her, men whose fame,
unlike that of most Hellenes, will be found to be only commensurate with their deserts. And if a
test of worth be wanted, it is to be found in their closing scene, and this not only in cases in
which it set the final seal upon their merit, but also in those in which it gave the first intimation
of their having any. For there is justice in the claim that steadfastness in his country's battles
should be as a cloak to cover a man's other imperfections; since the good action has blotted out
the bad, and his merit as a citizen more than outweighed his demerits as an individual. But none
of these allowed either wealth with its prospect of future enjoyment to unnerve his spirit, or
poverty with its hope of a day of freedom and riches to tempt him to shrink from danger. No,
holding that vengeance upon their enemies was more to be desired than any personal blessings,
and reckoning this to be the most glorious of hazards, they joyfully determined to accept the risk,
to make sure of their vengeance, and to let their wishes wait; and while committing to hope the
uncertainty of final success, in the business before them they thought fit to act boldly and trust in
themselves. Thus choosing to die resisting, rather than to live submitting, they fled only from
dishonour, but met danger face to face, and after one brief moment, while at the summit of their
fortune, escaped, not from their fear, but from their glory.
"So died these men as became Athenians. You, their survivors, must determine to have as
unfaltering a resolution in the field, though you may pray that it may have a happier issue. And
not contented with ideas derived only from words of the advantages which are bound up with the
defence of your country, though these would furnish a valuable text to a speaker even before an
audience so alive to them as the present, you must yourselves realize the power of Athens, and
feed your eyes upon her from day to day, till love of her fills your hearts; and then, when all her
greatness shall break upon you, you must reflect that it was by courage, sense of duty, and a keen
feeling of honour in action that men were enabled to win all this, and that no personal failure in
an enterprise could make them consent to deprive their country of their valour, but they laid it at
her feet as the most glorious contribution that they could offer. For this offering of their lives
made in common by them all they each of them individually received that renown which never
grows old, and for a sepulchre, not so much that in which their bones have been deposited, but
that noblest of shrines wherein their glory is laid up to be eternally remembered upon every
occasion on which deed or story shall call for its commemoration. For heroes have the whole
earth for their tomb; and in lands far from their own, where the column with its epitaph declares
it, there is enshrined in every breast a record unwritten with no tablet to preserve it, except that of
the heart. These take as your model and, judging happiness to be the fruit of freedom and
freedom of valour, never decline the dangers of war. For it is not the miserable that would most
justly be unsparing of their lives; these have nothing to hope for: it is rather they to whom
continued life may bring reverses as yet unknown, and to whom a fall, if it came, would be most
tremendous in its consequences. And surely, to a man of spirit, the degradation of cowardice
must be immeasurably more grievous than the unfelt death which strikes him in the midst of his
strength and patriotism!
"Comfort, therefore, not condolence, is what I have to offer to the parents of the dead who may
be here. Numberless are the chances to which, as they know, the life of man is subject; but
fortunate indeed are they who draw for their lot a death so glorious as that which has caused your
mourning, and to whom life has been so exactly measured as to terminate in the happiness in
which it has been passed. Still I know that this is a hard saying, especially when those are in
question of whom you will constantly be reminded by seeing in the homes of others blessings of
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which once you also boasted: for grief is felt not so much for the want of what we have never
known, as for the loss of that to which we have been long accustomed. Yet you who are still of
an age to beget children must bear up in the hope of having others in their stead; not only will
they help you to forget those whom you have lost, but will be to the state at once a reinforcement
and a security; for never can a fair or just policy be expected of the citizen who does not, like his
fellows, bring to the decision the interests and apprehensions of a father. While those of you who
have passed your prime must congratulate yourselves with the thought that the best part of your
life was fortunate, and that the brief span that remains will be cheered by the fame of the
departed. For it is only the love of honour that never grows old; and honour it is, not gain, as
some would have it, that rejoices the heart of age and helplessness.
"Turning to the sons or brothers of the dead, I see an arduous struggle before you. When a man is
gone, all are wont to praise him, and should your merit be ever so transcendent, you will still find
it difficult not merely to overtake, but even to approach their renown. The living have envy to
contend with, while those who are no longer in our path are honoured with a goodwill into which
rivalry does not enter. On the other hand, if I must say anything on the subject of female
excellence to those of you who will now be in widowhood, it will be all comprised in this brief
exhortation. Great will be your glory in not falling short of your natural character; and greatest
will be hers who is least talked of among the men, whether for good or for bad.
"My task is now finished. I have performed it to the best of my ability, and in word, at least, the
requirements of the law are now satisfied. If deeds be in question, those who are here interred
have received part of their honours already, and for the rest, their children will be brought up till
manhood at the public expense: the state thus offers a valuable prize, as the garland of victory in
this race of valour, for the reward both of those who have fallen and their survivors. And where
the rewards for merit are greatest, there are found the best citizens.
"And now that you have brought to a close your lamentations for your relatives, you may
depart."
Source: Thucydides (c.460/455-c.399 BCE): Peloponnesian War, Book 2.34-46
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ARISTOTLE: POLITICS, BOOK III
Aristotle's Politics is a work of political philosophy. The end of the Nicomachean Ethics declared
that the inquiry into ethics necessarily follows into politics, and the two works are frequently
considered to be parts of a larger treatise, or perhaps connected lectures, dealing with the
"philosophy of human affairs." The title of the Politics literally means "the things concerning the
polis."
Big Picture Question: Although Aristotle outlines three models of government it is clear he
favors one in particular. What is Aristotle’s definition of a state? Why is that important?
What form of government does Aristotle prefer? Why?
He who would inquire into the essence and attributes of various kinds of governments must first
of all determine "What is a state?" A state is composite, like any other whole made up of many
parts; these are the citizens, who compose it. It is evident, therefore, that we must begin by
asking, who is the citizen, and what is the meaning of the term? For here again there may be a
difference of opinion. He who is a citizen in a democracy will often not be a citizen in an
oligarchy. Leaving out of consideration those who have been made citizens, or who have
obtained the name of citizen any other accidental manner, we may say, first, that a citizen is not a
citizen because he lives in a certain place, for resident aliens and slaves share in the place; nor is
he a citizen who has no legal right except that of suing and being sued; for this right may be
enjoyed under the provisions of a treaty. But the citizen whom we are seeking to define is a
citizen in the strictest sense, against whom no such exception can be taken, and his special
characteristic is that he shares in the administration of justice, and in offices. He who has the
power to take part in the deliberative or judicial administration of any state is said by us to be a
citizens of that state; and, speaking generally, a state is a body of citizens sufficing for the
purposes of life.
Like the sailor, the citizen is a member of a community. Now, sailors have different functions,
for one of them is a rower, another a pilot, and a third a look-out man...Similarly, one citizen
differs from another, but the salvation of the community is the common business of them all.
This community is the constitution; the virtue of the citizen must therefore be relative to the
constitution of which he is a member. A constitution is the arrangement of magistracies in a
state, especially of the highest of all. The government is everywhere sovereign in the state, and
the constitution is in fact the government. For example, in democracies the people are supreme,
but in oligarchies, the few; and, therefore, we say that these two forms of government also are
different: and so in other cases.
First, let us consider what is the purpose of a state, and how many forms of government there are
by which human society is regulated. We have already said, in the first part of this treatise, when
discussing household management and the rule of a master, that man is by nature a political
animal. And therefore, men, even when they do not require one another's help, desire to live
together; not but that they are also brought together by their common interests in proportion as
they severally attain to any measure of well-being. This is certainly the chief end, both of
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individuals and of states. And also for the sake of mere life (in which there is possibly some
noble element so long as the evils of existence do not greatly overbalance the good) mankind
meet together and maintain the political community....
The words constitution and government have the same meaning, and the government, which is
the supreme authority in states, must be in the hands of one, or of a few, or of the many. The true
forms of government, therefore, are those in which the one, or the few, or the many, govern with
a view to the common interest; but governments which rule with a view to the private interest,
whether of the one or of the few, or of the many, are perversions. Of forms of government in
which one rules, we call that which regards the common interests, monarchy; that in which more
than one, but not many, rule, aristocracy (and it is so called, either because the rulers are the best
men, or because they have at heart the best interests of the state and of the citizens). But when
the citizens at large administer the state for the common interest, the government is called a
polity. And there is a reason for this use of language.
Of the above-mentioned forms, the perversions are as follows: of monarchy, tyranny; of
aristocracy, oligarchy; of polity, democracy. For tyranny is a kind of monarchy which has in
view the interest of the monarch only; oligarchy has in view the interest of the wealthy;
democracy, of the needy: none of them the common good of all. Tyranny, as I was saying, is
monarchy exercising the rule of a master over the political society; oligarchy is when men of
property have the government in their hands; democracy, the opposite, when the indigent, and
not the men of property, are the rulers....Then ought the good to rule and have supreme power?
But in that case everybody else, being excluded from power, will be dishonored. For the offices
of a state are posts of honor; and if one set of men always holds them, the rest must be deprived
of them. Then will it be well that the one best man should rule? Nay, that is still more
oligarchical, for the number of those who are dishonored is thereby increased....The discussion of
the first question shows nothing so clearly as that laws, when good, should be supreme; and that
the magistrate or magistrates should regulate those matters only on which the laws are unable to
speak with precision owing to the difficulty of any general principle embracing all particulars.
Source: "Aristotle: The Politics, Book III, c. 340 BCE." Internet History Sourcebook Project. Ed.
Paul Halsall. Fordham University, 26 January 1996. Web. 09 Aug. 2013.
<http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/ancient/aristotle-politics1.asp.>.
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ARISTOTLE: POSTERIOR ANALYTICS – THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The Posterior Analytics is a text from Aristotle's Organon that deals with demonstration,
definition, and scientific knowledge. The demonstration is distinguished as a syllogism
productive of scientific knowledge, while the definition marked as the statement of a thing's
nature, ... a statement of the meaning of the name, or of an equivalent nominal formula.
Big Picture Question: Aristotle was the father of the scientific method, a systematic way of
creating and proving hypotheses. How does his Scientific Method reflect Greek core
philosophical constructs of logic and empirical observation?
Part 2
We suppose ourselves to possess unqualified scientific knowledge of a thing, as opposed to
knowing it in the accidental way in which the sophist knows, when we think that we know the
cause on which the fact depends, as the cause of that fact and of no other, and, further, that the
fact could not be other than it is. Now that scientific knowing is something of this sort is evidentwitness both those who falsely claim it and those who actually possess it, since the former
merely imagine themselves to be, while the latter are also actually, in the condition described.
Consequently the proper object of unqualified scientific knowledge is something which cannot
be other than it is.
There may be another manner of knowing as well-that will be discussed later. What I now assert
is that at all events we do know by demonstration. By demonstration I mean a syllogism
productive of scientific knowledge, a syllogism, that is, the grasp of which is eo ipso such
knowledge. Assuming then that my thesis as to the nature of scientific knowing is correct, the
premisses of demonstrated knowledge must be true, primary, immediate, better known than and
prior to the conclusion, which is further related to them as effect to cause. Unless these
conditions are satisfied, the basic truths will not be 'appropriate' to the conclusion. Syllogism
there may indeed be without these conditions, but such syllogism, not being productive of
scientific knowledge, will not be demonstration. The premisses must be true: for that which is
non-existent cannot be known-we cannot know, e.g. that the diagonal of a square is
commensurate with its side. The premisses must be primary and indemonstrable; otherwise they
will require demonstration in order to be known, since to have knowledge, if it be not accidental
knowledge, of things which are demonstrable, means precisely to have a demonstration of them.
The premisses must be the causes of the conclusion, better known than it, and prior to it; its
causes, since we possess scientific knowledge of a thing only when we know its cause; prior, in
order to be causes; antecedently known, this antecedent knowledge being not our mere
understanding of the meaning, but knowledge of the fact as well. Now 'prior' and 'better known'
are ambiguous terms, for there is a difference between what is prior and better known in the
order of being and what is prior and better known to man. I mean that objects nearer to sense are
prior and better known to man; objects without qualification prior and better known are those
further from sense. Now the most universal causes are furthest from sense and particular causes
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are nearest to sense, and they are thus exactly opposed to one another. In saying that the
premisses of demonstrated knowledge must be primary, I mean that they must be the
'appropriate' basic truths, for I identify primary premiss and basic truth. A 'basic truth' in a
demonstration is an immediate proposition. An immediate proposition is one which has no other
proposition prior to it. A proposition is either part of an enunciation, i.e. it predicates a single
attribute of a single subject. If a proposition is dialectical, it assumes either part indifferently; if it
is demonstrative, it lays down one part to the definite exclusion of the other because that part is
true. The term 'enunciation' denotes either part of a contradiction indifferently. A contradiction is
an opposition which of its own nature excludes a middle. The part of a contradiction which
conjoins a predicate with a subject is an affirmation; the part disjoining them is a negation. I call
an immediate basic truth of syllogism a 'thesis' when, though it is not susceptible of proof by the
teacher, yet ignorance of it does not constitute a total bar to progress on the part of the pupil: one
which the pupil must know if he is to learn anything whatever is an axiom. I call it an axiom
because there are such truths and we give them the name of axioms par excellence. If a thesis
assumes one part or the other of an enunciation, i.e. asserts either the existence or the nonexistence of a subject, it is a hypothesis; if it does not so assert, it is a definition. Definition is a
'thesis' or a 'laying something down', since the arithmetician lays it down that to be a unit is to be
quantitatively indivisible; but it is not a hypothesis, for to define what a unit is is not the same as
to affirm its existence.
Now since the required ground of our knowledge-i.e. of our conviction-of a fact is the possession
of such a syllogism as we call demonstration, and the ground of the syllogism is the facts
constituting its premises, we must not only know the primary premises-some if not all of thembeforehand, but know them better than the conclusion: for the cause of an attribute's inherence in
a subject always itself inheres in the subject more firmly than that attribute; e.g. the cause of our
loving anything is dearer to us than the object of our love. So since the primary premises are the
cause of our knowledge-i.e. of our conviction-it follows that we know them better-that is, are
more convinced of them-than their consequences, precisely because of our knowledge of the
latter is the effect of our knowledge of the premises. Now a man cannot believe in anything more
than in the things he knows, unless he has either actual knowledge of it or something better than
actual knowledge. But we are faced with this paradox if a student whose belief rests on
demonstration has not prior knowledge; a man must believe in some, if not in all, of the basic
truths more than in the conclusion. Moreover, if a man sets out to acquire the scientific
knowledge that comes through demonstration, he must not only have a better knowledge of the
basic truths and a firmer conviction of them than of the connexion which is being demonstrated:
more than this, nothing must be more certain or better known to him than these basic truths in
their character as contradicting the fundamental premises which lead to the opposed and
erroneous conclusion. For indeed the conviction of pure science must be unshakable.
Part 3
Some hold that, owing to the necessity of knowing the primary premises, there is no scientific
knowledge. Others think there is, but that all truths are demonstrable. Neither doctrine is either
true or a necessary deduction from the premises. The first school, assuming that there is no way
of knowing other than by demonstration, maintain that an infinite regress is involved, on the
ground that if behind the prior stands no primary, we could not know the posterior through the
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prior (wherein they are right, for one cannot traverse an infinite series): if on the other hand-they
say-the series terminates and there are primary premises, yet these are unknowable because
incapable of demonstration, which according to them is the only form of knowledge. And since
thus one cannot know the primary premises, knowledge of the conclusions which follow from
them is not pure scientific knowledge nor properly knowing at all, but rests on the mere
supposition that the premises are true. The other party agrees with them as regards knowing,
holding that it is only possible by demonstration, but they see no difficulty in holding that all
truths are demonstrated, on the ground that demonstration may be circular and reciprocal.
Our own doctrine is that not all knowledge is demonstrative: on the contrary, knowledge of the
immediate premises is independent of demonstration. (The necessity of this is obvious; for since
we must know the prior premises from which the demonstration is drawn, and since the regress
must end in immediate truths, those truths must be indemonstrable.) Such, then, is our doctrine,
and in addition we maintain that besides scientific knowledge there is its originative source
which enables us to recognize the definitions.
Now demonstration must be based on premises prior to and better known than the conclusion;
and the same things cannot simultaneously be both prior and posterior to one another: so circular
demonstration is clearly not possible in the unqualified sense of 'demonstration', but only
possible if 'demonstration' be extended to include that other method of argument which rests on a
distinction between truths prior to us and truths without qualification prior, i.e. the method by
which induction produces knowledge. But if we accept this extension of its meaning, our
definition of unqualified knowledge will prove faulty; for there seem to be two kinds of it.
Perhaps, however, the second form of demonstration, that which proceeds from truths better
known to us, is not demonstration in the unqualified sense of the term.
The advocates of circular demonstration are not only faced with the difficulty we have just
stated: in addition their theory reduces to the mere statement that if a thing exists, then it does
exist-an easy way of proving anything. That this is so can be clearly shown by taking three
terms, for to constitute the circle it makes no difference whether many terms or few or even only
two are taken. Thus by direct proof, if A is, B must be; if B is, C must be; therefore if A is, C
must be. Since then-by the circular proof-if A is, B must be, and if B is, A must be, A may be
substituted for C above. Then 'if B is, A must be'='if B is, C must be', which above gave the
conclusion 'if A is, C must be': but C and A have been identified. Consequently the upholders of
circular demonstration are in the position of saying that if A is, A must be-a simple way of
proving anything. Moreover, even such circular demonstration is impossible except in the case of
attributes that imply one another, viz. 'peculiar' properties.
Now, it has been shown that the positing of one thing-be it one term or one premiss-never
involves a necessary consequent: two premises constitute the first and smallest foundation for
drawing a conclusion at all and therefore a fortiori for the demonstrative syllogism of science. If,
then, A is implied in B and C, and B and C are reciprocally implied in one another and in A, it is
possible, as has been shown in my writings on the syllogism, to prove all the assumptions on
which the original conclusion rested, by circular demonstration in the first figure. But it has also
been shown that in the other figures either no conclusion is possible, or at least none which
proves both the original premisses. Propositions the terms of which are not convertible cannot be
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circularly demonstrated at all, and since convertible terms occur rarely in actual demonstrations,
it is clearly frivolous and impossible to say that demonstration is reciprocal and that therefore
everything can be demonstrated.
Source: Aristotle. Posterior Analytics. The Internet Classics Archive, 1994. Web. 10 Aug. 2013.
<http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/posterior.1.i.html>.
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ARISTOPHANES: THE CLOUDS
The Clouds is a comedy written by the celebrated playwright Aristophanes lampooning
intellectual fashions in classical Athens. It was originally produced at the City Dionysia in 423
BC and it was not well received, coming last of the three plays competing at the festival that
year. It was revised between 420-417 BC and thereafter it was circulated in manuscript form. No
copy of the original production survives, and scholarly analysis indicates that the revised version
is an incomplete form of Old Comedy. This incompleteness, however, is not obvious in
translations and modern performances. The Clouds can be considered not only the world's first
extant 'comedy of ideas' but also a brilliant and successful example of that genre. The play
gained notoriety for its caricature of the philosopher Socrates ever since its mention in Plato's
Apology as a factor contributing to the old man's trial and execution.
Big Picture Question: Classical Greeks valued rationality, a state of thinking governed by
reason, balance and sound judgment. How does Aristophanes’ play reflect Greek ideas of
rationality?
STREPSIADES
Then, woe to you! and who is this man suspended up in a basket?
DISCIPLE
That's himself.
STREPSIADES
Who's himself?
DISCIPLE
Socrates.
STREPSIADES
Socrates! Oh! I pray you, call him right loudly for me.
DISCIPLE
Call him yourself; I have no time to waste.
He departs. The machine swings in SOCRATES in a basket.
STREPSIADES
Socrates! my little Socrates!
SOCRATES loftily
Mortal, what do you want with me?
STREPSIADES
First, what are you doing up there? Tell me, I beseech you.
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SOCRATES POMPOUSLY
I am traversing the air and contemplating the sun.
STREPSIADES
Thus it's not on the solid ground, but from the height of this basket, that you slight the gods, if
indeed....
SOCRATES
I have to suspend my brain and mingle the subtle essence of my mind with this air, which is of
the like nature, in order clearly to penetrate the things of heaven. I should have discovered
nothing, had I remained on the ground to consider from below the things that are above; for the
earth by its force attracts the sap of the mind to itself. It's just the same with the watercress.
STREPSIADES
What? Does the mind attract the sap of the watercress? Ah! my dear little Socrates, come down
to me! I have come to ask you for lessons.
SOCRATES descending
And for what lessons?
STREPSIADES
I want to learn how to speak. I have borrowed money, and my merciles creditors do not leave me
a moment's peace; all my goods are at stake.
SOCRATES
And how was it you did not see that you were getting so much into debt?
STREPSIADES
My ruin has been the madness for horses, a most rapacious evil; but teach me one of your two
methods of reasoning, the one whose object is not to repay anything, and, may the gods bear
witness, that I am ready to pay any fee you may name.
SOCRATES
By which gods will you swear? To begin with, the gods are not a coin current with us.
STREPSIADES
But what do you swear by then? By the iron money of Byzantium?
SOCRATES
Do you really wish to know the truth of celestial matters?
STREPSIADES
Why, yes, if it's possible.
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SOCRATES
....and to converse with the clouds, who are our genii?
STREPSIADES
Without a doubt.
SOCRATES
Then be seated on this sacred couch.
STREPSIADES sitting down
I am seated.
SOCRATES
Now take this chaplet.
STREPSIADES
Why a chaplet? Alas! Socrates, would you sacrifice me, like Athamas?
SOCRATES
No, these are the rites of initiation.
STREPSIADES
And what is it I am to gain?
SOCRATES
You will become a thorough rattle-pate, a hardened old stager, the fine flour of the talkers....But
come, keep quiet.
STREPSIADES
By Zeus! That's no lie! Soon I shall be nothing but wheat-flour, if you powder me in that fashion.
SOCRATES
Silence, old man, give heed to the prayers.
In an hierophantic tone
Oh! most mighty king, the boundless air, that keepest the earth suspended in space, thou bright
Aether and ye venerable goddesses, the Clouds, who carry in your loins the thunder and the
lightning, arise, ye sovereign powers and manifest yourselves in the celestial spheres to the eyes
of your sage.
STREPSIADES
Not yet! Wait a bit, till I fold my mantle double, so as not to get wet. And to think that I did not
even bring my travelling cap! What a misfortune!
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SOCRATES ignoring this
Come, oh! Clouds, whom I adore, come and show yourselves to this man, whether you be resting
on the sacred summits of Olympus, crowned with hoar-frost, or tarrying in the gardens of Ocean,
your father, forming sacred choruses with the Nymphs; whether you be gathering the waves of
the Nile in golden vases or dwelling in the Maeotic marsh or on the snowy rocks of Mimas,
hearken to my prayer and accept my offering. May these sacrifices be pleasing to you.
Amidst rumblings of thunder the CHORUS OF CLOUDS appears.
CHORUS singing
Eternal Clouds, let us appear; let us arise from the roaring depths of Ocean, our father; let us fly
towards the lofty mountains, spread our damp wings over their forest-laden summits, whence we
will dominate the distant valleys, the harvest fed by the sacred earth, the murmur of the divine
streams and the resounding waves of the sea, which the unwearying orb lights up with its
glittering beams. But let us shake off the rainy fogs, which hide our immortal beauty and sweep
the earth from afar with our gaze.
SOCRATES
Oh, venerated goddesses, yes, you are answering my call!
To STREPSIADES.
Did you hear their voices mingling with the awful growling of the thunder?
STREPSIADES
Oh! adorable Clouds, I revere you and I too am going to let off my thunder, so greatly has your
own affrighted me.
He farts.
Faith! whether permitted or not, I must, I must crap!
SOCRATES
No scoffing; do not copy those damned comic poets. Come, silence! a numerous host of
goddesses approaches with songs.
Source: Aristophanes, The Clouds. Ed. Daniel Stevenson. Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
1994. Web. 09 Aug. 2013. <http://classics.mit.edu/Aristophanes/clouds.html>.
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EPICTETUS: THE ENCHIRIDION
The Enchiridion or Manual of Epictetus is a short manual of Stoic ethical advice compiled by
Arrian, a 2nd-century disciple of the Greek philosopher Epictetus. Although the content is
similar to the Discourses of Epictetus, it is not a summary of the Discourses but rather a
compilation of practical precepts. Eschewing metaphysics, Arrian focused his attention on
Epictetus's work applying philosophy in daily life.
Big Picture Question: Gravitas was one of the Roman virtues, along with pietas, dignitas,
veritas and virtus. It may be translated variously as weight, seriousness, truthfulness and
dignity, also importance, and connotes a certain substance or depth of personality. To what
extent does Epictetus’ philosophy embody Roman values?
1. Some things are in our control and others not. Things in our control are opinion, pursuit,
desire, aversion, and, in a word, whatever are our own actions. Things not in our control
are body, property, reputation, command, and, in one word, whatever are not our own
actions.
The things in our control are by nature free, unrestrained, unhindered; but those not in our
control are weak, slavish, restrained, belonging to others. Remember, then, that if you
suppose that things which are slavish by nature are also free, and that what belongs to
others is your own, then you will be hindered. You will lament, you will be disturbed,
and you will find fault both with gods and men. But if you suppose that only to be your
own which is your own, and what belongs to others such as it really is, then no one will
ever compel you or restrain you. Further, you will find fault with no one or accuse no
one. You will do nothing against your will. No one will hurt you, you will have no
enemies, and you not be harmed.
Aiming therefore at such great things, remember that you must not allow yourself to be
carried, even with a slight tendency, towards the attainment of lesser things. Instead, you
must entirely quit some things and for the present postpone the rest. But if you would
both have these great things, along with power and riches, then you will not gain even the
latter, because you aim at the former too: but you will absolutely fail of the former, by
which alone happiness and freedom are achieved.
Work, therefore to be able to say to every harsh appearance, "You are but an appearance,
and not absolutely the thing you appear to be." And then examine it by those rules which
you have, and first, and chiefly, by this: whether it concerns the things which are in our
own control, or those which are not; and, if it concerns anything not in our control, be
prepared to say that it is nothing to you.
2. Remember that following desire promises the attainment of that of which you are
desirous; and aversion promises the avoiding that to which you are averse. However, he
who fails to obtain the object of his desire is disappointed, and he who incurs the object
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of his aversion wretched. If, then, you confine your aversion to those objects only which
are contrary to the natural use of your faculties, which you have in your own control, you
will never incur anything to which you are averse. But if you are averse to sickness, or
death, or poverty, you will be wretched. Remove aversion, then, from all things that are
not in our control, and transfer it to things contrary to the nature of what is in our control.
But, for the present, totally suppress desire: for, if you desire any of the things which are
not in your own control, you must necessarily be disappointed; and of those which are,
and which it would be laudable to desire, nothing is yet in your possession. Use only the
appropriate actions of pursuit and avoidance; and even these lightly, and with gentleness
and reservation.
3. With regard to whatever objects give you delight, are useful, or are deeply loved,
remember to tell yourself of what general nature they are, beginning from the most
insignificant things. If, for example, you are fond of a specific ceramic cup, remind
yourself that it is only ceramic cups in general of which you are fond. Then, if it breaks,
you will not be disturbed. If you kiss your child, or your wife, say that you only kiss
things which are human, and thus you will not be disturbed if either of them dies.
4. When you are going about any action, remind yourself what nature the action is. If you
are going to bathe, picture to yourself the things which usually happen in the bath: some
people splash the water, some push, some use abusive language, and others steal. Thus
you will more safely go about this action if you say to yourself, "I will now go bathe, and
keep my own mind in a state conformable to nature." And in the same manner with
regard to every other action. For thus, if any hindrance arises in bathing, you will have it
ready to say, "It was not only to bathe that I desired, but to keep my mind in a state
conformable to nature; and I will not keep it if I am bothered at things that happen.
5. Men are disturbed, not by things, but by the principles and notions which they form
concerning things. Death, for instance, is not terrible, else it would have appeared so to
Socrates. But the terror consists in our notion of death that it is terrible. When therefore
we are hindered, or disturbed, or grieved, let us never attribute it to others, but to
ourselves; that is, to our own principles. An uninstructed person will lay the fault of his
own bad condition upon others. Someone just starting instruction will lay the fault on
himself. Some who is perfectly instructed will place blame neither on others nor on
himself.
6. Don't be prideful with any excellence that is not your own. If a horse should be prideful
and say, " I am handsome," it would be supportable. But when you are prideful, and say,
" I have a handsome horse," know that you are proud of what is, in fact, only the good of
the horse. What, then, is your own? Only your reaction to the appearances of things.
Thus, when you behave conformably to nature in reaction to how things appear, you will
be proud with reason; for you will take pride in some good of your own.
7. Consider when, on a voyage, your ship is anchored; if you go on shore to get water you
may along the way amuse yourself with picking up a shellfish, or an onion. However,
your thoughts and continual attention ought to be bent towards the ship, waiting for the
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captain to call on board; you must then immediately leave all these things, otherwise you
will be thrown into the ship, bound neck and feet like a sheep. So it is with life. If, instead
of an onion or a shellfish, you are given a wife or child, that is fine. But if the captain
calls, you must run to the ship, leaving them, and regarding none of them. But if you are
old, never go far from the ship: lest, when you are called, you should be unable to come
in time.
8. Don't demand that things happen as you wish, but wish that they happen as they do
happen, and you will go on well.
9. Sickness is a hindrance to the body, but not to your ability to choose, unless that is your
choice. Lameness is a hindrance to the leg, but not to your ability to choose. Say this to
yourself with regard to everything that happens, then you will see such obstacles as
hindrances to something else, but not to yourself.
10. With every accident, ask yourself what abilities you have for making a proper use of it. If
you see an attractive person, you will find that self-restraint is the ability you have against
your desire. If you are in pain, you will find fortitude. If you hear unpleasant language,
you will find patience. And thus habituated, the appearances of things will not hurry you
away along with them.
11. Never say of anything, "I have lost it"; but, "I have returned it." Is your child dead? It is
returned. Is your wife dead? She is returned. Is your estate taken away? Well, and is not
that likewise returned? "But he who took it away is a bad man." What difference is it to
you who the giver assigns to take it back? While he gives it to you to possess, take care of
it; but don't view it as your own, just as travelers view a hotel.
12. If you want to improve, reject such reasonings as these: "If I neglect my affairs, I'll have
no income; if I don't correct my servant, he will be bad." For it is better to die with
hunger, exempt from grief and fear, than to live in affluence with perturbation; and it is
better your servant should be bad, than you unhappy.
Begin therefore from little things. Is a little oil spilt? A little wine stolen? Say to yourself,
"This is the price paid for apathy, for tranquillity, and nothing is to be had for nothing."
When you call your servant, it is possible that he may not come; or, if he does, he may
not do what you want. But he is by no means of such importance that it should be in his
power to give you any disturbance.
13. If you want to improve, be content to be thought foolish and stupid with regard to
external things. Don't wish to be thought to know anything; and even if you appear to be
somebody important to others, distrust yourself. For, it is difficult to both keep your
faculty of choice in a state conformable to nature, and at the same time acquire external
things. But while you are careful about the one, you must of necessity neglect the other.
14. If you wish your children, and your wife, and your friends to live for ever, you are stupid;
for you wish to be in control of things which you cannot, you wish for things that belong
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to others to be your own. So likewise, if you wish your servant to be without fault, you
are a fool; for you wish vice not to be vice," but something else. But, if you wish to have
your desires undisappointed, this is in your own control. Exercise, therefore, what is in
your control. He is the master of every other person who is able to confer or remove
whatever that person wishes either to have or to avoid. Whoever, then, would be free, let
him wish nothing, let him decline nothing, which depends on others else he must
necessarily be a slave.
15. Remember that you must behave in life as at a dinner party. Is anything brought around
to you? Put out your hand and take your share with moderation. Does it pass by you?
Don't stop it. Is it not yet come? Don't stretch your desire towards it, but wait till it
reaches you. Do this with regard to children, to a wife, to public posts, to riches, and you
will eventually be a worthy partner of the feasts of the gods. And if you don't even take
the things which are set before you, but are able even to reject them, then you will not
only be a partner at the feasts of the gods, but also of their empire. For, by doing this,
Diogenes, Heraclitus and others like them, deservedly became, and were called, divine.
16. When you see anyone weeping in grief because his son has gone abroad, or is dead, or
because he has suffered in his affairs, be careful that the appearance may not misdirect
you. Instead, distinguish within your own mind, and be prepared to say, "It's not the
accident that distresses this person., because it doesn't distress another person; it is the
judgment which he makes about it." As far as words go, however, don't reduce yourself
to his level, and certainly do not moan with him. Do not moan inwardly either.
17. Remember that you are an actor in a drama, of such a kind as the author pleases to make
it. If short, of a short one; if long, of a long one. If it is his pleasure you should act a poor
man, a cripple, a governor, or a private person, see that you act it naturally. For this is
your business, to act well the character assigned you; to choose it is another's.
18. When a raven happens to croak unluckily, don't allow the appearance hurry you away
with it, but immediately make the distinction to yourself, and say, "None of these things
are foretold to me; but either to my paltry body, or property, or reputation, or children, or
wife. But to me all omens are lucky, if I will. For whichever of these things happens, it is
in my control to derive advantage from it."
19. You may be unconquerable, if you enter into no combat in which it is not in your own
control to conquer. When, therefore, you see anyone eminent in honors, or power, or in
high esteem on any other account, take heed not to be hurried away with the appearance,
and to pronounce him happy; for, if the essence of good consists in things in our own
control, there will be no room for envy or emulation. But, for your part, don't wish to be a
general, or a senator, or a consul, but to be free; and the only way to this is a contempt of
things not in our own control.
20. Remember, that not he who gives ill language or a blow insults, but the principle which
represents these things as insulting. When, therefore, anyone provokes you, be assured
that it is your own opinion which provokes you. Try, therefore, in the first place, not to be
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hurried away with the appearance. For if you once gain time and respite, you will more
easily command yourself.
21. Let death and exile, and all other things which appear terrible be daily before your eyes,
but chiefly death, and you win never entertain any abject thought, nor too eagerly covet
anything.
22. If you have an earnest desire of attaining to philosophy, prepare yourself from the very
first to be laughed at, to be sneered by the multitude, to hear them say,." He is returned to
us a philosopher all at once," and " Whence this supercilious look?" Now, for your part,
don't have a supercilious look indeed; but keep steadily to those things which appear best
to you as one appointed by God to this station. For remember that, if you adhere to the
same point, those very persons who at first ridiculed will afterwards admire you. But if
you are conquered by them, you will incur a double ridicule.
23. If you ever happen to turn your attention to externals, so as to wish to please anyone, be
assured that you have ruined your scheme of life. Be contented, then, in everything with
being a philosopher; and, if you wish to be thought so likewise by anyone, appear so to
yourself, and it will suffice you.
24. Don't allow such considerations as these distress you. "I will live in dishonor, and be
nobody anywhere." For, if dishonor is an evil, you can no more be involved in any evil
by the means of another, than be engaged in anything base. Is it any business of yours,
then, to get power, or to be admitted to an entertainment? By no means. How, then, after
all, is this a dishonor? And how is it true that you will be nobody anywhere, when you
ought to be somebody in those things only which are in your own control, in which you
may be of the greatest consequence? "But my friends will be unassisted." -- What do you
mean by unassisted? They will not have money from you, nor will you make them
Roman citizens. Who told you, then, that these are among the things in our own control,
and not the affair of others? And who can give to another the things which he has not
himself? "Well, but get them, then, that we too may have a share." If I can get them with
the preservation of my own honor and fidelity and greatness of mind, show me the way
and I will get them; but if you require me to lose my own proper good that you may gain
what is not good, consider how inequitable and foolish you are. Besides, which would
you rather have, a sum of money, or a friend of fidelity and honor? Rather assist me,
then, to gain this character than require me to do those things by which I may lose it.
Well, but my country, say you, as far as depends on me, will be unassisted. Here again,
what assistance is this you mean? "It will not have porticoes nor baths of your providing."
And what signifies that? Why, neither does a smith provide it with shoes, or a shoemaker
with arms. It is enough if everyone fully performs his own proper business. And were
you to supply it with another citizen of honor and fidelity, would not he be of use to it?
Yes. Therefore neither are you yourself useless to it. "What place, then, say you, will I
hold in the state?" Whatever you can hold with the preservation of your fidelity and
honor. But if, by desiring to be useful to that, you lose these, of what use can you be to
your country when you are become faithless and void of shame.
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25. Is anyone preferred before you at an entertainment, or in a compliment, or in being
admitted to a consultation? If these things are good, you ought to be glad that he has
gotten them; and if they are evil, don't be grieved that you have not gotten them. And
remember that you cannot, without using the same means [which others do] to acquire
things not in our own control, expect to be thought worthy of an equal share of them. For
how can he who does not frequent the door of any [great] man, does not attend him, does
not praise him, have an equal share with him who does? You are unjust, then, and
insatiable, if you are unwilling to pay the price for which these things are sold, and would
have them for nothing. For how much is lettuce sold? Fifty cents, for instance. If another,
then, paying fifty cents, takes the lettuce, and you, not paying it, go without them, don't
imagine that he has gained any advantage over you. For as he has the lettuce, so you have
the fifty cents which you did not give. So, in the present case, you have not been invited
to such a person's entertainment, because you have not paid him the price for which a
supper is sold. It is sold for praise; it is sold for attendance. Give him then the value, if it
is for your advantage. But if you would, at the same time, not pay the one and yet receive
the other, you are insatiable, and a blockhead. Have you nothing, then, instead of the
supper? Yes, indeed, you have: the not praising him, whom you don't like to praise; the
not bearing with his behavior at coming in.
26. The will of nature may be learned from those things in which we don't distinguish from
each other. For example, when our neighbor's boy breaks a cup, or the like, we are
presently ready to say, "These things will happen." Be assured, then, that when your own
cup likewise is broken, you ought to be affected just as when another's cup was broken.
Apply this in like manner to greater things. Is the child or wife of another dead? There is
no one who would not say, "This is a human accident." but if anyone's own child happens
to die, it is presently, "Alas I how wretched am I!" But it should be remembered how we
are affected in hearing the same thing concerning others.
27. As a mark is not set up for the sake of missing the aim, so neither does the nature of evil
exist in the world.
28. If a person gave your body to any stranger he met on his way, you would certainly be
angry. And do you feel no shame in handing over your own mind to be confused and
mystified by anyone who happens to verbally attack you?
29. In every affair consider what precedes and follows, and then undertake it. Otherwise you
will begin with spirit; but not having thought of the consequences, when some of them
appear you will shamefully desist. "I would conquer at the Olympic games." But consider
what precedes and follows, and then, if it is for your advantage, engage in the affair. You
must conform to rules, submit to a diet, refrain from dainties; exercise your body,
whether you choose it or not, at a stated hour, in heat and cold; you must drink no cold
water, nor sometimes even wine. In a word, you must give yourself up to your master, as
to a physician. Then, in the combat, you may be thrown into a ditch, dislocate your arm,
turn your ankle, swallow dust, be whipped, and, after all, lose the victory. When you have
evaluated all this, if your inclination still holds, then go to war. Otherwise, take notice,
you will behave like children who sometimes play like wrestlers, sometimes gladiators,
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sometimes blow a trumpet, and sometimes act a tragedy when they have seen and
admired these shows. Thus you too will be at one time a wrestler, at another a gladiator,
now a philosopher, then an orator; but with your whole soul, nothing at all. Like an ape,
you mimic all you see, and one thing after another is sure to please you, but is out of
favor as soon as it becomes familiar. For you have never entered upon anything
considerately, nor after having viewed the whole matter on all sides, or made any scrutiny
into it, but rashly, and with a cold inclination. Thus some, when they have seen a
philosopher and heard a man speaking like Euphrates (though, indeed, who can speak
like him?), have a mind to be philosophers too. Consider first, man, what the matter is,
and what your own nature is able to bear. If you would be a wrestler, consider your
shoulders, your back, your thighs; for different persons are made for different things. Do
you think that you can act as you do, and be a philosopher? That you can eat and drink,
and be angry and discontented as you are now? You must watch, you must labor, you
must get the better of certain appetites, must quit your acquaintance, be despised by your
servant, be laughed at by those you meet; come off worse than others in everything, in
magistracies, in honors, in courts of judicature. When you have considered all these
things round, approach, if you please; if, by parting with them, you have a mind to
purchase apathy, freedom, and tranquillity. If not, don't come here; don't, like children, be
one while a philosopher, then a publican, then an orator, and then one of Caesar's
officers. These things are not consistent. You must be one man, either good or bad. You
must cultivate either your own ruling faculty or externals, and apply yourself either to
things within or without you; that is, be either a philosopher, or one of the vulgar.
30. Duties are universally measured by relations. Is anyone a father? If so, it is implied that
the children should take care of him, submit to him in everything, patiently listen to his
reproaches, his correction. But he is a bad father. Is you naturally entitled, then, to a good
father? No, only to a father. Is a brother unjust? Well, keep your own situation towards
him. Consider not what he does, but what you are to do to keep your own faculty of
choice in a state conformable to nature. For another will not hurt you unless you please.
You will then be hurt when you think you are hurt. In this manner, therefore, you will
find, from the idea of a neighbor, a citizen, a general, the corresponding duties if you
accustom yourself to contemplate the several relations.
31. Be assured that the essential property of piety towards the gods is to form right opinions
concerning them, as existing "I and as governing the universe with goodness and justice.
And fix yourself in this resolution, to obey them, and yield to them, and willingly follow
them in all events, as produced by the most perfect understanding. For thus you will
never find fault with the gods, nor accuse them as neglecting you. And it is not possible
for this to be effected any other way than by withdrawing yourself from things not in our
own control, and placing good or evil in those only which are. For if you suppose any of
the things not in our own control to be either good or evil, when you are disappointed of
what you wish, or incur what you would avoid, you must necessarily find fault with and
blame the authors. For every animal is naturally formed to fly and abhor things that
appear hurtful, and the causes of them; and to pursue and admire those which appear
beneficial, and the causes of them. It is impractical, then, that one who supposes himself
to be hurt should be happy about the person who, he thinks, hurts him, just as it is
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impossible to be happy about the hurt itself. Hence, also, a father is reviled by a son,
when he does not impart to him the things which he takes to be good; and the supposing
empire to be a good made Polynices and Eteocles mutually enemies. On this account the
husbandman, the sailor, the merchant, on this account those who lose wives and children,
revile the gods. For where interest is, there too is piety placed. So that, whoever is careful
to regulate his desires and aversions as he ought, is, by the very same means, careful of
piety likewise. But it is also incumbent on everyone to offer libations and sacrifices and
first fruits, conformably to the customs of his country, with purity, and not in a slovenly
manner, nor negligently, nor sparingly, nor beyond his ability.
32. When you have recourse to divination, remember that you know not what the event will
be, and you come to learn it of the diviner; but of what nature it is you know before you
come, at least if you are a philosopher. For if it is among the things not in our own
control, it can by no means be either good or evil. Don't, therefore, bring either desire or
aversion with you to the diviner (else you will approach him trembling), but first acquire
a distinct knowledge that every event is indifferent and nothing to you., of whatever sort
it may be, for it will be in your power to make a right use of it, and this no one can
hinder; then come with confidence to the gods, as your counselors, and afterwards, when
any counsel is given you, remember what counselors you have assumed, and whose
advice you will neglect if you disobey. Come to divination, as Socrates prescribed, in
cases of which the whole consideration relates to the event, and in which no opportunities
are afforded by reason, or any other art, to discover the thing proposed to be learned.
When, therefore, it is our duty to share the danger of a friend or of our country, we ought
not to consult the oracle whether we will share it with them or not. For, though the
diviner should forewarn you that the victims are unfavorable, this means no more than
that either death or mutilation or exile is portended. But we have reason within us, and it
directs, even with these hazards, to the greater diviner, the Pythian god, who cast out of
the temple the person who gave no assistance to his friend while another was murdering
him.
33. Immediately prescribe some character and form of conduce to yourself, which you may
keep both alone and in company.
Be for the most part silent, or speak merely what is necessary, and in few words. We
may, however, enter, though sparingly, into discourse sometimes when occasion calls for
it, but not on any of the common subjects, of gladiators, or horse races, or athletic
champions, or feasts, the vulgar topics of conversation; but principally not of men, so as
either to blame, or praise, or make comparisons. If you are able, then, by your own
conversation bring over that of your company to proper subjects; but, if you happen to be
taken among strangers, be silent.
Don't allow your laughter be much, nor on many occasions, nor profuse.
Avoid swearing, if possible, altogether; if not, as far as you are able.
Avoid public and vulgar entertainments; but, if ever an occasion calls you to them, keep
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your attention upon the stretch, that you may not imperceptibly slide into vulgar manners.
For be assured that if a person be ever so sound himself, yet, if his companion be
infected, he who converses with him will be infected likewise.
Provide things relating to the body no further than mere use; as meat, drink, clothing,
house, family. But strike off and reject everything relating to show and delicacy.
As far as possible, before marriage, keep yourself pure from familiarities with women,
and, if you indulge them, let it be lawfully." But don't therefore be troublesome and full
of reproofs to those who use these liberties, nor frequently boast that you yourself don't.
If anyone tells you that such a person speaks ill of you, don't make excuses about what is
said of you, but answer: " He does not know my other faults, else he would not have
mentioned only these."
It is not necessary for you to appear often at public spectacles; but if ever there is a proper
occasion for you to be there, don't appear more solicitous for anyone than for yourself;
that is, wish things to be only just as they are, and him only to conquer who is the
conqueror, for thus you will meet with no hindrance. But abstain entirely from
declamations and derision and violent emotions. And when you come away, don't
discourse a great deal on what has passed, and what does not contribute to your own
amendment. For it would appear by such discourse that you were immoderately struck
with the show.
Go not [of your own accord] to the rehearsals of any authors , nor appear [at them]
readily. But, if you do appear, keepyour gravity and sedateness, and at the same time
avoid being morose.
When you are going to confer with anyone, and particularly of those in a superior station,
represent to yourself how Socrates or Zeno would behave in such a case, and you will not
be at a loss to make a proper use of whatever may occur.
When you are going to any of the people in power, represent to yourself that you will not
find him at home; that you will not be admitted; that the doors will not be opened to you;
that he will take no notice of you. If, with all this, it is your duty to go, bear what
happens, and never say [to yourself], "It was not worth so much." For this is vulgar, and
like a man dazed by external things.
In parties of conversation, avoid a frequent and excessive mention of your own actions
and dangers. For, however agreeable it may be to yourself to mention the risks you have
run, it is not equally agreeable to others to hear your adventures. Avoid, likewise, an
endeavor to excite laughter. For this is a slippery point, which may throw you into vulgar
manners, and, besides, may be apt to lessen you in the esteem of your acquaintance.
Approaches to indecent discourse are likewise dangerous. Whenever, therefore, anything
of this sort happens, if there be a proper opportunity, rebuke him who makes advances
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that way; or, at least, by silence and blushing and a forbidding look, show yourself to be
displeased by such talk.
34. If you are struck by the appearance of any promised pleasure, guard yourself against
being hurried away by it; but let the affair wait your leisure, and procure yourself some
delay. Then bring to your mind both points of time: that in which you will enjoy the
pleasure, and that in which you will repent and reproach yourself after you have enjoyed
it; and set before you, in opposition to these, how you will be glad and applaud yourself if
you abstain. And even though it should appear to you a seasonable gratification, take
heed that its enticing, and agreeable and attractive force may not subdue you; but set in
opposition to this how much better it is to be conscious of having gained so great a
victory.
35. When you do anything from a clear judgment that it ought to be done, never shun the
being seen to do it, even though the world should make a wrong supposition about it; for,
if you don't act right, shun the action itself; but, if you do, why are you afraid of those
who censure you wrongly?
36. As the proposition, "Either it is day or it is night," is extremely proper for a disjunctive
argument, but quite improper in a conjunctive one, so, at a feast, to choose the largest
share is very suitable to the bodily appetite, but utterly inconsistent with the social spirit
of an entertainment. When you eat with another, then, remember not only the value of
those things which are set before you to the body, but the value of that behavior which
ought to be observed towards the person who gives the entertainment.
37. If you have assumed any character above your strength, you have both made an ill figure
in that and quitted one which you might have supported.
38. When walking, you are careful not to step on a nail or turn your foot; so likewise be
careful not to hurt the ruling faculty of your mind. And, if we were to guard against this
in every action, we should undertake the action with the greater safety.
39. The body is to everyone the measure of the possessions proper for it, just as the foot is of
the shoe. If, therefore, you stop at this, you will keep the measure; but if you move
beyond it, you must necessarily be carried forward, as down a cliff; as in the case of a
shoe, if you go beyond its fitness to the foot, it comes first to be gilded, then purple, and
then studded with jewels. For to that which once exceeds a due measure, there is no
bound.
40. Women from fourteen years old are flattered with the title of "mistresses" by the men.
Therefore, perceiving that they are regarded only as qualified to give the men pleasure,
they begin to adorn themselves, and in that to place ill their hopes. We should, therefore,
fix our attention on making them sensible that they are valued for the appearance of
decent, modest and discreet behavior.
41. It is a mark of want of genius to spend much time in things relating to the body, as to be
long in our exercises, in eating and drinking, and in the discharge of other animal
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functions. These should be done incidentally and slightly, and our whole attention be
engaged in the care of the understanding.
42. When any person harms you, or speaks badly of you, remember that he acts or speaks
from a supposition of its being his duty. Now, it is not possible that he should follow
what appears right to you, but what appears so to himself. Therefore, if he judges from a
wrong appearance, he is the person hurt, since he too is the person deceived. For if
anyone should suppose a true proposition to be false, the proposition is not hurt, but he
who is deceived about it. Setting out, then, from these principles, you will meekly bear a
person who reviles you, for you will say upon every occasion, "It seemed so to him."
43. Everything has two handles, the one by which it may be carried, the other by which it
cannot. If your brother acts unjustly, don't lay hold on the action by the handle of his
injustice, for by that it cannot be carried; but by the opposite, that he is your brother, that
he was brought up with you; and thus you will lay hold on it, as it is to be carried.
44. These reasonings are unconnected: "I am richer than you, therefore I am better"; "I am
more eloquent than you, therefore I am better." The connection is rather this: "I am richer
than you, therefore my property is greater than yours;" "I am more eloquent than you,
therefore my style is better than yours." But you, after all, are neither property nor style.
45. Does anyone bathe in a mighty little time? Don't say that he does it ill, but in a mighty
little time. Does anyone drink a great quantity of wine? Don't say that he does ill, but that
he drinks a great quantity. For, unless you perfectly understand the principle from which
anyone acts, how should you know if he acts ill? Thus you will not run the hazard of
assenting to any appearances but such as you fully comprehend.
46. Never call yourself a philosopher, nor talk a great deal among the unlearned about
theorems, but act conformably to them. Thus, at an entertainment, don't talk how persons
ought to eat, but eat as you ought. For remember that in this manner Socrates also
universally avoided all ostentation. And when persons came to him and desired to be
recommended by him to philosophers, he took and- recommended them, so well did he
bear being overlooked. So that if ever any talk should happen among the unlearned
concerning philosophic theorems, be you, for the most part, silent. For there is great
danger in immediately throwing out what you have not digested. And, if anyone tells you
that you know nothing, and you are not nettled at it, then you may be sure that you have
begun your business. For sheep don't throw up the grass to show the shepherds how much
they have eaten; but, inwardly digesting their food, they outwardly produce wool and
milk. Thus, therefore, do you likewise not show theorems to the unlearned, but the
actions produced by them after they have been digested.
47. When you have brought yourself to supply the necessities of your body at a small price,
don't pique yourself upon it; nor, if you drink water, be saying upon every occasion, "I
drink water." But first consider how much more sparing and patient of hardship the poor
are than we. But if at any time you would inure yourself by exercise to labor, and bearing
hard trials, do it for your own sake, and not for the world; don't grasp statues, but, when
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you are violently thirsty, take a little cold water in your mouth, and spurt it out and tell
nobody.
48. The condition and characteristic of a vulgar person, is, that he never expects either benefit
or hurt from himself, but from externals. The condition and characteristic of a
philosopher is, that he expects all hurt and benefit from himself. The marks of a
proficient are, that he censures no one, praises no one, blames no one, accuses no one,
says nothing concerning himself as being anybody, or knowing anything: when he is, in
any instance, hindered or restrained, he accuses himself; and, if he is praised, he secretly
laughs at the person who praises him; and, if he is censured, he makes no defense. But he
goes about with the caution of sick or injured people, dreading to move anything that is
set right, before it is perfectly fixed. He suppresses all desire in himself; he transfers his
aversion to those things only which thwart the proper use of our own faculty of choice;
the exertion of his active powers towards anything is very gentle; if he appears stupid or
ignorant, he does not care, and, in a word, he watches himself as an enemy, and one in
ambush.
49. When anyone shows himself overly confident in ability to understand and interpret the
works of Chrysippus, say to yourself, "Unless Chrysippus had written obscurely, this
person would have had no subject for his vanity. But what do I desire? To understand
nature and follow her. I ask, then, who interprets her, and, finding Chrysippus does, I
have recourse to him. I don't understand his writings. I seek, therefore, one to interpret
them." So far there is nothing to value myself upon. And when I find an interpreter, what
remains is to make use of his instructions. This alone is the valuable thing. But, if I
admire nothing but merely the interpretation, what do I become more than a grammarian
instead of a philosopher? Except, indeed, that instead of Homer I interpret Chrysippus.
When anyone, therefore, desires me to read Chrysippus to him, I rather blush when I
cannot show my actions agreeable and consonant to his discourse.
50. Whatever moral rules you have deliberately proposed to yourself. abide by them as they
were laws, and as if you would be guilty of impiety by violating any of them. Don't
regard what anyone says of you, for this, after all, is no concern of yours. How long, then,
will you put off thinking yourself worthy of the highest improvements and follow the
distinctions of reason? You have received the philosophical theorems, with which you
ought to be familiar, and you have been familiar with them. What other master, then, do
you wait for, to throw upon that the delay of reforming yourself? You are no longer a
boy, but a grown man. If, therefore, you will be negligent and slothful, and always add
procrastination to procrastination, purpose to purpose, and fix day after day in which you
will attend to yourself, you will insensibly continue without proficiency, and, living and
dying, persevere in being one of the vulgar. This instant, then, think yourself worthy of
living as a man grown up, and a proficient. Let whatever appears to be the best be to you
an inviolable law. And if any instance of pain or pleasure, or glory or disgrace, is set
before you, remember that now is the combat, now the Olympiad comes on, nor can it be
put off. By once being defeated and giving way, proficiency is lost, or by the contrary
preserved. Thus Socrates became perfect, improving himself by everything. attending to
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nothing but reason. And though you are not yet a Socrates, you ought, however, to live as
one desirous of becoming a Socrates.
51. The first and most necessary topic in philosophy is that of the use of moral theorems,
such as, "We ought not to lie;" the second is that of demonstrations, such as, "What is the
origin of our obligation not to lie;" the third gives strength and articulation to the other
two, such as, "What is the origin of this is a demonstration." For what is demonstration?
What is consequence? What contradiction? What truth? What falsehood? The third topic,
then, is necessary on the account of the second, and the second on the account of the first.
But the most necessary, and that whereon we ought to rest, is the first. But we act just on
the contrary. For we spend all our time on the third topic, and employ all our diligence
about that, and entirely neglect the first. Therefore, at the same time that we lie, we are
immediately prepared to show how it is demonstrated that lying is not right.
Source: "The Enchiridion by Epictetus." The Internet Classics Archive | The Enchiridion by
Epictetus. Trans. Elizabeth Carter. The Internet Classics Archive, 1994. Web. 18 Aug. 2013.
<http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/epicench.html>.
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GOSPEL OF MATTHEW: THE SERMON ON THE MOUNT
The position of the Gospel according to Matthew as the first of the four gospels in the New
Testament reflects both the view that it was the first to be written, a view that goes back to the
late second century A.D., and the esteem in which it was held by the church; no other was so
frequently quoted in the noncanonical literature of earliest Christianity. Although the majority of
scholars now reject the opinion about the time of its composition, the high estimation of this
work remains. The reason for that becomes clear upon study of the way in which Matthew
presents his story of Jesus, the demands of Christian discipleship, and the breaking-in of the new
and final age through the ministry but particularly through the death and resurrection of Jesus.
Big Picture Question: Based on Christ’s teachings which social classes would likely respond
positively to his message (and convert to Christianity)? Why?
When Jesus saw the crowds, He went up on the mountain; and after He sat down, His disciples
came to Him. He opened His mouth and began to teach them, saying,
“Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
“Blessed are those who mourn, for they shall be comforted.
“Blessed are the gentle, for they shall inherit the earth.
“Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they shall be satisfied.
“Blessed are the merciful, for they shall receive mercy.
“Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God.
“Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called sons of God.
“Blessed are those who have been persecuted for the sake of righteousness, for theirs is the
kingdom of heaven.
“Blessed are you when people insult you and persecute you, and falsely say all kinds of evil
against you because of Me. Rejoice and be glad, for your reward in heaven is great; for in the
same way they persecuted the prophets who were before you.
“You are the salt of the earth; but if the salt has become tasteless, how can it be made salty
again? It is no longer good for anything, except to be thrown out and trampled under foot by
men. “You are the light of the world. A city set on a hill cannot be hidden; nor does anyone light
a lamp and put it under a basket, but on the lampstand, and it gives light to all who are in the
house. Let your light shine before men in such a way that they may see your good works, and
glorify your Father who is in heaven. “Do not think that I came to abolish the Law or the
Prophets; I did not come to abolish but to fulfill. For truly I say to you, until heaven and earth
pass away, not the smallest letter or stroke shall pass from the Law until all is accomplished.
Whoever then annuls one of the least of these commandments, and teaches others to do the same,
shall be called least in the kingdom of heaven; but whoever keeps and teaches them, he shall be
called great in the kingdom of heaven. “For I say to you that unless your righteousness surpasses
that of the scribes and Pharisees, you will not enter the kingdom of heaven.
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“You have heard that the ancients were told, ‘YOU SHALL NOT COMMIT MURDER’ and ‘Whoever
commits murder shall be liable to the court.’ But I say to you that everyone who is angry with his
brother shall be guilty before the court; and whoever says to his brother, ‘You good-for-nothing,’
shall be guilty before the supreme court; and whoever says, ‘You fool,’ shall be guilty enough to
go into the fiery hell. Therefore if you are presenting your offering at the altar, and there
remember that your brother has something against you, leave your offering there before the altar
and go; first be reconciled to your brother, and then come and present your offering. Make
friends quickly with your opponent at law while you are with him on the way, so that your
opponent may not hand you over to the judge, and the judge to the officer, and you be thrown
into prison. Truly I say to you, you will not come out of there until you have paid up the last
cent.
“You have heard that it was said, ‘YOU SHALL NOT COMMIT ADULTERY’; but I say to you that
everyone who looks at a woman with lust for her has already committed adultery with her in his
heart. If your right eye makes you stumble, tear it out and throw it from you; for it is better for
you to lose one of the parts of your body, than for your whole body to be thrown into hell. If
your right hand makes you stumble, cut it off and throw it from you; for it is better for you to
lose one of the parts of your body, than for your whole body to go into hell.
“It was said, ‘WHOEVER SENDS HIS WIFE AWAY, LET HIM GIVE HER A CERTIFICATE OF
DIVORCE’; but I say to you that everyone who divorces his wife, except for the reason of
unchastity, makes her commit adultery; and whoever marries a divorced woman commits
adultery.
Again, you have heard that the ancients were told, ‘YOU SHALL NOT MAKE FALSE VOWS, BUT
SHALL FULFILL YOUR VOWS TO THE LORD.’ But I say to you, make no oath at all, either by
heaven, for it is the throne of God, or by the earth, for it is the footstool of His feet, or by
Jerusalem, for it is THE CITY OF THE GREAT KING. Nor shall you make an oath by your head, for
you cannot make one hair white or black. But let your statement be, ‘Yes, yes’ or ‘No, no’;
anything beyond these is of evil.
“You have heard that it was said, ‘AN EYE FOR AN EYE, AND A TOOTH FOR A TOOTH.’ But I say to
you, do not resist an evil person; but whoever slaps you on your right cheek, turn the other to
him also. If anyone wants to sue you and take your shirt, let him have your coat also. Whoever
forces you to go one mile, go with him two. Give to him who asks of you, and do not turn away
from him who wants to borrow from you.
“You have heard that it was said, ‘YOU SHALL LOVE YOUR NEIGHBOR and hate your enemy.’ But
I say to you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, so that you may be sons of
your Father who is in heaven; for He causes His sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sends
rain on the righteous and the unrighteous. For if you love those who love you, what reward do
you have? Do not even the tax collectors do the same? If you greet only your brothers, what
more are you doing than others? Do not even the Gentiles do the same? Therefore you are to be
perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect.
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“Beware of practicing your righteousness before men to be noticed by them; otherwise you have
no reward with your Father who is in heaven. “So when you give to the poor, do not sound a
trumpet before you, as the hypocrites do in the synagogues and in the streets, so that they may be
honored by men. Truly I say to you, they have their reward in full. But when you give to the
poor, do not let your left hand know what your right hand is doing, so that your giving will be in
secret; and your Father who sees what is done in secret will reward you.
“When you pray, you are not to be like the hypocrites; for they love to stand and pray in the
synagogues and on the street corners so that they may be seen by men. Truly I say to you, they
have their reward in full. But you, when you pray, go into your inner room, close your door and
pray to your Father who is in secret, and your Father who sees what is done in secret will reward
you.
“And when you are praying, do not use meaningless repetition as the Gentiles do, for they
suppose that they will be heard for their many words. So do not be like them; for your Father
knows what you need before you ask Him.
“Pray, then, in this way:
‘Our Father who is in heaven,
Hallowed be Your name.
Your kingdom come.
Your will be done,
On earth as it is in heaven.
Give us this day our daily bread.
And forgive us our debts, as we also have forgiven our debtors.
And do not lead us into temptation, but deliver us from evil.
For Yours is the kingdom and the power and the glory forever. Amen.’
For if you forgive others for their transgressions, your heavenly Father will also forgive you. But
if you do not forgive others, then your Father will not forgive your transgressions.
“Whenever you fast, do not put on a gloomy face as the hypocrites do, for they neglect their
appearance so that they will be noticed by men when they are fasting. Truly I say to you, they
have their reward in full. But you, when you fast, anoint your head and wash your face so that
your fasting will not be noticed by men, but by your Father who is in secret; and your Father who
sees what is done in secret will reward you.
“Do not store up for yourselves treasures on earth, where moth and rust destroy, and where
thieves break in and steal. But store up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth
nor rust destroys, and where thieves do not break in or steal; 21 for where your treasure is, there
your heart will be also.
“The eye is the lamp of the body; so then if your eye is clear, your whole body will be full of
light. But if your eye is bad, your whole body will be full of darkness. If then the light that is in
you is darkness, how great is the darkness! “No one can serve two masters; for either he will hate
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the one and love the other, or he will be devoted to one and despise the other. You cannot serve
God and wealth.
Source: “Matthew 5 – 7”. New American Bible, Revised Edition. United States’ Conference of
Catholic Bishops, 09 Mar. 2011. Web. 10 Aug. 2013. <http://usccb.org/bible/matthew/5>.
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GOSPEL OF JOHN, VERSE 1
The Gospel according to John is quite different in character from the three synoptic
gospels. It is highly literary and symbolic. It does not follow the same order or reproduce
the same stories as the synoptic gospels. To a much greater degree, it is the product of a
developed theological reflection and grows out of a different circle and tradition. It was
probably written in the 90s of the first century. The Gospel of John begins with a
magnificent prologue, which states many of the major themes and motifs of the gospel,
much as an overture does for a musical work. The prologue proclaims Jesus as the
preexistent and incarnate Word of God who has revealed the Father to us. The rest of the
first chapter forms the introduction to the gospel proper and consists of the Baptist’s
testimony about Jesus (there is no baptism of Jesus in this gospel—John simply points him
out as the Lamb of God), followed by stories of the call of the first disciples, in which
various titles predicated of Jesus in the early church are presented.
Big Picture Question: What universal beliefs or truths does the Gospel of John
assert?
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.
He was in the beginning with God.
All things came to be through him, and without him nothing came to be.
What came to be through him was life, and this life was the light of the human race; the
light shines in the darkness, and the darkness has not overcome it.
A man named John was sent from God. He came for testimony, to testify to the light, so
that all might believe through him.
He was not the light, but came to testify to the light. The true light, which enlightens
everyone, was coming into the world.
He was in the world, and the world came to be through him, but the world did not know
him. He came to what was his own, but his own people did not accept him.
But to those who did accept him he gave power to become children of God, to those who
believe in his name, who were born not by natural generation nor by human choice nor by
a man’s decision but of God.
And the Word became flesh and made his dwelling among us, and we saw his glory, the
glory as of the Father’s only Son, full of grace and truth.
Source: John. New American Bible, Revised Edition. United States' Conference of
Catholic Bishops, 09 Mar. 2011. Web. 10 Aug. 2013. <http://usccb.org/bible/john/1>.
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ST. AUGUSTINE, THE CITY OF GOD, BOOK XIX
De Civitate Dei (full title: De Civitate Dei contra Paganos, translated as The City of God
Against the Pagans) or The City of God is a book of Christian philosophy written in Latin by
Augustine of Hippo in the early 5th century AD. It is one of Augustine's major works, standing
alongside The Confessions. Augustine is considered the most influential Father of the Church in
Western Christianity, and The City of God profoundly shaped Western civilization. Augustine
wrote the treatise to explain Christianity's relationship with competing religions and
philosophies.
Big Picture Question: Augustine’s City of God draws clear distinctions between the Church
and the State (at the time the Roman Empire). Why might Augustine be making a clear
argument for the separation of Church and State?
CHAP. 17 – WHAT PRODUCES PEACE, AND WHAT DISCORD, BETWEEN THE
HEAVENLY AND EARTHLY CITIES.
But the families which do not live by faith seek their peace in the earthly advantages of this life;
while the families which live by faith look for those eternal blessings which are promised, and
use as pilgrims such advantages of time and of earth as do not fascinate and divert them from
God, but rather aid them to endure with greater ease, and to keep down the number of those
burdens of the corruptible body which weigh upon the soul. Thus the things necessary for this
mortal life are used by both kinds of men and families alike, but each has its own peculiar and
widely different aim in using them.
The earthly city, which does not live by faith, seeks an earthly peace, and the end it proposes, in
the well-ordered concord of civic obedience and rule, is the combination of men's wills to attain
the things which are helpful to this life. The heavenly city, or rather the part of it which sojourns
on earth and lives by faith, makes use of this peace only because it must, until this mortal
condition which necessitates it shall pass away. Consequently, so long as it lives like a captive
and a stranger in the earthly city, though it has already received the promise of redemption, and
the gift of the Spirit as the earnest of it, it makes no scruple to obey the laws of the earthly city,
whereby the things necessary for the maintenance of this mortal life are administered; and thus,
as this life is common to both cities, so there is a harmony between them in regard to what
belongs to it.
But, as the earthly city has had some philosophers whose doctrine is condemned by the divine
teaching, and who, being deceived either by their own conjectures or by demons, supposed that
many gods must be invited to take an interest in human affairs, and assigned to each a separate
function and a separate department,--to one the body, to another the soul; and in the body itself,
to one the head, to another the neck, and each of the other members to one of the gods; and in
like manner, in the soul, to one god the natural capacity was assigned, to another education, to
another anger, to another lust; and so the various affairs of life were assigned,--cattle to one, corn
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to another, wine to another, oil to another, the woods to another, money to another, navigation to
another, wars and victories to another, marriages to another, births and fecundity to another, and
other things to other gods: and as the celestial city, on the other hand, knew that one God only
was to be worshipped, and that to Him alone was due that service which the Greeks call latreia ,
and which can be given only to a god, it has come to pass that the two cities could not have
common laws of religion, and that the heavenly city has been compelled in this matter to dissent,
and to become obnoxious to those who think differently, and to stand the brunt of their anger and
hatred and persecutions, except in so far as the minds of their enemies have been alarmed by the
multitude of the Christians and quelled by the manifest protection of God accorded to them.
This heavenly city, then, while it sojourns on earth, calls citizens out of all nations, and gathers
together a society of pilgrims of all languages, not scrupling about diversities in the manners,
laws, and institutions whereby earthly peace is secured and maintained, but recognizing that,
however various these are, they all tend to one and the same end of earthly peace. It therefore is
so far from rescinding and abolishing these diversities, that it even preserves and adopts them, so
long only as no hindrance to the worship of the one supreme and true God is thus introduced.
Even the heavenly city, therefore, while in its state of pilgrimage, avails itself of the peace of
earth, and, so far as it can without injuring faith and godliness, desires and maintains a common
agreement among men regarding the acquisition of the necessaries of life, and makes this earthly
peace bear upon the peace of heaven; for this alone can be truly called and esteemed the peace of
the reasonable creatures, consisting as it does in the perfectly ordered and harmonious enjoyment
of God and of one another in God. When we shall have reached that peace, this mortal life shall
give place to one that is eternal, and our body shall be no more this animal body which by its
corruption weighs down the soul, but a spiritual body feeling no want, and in all its members
subjected to the will. In its pilgrim state the heavenly city possesses this peace by faith; and by
this faith it lives righteously when it refers to the attainment of that peace every good action
towards God and man; for the life of the city is a social life.
Source: "Book XIX." Augustine of Hippo’s The City of God. Trans. Marcus Dodds. (Edinburgh:
T. and T. Clark, 1871), 412-14.
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THE BENEDICTINE RULE
The Rule of Saint Benedict (Regula Benedicti) is a book of precepts written by St. Benedict of
Nursia (c.480–547) for monks living communally under the authority of an abbot. Since the 7th
century it has also been adopted by communities of women. During the 1500 years of its
existence, it has become the leading guide in Western Christianity for monastic living in
community. The spirit of St. Benedict's Rule is summed up in the motto of the Benedictine
Confederation: pax ("peace") and the traditional ora et labora ("pray and work"). Compared to
other precepts, the Rule provides a moderate path between individual zeal and formulaic
institutionalism; because of this middle ground it has been widely popular. Benedict's concerns
were the needs of monks in a community environment: namely, to establish due order, to foster
an understanding of the relational nature of human beings, and to provide a spiritual father to
support and strengthen the individual's ascetic effort and the spiritual growth that is required for
the fulfillment of the human vocation, theosis.
Big Picture Question: Identify the purpose of monastic life. How would you describe a
perfect monk?
Listen, O my son, to the precepts of thy master, and incline the ear of thy heart, and cheerfully
receive and faithfully execute the admonitions of thy loving Father, that by the toil of obedience
thou mayest return to Him from whom by the sloth of disobedience thou hast gone away.
To thee, therefore, my speech is now directed, who, giving up thine own will, takest up the
strong and most excellent arms of obedience, to do battle for Christ the Lord, the true King.
In the first place, beg of Him by most earnest prayer, that He perfect whatever good thou dost
begin, in order that He who hath been pleased to count us in the number of His children, need
never be grieved at our evil deeds. For we ought at all times so to serve Him with the good things
which He hath given us, that He may not, like an angry father, disinherit his children, nor, like a
dread lord, enraged at our evil deeds, hand us over to everlasting punishment as most wicked
servants, who would not follow Him to glory.
Let us then rise at length, since the Scripture arouseth us, saying: "It is now the hour for us to rise
from sleep" (Rom 13:11); and having opened our eyes to the deifying light, let us hear with
awestruck ears what the divine voice, crying out daily, doth admonish us, saying: "Today, if you
shall hear his voice, harden not your hearts" (Ps 94[95]:8). And again: "He that hath ears to hear
let him hear what the Spirit saith to the churches" (Rev 2:7). And what doth He say? -- "Come,
children, hearken unto me, I will teach you the fear of the Lord" (Ps 33[34]:12). "Run whilst you
have the light of life, that the darkness of death overtake you not" (Jn 12:35).
And the Lord seeking His workman in the multitude of the people, to whom He proclaimeth
these words, saith again: "Who is the man that desireth life and loveth to see good days" (Ps
33[34]:13)? If hearing this thou answerest, "I am he," God saith to thee: "If thou wilt have true
and everlasting life, keep thy tongue from evil, and thy lips from speaking guile; turn away from
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evil and do good; seek after peace and pursue it" (Ps 33[34]:14-15). And when you shall have
done these things, my eyes shall be upon you, and my ears unto your prayers. And before you
shall call upon me I will say: "Behold, I am here" (Is 58:9).
What, dearest brethren, can be sweeter to us than this voice of the Lord inviting us? See, in His
loving kindness, the Lord showeth us the way of life. Therefore, having our loins girt with faith
and the performance of good works, let us walk His ways under the guidance of the Gospel, that
we may be found worthy of seeing Him who hath called us to His kingdom (cf 1 Thes 2:12).
If we desire to dwell in the tabernacle of His kingdom, we cannot reach it in any way, unless we
run thither by good works. But let us ask the Lord with the Prophet, saying to Him: "Lord, who
shall dwell in Thy tabernacle, or who shall rest in Thy holy hill" (Ps 14[15]:1)?
After this question, brethren, let us listen to the Lord answering and showing us the way to this
tabernacle, saying: "He that walketh without blemish and worketh justice; he that speaketh truth
in his heart; who hath not used deceit in his tongue, nor hath done evil to his neighbor, nor hath
taken up a reproach against his neighbor" (Ps 14[15]:2-3), who hath brought to naught the foul
demon tempting him, casting him out of his heart with his temptation, and hath taken his evil
thoughts whilst they were yet weak and hath dashed them against Christ (cf Ps 14[15]:4; Ps
136[137]:9); who fearing the Lord are not puffed up by their goodness of life, but holding that
the actual good which is in them cannot be done by themselves, but by the Lord, they praise the
Lord working in them (cf Ps 14[15]:4), saying with the Prophet: "Not to us, O Lord, not to us; by
to Thy name give glory" (Ps 113[115:1]:9). Thus also the Apostle Paul hath not taken to himself
any credit for his preaching, saying: "By the grace of God, I am what I am" (1 Cor 15:10). And
again he saith: "He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord" (2 Cor 10:17).
Hence, the Lord also saith in the Gospel: "He that heareth these my words and doeth them, shall
be likened to a wise man who built his house upon a rock; the floods came, the winds blew, and
they beat upon that house, and it fell not, for it was founded on a rock" (Mt 7:24-25). The Lord
fulfilling these words waiteth for us from day to day, that we respond to His holy admonitions by
our works. Therefore, our days are lengthened to a truce for the amendment of the misdeeds of
our present life; as the Apostle saith: "Knowest thou not that the patience of God leadeth thee to
penance" (Rom 2:4)? For the good Lord saith: "I will not the death of the sinner, but that he be
converted and live" (Ezek 33:11).
Now, brethren, that we have asked the Lord who it is that shall dwell in His tabernacle, we have
heard the conditions for dwelling there; and if we fulfil the duties of tenants, we shall be heirs of
the kingdom of heaven. Our hearts and our bodies must, therefore, be ready to do battle under the
biddings of holy obedience; and let us ask the Lord that He supply by the help of His grace what
is impossible to us by nature. And if, flying from the pains of hell, we desire to reach life
everlasting, then, while there is yet time, and we are still in the flesh, and are able during the
present life to fulfil all these things, we must make haste to do now what will profit us forever.
We are, therefore, about to found a school of the Lord's service, in which we hope to introduce
nothing harsh or burdensome. But even if, to correct vices or to preserve charity, sound reason
dictateth anything that turneth out somewhat stringent, do not at once fly in dismay from the way
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of salvation, the beginning of which cannot but be narrow. But as we advance in the religious life
and faith, we shall run the way of God's commandments with expanded hearts and unspeakable
sweetness of love; so that never departing from His guidance and persevering in the monastery in
His doctrine till death, we may by patience share in the sufferings of Christ, and be found worthy
to be coheirs with Him of His kingdom.
CHAPTER I
Of the Kinds or the Life of Monks
It is well known that there are four kinds of monks. The first kind is that of Cenobites, that is, the
monastic, who live under a rule and an Abbot.
The second kind is that of Anchorites, or Hermits, that is, of those who, no longer in the first
fervor of their conversion, but taught by long monastic practice and the help of many brethren,
have already learned to fight against the devil; and going forth from the rank of their brethren
well trained for single combat in the desert, they are able, with the help of God, to cope singlehanded without the help of others, against the vices of the flesh and evil thoughts.
But a third and most vile class of monks is that of Sarabaites, who have been tried by no rule
under the hand of a master, as gold is tried in the fire (cf Prov 27:21); but, soft as lead, and still
keeping faith with the world by their works, they are known to belie God by their tonsure. Living
in two's and three's, or even singly, without a shepherd, enclosed, not in the Lord's sheepfold, but
in their own, the gratification of their desires is law unto them; because what they choose to do
they call holy, but what they dislike they hold to be unlawful.
But the fourth class of monks is that called Landlopers, who keep going their whole life long
from one province to another, staying three or four days at a time in different cells as guests.
Always roving and never settled, they indulge their passions and the cravings of their appetite,
and are in every way worse than the Sarabaites. It is better to pass all these over in silence than to
speak of their most wretched life.
Therefore, passing these over, let us go on with the help of God to lay down a rule for that most
valiant kind of monks, the Cenobites.
CHAPTER II
What Kind of Man the Abbot Ought to Be
The Abbot who is worthy to be over a monastery, ought always to be mindful of what he is
called, and make his works square with his name of Superior. For he is believed to hold the place
of Christ in the monastery, when he is called by his name, according to the saying of the Apostle:
"You have received the spirit of adoption of sons, whereby we cry Abba (Father)" (Rom 8:15).
Therefore, the Abbot should never teach, prescribe, or command (which God forbid) anything
contrary to the laws of the Lord; but his commands and teaching should be instilled like a leaven
of divine justice into the minds of his disciples.
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Let the Abbot always bear in mind that he must give an account in the dread judgment of God of
both his own teaching and of the obedience of his disciples. And let the Abbot know that
whatever lack of profit the master of the house shall find in the sheep, will be laid to the blame of
the shepherd. On the other hand he will be blameless, if he gave all a shepherd's care to his
restless and unruly flock, and took all pains to correct their corrupt manners; so that their
shepherd, acquitted at the Lord's judgment seat, may say to the Lord with the Prophet: "I have
not hid Thy justice within my heart. I have declared Thy truth and Thy salvation" (Ps 39[40]:11).
"But they contemning have despised me" (Is 1:2; Ezek 20:27). Then at length eternal death will
be the crushing doom of the rebellious sheep under his charge.
When, therefore, anyone taketh the name of Abbot he should govern his disciples by a twofold
teaching; namely, he should show them all that is good and holy by his deeds more than by his
words; explain the commandments of God to intelligent disciples by words, but show the divine
precepts to the dull and simple by his works. And let him show by his actions, that whatever he
teacheth his disciples as being contrary to the law of God must not be done, "lest perhaps when
he hath preached to others, he himself should become a castaway" (1 Cor 9:27), and he himself
committing sin, God one day say to him: "Why dost thou declare My justices, and take My
covenant in thy mouth? But thou hast hated discipline, and hast cast My words behind thee" (Ps
49[50]:16-17). And: "Thou who sawest the mote in thy brother's eye, hast not seen the beam in
thine own" (Mt 7:3).
Let him make no distinction of persons in the monastery. Let him not love one more than
another, unless it be one whom he findeth more exemplary in good works and obedience. Let not
a free-born be preferred to a freedman, unless there be some other reasonable cause. But if from
a just reason the Abbot deemeth it proper to make such a distinction, he may do so in regard to
the rank of anyone whomsoever; otherwise let everyone keep his own place; for whether bond or
free, we are all one in Christ (cf Gal 3:28; Eph 6:8), and we all bear an equal burden of servitude
under one Lord, "for there is no respect of persons with God" (Rom 2:11). We are distinguished
with Him in this respect alone, if we are found to excel others in good works and in humility.
Therefore, let him have equal charity for all, and impose a uniform discipline for all according to
merit.
For in his teaching the Abbot should always observe that principle of the Apostle in which he
saith: "Reprove, entreat, rebuke" (2 Tm 4:2), that is, mingling gentleness with severity, as the
occasion may call for, let him show the severity of the master and the loving affection of a father.
He must sternly rebuke the undisciplined and restless; but he must exhort the obedient, meek,
and patient to advance in virtue. But we charge him to rebuke and punish the negligent and
haughty. Let him not shut his eyes to the sins of evil-doers; but on their first appearance let him
do his utmost to cut them out from the root at once, mindful of the fate of Heli, the priest of Silo
(cf 1 Sam 2:11-4:18). The well-disposed and those of good understanding, let him correct at the
first and second admonition only with words; but let him chastise the wicked and the hard of
heart, and the proud and disobedient at the very first offense with stripes and other bodily
punishments, knowing that it is written: "The fool is not corrected with words" (Prov 29:19).
And again: "Strike thy son with the rod, and thou shalt deliver his soul from death" (Prov 23:14).
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The Abbot ought always to remember what he is and what he is called, and to know that to
whom much hath been entrusted, from him much will be required; and let him understand what a
difficult and arduous task he assumeth in governing souls and accommodating himself to a
variety of characters. Let him so adjust and adapt himself to everyone -- to one gentleness of
speech, to another by reproofs, and to still another by entreaties, to each one according to his
bent and understanding -- that he not only suffer no loss in his flock, but may rejoice in the
increase of a worthy fold.
Above all things, that the Abbot may not neglect or undervalue the welfare of the souls entrusted
to him, let him not have too great a concern about fleeting, earthly, perishable things; but let him
always consider that he hath undertaken the government of souls, of which he must give an
account. And that he may not perhaps complain of the want of earthly means, let him remember
what is written: "Seek ye first the kingdom of God and His justice, and all these things shall be
added unto you" (Mt 6:33). And again: "There is no want to them that fear Him" (Ps 33[34]:10).
And let him know that he who undertaketh the government of souls must prepare himself to give
an account for them; and whatever the number of brethren he hath under his charge, let him be
sure that on judgment day he will, without doubt, have to give an account to the Lord for all
these souls, in addition to that of his own. And thus, whilst he is in constant fear of the
Shepherd's future examination about the sheep entrusted to him, and is watchful of his account
for others, he is made solicitous also on his own account; and whilst by his admonitions he had
administered correction to others, he is freed from his own failings.
Source: The Holy Rule of St. Benedict. Trans. Reverend Boniface Verheyen, OSB. Electronic
Version, Brother Boniface Butterworth, OSB. St. Benedict's Abbey, Atchison, Kansas. Web. 18
Aug. 2013. <http://www.ccel.org/ccel/benedict/rule2/files/rule2.html>.
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POPUL VUH: MAYAN CREATION MYTH
The Popol Vuh, or “Council Book”, is the most important sacred book of the Quiché Maya of the
Guatemalan Highlands. The book itself dates to the mid-16th century and it probably originated
as a transcription in Roman alphabet of an older pre-Hispanic text. In the 18th century the
Spanish friar Francisco Ximenez translated the document into Spanish. Ximenez' translation is
currently stored in the Newberry Library of Chicago. The Popol Vuh is divided into three parts.
The first part talks about the creation of the world and its first inhabitants; the second, probably
the most famous, narrates the story of the Hero Twins, a couple of semi gods; and the third part
is the story of the Quiché noble family dynasties.
According to the Popol Vuh myth, at the beginning of the world there were only the two creator
gods: Gucumatz and Tepeu. These gods decided to create earth out of the primordial sea. Once
the earth was created, the gods populated it with animals, but they soon realized that animals
were unable to speak and therefore could not worship them. For this reason the gods created
humans and had the animal's role relegated to food for humans. This generation of humans was
made out of mud, and so were weak and were soon destroyed.
As a third attempt, the gods created men from wood and women from rushes. These men
populated the world and procreated, but they soon forgot their gods and were punished with a
flood. The few who survived were transformed into monkeys. Finally, the gods decided to mold
mankind from maize. This generation, which includes the present human race, is able to worship
and nourish the gods.
Big Picture Question: The Mayans (as well as other Mesoamerican Indian civilizations)
believed that there was no separation between the spiritual and the natural or real world.
How is this world view detailed in the Popul Vuh? Additionally how does the Popul Vuh
reflect the physical environment in which the Mayans lived?
THIS IS THE ACCOUNT of when all is still silent and placid. All is silent and calm. Hushed
and empty is the womb of the sky. THESE, then, are the first words, the first speech. There is not
yet one person, one animal, bird, fish, crab, tree, rock, hollow, canyon, meadow, or forest. All
alone the sky exists. The face of the earth has not yet appeared. Alone lies the expanse of the sea,
along with the womb of all the sky. There is not yet anything gathered together. All is at rest.
Nothing stirs. All is languid, at rest in the sky. There is not yet anything standing erect. Only the
expanse of the water, only the tranquil sea lies alone. There is not yet anything that might exist.
All lies placid and silent in the darkness, in the night.
All alone are the Framer and the Shaper, Sovereign and Quetzal Serpent, They Who Have Borne
Children and They Who Have Begotten Sons. Luminous they are in the water, wrapped in
quetzal feathers and cotinga feathers. Thus they are called Quetzal Serpent. In their essence, they
are great sages, great possessors of knowledge. Thus surely there is the sky. There is also Heart
of Sky, which is said to be the name of the god.
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THEN came his word. Heart of Sky arrived here with Sovereign and Quetzal Serpent in the
darkness, in the night. He spoke with Sovereign and Quetzal Serpent. They talked together then.
They thought and they pondered. They reached an accord bringing together their words and their
thoughts. Then they gave birth, heartening one another. Beneath the light, they gave birth to
humanity. Then they arranged for the germination and creation of the trees and the bushes, the
germination of all life and creation, in the darkness and in the night, by Heart of Sky, who is
called Huracan. First is Thunderbolt Huracan, second is Youngest Thunderbolt, and third is
Sudden Thunderbolt. These three together are Heart of Sky. Then they came together with
Sovereign and Quetzal Serpent. Together they conceived light and life: “How shall it be sown?
When shall there be a dawn for anyone? Who shall be a provider? Who shall be a sustainer?
“Then be it so. You are conceived. May the water be taken away, emptied out, so that the plate
of the earth may be created—may it be gathered and become level. Then may it be sown; then
may dawn the sky and the earth. There can be no worship, no reverence given by what we have
framed and what we have shaped, until humanity has been created, until people have been
made,” they said. Then the earth was created by them. Merely their word brought about the
creation of it. In order to create the earth, they said, “Earth,” and immediately it was created. Just
like a cloud, like a mist, was the creation and formation of it. Then they called forth the
mountains from the water. Straightaway the great mountains came to be. It was merely their
spirit essence, their miraculous power, that brought about the conception of the mountains and
the valleys. Straightaway were created cypress groves and pine forests to cover the face of the
earth. Thus Quetzal Serpent rejoiced: “It is good that you have come, Heart of Sky—you,
Huracan, and you as well, Youngest Thunderbolt and Sudden Thunderbolt. That which we have
framed and shaped shall turn out well,” they said.
First the earth was created, the mountains and the valleys. The waterways were divided, their
branches coursing among the mountains. Thus the waters were divided, revealing the great
mountains. For thus was the creation of the earth, created then by Heart of Sky and Heart of
Earth, as they are called. They were the first to conceive it. The sky was set apart. The earth also
was set apart within the waters. Thus was conceived the successful completion of the work when
they thought and when they pondered.
THEN were conceived the animals of the mountains, the guardians of the forest, and all that
populate the mountains—the deer and the birds, the puma and the jaguar, the serpent and the
rattlesnake, the pit viper and the guardian of the bushes. She Who Has Borne Children and He
Who Has Begotten Sons then asked: “Shall it be merely solitary, merely silent beneath the trees
and the bushes? It is well that there shall be guardians for them,” they said.
Thus they considered and spoke together, and immediately were created the deer and the birds.
Having done this, they then provided homes for the deer and the birds: “You, deer, will sleep
along the courses of rivers and in the canyons. Here you will be in the meadows and in the
orchards. In the forests you shall multiply. You will walk on all fours, and thus you will be able
to stand,” they were told. Then they established the homes of the birds, both small and great.
“You, birds, you will make your homes and your houses in the tops of trees, and in the tops of
bushes. There you will multiply and increase in numbers in the branches of the trees and the
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bushes,” the deer and the birds were told. When this had been done, all of them received their
places to sleep and their places to rest. Homes were provided for the animals on the earth81 by
She Who Has Borne Children and He Who Has Begotten Sons. Thus all was completed for the
deer and the birds.
THEN it was said to the deer and the birds by the Framer and the Shaper, She Who Has Borne
Children and He Who Has Begotten Sons: “Speak! Call! Don't moan or cry out. Speak to one
another, each according to your kind, according to your group,” they were told—the deer, the
birds, the pumas, the jaguars, and the serpents.
“Speak therefore our names. Worship us, for we are your Mother and your Father. Say this,
therefore: ‘Huracan, Youngest Thunderbolt, and Sudden Thunderbolt, Heart of Sky and Heart of
Earth, Framer and Shaper, She Who Has Borne Children and He Who Has Begotten Sons.’
Speak! Call upon us! Worship us!” they were told.
But they did not succeed. They did not speak like people. They only squawked and chattered and
roared. Their speech was unrecognizable, for each cried out in a different way. When they heard
this, the Framer and the Shaper said, “Their speech did not turn out well.”
And again they said to each other: “They were not able to speak our names. We are their Framer
and their Shaper. This is not good,” said She Who Has Borne Children and He Who Has
Begotten Sons to each other.
They were therefore told: “You shall be replaced because you were not successful. You could
not speak. We have therefore changed our word. Your food and your sustenance, your sleeping
places and your places to rest, that which belonged to you, shall be in the canyons and the
forests. “Nevertheless, because you have not been able to worship us or call upon us, there will
yet be someone else who may be a worshiper. We shall now make one who will give honor.
Your calling will merely be to have your flesh eaten. Thus be it so. This must be your service,”
they were told. Thus were commanded the animals, both small and great, that were upon the face
of the earth.
Then they wanted to test again their fate. They wanted to make another attempt. They wanted to
try again to arrange for those who would worship them. The speech of the animals could not be
understood. Because of the way they were made, they were not successful. Therefore their flesh
was brought low. They were made to serve. The animals that were on the face of the earth were
eaten and killed.
THUS there was another attempt to frame and shape man by the Framer and the Shaper, by She
Who Has Borne Children and He Who Has Begotten Sons: “Let us try again before the first
sowing, before the dawn approaches. Let us make a provider, a sustainer for us. How shall we
then be called upon so that we are remembered upon the face of the earth? We have already
made a first attempt with what we have framed and what we have shaped. But we were not
successful in being worshiped or in being revered by them. Thus, let us try again to make one
who will honor us, who will respect us; one who will be a provider and a sustainer,” they said.
Then was the framing, the making of it. Of earth and mud was its flesh composed. But they saw
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that it was still not good. It merely came undone and crumbled. It merely became sodden and
mushy. It merely fell apart and dissolved. Its head was not set apart properly. Its face could only
look in one direction. Its face was hidden. Neither could it look about. At first it spoke, but
without knowledge. Straightaway it would merely dissolve in water, for it was not strong.
Then said the Framer and the Shaper: “We have made a mistake; thus let this be merely a
mistake. It cannot walk, neither can it multiply. Then let it be so. Let it be merely left behind as a
thing of no importance,” they said. Therefore they undid it. They toppled what they had framed,
what they had shaped.
Then they said again: “How then will we truly make that which may succeed and bear fruit; that
will worship us and that will call upon us?” they asked. Then they thought again: “We shall
merely tell Xpiyacoc and Xmucane, Hunahpu Possum and Hunahpu Coyote, ‘Try again a
divination, a shaping,’” said the Framer and the Shaper to each other.
Then they called upon Xpiyacoc and Xmucane, and in this manner were the seers addressed:
“Grandmother of Day, Grandmother of Light!” In this way, they were addressed by the Framer
and the Shaper, for these are the names of Xpiyacoc and Xmucane.
HURACAN, along with Sovereign and Quetzal Serpent, then spoke to the Master of Days and
the Mistress of Shaping, they who are seers: “It shall be found; it shall be discovered how we are
to create shaped and framed people who will be our providers and sustainers. May we be called
upon, and may we be remembered. For it is with words that we are sustained, O Midwife and
Patriarch, our Grandmother and our Grandfather, Xpiyacoc and Xmucane. Thus may it be
spoken. May it be sown. May it dawn so that we are called upon and supported, so that we are
remembered by framed and shaped people, by effigies and forms of people. Hearken and let it be
so.
“Reveal your names, Hunahpu Possum and Hunahpu Coyote, Great She Who Has Borne
Children and Great He Who Has Begotten Sons, Great Peccary and Great Coati, Jeweler and
Worker in Precious Stones, Sculptor and Wood Worker, Creator of the Green Earth and Creator
of the Blue Sky, Incense Maker and Master Artist, Grandmother of Day and Grandmother of
Light. Thus shall you all be called by that which we shall frame and shape. Cast grains of maize
and tz'ite to divine how what we shall make will come out when we grind and chisel out its
mouth and face in wood,” so it was said to the Masters of Days.
Thus began the divination ceremony, the casting of grains of maize and of tz'ite, the revelation of
days and of shaping. Then spoke the one Grandmother and the one Grandfather to them. For this
was the Grandfather, the Master of the Tz'ite, Xpiyacoc by name. And this was the Grandmother,
the Mistress of Days106 and Mistress of Shaping who is at the foot, who is called Xmucane.
Thus they began to speak, to carry out their divination ceremony: “May it be discovered. May it
be found. Say it! Our ears hear you. Speak! Tell it! May the tree be found that is to be carved and
chiseled out by the Framer and the Shaper. If this is to be the provider and the sustainer, then
may it now be sown that the dawn may come. You, grains of maize, and you, tz'ite; you, days,
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and you, the shaping—you are called, you are summoned.” Thus it was said to the grains of
maize and the tz'ite, to the days and the shaping.
“Bring it to a conclusion, O Heart of Sky. Do not punish them further. Do not cause any more
suffering for Sovereign and Quetzal Serpent,” they said. Then they spoke straight to the point:
“May these effigies of wood come out well. May they speak. May they communicate there upon
the face of the earth. May it be so,” they said. And when they had spoken, straightaway the
effigies of carved wood were made. They had the appearance of people and spoke like people as
well. They populated the whole face of the earth. The effigies of carved wood began to multiply,
bearing daughters and sons.
Nevertheless, they still did not possess their hearts nor their minds. They did not remember their
Framer or their Shaper. They walked without purpose. They crawled on their hands and knees
and did not remember Heart of Sky. Thus they were weighed in the balance. They were merely
an experiment, an attempt at people. At first they spoke, but their faces were all dried up. Their
legs and arms were not filled out. They had no blood or blood flow within them. They had no
sweat or oil. Their cheeks were dry, and their faces were masks. Their legs and arms were stiff.
Their bodies were rigid. Thus they were not capable of understanding before their Framer and
their Shaper, those who had given them birth and given them hearts. They were the first
numerous people who have lived here upon the face of the earth.
THEN came the end of the effigies carved of wood, for they were ruined, crushed, and killed. A
flood was planned by Heart of Sky that came down upon the heads of the effigies carved of
wood. The body of man had been carved of tz'ite wood by the Framer and the Shaper. The body
of woman consisted of reeds according to the desire of the Framer and the Shaper. But they were
not capable of understanding and did not speak before their Framer and their Shaper, their
makers and their creators.
Thus they were killed in the flood. There came a great resin down from the sky. There came the
ones called Chiselers of Faces, who gouged out their eyes. There came Death Knives, which cut
off their heads. There came Crouching Jaguar, who ate their flesh. There came Striking130
Jaguar, who struck them. They smashed their bones and their tendons. Their bones were ground
up. They were broken into pieces. Their faces were ground up because they proved to be
incapable of understanding before the face of their mother and the face of their father, Heart of
Sky, Huracan by name. Thus they caused the face of the earth to be darkened, and there fell a
black rain, a rain that fell both day and night. The small and the great animals came in upon
them. Their faces were crushed by the trees and the stones. They were spoken to by all their
maize grinders and their cooking griddles, their plates and their pots, their dogs and their
grinding stones. However many things they had, all of them crushed their faces.
Their dogs and their turkeys said to them: “Pain you have caused us. You ate us. Therefore it will
be you that we will eat now.” Then the grinding stones said this to them: “We were ground upon
by you. Every day, every day, in the evening and at dawn, always you did holi, holi, huki, huki
on our faces. This was our service for you who were the first people. But this day you shall feel
our strength. We shall grind you like maize. We shall grind up your flesh,” said their grinding
stones to them.
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Then their dogs said this to them: “Why was it that you didn’t give us our food? All we did was
look at you, and you chased us away. You threw us out. You raised sticks against us to beat us
while you ate. Thus you have spoken to us. We could not speak; therefore we received nothing
from you. How could you not have understood this? You did understand. We were forgotten
because of you. This day, therefore, you shall try the teeth that are in our mouths. We shall eat
you,” said the dogs to them. Thus their faces were crushed. Then spoke also their griddles and
their pots to them: “Pain you have caused us. Our mouths and our faces are sooty. You were
forever throwing us upon the fire and burning us. Although we felt no pain, you now shall try it.
We shall burn you,” said all of their pots. Thus their faces were all crushed. The stones of the
hearth flattened them. They would come out from the fire, landing on their heads and causing
them pain. They fled. They hurried away. They wanted to climb up on top of the houses, but the
houses would fall apart beneath them and they were thrown off. They wanted to climb up to the
tops of the trees, but the trees would not support them. They wanted to hide in caves, but the
mouths of the caves closed up before their faces.
Thus the framed people, the shaped people, were undone. They were demolished and overthrown
as people. The mouths and the faces of all of them were ruined and crushed. It is said that the
spider monkeys that are in the forest today are descendents of these people. This was their
heritage because their flesh was merely wood when it was created by the Framer and the Shaper.
Therefore the spider monkeys appear like people, descendents of one generation of framed and
shaped people. But they were only effigies carved of wood.
THIS, then, is the beginning of the conception of humanity, when that which would become the
flesh of mankind was sought. Then spoke they who are called She Who Has Borne Children and
He Who Has Begotten Sons, the Framer and the Shaper, Sovereign and Quetzal Serpent: “The
dawn approaches, and our work is not successfully completed. A provider and a sustainer have
yet to appear—a child of light, a son of light. Humanity has yet to appear to populate the face of
the earth,” they said.
Thus they gathered together and joined their thoughts in the darkness, in the night. They
searched and they sifted. Here they thought and they pondered. Their thoughts came forth bright
and clear. They discovered and established that which would become the flesh of humanity. This
took place just a little before the appearance of the sun, moon, and stars above the heads of the
Framer and the Shaper.
IT was from within the places called Paxil and Cayala that the yellow ears of ripe maize and the
white ears of ripe maize came. THESE were the names of the animals that obtained their food—
fox and coyote, parakeet and raven. Four, then, were the animals that revealed to them the yellow
ears of maize and the white ears of maize.
They came from Paxil and pointed out the path to get there. Thus was found the food that would
become the flesh of the newly framed and shaped people. Water was their blood. It became the
blood of humanity. The ears of maize entered into their flesh by means of She Who Has Borne
Children and He Who Has Begotten Sons.
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Thus they rejoiced over the discovery of that excellent mountain that was filled with delicious
things, crowded with yellow ears of maize and white ears of maize. It was crowded as well with
pataxte and chocolate, with countless zapotes and anonas, with jocotes and nances, with
matasanos and honey. From within the places called Paxil and Cayala came the sweetest foods in
the citadel. All the small foods and great foods were there, along with the small and great
cultivated fields. The path was thus revealed by the animals.
The yellow ears of maize and the white ears of maize were then ground fine with nine grindings
by Xmucane. Food entered their flesh, along with water to give them strength. Thus was created
the fatness of their arms. The yellowness of humanity came to be when they were made by they
who are called She Who Has Borne Children and He Who Has Begotten Sons, by Sovereign and
Quetzal Serpent. Thus their frame and shape were given expression by our first Mother and our
first Father. Their flesh was merely yellow ears of maize and white ears of maize. Mere food
were the legs and arms of humanity, of our first fathers. And so there were four who were made,
and mere food was their flesh.
THESE are the names of the first people who were framed and shaped: the first person was
Balam Quitze, the second was Balam Acab, the third was Mahucutah, and the fourth was Iqui
Balam. These, then, were the names of our first mothers and fathers.
Source: Christenson, Allen J., trans. Popul Vuh: Sacred Book of the Quiche Maya People. N.p.:
Mesoweb Publications, 2003. Mesoweb. Mesoweb Publications, 2007. Web. 08 Aug. 2013.
<http://www.mesoweb.com/publications/Christenson/PopolVuh.pdf>.
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JUSTINIAN’S CODE: PROLOGUE AND SOURCES OF THE LAW
The Corpus Juris (or Iuris) Civilis ("Body of Civil Law") is the modern name for a collection of
fundamental works in jurisprudence, issued from 529 to 534 by order of Justinian I, Eastern
Roman Emperor. It is also sometimes referred to as the Code of Justinian, although this name
belongs more properly to the part titled Codex Justinianus. The work as planned had three parts:
the Code (Codex) is a compilation, by selection and extraction, of imperial enactments to date;
the Digest or Pandects (the Latin title contains both Digesta and Pandectae) is an encyclopedia
composed of mostly brief extracts from the writings of Roman jurists; and the Institutes
(Institutiones) is a student textbook, mainly introducing the Code although it has important
conceptual elements that are less developed in the Code or the Digest. All three parts, even the
textbook, were given force of law. They were intended to be, together, the sole source of law;
reference to any other source, including the original texts from which the Code and the Digest
had been taken, was forbidden. Nonetheless, Justinian found himself having to enact further laws
and today these are counted as a fourth part of the Corpus, the Novellae Constitutiones (Novels,
literally New Laws).
Big Picture Question: Following the collapse of the Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman
Empire was reconstituted as the Byzantine Empire combining traditional sources of power
and legitimacy with innovations better suited to the current circumstances. Identify
traditional parts of the code as well as innovations. Why might Justinian find this action
necessary?
Prologue
The Emperor Caesar, Flavius, Justinianus, Pious, Fortunate, Renowned, Conqueror, and
Triumpher, Ever Augustus, to Tribonianus His Quaestor., Greeting:
With the aid of God governing Our Empire which was delivered to Us by His Celestial Majesty,
We carry on war successfully. We adorn peace and maintain the Constitution of the State, and
have such confidence in the protection of Almighty God that We do not depend upon Our arms,
or upon Our soldiers, or upon those who conduct Our Wars, or upon Our own genius, but We
solely, place Our reliance upon the providence of the Holy Trinity, from which are derived the
elements of the entire world and their disposition throughout the globe.
Therefore, since there is nothing to be found in all things worthy of attention as the authority of
the law, which properly regulates all affairs both divine and human, and expels all injustice; We
have found the entire arrangement of the law which has come down to us from the foundation of
the City of Rome and the times of Romulus, to be so confused that it is extended to an infinite
length and is not within the grasp of human capacity; and hence We were first induced to begin
by examining what had been enacted be former most venerated princes, to correct their
constitutions, and make them more easily understood; to the end that being included in a single
Code, and having had removed all that is superfluous in resemblance and all iniquitous discord,
they may afford to all men the ready assistance of true meaning.
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After having concluded this work and collected it all in a single volume under Our illustrious
name, raising Ourself above small and comparatively insignificant matters, We have hastened to
attempt the most complete and thorough amendment of the entire law, to collect and revise the
whole body of Roman jurisprudence, and to assemble in one book the scattered treatises of so
many authors which no one else has here before ventured to hope for or to expect and it has
indeed been considered by Ourselves a most difficult undertaking, nay, one that was almost
impossible; but with Our hands raised to heaven and having invoked the Divine aid, We have
kept this object in Our mind, confiding in God who can grant the accomplishment of things
which are almost desperate, and can Himself carry them into effect by virtue of the greatness of
His power.
We desire you to be careful with regard to the following: if you find in the old books anything
that is not suitably arranged, superfluous, or incomplete, you must remove all superfluities,
supply what is lacking, and present the entire work in regular form, and with as excellent an
appearance as possible. You must also observe the following, namely: if you find anything which
the ancients have inserted in their old laws or constitutions that is incorrectly worded, you must
correct this, and place it in its proper order, so that it may appear to be true, expressed in the best
language, and written in this way in the first place; so that by comparing it with the original text,
no on can venture to call in question as defective what you have selected and arranged. Since by
an ancient law, which is styled the Lex Regia, all the rights and power of the Roman people were
transferred to the Emperor, We do not derive Our authority from that of other different
compilations, but wish that it shall all be entirely Ours, for how can antiquity abrogate our laws?
Sources
Justice is the set and constant purpose which gives to every man his due. jurisprudence is the
knowledge of things divine and human, the science of the just and the unjust....
The precepts of the law are these: to live honestly, to injure no one, and to give every man his
due. The study of law consists of two branches, law public and law private. The former relates to
the welfare of the Roman State; the latter to the advantage of the individual citizen. Of private
law then we may say that it is of threefold origin, being collected from the precepts of nature,
from those of the law of nations, or from those of the civil law of Rome.
The law of nature is that which she has taught all animals; a law not peculiar to the human race,
but shared by all living creatures, whether denizens of the air, the dry land, or the sea. Hence
comes the union of male and female, which we call marriage; hence the procreation and rearing
of children, for this is a law by the knowledge of which we see even the lower animals are
distinguished. The civil law of Rome, and the law of all nations, differ from each other thus. The
laws of every people governed by statutes and customs are partly peculiar to itself, partly
common to all mankind. Those rules which a state enacts for its own members are peculiar to
itself, and are called civil law: those rules prescribed by natural reason for all men are observed
by all people alike, and are called the law of nations. Thus the laws of the Roman people are
partly peculiar to itself, partly common to all nations; a distinction of which we shall take notice
as occasion offers....
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Our law is partly written, partly unwritten, as among the Greeks. The written law consists of
statutes, plebiscites, senatus consults, enactments of the Emperors, edicts of the magistrates, and
answers of those learned in the law. A statute is an enactment of the Roman people, which it
used to make on the motion of a senatorial magistrate, as for instance a consul. A plebiscite is an
enactment of the commonalty, such as was made on the motion of one of their own magistrates,
as a tribune.... A senatus consult is a command and ordinance of the senate, for when the Roman
people had been so increased that it was difficult to assemble it together for the purpose of
enacting statutes, it seemed right that the senate should be consulted instead of the people. Again,
what the Emperor determines has the force of a statute, the people having conferred on him all
their authority and power by the lex regia, which was passed concerning his office and authority.
Consequently, whatever the Emperor settles by rescript, or decides in his judicial capacity, or
ordains edicts, is clearly a statute: and these are what are called constitutions.
Prologue Source: The Digest of Justinian, C. H. Monro, ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge
Unversity Press, 1904).
Sources’ Source: The Institutes of Justinian, B. Moyle, trans. 3rd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1896), pp. 3-5.
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ISLAM, ALLAH, THE QURAN AND MUHAMMAD
The Qur'an [or Koran], is a collection of the speeches made by Muhammad, remembered by his
followers, and collected, written down and edited after his death. For Muslims Muhammad is in
no way the author of the Qur'an, which is understood as the direct word of God given to
Muhammad. Although scholars have some idea of the order of the speeches, the standard text is
organized in a remarkable way. Divided into chapters, or surahs, after the first - short - surah,
each surah is arranged according to length, the longest coming first. Muslims' early education
often consists in learning large parts of the Qur'an and so this arrangement presents little
difficulty. For new readers it can make the text somewhat confusing. The message of
Muhammad, however, was not difficult to grasp - stark and absolute monotheism, the evil of sin,
the revelation of God in the Qur'an and through Muhammad, and the creation of a new Muslim
community. This message is repeated throughout the Qur'an.
Big Picture Question: Identify the main message of the Sura. What conclusions can you
draw about the historical context of this Sura?
SURA 47
In the name of ALLAH, the Gracious, the Merciful. Those who disbelieve and hinder men from
the way of ALLAH - HE renders their works vain. But as for those who believe and do righteous
deeds and believe in that which has been revealed to Muhammad - and it is the truth from their
Lord - HE removes from them their sins and sets right their affairs.
That is because those who disbelieve follow falsehood while those who believe follow the truth
from their Lord. Thus does ALLAH set forth for men their lessons by similitudes.
And when you meet in regular battle those who disbelieve, smite their necks; and, when you
have overcome them, by causing great slaughter among them, bind fast the fetters - then
afterwards either release them as a favour or by taking ransom - until the war lays down its
burdens. That is the ordinance.
And if ALLAH had so pleased, HE could have punished them Himself, but HE has willed that
HE may try some of you by others. And those who are killed in the way of ALLAH - HE will
never render their works vain. HE will guide them to success and will improve their condition.
And will admit them into the Garden which HE has made known to them. O ye who believe ! if
you help the cause of ALLAH, HE will help you and will make your steps firm. But those who
disbelieve, perdition is their lot; and HE will make their works vain.
That is because they hate what ALLAH has revealed; so HE has made their works vain.
Have they not traveled in the earth and seen what was the end of those who were before them ?
ALLAH utterly destroyed them, and for the disbelievers there will be the like thereof.
That is because ALLAH is the Protector of those who believe, and the disbelievers have no
protector.
Verily, ALLAH will cause those who believe and do good works to enter the Gardens
underneath which streams flow; While those who disbelieve enjoy themselves and eat even as
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the cattle eat, and the Fire will be their last resort. And how many a township, mightier than thy
town which has driven thee out, have WE destroyed, and they had no helper.
Then, is he who takes his stand upon a clear proof from his Lord like those to whom the evil of
their deeds is made to look attractive and who follow their low desires? A description of the
Garden promised to the righteous: Therein are streams of water which corrupts not; and streams
of milk of which the taste changes not; and streams of wine, a delight to those who drink; and
streams of clarified honey. And in it they will have all kinds of fruit, and forgiveness from their
Lord. Can those who enjoy such bliss be like those who abide in the Fire and who are given
boiling water to drink so that it tears their bowels? And among them are some who seems to
listen to thee till, when they go forth from thy presence, they say to those who have been given
knowledge, `What has he been talking about just now?' These are they upon whose hearts
ALLAH has set a seal, and who follow their own evil desires. But as for those who follow
guidance, HE adds to their guidance, and bestows on them righteousness suited to their
condition. The disbelievers wait not but for the Hour, that it should come upon them suddenly.
The Signs thereof have already come. But of what avail will their admonition be to them when it
has actually come upon them.
Know, therefore, that there is no god other than ALLAH, and ask protection for thy human
frailties, and for believing men and believing women. And ALLAH knows the place where you
move about and the place where you stay. And those who believe say, `Why is not a Surah
revealed?' But when a decisive Surah is revealed and fighting is mentioned therein, thou seest
those in whose hearts is a disease, looking towards thee like the look of one who is fainting on
account of approaching death. So woe to them! Their attitude should have been one of obedience
and of calling people to good. And when the matter was determined upon, it was good for them
if they were true to ALLAH. Would you not then, if you are placed in authority, create disorder
in the land and sever your ties of kinship ? It is these whom ALLAH has cursed, so that HE has
made them deaf and has made their eyes blind. Will they not, then, ponder over the Qur'an, or, is
it that there are locks on their hearts ? Surely, those who turn their backs after guidance has
become manifest to them, Satan has seduced them and holds out false hopes to them. That is
because they said to those who hate what ALLAH has revealed, `We will obey you in some
matters, and ALLAH knows their secrets. But how will they fare when the angels will cause
them to die, smiting their faces and their backs? That is because they followed that which
displeased ALLAH, and disliked the seeking of HIS pleasure. So HE rendered their works vain.
Do those in whose hearts is a disease suppose that ALLAH will not bring to light their malice?
And if WE pleased, WE could show them to thee so that thou shouldst know them by their
marks. And thou shalt, surely, recognize them by the tone of their speech. And ALLAH knows
your deeds. And WE will, surely, try you, until WE make manifest those among you who strive
for the cause of ALLAH and those who are steadfast. And WE will make known the true facts
about you. Those, who disbelieve and hinder men from the way of ALLAH and oppose the
Messenger after guidance has become manifest to them, shall not harm ALLAH in the least; and
HE will make their works fruitless. O ye who believe! obey ALLAH and obey the Messenger
and make not your works vain. Verily, those who disbelieve and hinder people from the way of
ALLAH, and then die while they are disbelievers - ALLAH certainly, will not forgive them. So
be not slack and sue not for peace, for you will, certainly, have the upper hand. And ALLAH is
with you, and HE will not deprive you of the reward of your actions. The life of this world is but
a sport and a pastime, and if you believe and be righteous, HE will give you your rewards, and
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will not ask of you your wealth. Were HE to ask it of you and press you, you would be
niggardly, and HE would bring to light your malice. Behold ! You are those who are called upon
to spend in the way of ALLAH; but of you there are some who are selfish. And whoso is selfish,
is selfish only against his own soul. And ALLAH is Self-Sufficient, and it is you who are needy.
And if you turn your backs, HE will bring in your place another people; then they will not be like
you.
Source: "Quran: Sura 47." Internet History Sourcebooks Project. Fordham University, 1996.
Web. 11 Aug. 2013. <http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/koran-sel.asp>.
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THE FINAL SERMON OF MUHAMMAD
The Farewell Sermon, also known as Muhammad's Final Sermon or The Last Sermon, was
delivered by Muhammad on the 9th of Dhu al-Hijjah, 10 AH (9 March 632) in the Uranah valley
of Mount Arafat.
The Farewell Sermon is mentioned in almost all books of Hadith. Sahih Al-Bukhari refers to the
sermon and quotes part of it. Ahmad ibn Hanbal gave the longest version of this sermon in his
Musnad.
Big Picture Question: Hadith are the sayings of the Prophet which can be verified by
acceptable sources. This Hadith has the highest validity. What guidelines does Muhammad
lay upon his followers?
"O People, lend me an attentive ear, for I don't know whether, after this year, I shall ever be
amongst you again. Therefore listen to what I am saying to you carefully and TAKE THIS
WORDS TO THOSE WHO COULD NOT BE PRESENT HERE TODAY.
O People, just as you regard this month, this day, this city as Sacred, so regard the life and
property of every Muslim as a sacred trust. Return the goods entrusted to you to their rightful
owners. Hurt no one so that no one may hurt you. Remember that you will indeed meet your
LORD, and that HE will indeed reckon your deeds. ALLAH has forbidden you to take usury
(Interest), therefore all interest obligation shall henceforth be waived...
Beware of Satan, for your safety of your religion. He has lost all hope that he will ever be able to
lead you astray in big things, so beware of following him in small things.
O People, it is true that you have certain rights with regard to your women, but they also have
right over you. If they abide by your right then to them belongs the right to be fed and clothed in
kindness. Do treat your women well and be kind to them for they are your partners and
committed helpers. And it is your right that they do not make friends with any one of whom you
do not approve, as well as never to commit adultery.
O People, listen to me in earnest, whorship ALLAH, say your five daily prayers (Salah), fast
during the month of Ramadhan, and give your wealth in Zakat. Perform Hajj if you can afford to.
You know that every Muslim is the brother of another Muslim. YOU ARE ALL EQUAL.
NOBODY HAS SUPERIORITY OVER OTHER EXCEPT BY PIETY AND GOOD ACTION.
Remember, one day you will appear before ALLAH and answer for your deeds. So beware, do
not astray from the path of righteousness after I am gone.
O People, NO PROPHET OR APOSTLE WILL COME AFTER ME AND NO NEW FAITH
WILL BE BORN. Reason well, therefore, O People, and understand my words which I convey
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to you. I leave behind me two things, the QUR'AN and my example, the SUNNAH and if you
follow these you will never go astray.
All those who listen to me shall pass on my words to others and those to others again; and may
the last ones understand my words better than those who listen to me direcly. BE MY WITNESS
O ALLAH THAT I HAVE CONVEYED YOUR MESSAGE TO YOUR PEOPLE."
Source: "Muhammad's Last Sermon." Internet History Sourcebooks Project. Fordham
University, 1996. Web. 11 Aug. 2013. <http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/muhmsermon.asp>.
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IBN RUSHD (AVERROËS): RELIGION & PHILOSOPHY, C. 1190 CE
Abū l-Walīd Muḥammad bin ʾAḥmad bin Rušd commonly known as Ibn Rushd or by his
Latinized name Averroës was a Spanish Andalusian Muslim polymath, a master of Aristotelian
philosophy, Islamic philosophy, Islamic theology, Maliki law and jurisprudence, logic,
psychology, politics and Arabic music theory, and the sciences of medicine, astronomy,
geography, mathematics, physics and celestial mechanics. Averroes was a defender of
Aristotelian philosophy against Ash'ari theologians led by Al-Ghazali. Averroes' philosophy was
considered controversial in Muslim circles. Averroes had a greater impact on Western European
circles including St. Thomas Aquinas and he has been described as the "founding father of
secular thought in Western Europe". The detailed commentaries on Aristotle earned Averroes
the title "The Commentator" in Europe. Latin translations of Averroes' work led the way to the
popularization of Aristotle and were responsible for the development of scholasticism in
medieval Europe.
Big Picture Question: What proofs does Ibn Rushd offer for the theory that “the laws of
science and theology do not conflict? For Ibn Rushd what is the purpose of scientific
enquiry?
We maintain that the business of philosophy is nothing other than to look into creation and to
ponder over it in order to be guided to the Creator -- in other words, to look into the meaning of
existence. For the knowledge of creation leads to the cognizance of the Creator, through the
knowledge of the created. The more perfect becomes the knowledge of creation, the more perfect
becomes the knowledge of the Creator. The Law encourages and exhorts us to observe creation.
Thus, it is clear that this is to be taken either as a religious injunction or as something approved
by the Law. But the Law urges us to observe creation by means of reason and demands the
knowledge thereof through reason. This is evident from different verses of the Qur'an. For
example, the Qur'an says: "Wherefore take example from them, you who have eyes" [Qur'an
49.2]. That is a clear indication of the necessity of using the reasoning faculty, or rather both
reason and religion, in the interpretation of things. Again it says: "Or do they not contemplate the
kingdom of heaven and earth and the things which God has created" [Qur'an 7.184]. This is in
plain exhortation to encourage the use of observation of creation. And remember that one whom
God especially distinguishes in this respect, Abraham, the prophet. For He says: "And this did
we show unto Abraham: the kingdom of heaven and earth" [Qur'an 6.75]. Further, He says: "Do
they not consider the camels, how they are created; and the heaven, how it is raised" [Qur'an
88.17]. Or, still again: "And (who) meditate on the creation of heaven and earth, saying, O Lord
you have not created this in vain" [Qur'an 3.176]. There are many other verses on this subject:
too numerous to be enumerated.
Now, it being established that the Law makes the observation and consideration of creation by
reason obligatory -- and consideration is nothing but to make explicit the implicit -- this can only
be done through reason. Thus we must look into creation with the reason. Moreover, it is obvious
that the observation which the Law approves and encourages must be of the most perfect type,
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performed with the most perfect kind of reasoning. As the Law emphasizes the knowledge of
God and His creation by inference, it is incumbent on any who wish to know God and His whole
creation by inference, to learn the kinds of inference, their conditions and that which
distinguishes philosophy from dialectic and exhortation from syllogism. This is impossible
unless one possesses knowledge beforehand of the various kinds of reasoning and learns to
distinguish between reasoning and what is not reasoning. This cannot be done except one knows
its different parts, that is, the different kinds of premises.
Hence, for a believer in the Law and a follower of it, it is necessary to know these things before
he begins to look into creation, for they are like instruments for observation. For, just as a student
discovers by the study of the law, the necessity of knowledge of legal reasoning with all its kinds
and distinctions, a student will find out by observing the creation the necessity of metaphysical
reasoning. Indeed, he has a greater claim on it than the jurist. For if a jurist argues the necessity
of legal reasoning from the saying of God: "Wherefore take example from them O you who have
eyes" [Qur'an 59.2], a student of divinity has a better right to establish the same from it on behalf
of metaphysical reasoning.
One cannot maintain that this kind of reasoning is an innovation in religion because it did not
exist in the early days of Islam. For legal reasoning and its kinds are things which were invented
also in later ages, and no one thinks they are innovations. Such should also be our attitude
towards philosophical reasoning. There is another reason why it should be so, but this is not the
proper place to mention it. A large number of the followers of this religion confirm philosophical
reasoning, all except a small worthless minority, who argue from religious ordinances. Now, as it
is established that the Law makes the consideration of philosophical reasoning and its kinds as
necessary as legal reasoning, if none of our predecessors has made an effort to enquire into it, we
should begin to do it, and so help them, until the knowledge is complete. For if it is difficult or
rather impossible for one person to acquaint himself single-handed with all things which it is
necessary to know in legal matters, it is still more difficult in the case of philosophical reasoning.
And, if before us, somebody has enquired into it, we should derive help from what he has said. It
is quite immaterial whether that man is our co-religionist or not; for the instrument by which
purification is perfected is not made uncertain in its usefulness by its being in the hands of one of
our own party, or of a foreigner, if it possesses the attributes of truth. By these latter we mean
those Ancients who investigated these things before the advent of Islam.
Now, such is the case. All that is wanted in an enquiry into philosophical reasoning has already
been perfectly examined by the Ancients. All that is required of us is that we should go back to
their books and see what they have said in this connection. If all that they say be true, we should
accept it and if there be something wrong, we should be warned by it. Thus, when we have
finished this kind of research we shall have acquired instruments by which we can observe the
universe, and consider its general character. For so long as one does not know its general
character one cannot know the created, and so long as he does not know the created, he cannot
know its nature.
All things have been made and created. This is quite clear in itself, in the case of animals and
plants, as God has said "Verily the idols which you invoke, beside God, can never create a single
fly, though they may all assemble for that purpose" [Qur'an 22.72]. We see an inorganic
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substance and then there is life in it. So we know for certain that there is an inventor and
bestower of life, and He is God. Of the heavens we know by their movements, which never
become slackened, that they work for our benefit by divine solicitude, and are subordinate to our
welfare. Such an appointed and subordinate object is always created for some purpose. The
second principle is that for every created thing there is a creator. So it is right to say from the two
foregoing principles that for every existent thing there is an inventor. There are many arguments,
according to the number of the created things, which can be advanced to prove this premise.
Thus, it is necessary for one who wants to know God as He ought to be known to acquaint
himself with the essence of things, so that he may get information about the creation of all
things. For who cannot understand the real substance and purpose of a thing, cannot understand
the minor meaning of its creation. It is to this that God refers in the following verse "Or do they
not contemplate the heaven and the earth, and the things which God has created?" [Qur'an
7.184]. And so a man who would follow the purpose of philosophy in investigating the existence
of things, that is, would try to know the cause which led to its creation, and the purpose of it
would know the argument of kindness most perfectly. These two arguments are those adopted by
Law.
The verses of the Qur'an leading to a knowledge of the existence of God are dependent only on
the two foregoing arguments. It will be quite clear to anyone who will examine closely the
verses, which occur in the Divine Book in this connection. These, when investigated, will be
found to be of three kinds: either they are verses showing the "arguments of kindness," or those
mentioning the "arguments of creation, " or those which include both the kinds of arguments.
The following verses may be taken as illustrating the argument of kindness. "Have we not made
the earth for a bed, and the mountains for stakes to find the same? And have we not created you
of two sexes; and appointed your sleep for rest; and made the night a garment to cover you; and
destined the day to the gaining of your livelihood and built over you seven solid heavens; and
placed therein a burning lamp? And do we not send down from the clouds pressing forth rain,
water pouring down in abundance, that we may thereby produce corn, and herbs, and gardens
planted thick with trees?" [Qur'an 77.6-16] and, "Blessed be He Who has placed the twelve signs
in the heavens; has placed therein a lamp by day, and the moon which shines by night" [Qur'an
25.62] and again, "Let man consider his food" [Qur'an 80.24].
The following verses refer to the argument of invention, "Let man consider, therefore of what he
is created. He is created of the seed poured forth, issuing from the loins, and the breast bones"
[Qur'an 86.6]; and, "Do they not consider the camels, how they are created; the heaven, how it is
raised; the mountains, how they are fixed; the earth how it is extended" [Qur'an 88.17]; and again
"O man, a parable is propounded unto you; wherefore hearken unto it. Verily the idols which
they invoke, besides God, can never create a single fly, though they may all assemble for the
purpose" [Qur'an 22.72]. Then we may point to the story of Abraham, referred to in the
following verse, "I direct my face unto Him Who has created heaven and earth; I am orthodox,
and not of the idolaters" [Qur'an 6.79]. There may be quoted many verses referring to this
argument. The verses comprising both the arguments are also many, for instance, "O men, of
Mecca, serve your Lord, Who has created you, and those who have been before you:
peradventure you will fear Him; Who has spread the earth as a bed for you, and the heaven as a
covering, and has caused water to descend from heaven, and thereby produced fruits for your
sustenance. Set not up, therefore, any equals unto God, against your own knowledge [Qur'an
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2.19]. His words, "Who has created you, and those who have been before you," lead us to the
argument of creation; while the words, "who has spread the earth" refer to the argument of divine
solicitude for man. Of this kind also are the following verses of the Qur'an, "One sign of the
resurrection unto them is the dead earth; We quicken the same by rain, and produce therefrom
various sorts of grain, of which they eat" [Qur'an 36.32]; and, "Now in the creation of heaven
and earth, and the vicissitudes of night and day are signs unto those who are endowed with
understanding, who remember God standing, and sitting, and lying on their sides; and meditate
on the creation of heaven and earth, saying O Lord, far be it from You, therefore deliver us from
the torment of hellfire" [Qur'an 3.188]. Many verses of this kind comprise both the kinds of
arguments.
This method is the right path by which God has invited men to a knowledge of His existence,
and informed them of it through the intelligence which He has implanted in their nature. The
followin verse refers to this fixed and innate nature of man, "And when the Lord drew forth their
posterity from the loins of the sons of Adam, and took them witness against themselves, Am I
not your Lord? They answered, Yes, we do bear witness" [Qur'an 7.171]. So it is incumbent for
one who intends to obey God, and follow the injunction of His Prophet, that he should adopt this
method, thus making himself one of those learned men who bear witness to the divinity of God,
with His own witness, and that of His angels, as He says, "God has borne witness, that there is no
God but He, and the angels, and those who are endowed with wisdom profess the same; who
execute righteousness; there is no God but He; the Mighty, the Wise" [Qur'an 3.16]. Among the
arguments for both of themselves is the praise which God refers to in the following verse,
"Neither is there anything which does not celebrate his praise; but you understand not their
celebration thereof" [Qur'an 17.46].
It is evident from the above arguments for the existence of God that they are dependent upon two
categories of reasoning. It is also clear that both of these methods are meant for particular
people; that is, the learned. Now as to the method for the masses. The difference between the two
lies only in details. The masses cannot understand the two above-mentioned arguments but only
what they can grasp by their senses; while the learned men can go further and learn by reasoning
also, besides learning by sense. They have gone so far that a learned man has said, that the
benefits the learned men derive from the knowledge of the members of human and animal body
are a thousand and one. If this be so, then this is the method which is taught both by Law and by
Nature. It is the method which was preached by the Prophet and the divine books. The learned
men do not mention these two lines of reasoning to the masses, not because of their number, but
because of a want of depth of learning on their part about the knowledge of a single thing only.
The example of the common people, considering and pondering over the universe, is like a man
who looks into a thing, the manufacture of which he does not know. For all that such a man can
know about it is that it has been made, and that there must be a maker of it. But, on the other
hand, the learned look into the universe, just as a man knowing the art would do; try to
understand the real purpose of it. So it is quite clear that their knowledge about the Maker, as the
maker of the universe, would be far better than that of the man who only knows it as made. The
atheists, who deny the Creator altogether, are like men who can see and feel the created things,
but would not acknowledge any Creator for them, but would attribute all to chance alone, and
that they come into being by themselves.
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Now, then, if this is the method adopted by the Law, it may be asked: What is the way of proving
the unity of God by means of the Law; that is, the knowledge of the religious formula that "there
is no god, but God." The negation contained in it is an addition to the affirmative, which the
formula contains, while the affirmative has already been proved. What is the purpose of this
negation? We would say that the method, adopted by the Law, of denying divinity to all but God
is according to the ordinance of God in the Qur'an.
If you look a little intently it will become clear to you, that in spite of the fact that the Law has
not given illustration of those things for the common people, beyond which their imagination
cannot go, it has also informed the learned men of the underlying meanings of those illustrations.
So it is necessary to bear in mind the limits which the Law has set about the instruction of every
class of men, and not to mix them together. For in this manner the purpose of the Law is
multiplied. Hence it is that the Prophet has said, "We, the prophets, have been commanded to
adapt ourselves to the conditions of the people, and address them according to their intelligence."
He who tries to instruct all the people in the matter of religion, in one and the same way, is like a
man who wants to make them alike in actions too, which is quite against apparent laws and
reason.
From the foregoing it must have become clear to you that the divine vision has an esoteric
meaning in which there is no doubt, if we take the words of the Qur'an about God as they stand,
that is, without proving or disproving the anthropomorphic attribute of God. Now since the first
part of the Law has been made quite clear as to God's purity, and the quantity of the teaching fit
for the common people; it is time to begin the discussion about the actions of God, after which
our purpose in writing this treatise will be over.
Source: Averröes, The Philosophy and Theology of Averroes, trans. Mohammed Jamil-alRahman (Baroda: A. G. Widgery, 1921), pp. 14-19.
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JALAL AD-DIN RUMI (1207-1273):
POEMS FROM THE DIVAN-I SHAMS-I TABRIZ, C. 1270 CE
Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad Balkhī, also known as Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad Rūmī, and more
popularly in the English-speaking world simply as Rumi (30 September 1207 – 17 December
1273), was a 13th-century Persian poet, jurist, theologian, and Sufi mystic. Iranians, Turks,
Afghans, Tajiks, and other Central Asian Muslims as well as the Muslims of South Asia have
greatly appreciated his spiritual legacy in the past seven centuries. Rumi's importance is
considered to transcend national and ethnic borders. His poems have been widely translated into
many of the world's languages and transposed into various formats. In 2007, he was described
as the "most popular poet in America."
Big Picture Question: Identify parts of Rumi’s poem which indicate toleration for differing ideas,
social conditions, and religious traditions. Why might this help the Sufis spread Islam?
I
The man of God is drunken without wine,
The man of God is full without meat.
The man of God is distraught and bewildered,
The man of God has no food or sleep.
The man of God is a king "neath dervish-cloak,
The man of God is a treasure in a ruin.
The man of God is not of air and earth,
The man of God is not of fire and water.
The man of God is a boundless sea,
The man of God rains pearls without a cloud.
The man of God has hundred moons and skies,
The man of God has hundred suns.
The man of God is made wise by the Truth,
The man of God is not learned from book.
The man of God is beyond infidelity and religion,
To the man of God right and wrong are alike.
The man of God has ridden away from Not-being,
The man of God is gloriously attended.
The man of God is concealed, Shamsi Din;
The man of God do you seek and find!
II
What is to be done, O Moslems? for I do not recognize myself.
I am neither Christian, nor Jew, nor Gabr [Magian], nor Moslem.
I am not of the East, nor of the West, nor of the land, nor of the sea;
I am not of Nature's mint, nor of the circling heavens.
I am not of earth, nor of water, nor of air, nor of fire;
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I am not of the empyrean, nor of the dust, nor of existence, nor of entity.
I am not of India, nor of China, nor of Bulghar, nor of Saqsin;
I am not of the kingdom of 'Iraqain, nor of the country of Khurasan.
I am not of this world, nor of the next, nor of Paradise, nor of Hell;
I am not of Adam, nor of Eve, nor of Eden and Rizwan.
My place is the Placeless, my trace is the Traceless;
'Tis neither body nor soul, for I belong to the soul of the Beloved.
I have put duality away, I have seen that the two worlds are one;
One I seek, One I know, One I see, One I call.
He is the first, He is the lest, He is the outward, He is the inward;
I know none other except "Ya Hu" [Yahweh] and "Ya man Hu" ["O He who is"].
I am intoxicated with Love's cup, the two worlds have passed out of my ken;
I have no business save carouse and revelry.
If once in my life I spent a moment without you,
From that time and from that hour I repent of my life.
If once in this world I win a moment with you,
I will trample on both worlds, I will dance in triumph for ever.
O Shamsi Tabriz, I am so drunken in this world,
That except of drunkenness and revelry I have no tale to tell.
III
No joy have I found in the two worlds apart from you, Beloved.
Many wonders I have seen: I have not seen a wonder like you.
They say that blazing fire is the infidel's portion:
I have seen none, save Abu Lahab, excluded from your fire.
Often have I laid the spiritual ear at the window of the heart:
I heard much discourse, but the lips I did not see.
Of a sudden you did lavish grace upon your servant:
I saw no cause for it but your infinite kindness.
O chosen Cup-bearer, O apple of mine eyes, the like of you
Ne'er appeared in Persia, nor in Arabia have I found it.
Pour out wine 'till I become a wanderer from myself;
For in selfhood and existence I have felt only fatigue.
O you who are milk and sugar, O you who are sun and moon,
O you who are mother and father, I have known no kin but you.
O indestructible Love, O divine Minstrel,
You are both stay and refuge: a name equal to you I have not found.
We are pieces of steel, and your love is the magnet:
You are the source of all aspiration, in myself I have seen none.
Silence, O brother! put learning and culture away:
'Till you named culture, I knew no culture but you.
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IV
Grasp the skirt of his favor, for on a sudden he will flee;
But draw him not, as an arrow, for he will flee from the bow.
What delusive forms does he take, what tricks does he invent!
If he is present in form, he will flee by the way of spirit.
Seek him in the sky, he shines in water, like the moon;
When you come into the water, he will flee to the sky.
Seek him in the placeless, he will sign you to place;
When you seek him in place, he will flee to the placeless.
As the arrow speeds from the bow, like the bird of your imagination,
Know that the Absolute will certainly flee from the Imaginary.
I will flee from this and that, not for weariness, but for fear
That my gracious Beauty will flee from this and that.
As the wind I am fleet of foot, from love of the rose I am like the zephyr;
The rose in dread of autumn will flee from the garden.
His name will flee, when it sees an attempt at speech,
So that you cannot even say, "Such an one will flee."
He will flee from you, so that if you limn his picture,
The picture will fly from the tablet, the impression will flee from the soul.
V
A beauty that all night long teaches love-tricks to Venus and the moon,
Whose two eyes by their witchery seal up the two eyes of heaven.
Look to your hearts! I, whate'er betide, O Moslems,
Am so mingled with him that no heart is mingled with me.
I was born of his love at the first, I gave him my heart at the last;
When the fruit springs from the bough, on that bough it hangs.
The tip of his curl is saying, "Ho! betake you to rope-dancing."
The cheek of his candle is saying, "Where is a moth that it may burn?"
For the sake of dancing on that rope, O heart, make haste, become a hoop;
Cast yourself on the flame, when his candle is lit.
You will never more endure without the flame, when you have known the rapture of burning;
If the water of life should come to you, it would not stir you from the flame.
VI
David said: "O Lord, since you have no need of us,
Say, then, what wisdom was there in creating the two worlds?"
God said to him: "O temporal man, I was a hidden treasure;
I sought that that treasure of loving kindness and bounty should be revealed.
I displayed a mirror---its face the heart, its back the world--Its back is better than its face---if the face is unknown to you."
When straw is mixed with clay, how should the mirror be successful?
When you part the straw from the clay, the mirror becomes clear.
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Grape-juice does not turn to wine, unless it ferment awhile in the jar;
Would you have your heart grow bright, you must take a little trouble.
The soul which issued forth from the body---my king said to it:
"You are come even as you went: where are the traces of my benefactions?"
'Tis notorious that copper by alchemy becomes gold:
Our copper has been transmuted by this rare alchemy.
From God's grace this sun wants no crown or robe:
He is cap to a hundred bald men and cloak to ten naked.
Child, Jesus sate on an ass for humility's sake:
How else should the zephyr ride on the back of an ass?
O spirit, make your head in search and seeking like the water of a stream,
And O reason, to gain eternal life tread everlastingly the way of death.
Keep God in remembrance 'till self is forgotten,
That you may be lost in the Called, without distraction of caller and call.
VII
You I choose, of all the world, alone;
Will you suffer me to sit in grief?
My heart is as a pen in your hand,
You are the cause if I am glad or melancholy.
Save what you will, what will have I?
Save what you show, what do I see?
You make grow out of me now a thorn and now a rose;
Now I smell roses and now pull thorns.
If you keep me that, that I am;
If you would have me this, I am this.
In the vessel where you give color to the soul
Who am I, what is my love and hate?
You were first, and last you shall be;
Make my last better than my first.
When you are hidden, I am of the infidels;
When you are manifest, I am of the faithful.
I have nothing, except you have bestowed it;
What do you seek from my bosom and sleeve?
VIII
When my bier moves on the day of death,
Think not my heart is in this world.
Do not weep for me and cry "Woe, woe!"
You will fall in the devil's snare: that is woe.
When you see my hearse, cry not "Parted, parted!"
Union and meeting are mine in that hour.
If you commit me to the grave, say not "Farewell, farewell!"
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For the grave is a curtain hiding the communion of Paradise.
After beholding descent, consider resurrection;
Why should setting be injurious to the sun and moon?
To you it seems a setting, but 'tis a rising;
Tho' the vault seems a prison, 'tis the release of the soul.
What seed went down into the earth but it grew?
Why this doubt of yours as regards the seed of man?
What bucket was lowered but it came out brimful?
Why should the Joseph of the spirit complain of the well?
Shut your mouth on this side and open it beyond,
For in placeless air will be your triumphal song.
Source: Reynold A. Nicholson, ed., Selected Poems from the Divani Shamsi Tabriz, (London:
Cambridge University Press, 1898), pp. 15-17, 81-85, 95-97, 121-131
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MUQADDIMAH OF IBN KHALDUN
The Muqaddimah, also known as the Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun is a book written by the
Tunisian Muslim historian Ibn Khaldun in 1377 which records an early view of universal
history. Some modern thinkers view it as the first work dealing with the philosophy of history or
the social sciences of sociology, demography, historiography, cultural history and economics.
The Muqaddimah also deals with Islamic theology, political theory and the natural sciences of
biology and chemistry.
Big Picture Question: Ibn Khaldun imagines that history is a science and has laws of
history. In his selection how does he envision history as operating?
Chapter 45
It should be known that any royal authority must be built upon two foundations. The first is
might and group feeling, which finds its expression in soldiers. The second is money, which
supports the soldiers and provides the whole structure needed by royal authority.
Disintegration befalls the dynasty at these two foundations. We shall mention first the
disintegration that comes about through might and group feeling, and then, we shall come back
and discuss the one that comes about through money and taxation. It should be known that, as we
have stated, the dynasty can be founded and established only with the help of group feeling.
There must be a major group feeling uniting all the group feelings subordinate to it. This (major
group feeling) is the family and tribal group feeling peculiar to the ruler.
When the natural luxury of royal authority makes its appearance in the dynasty, and when the
people who share in the group feeling of the dynasty are humiliated, the first to be humiliated are
the members of the ruler's family and his relatives who share with him in the royal name. They
are much more humiliated than anyone else. Moreover, luxury has a greater hold on them than
on anyone else, because they have a share in royal authority, power, and superiority. Thus, two
agents of destruction surround them, luxury and force. (The use of) force eventually leads to
their being killed. They become sick at heart when they see the ruler firmly established in royal
authority. His envy of them then changes to fear for his royal authority. Therefore, he starts to
kill and humiliate them and to deprive them of the prosperity and luxury to which they had
become in large measure accustomed. They perish, and become few in number. The group
feeling that the ruler had through them is destroyed. (That group feeling) was the major group
feeling, which united all the other groups and subordinated them to itself. It dissolves and its grip
weakens. Its place is taken by the inner circle of clients and followers who enjoy the favors and
benefactions of the ruler. A (new) group feeling is derived from them. However, (this new group
feeling) does not have anything like the powerful grip (of the other group feeling), because it
lacks direct and close blood relationships. We have mentioned before that the importance and
strength of a group feeling results from close and direct blood relationships, because God made it
that way.
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The ruler thus isolates himself from his family and helpers, those who have natural affection (for
him). This (in turn) is sensed by the people of other groups. Very naturally, they become
audacious vis-à-vis the ruler and his inner circle. Therefore, the ruler destroys them and
persecutes and kills them, one after the other. The later people of the dynasty follow the tradition
of the former in that respect. In addition, they are exposed to the detrimental effect of luxury that
we have mentioned before. Thus, destruction comes upon them through luxury and through
being killed. Eventually, they no longer have the coloring of (their) group feeling. They forget
the affection and strength that (used to) go with it. They become hirelings for the military
protection (of the dynasty). They thus become few in number. As a consequence, the militia
settled in the remote and frontier regions becomes numerically weak. This, then, emboldens the
subjects in the remote regions to abandon the cause (of the dynasty) there. Rebels who are
members of the ruling family and other (types of rebels) go out to these remote regions. They
hope that under these circumstances, they will be able to reach their goal by obtaining a
following among the inhabitants of the remote regions of the realm. (They hope that) they will be
secure from capture by the (government) militia. This (process) keeps on and the authority of the
ruling dynasty continues gradually to shrink until the rebels reach places extremely close to the
center of the dynasty. The dynasty then often splits into two or three dynasties, depending on its
original strength, as we have stated. People who do not share in the group feeling of (the
dynasty) take charge of its affairs, though they obey the people who do share in the group feeling
of (the dynasty) and accept their acknowledged superiority.
This may be exemplified by the Arab Muslim dynasty. At the beginning it reached as far as
Spain, India, and China. The Umayyads had complete control of all the Arabs through the group
feeling of 'Abd-Manaf. It was even possible for Sulayman b. 'Abd-al-Malik in Damascus to order
the killing of 'Abd-al-'Aziz b. Musa b. Nusayr in Cordoba. He was killed, and (Sulayman's) order
was not disobeyed. Then, luxury came to the Umayyads, and their group feeling was wiped out.
(The Umayyads) were destroyed, and the 'Abbasids made their appearance. They curbed the
Hashimites. They killed all the 'Alids (descendants of Abu Talib) and exiled them.In
consequence, the group feeling of 'Abd-Manaf dissolved and was wiped out. The Arabs grew
audacious vis-à-vis (the 'Abbasids). People in the remote regions of the realm, such as the
Aghlabids in Ifriqiyah and the inhabitants of Spain and others, gained control over them, and the
dynasty split. Then, the Idrisids seceded in the Maghrib. The Berbers supported them, in
obedience to their group feeling. Also, they were secure from capture by the soldiers or
militiamen of the dynasty.
Men with a cause, for which they make propaganda, eventually secede. They gain control over
border areas and remote regions. There, they are able to make propaganda for their cause and
achieve royal authority. As a result, the dynasty splits. As the dynasty shrinks more and more,
this process often continues until the center is reached. The inner circle, thereafter, weakens,
because luxury undermines it. It perishes and dissolves. The whole divided dynasty weakens.
Occasionally, it lingers on long after that. (The dynasty) can dispense with group feeling now,
because it has colored the souls of its subject people with the habit of subservience and
submission for so many long years that no one alive can think back to its beginning and origin.
They cannot think of anything except being submissive to the ruler. Therefore, he can dispense
with group strength. In order to establish his power, hired soldiers and mercenaries are sufficient.
The submissiveness generally found in the human soul helps in this respect. Should anyone think
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of disobedience or secession - which hardly ever happens - the great mass would disapprove of
him and oppose him. Thus, he would not be able to attempt such a thing, even if he should try
very hard. In this situation, the dynasty is often more secure (than ever), as far as rebels and
rivals are concerned, because the coloring of submissiveness and subservience is firmly
established. Individuals would scarcely admit to themselves the least thought of opposition, and
the idea of straying from obedience would not enter anybody's mind. (The dynasty,) therefore, is
safer (than ever) so far as the trouble and destruction that comes from groups and tribes are
concerned. The dynasty may continue in this condition, but its substance dwindles, like natural
heat in a body that lacks nourishment. Eventually, (the dynasty) reaches its destined time. "Each
term has a book," and each dynasty has an end. God determines night and day.As for the
disintegration that comes through money, it should be known that at the beginning the dynasty
has a desert attitude, as was mentioned before It has the qualities of kindness to subjects, planned
moderation in expenditures, and respect for other people's property. It avoids onerous taxation
and the display of cunning or shrewdness in the collection of money and the accounting
(required) from officials.
Nothing at this time calls for extravagant expenditures. Therefore, the dynasty does not need
much money. Later comes domination and expansion. Royal authority flourishes. This calls for
luxury. (Luxury) causes increased spending. The expenditures of the ruler, and of the people of
the dynasty in general, grow. This (tendency) spreads to the urban population. It calls for
increases in soldiers' allowances and in the salaries of the people of the dynasty. Extravagant
expenditures mount. It spreads to the subjects, because people follow the religion (ways) and
customs of the dynasty.
The ruler, then, must impose duties on articles sold in the markets, in order to improve his
revenues. (He does so,) because he sees the luxury of the urban population testifying to their
prosperity, and because he needs the money for the expenditures of his government and the
salaries of his soldiers. Habits of luxury, then, further increase. The customs duties no longer pay
for them. The dynasty, by this time, is flourishing in its power and its forceful hold over the
subjects under its control. Its hand reaches out to seize some of the property of the subjects,
either through customs duties, or through commercial transactions, or, in some cases, merely by
hostile acts directed against (property holdings), on some pretext or even with none.
At this stage, the soldiers have already grown bold against the dynasty, because it has become
weak and senile it, as far as its group feeling is concerned. (The dynasty) expects that from them,
and attempts to remedy and smooth over the situation through generous allowances and much
spending for (the soldiers). It cannot get around that.
At this stage, the tax collectors in the dynasty have acquired much wealth, because vast revenues
are in their hands and their position has widened in importance for this reason. Suspicions of
having appropriated tax money, therefore, attach to them. It becomes common for one tax
collector to denounce another, because of their mutual jealousy and envy. One after another is
deprived of his money by confiscation and torture. Eventually, their wealth is gone, and they are
ruined. The dynasty loses the pomp and magnificence it had possessed through them.
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After their prosperity is destroyed, the dynasty goes farther afield and approaches its other
wealthy subjects. At this stage, feebleness has already afflicted its (former) might. (The dynasty)
has become too weak to retain its power and forceful hold. The policy of the ruler, at this time,
is to handle matters diplomatically by spending money. He considers this more advantageous
than the sword, which is of little use. His need for money grows beyond what is needed for
expenditures and soldiers' salaries. He never gets enough. Senility affects the dynasty more and
more. The people of (other) regions grow bold against it. At each of these stages, the strength of
the dynasty crumbles. Eventually, it reaches complete ruin. It is open to domination by (any)
aggressor. Anyone who wants to attack it can take it away from those who support it. If this does
not occur, it will continue to dwindle and finally disappear 712-like the wick of a lamp when the
oil is exhausted, and it goes out.
God owns all things and governs the whole creation. There is no God but Him.
Chapter 46
Above, in the third (chapter) of this Muqqadimah, in the chapter on the caliphate and royal
authority, we stated that each dynasty has its specific share of provinces and districts and no
more. (Its expansion) depends on the distribution of the dynasty's group (strength) for the
(military) protection of its territory and regions. Wherever its numbers go, their advance
(eventually) comes to a stop at (what is called) the "border region." This surrounds the dynasty
on all sides like a belt. Its farthest extension may coincide with the original "belt" of authority of
the (preceding) dynasty. (Or) it may be still wider, if the numerical (strength) of the (new) group
is greater than that of the preceding dynasty.
All this takes place while the dynasty has the characteristics of desert life and rude courage.
Subsequently, power and superiority come into their own. Bounties and salaries become
abundant as a result of improved revenues. Luxury and sedentary culture abound. New
generations grow up accustomed to this situation. (At this time,) the character of the militia
softens, and they lose their toughness. This makes them cowards and lazy fellows. They are
caught up in the effeminacy of sedentary culture. It causes them to shed the characteristics of
courage and manliness. They give up the desert attitude and desert toughness and seek power
through assiduous competition for leadership. This causes some of them to kill others. The ruler
prevents them from doing that, by killing their great men and destroying their leaders. Thus,
amirs and great men no longer exist, and the number of followers and subordinates grows. This
blunts the sharp edges of the dynasty and decreases its strength. The first element of
disintegration afflicts the dynasty, that which comes through the soldiers and militia, as has been
mentioned.
This is paralleled by extravagance in expenditures. (The people of the dynasty) suffer from the
pomp of power and limitless ostentation as they compete with each other in matters of food,
clothing, large palaces, good weapons, and the horses in their stables. At this time, the income of
the dynasty is too small to pay for such expenditures, and thus the second element of
disintegration afflicts the dynasty, that which comes through money and taxation. Weakness and
destruction are the results of these two elements of disintegration. The leaders of (the dynasty)
often compete with each other. They quarrel, and are too weak to stand up and defend
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themselves against rivals and neighbors. The people of the border and remote regions often sense
the weakness of the dynasty at their backs, and they show their strength. They eventually gain
independent control over the districts in their possession. The ruler is too weak to force them
back on the (right) path. Thus, the authority of the dynasty becomes narrower than it had been at
the beginning. The administration of (the dynasty) restricts itself to a smaller area. Eventually,
the same weakness, laziness with regard to group strength, and the shortage of money and
revenue that had come about in the first, larger, area also comes about in the second, smaller,
area.
The person in charge of the dynasty now undertakes to change the norms the dynasty had,
adopted as its policy with regard to soldiers, money, and administrative functions. The purpose is
to have norms suitable for balancing the budget, satisfying the militia, safeguarding the
administrative districts, distributing the tax revenue for the (soldiers') salaries in the proper
manner, and readjusting (the new conditions) to those that had existed at the beginning of the
dynasty. However, evil happenings can still be expected from every quarter.
At this later stage, what had happened before in the first stage happens again. The ruler now
considers the same (measures) that the first ruler had considered, and applies the old yardstick to
the new conditions of the dynasty. He intends to repel the evil consequences of disintegration,
which reappears at every stage and affects every part of the realm until the area of the dynasty is
again narrower than it had been (before), and what had happened before happens again. Each of
the persons who changes the previous norms (of the dynasty) is in a way the builder of a new
dynasty and the founder of a new realm. However, the dynasty is eventually destroyed. The
nations around it push on to gain superiority over it. They then found a new dynasty of their own.
And thus befalls what God has destined to befall. This may be exemplified by the Muslim
dynasty. Through its conquests and victories over (foreign) nations, its authority expanded. Its
militia then increased, and the numerical (strength of the militia) grew as the result of the
bounties and salaries granted to (the soldiers). Eventually, the power of the Umayyads was
destroyed. The 'Abbasids gained the upper hand. Luxury, then, increased. Sedentary culture
emerged, and disintegration made its appearance. The creation of the Marwanid (Umayyad
Spanish) and 'Alid (ldrisid) dynasties cut down the authority of the 'Abbasids in Spain and the
Maghrib. These two border regions were cut off from ('Abbasid) authority.
Then, dissension arose among the sons of ar-Rashid. 'Alid propagandists appeared in every
region, and ('Alid) dynasties were founded. Then, after the death of al-Mutawakkil, the amirs
gained control over the caliphs and kept them in seclusion. Provincial governors in the outlying
regions became independent, and the land tax from there did not come in any longer. Luxury
(however) still increased. Al-Mu'tadid appeared. He changed the norms of the dynasty and
adopted another policy. He gave the outlying regions, over which the governors had won control,
to them as fiefs. Thus, for instance, the Samanids (were given) Transoxania, the Tihirids the 'Iraq
and Khurasin, the Saffirids Western India (Sind) and Firs, the Tulunids Egypt, and the Aghlabids
Ifriqiyah. Then, the power of the Arabs was broken up. The non-Arabs achieved superiority. The
Buyids and the Daylam gained control of the Muslim dynasty. They kept the caliphs in
seclusion. The Samanids remained in control of Transoxania. The Fatimids pushed out of the
Maghrib into Egypt and Syria and gained possession of (those countries). Then arose the dynasty
of the Saljuq Turks. The Saljugs gained domination over the Muslim empire. They kept the
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caliphs in seclusion, until their dynasties were destroyed. From the time of an-Nasir on, the
caliphs were in control of an area smaller than the ring around the moon, namely, the Arab 'Iraq
up to Isfahan, Firs, and al-Bahrayn. For some (time), the dynasty continued in that manner, until
the power of the caliphs was destroyed by Hulagu b. Tuli b. Dushi Khan, the ruler of the Tatars
and Mongols. They defeated the Saljugs and took possession of the part of the Muslim empire
that had been theirs. Thus, the authority of the dynasty (at each stage) becomes successively
narrower than it had been at the beginning. (This process) continues, stage by stage, until the
dynasty is destroyed. (The fact) can be exemplified by examination of any dynasty, large or
small. This is how God proceeds with dynasties, until the dissolution destined by Him comes
upon His creatures. "Everything perishes except His face (person)."
Chapter 47
It should be known that when the ruling dynasty starts on the road to senility and destruction, the
rise and beginning of the new dynasty takes place in two ways: (The one way is) for provincial
governors in the dynasty to gain control over remote regions when (the dynasty) loses its
influence there. Each one of them founds a new dynasty for his people and a realm to be
perpetuated in his family. His children or clients inherit it from him. Gradually, they have a
flourishing realm. They often compete bitterly with each other and aspire to gain sole possession
of it. The one who is stronger than his rival will gain the upper hand and take away what the
other had.
This happened in the 'Abbasid dynasty when it started on the road to senility and its shadow
receded from the remote regions. The Samanids gained control over Transoxania, the Hamdinids
over Mosul and Syria, and the Tulunids over Egypt. The same thing happened in the Umayyad
dynasty in Spain. Their realm was divided among the reyes detaifas who had been their
provincial governors. It was divided into several dynasties with several rulers, who passed their
realms on after their death to their relatives or clients. This way of forming a new dynasty avoids
the possibility of war between the (new rulers) and the ruling dynasty. (These new rulers) are
already firmly established in their leadership and do not want to gain domination over the ruling
dynasty. The latter is affected by senility, and its shadow recedes from the remote regions of the
realm and can no (longer) reach them. The other way is for some rebel from among the
neighboring nations and tribes to revolt against the dynasty. He either makes propaganda for
some particular cause to which he intends to win the people, as we have indicated, or he
possesses great power and a great group feeling among his people. His power is already
flourishing among them, and now he aspires with the help of (his people) to gain royal authority.
(His people) are convinced that they will obtain it, because they feel that they are superior to the
ruling dynasty, which is affected by senility. Thus, to (the rebel) and his people, it is a fact that
they will gain domination over it. They constantly attack it, until they defeat it and inherit its
power.
This was the case with the Saljugs in relation to the descendants of Sebuktigin, and with the
Merinids in the Maghrib in relation to the Almohads. "God has the power to execute His
commands."
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Chapter 48
We have (just) mentioned that new dynasties originate in two ways. The one way (is for them to
originate) with the governors of outlying regions when the shadow of the ruling dynasty recedes
from those regions and its waves are rolled back. As a rule, such (governors) do not attack the
(ruling) dynasty, as we have mentioned before, because all they have to do is to be satisfied with
what they already have. That is as far as their power goes. The other way is that of men who
make propaganda for some cause and of rebels who rebel against the (ruling) dynasty. It is
inevitable that they attack (the ruling dynasty), because their power warrants such (a course).
They (revolt) only when they have a family with sufficient group feeling and strength to give
them success. Indecisive battles take place between them and the ruling dynasty. (Such battles)
are repeated and continued (all the time), until by perseverance they achieve domination and
victory. As a rule, they do not gain victory through sudden action.
The reason for this is that victory in war, as we have mentioned before, as a rule is the result of
imaginary psychological factors. Numbers, weapons, and proper tactics may guarantee (victory).
However, as has been mentioned above, (all these things) are less effective than the imaginary
(psychological) factors, as has been mentioned above. Trickery is one of the most useful things
employed in warfare. It is the thing most likely to bring victory. A tradition says: "War is
trickery." Accepted custom has made obedience to the ruling dynasty a necessity and an
obligation, as has been mentioned before in more than one place. This puts many hindrances in
the way of the founder of a new dynasty. It discourages his followers and supporters. His closest
intimates may be fully intent upon obeying him and helping him. Still, others are more
numerous, who are affected by weakness and laziness under the influence of the belief that they
owe submission to the ruling dynasty. Their zeal slackens. Therefore, the founder of a new
dynasty is hardly able to make a stand against the ruler of the ruling dynasty. Consequently, he
falls back on patience and perseverance, until the senility of the ruling dynasty has become
obvious. Then his people lose the belief that they owe submission to the ruling dynasty. They
become sufficiently spirited to make an open attack upon the ruling dynasty in concert with (the
founder of the new dynasty). Victory and domination are the result.
Furthermore, the ruling dynasty has many luxuries. The royal authority of (the people of the
ruling dynasty) had been firmly established. They had enjoyed prosperity and pleasures. To the
exclusion of others, they had appropriated a good deal of the revenues from taxes. Thus, they
have many horses in their stables and good weapons. There is much royal pomp among them.
Gifts from their rulers, given either voluntarily or under constraint, have been showered upon
them. With all this, they frighten their enemies. The people of the new dynasty do not have (such
things). They have the desert attitude and are poor and indigent. This leaves them unprepared for
such (things). What they hear about the conditions and excellent state of preparedness of the
ruling dynasty makes them apprehensive. They are afraid to do battle against (the ruling dynasty)
on account of it. Therefore, their leader is forced to wait until senility takes hold of the ruling
dynasty and its group feeling and fiscal (structure) are disintegrating. Then, the founder of the
new dynasty seizes the opportunity to gain the upper hand, quite some time after his attack (had
begun). This is how God proceeds with His servants. The men of the new dynasty differ from the
men of the ruling dynasty with regard to descent, customs, and all other things. The (persistent)
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attacks and their desire to gain the upper hand estrange the men of the new dynasty more and
more from the men of the ruling dynasty. Consequently, the people of the two dynasties become
thoroughly estranged from each other, inwardly and outwardly. No information about the men of
the ruling dynasty, either secretly or openly, reaches the men of the new dynasty, such as might
enable them to find some unpreparedness among them, because all connection and intercourse
between the two dynasties has been cut off. They thus continue to exert pressure, (but) they are
in a state of fear and shy away from sudden action.
Eventually, God permits the ruling dynasty to end, its life to stop, and disintegration to afflict it
from all sides. The senility and decay of (the ruling dynasty), which had been concealed from the
people of the new dynasty, now become clear to them. (In the meantime,) their strength has
grown, because they had cut off and taken away districts and outlying regions from (the ruling
dynasty). Thus, they become spirited enough (to attempt) sudden action. The apprehensions that
had hitherto weakened their resolution disappear. The long wait comes to an end, and sudden
action finally brings domination. This may be exemplified by the emergence and beginnings of
the 'Abbasid dynasty. The ('Abbasid) Shi'ah remained in Khurasan for ten years or more after the
('Abbasid) propaganda had consolidated and (the 'Abbisids) had gathered for attack. Then, their
victory materialized, and they gained the upper hand over the Umayyads. The same was the case
with the 'Alids (Zaydis) in Tabaristan at the time their propaganda appeared among the Daylam.
They had to wait a long time before they gained domination over that region. The 'Alid rule then
ended, and the Daylam aspired to rule over Firs and the two 'Irigs. They waited (patiently) for
many years, until they were able to cut off Isfahan and Firs (and take it for themselves). Then,
they gained domination over the caliph in Baghdad.
The same was the case with the 'Ubaydid(-Fitimids). Their missionary in the Maghrib, Abu
'Abdallah ash-Shi'i, stayed for more than ten years among the Kutimah Berbers waiting to gain
victory over the Aghlabids in Ifrigiyah. (The 'Ubaydid-Fitimids) then took possession of the
Maghrib, and, later on, aspired to become rulers of Egypt. They spent about thirty years waiting
for their chance, constantly sending armies and fleets against Egypt. Support for Egypt's defense
against (the 'Ubaydid-Fatimids) came from Baghdad and Syria, by land and by sea. They took
possession of Alexandria, the Fayyum, and Upper Egypt. Their propaganda progressed from
there to the Hijiz and found a home in Mecca and Medina. Then, their general, Jawhar alKitib,
moved against the (capital) city of Egypt with his armies and took possession of it. He uprooted
the dynasty of the Banu Tughsh (Ikhshidids) and founded Cairo. His caliph, Ma'add al-Mu'izz-lidin-Allih, came to (Cairo) and chose it as his residence. This was about sixty years after the
('Ubaydid-Fitimids) had (for the first time) gained domination over Alexandria.
The same was the case with the Saljuq Turk rulers. They gained the upper hand over the
Siminids and went beyond Transoxania, but then they had to spend about thirty years waiting to
gain the upper hand over the (dynasty of) Ibn Sebuktigin in Khurasin. After some time, they
advanced against Baghdad and took possession of it and of the caliph there.
The same was the case with the Tatars who succeeded the Saljugs. They came out of the steppe
in 617 [1220/21], but it took them forty years thereafter to gain domination. The same was also
the case with the inhabitants of the Maghrib. The Lamtunah Almoravids declared themselves
against their Maghrawah rulers. They waited for years to gain the upper hand over them. Then,
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the Almohads came forth with their propaganda against the Lamtunah. They spent about thirty
years fighting them, until they gained domination over their capital in Marrakech. The same was
the case with the Zanatah Merinids. They declared themselves against the Almohads and spent
about thirty years waiting to gain possession of Fez. They cut off (Fez) and environs from the
Almohad realm. Then, they spent another thirty years fighting (the Almohads) until they gained
domination over their capital in Marrakech. All this is mentioned in the histories of these
dynasties.
A struggle of this sort, marked by (constant) attacks and long perseverance, is characteristic of
the relationship between new and ruling dynasties. This is how God proceeds with his servants.
"And verily, you will not be able to change God's way." The events of the Muslim conquests
cannot be used as an argument against (the preceding remarks). (The Muslims) gained the upper
hand over the Persians and the Byzantines in the three or four years that followed the death of the
Prophet, and there was no long waiting period. It should be realized that this was one of the
miracles of our Prophet. The secret of it lay in the willingness of the Muslims to die in the holy
war against their enemies because of their feeling that they had the right religious insight, and in
the corresponding fear and defeatism that God put into the hearts of their enemies. All these
(miraculous facts) broke through the known custom of a long wait (governing the relationship)
between new and ruling dynasties. Thus, (the rapid conquest) was one of the miracles of our
Prophet. The fact of the appearance of (such miracles) in Islam is generally acknowledged.
Miracles cannot be used as analogies for ordinary affairs and constitute no argument against
(them).
Chapter 49
In the previous (discussion) it has been established that, at the beginning, dynasties are inevitably
kind in the exercise of their power and just in their administration. The reason is either their
religion, when (the dynasty) is based upon religious propaganda, or their noble and benevolent
attitude toward others, which is required by the desert attitude that is natural to dynasties (at the
beginning).
A kind and benevolent rule serves as an incentive to the subjects and gives them energy for
cultural activities. (Civilization) will be abundant, and procreation will be vigorous. All this takes
place gradually. The effects will become noticeable after one or two generations at best. At the
end of two generations, the dynasty approaches the limit of its natural life. At that time,
civilization has reached the limit of its abundance and growth. It should not be objected here that
it was stated before that in the later (years) of a dynasty, there will be coercion of the subjects
and bad government. This is correct, but it does not contradict what we have (just) said. Even
though coercion makes its appearance at that time and the revenues decrease, the destructive
influences of this situation on civilization will become noticeable only after some time, because
things in nature all have a gradual development.
In the later (years) of dynasties, famines and pestilences become numerous. As far as famines are
concerned, the reason is that most people at that time refrain from cultivating the soil. For, in the
later (years) of dynasties, there occur attacks on property and tax revenue and, through customs
duties, on trading. Or, trouble occurs as the result of the unrest of the subjects and the great
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number of rebels (who are provoked) by the senility of the dynasty to rebel. Therefore, as a rule,
little grain is stored. The grain and harvest situation is not always good and stable from year to
year. The amount of rainfall in the world differs by nature. The rainfall may be strong or weak,
little or much.
Grain, fruits, and (the amount of) milk given by animals varies correspondingly. Still, for their
food requirements, people put their trust in what it is possible to store. If nothing is stored,
people must expect famines. The price of grain rises. Indigent people are unable to buy any and
perish. If for some years nothing is stored, hunger will be general.
The large number of pestilences has its reason in the large number of famines just mentioned. Or,
it has its reason in the many disturbances that result from the disintegration of the dynasty. There
is much unrest and bloodshed, and plagues occur. The principal reason for the latter is the
corruption of the air (climate) through (too) large a civilization (population). It results from the
putrefaction and the many evil moistures with which (the air) has contact (in a dense
civilization). Now, air nourishes the animal spirit and is constantly with it. When it is corrupted,
corruption affects the temper of (the spirit). If the corruption is strong, the lung is afflicted with
disease. This results in epidemics, which affect the lung in particular. (Even) if the corruption is
not strong or great, - putrefaction grows and multiplies under (its influence), resulting in many
fevers that affect the tempers, and the bodies become sick and perish. The reason for the growth
of putrefaction and evil moistures is invariably a dense and abundant civilization such as exists
in the later (years) of a dynasty. (Such civilization) is the result of the good government, the
kindness, the safety, and the light taxation that existed at the beginning of the dynasty. This is
obvious. Therefore, it has been clarified by science in the proper place that it is necessary to have
empty spaces and waste regions interspersed between civilized areas. This makes circulation of
the air possible. It removes the corruption and putrefaction affecting the air after contact with
living beings, and brings healthy air. This also is the reason why pestilences occur much more
frequently in densely settled cities than elsewhere, as, for instance, in Cairo in the East and Fez
in the Maghrib. God determines whatever He wishes.
Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun. Trans. Franz Rosenthal. Internet Archive, 2001. Chapters 45 – 49.
Web. 20 Aug. 2013. <http://archive.org/details/MuqaddimahIbnKhaldun>.
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ICELANDIC EDDA
Icelandic literature is more than a thousand years old. The oldest tradition is oral transmission
of poems and free-standing verses. These were composed on many types of subjects and
preserved people's memories. In time professional reciters earned a living by narrating these
stories from older times. This era has been termed the 'Age of Tradition' and contain the early
Eddas and sagas.
Though the oldest surviving poems are found in Norway, the majority are Icelandic. This ancient
poetry is connected with the people's religious beliefs. Poetry itself was seen as gift form the
high-god, Odin. Both the religion and poetry are designated under the single generic term of
Eddas. These Eddas however are subdivided into the Poetic or Elder Eddas, and the Prose or
Younger Eddas..
The first poem is the 'Voluspa' which contains a cosmological framework through poetic vision.
Next is the 'Havamal' the ethical virtues of the Viking Age which taught moderation. The subject
matter of these heroic poems is always tragic. The hero does not flinch from wounds nor does he
try to escape death, but laughs when his heart is at last cut out of him while he still lives. The
ideal of the hero was tied to the concept of the Viking afterlife, of Valhalla. This the great hall of
Odin, god of poetry, runes, and sorcery. All those who died by the sword came to Valhalla. These
warriors were taken up by the Valkyerie.
Big Picture Question: The Icelandic Edda contain the world view of the Germanic peoples
prior to their conversion to Christianity. Summarize this view of the universe.
I can say where Heimdal's horn is hidden:
beneath the holy tree which hides the sun;
a waterfall keeps the branches cool it flows from Odin's eye.
Seek you wisdom still?
I sat outside alone; the old one came,
the lord of the Aesir, and looked into my face:
"Why have you come here? What would you ask me?
I know Odin, how you lost your eye:
it lies in the water of Mimir's well [of wisdom]."
Every morning Mimir drinks mead from War father's tribute.
Seek you wisdom still?
Odin gave me gold and treasure
I looked far into the future,
spoke with wisdom of all the worlds.
I saw valkyries - they came from everywhere,
ready to ride to the lands of men;
Skuld held a shield, so did Skogul,
Gunn was there, Held, Gondul, Geirskogul.
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Now you know the names of the shield-maids
sent by Odin to the slain.
I saw Balder stained with blood,
I saw the fate of Odin's son:
above the fields, fragile and fair,
climbed the slender mistletoe.
From that same plant which seemed so frail
Hod selected his fatal shaft;
Balder's brother was born soon after,
and one night Hod avenged Odin's son.
He would not wash his hands or comb his hair
till Balder's foe burned on the pyre;
but Frigg wept in Fensalir
for Valhalla's sorrow. Seek you wisdom still?
I saw chains under the kettle-wood
someone who looked guileful Loki;
there sits Sigyn - she doesn't seem
happy for her husband. Seek you wisdom still?
A river bear eastward through a baneful valley
swords and spears; it's called the Slid.
There stood to the north at Nidafells
a olden hall, the home of dwarfs;
there was another at Okalnir,
a giant's beer-hall; Brimir is his name.
Far from sunlight stood a hall
on the Shores of the Dead; its doors faced north.
Deadly poisons dripped through its roof,
the rooms writhed with twisting snakes.
I saw men wading through heavy streams:
some were oath-breakers, others had murdered,
some had lured another man's love.
There the Serpent sucked on corpses,
the Wolf rent dead men. Seek you wisdom still?
Eastward, the old one in the Iron Wood
raises the wolves of Fenrir's race;
one is destined to be some day
the monstrous best who destroys the moon.
He sucks out the strength of the dying,
colors the heavens crimson with their blood;
there will be dark sunshine the summer after,
and evil weather. Seek you wisdom still?
He sat on a grave-mound, striking a harp,
Eggther, glad to guard the giants;
162
close to him the bright red cock,
Fjalar, crowed in the Forest of Birds.
And in Asgard Gold-Comb crowed, the cock who wakes Odin's warriors;
another is heard below the Earth,
a soot-red cock in the halls of Hell.
Garm bays loudly from Gnipa Cave;
his rope will break and he will run free.
Many spells I know, and I can see
the doom that awaits the almighty gods.
Brother will die, slain by their brothers,
incest will break kinships' bonds;
woe to the world hen, wedded to whoredom,
battle-axe and sword rule, split shields asunder,
storm-cleft age of wolves, until the world goes down,
only hatred in the hearts of men.
Mim's sons play: now fate will summon
from its long sleep the Gjallarhorn:
Heimdal's horn clamors to heaven,
dead Mim's head speaks tidings to Odin.
Lofty Yggdrasil, the Ash Tree, trembles,
ancient wood groaning; the giant goes free.
How fare the Aesir? How do the Elves fare?
Jotunehim groans,, the gods meet in council,
at the stone doorways of deep stone dwelling
dwarfs are moaning. Seek you wisdom still?
Garm bays loudly from Gnipa Cave,
his rope will break, and he will run free.
Westward drives the giant, Hrym, his shield high;
the world-girding Serpent rises from the water,
lashing at the waves; the bright-beaked eagle
rends corpses, screaming; Naglfar sails free.
Southward the ship sails ruin by fire,
fiends led by Loki, flied across the sea,
monstrous companions to his wolf brood;
Byleists's brother, Loki, leads them.
Source: George Ouwendijk and Bill Rednour, ed. Icelandic Edda. Database on Line. World
Civilization 101 Reader: Images and Texts of the Past. New York, 2001. Web. 11 Aug. 2013.
<http://web.archive.org/web/20010414031014/http://www.humanities.ccny.cuny.edu/history/rea
der/eddacre.htm>.
163
THE LEGEND OF SUNDIATA ALI OF MALI
A powerful rival to Mandingo power in the Sudan was the pagan people called Soso. In order to
check the influence of the Mali Empire, the Soso king, Soumaoro, killed the eleven brothers who
were heirs to the throne of Mali. There was a twelfth, Sundiata, whom they spared because he
was crippled.
The story of Sundiata's rise to power reveals much of the early history of the Mandingo king and
his thrilling defeat of Soumaoro in 1235. The epic of old Mali contains a fascinating description
of palace intrigue in the capital city of Niani. Sundiata emerges as the central hero of the tale
through magic,cunning, strength and providence. Sundiata becomes a great king noted for his
Muslim piety, wisdom, justice and military strength. Under his reign, the Mali Empire recovers
from war and returns to prosperity.Caravans of many riches traveled to Niani, and people from
distant lands spoke of this great king. Sundiata is still regarded by the Mandingo as their
national hero.
The oral history excerpted below is primarily the work of an obscure griot from the village of
Djeliba Koro. A "griot" is a member of a hereditary caste in West Africa whose job it is to keep
the oral history of the tribe or village. As explained by author D.T. Niane, at one time "griots
were the counsellors of kings, they conserved the constitutions of kingdoms by memory work
alone; each princely family had its griot appointed to preserve tradition; it was from among the
griots that kings used to choose the tutors for young princes. In the very hierarchical society of
Africa before colonization, . . .the griot appears as one of the most important of this society,
because it is he who, for want of archives, records the customs, traditions and governmental
principles of kings."
Big Picture Question: Before writing cultures had elaborate ways of preserving traditions
often in the form of memorization. Historians call this “oral tradition”. Compare the
differences between an oral tradition and a tradition of writing. What happens in your
opinion when the two meet?
The Words of the Griot Mamadou Kouyate
I am a griot. It is I, Djeli Mamoudou Kouyate, son of Bintou Kouyate and Djeli Kedian Kouyatd,
master in the art of eloquence. Since time immemorial the Kouyates have been in the service of
the Keita princes of Mali; we are vessels of speech, we are the repositories which harbor secrets
many centuries old. The art of eloquence has no secrets for us; without us the names of kings
would vanish into oblivion, we are the memory of mankind; by the spoken word we bring to life
the deeds and exploits of kings for younger generations.
I derive my knowledge from my father Djeli Kedian, who also got it from his father; history
holds no mystery for us; we teach to the vulgar just as much as we want to teach them, for it is
we who keep the keys to the twelve doors of Mali.'
164
I know the list of all the sovereigns who succeeded to the throne of Mali. I know how the black
people divided into tribes, for my father bequeathed to me all his learning; I know why such and
such is called Kamara, another Keita, and yet another Sibibd or Traord; every name has a
meaning, a secret import.
I teach kings the history of their ancestors so that the lives of the ancients might serve them as an
example, for the world is old, but the future springs from the past. My word is pure and free of
all untruth; it is the word of my father; it is the word of my father's father. I will give you my
father's words just as I received them; royal griots do not know what lying is. When a quarrel
breaks out between tribes it is we who settle the difference, for we are the depositaries of oaths
which the ancestors swore.
Listen to my word, you who want to know; by my mouth you will learn the history of Mali. By
my mouth you will get to know the story of the ancestor of great Mali, the story of him who, by
his exploits, surpassed even Alexander the Great; he who, from the East, shed his rays upon all
the countries of the West. Listen to the story of the son of the Buffalo, the son of the Lion.' I am
going to tell you of Maghan Sundiata, of Mari-Djata, of Sogolon Djata, of Nard Maghan Djata;
the man of many names against whom sorcery could avail nothing.
The First Kings of Mali
Listen then, sons of Mali, children of the black people, listen to my word, for I am going to tell
you of Sundiata, the father of the Bright Country, of the savanna land, the ancestor of those who
draw the bow, the master of a hundred vanquished kings. I am going to talk of Sundiata,
Manding Diara, Lion of Mali, Sogolon Djata, son of Sogolon, Nare Maghan Djata, son of Nare
Maghan, Sogo Sogo Simbon Salaba, hero of many names.
I am going to tell you of Sundiata, he whose exploits will astonish men for a long time yet. He
was great among kings, he was peerless among men; he was beloved of God because he was the
last of the great conquerors. Right at the beginning then, Mali was a province of the Bambara
kings; those who are today called Mandingo, inhabitants of Mali, are not indigenous; they come
from the East. Bilali Bounama, ancestor of the Keitas, was the faithful servant of the Prophet
Muhammad (may the peace of God be upon him).
Bilali Bounama had seven sons of whom the eldest, Lawalo, left the Holy City and came to settle
in Mali; Lawalo had Latal Kalabi for a son, Latal Kalabi had Damul Kalabi who then had
Lahilatoul Kalabi. Lahilatoul Kalabi was the first black prince to make the Pilgrimage to Mecca.
On his return he was robbed by brigands in the desert; his men were scattered and some died of
thirst, but God saved Lahilatoul Kalabi, for he was a righteous man. He called upon the
Almighty and jinn appeared and recognized him as king. After seven years' absence Lahilatoul
was able to return, by the grace of Allah the Almighty, to Mali where none expected to see him
any more.
Lahilatoul Kalabi had two sons, the elder being called Kalabi Bomba and the younger Kalabi
Dauman; the elder chose royal power and reigned, while the younger preferred fortune and
wealth and became the ancestor of those who go from country to country seeking their fortune.
Kalabi Bomba had Mamadi Kani for a son. Mamadi Kani was a hunter king like the first kings of
165
Mali. It was he who invented the hunter's whistle; he communicated with the jinn of the forest
and bush. These spirits had no secrets from him and he was loved by Kondolon Ni Sane. His
followers were so numerous that he formed them into an army which became formidable; he
often gathered them together in the bush and taught them the art of hunting. It was he who
revealed to hunters the medicinal leaves which heal wounds and cure diseases. Thanks to the
strength of his followers, he became king of a vast country; with them Mamadi Kani conquered
all the lands which stretch from the Sankarani to the Bourd. Mamadi Kani had four sons-Kani
Simbon, Kamignogo Simbon, Kabala Simbon and Simbon Tagnogokelin. They were all initiated
into the art of hunting and deserved the title of Simbon. It was the lineage of Bamari
Tagnogokelin which held on to the power; his son was M'Bali Nanb whose son was Bello.
Bello's son was called Bello Bakon and he had a son called Maghan Kon Fatta, also called Frako
Maghan Keigu, Maghan the handsome.
Maghan Kon Fatta was the father of the great Sundiata and had three wives and six childrenthree boys and three girls. His first wife was called Sassouma, daughter of a great divine; she
was the mother of King Dankaran Touman and Princess Nana Triban. The second wife, Sogolon
Kedjou, was the mother of Sundiata and the two princesses Sogolon Kolonkan and Sogolon
Djamarou. The third wife was one of the Kamaras and was called Namandj; she was the mother
of Manding Bory (or Manding Bakary), who was the best friend of his half-brother Sundiata.
Source: Niane, D. T., David Chappell, and James A. Jones. "The Words of the Griot Mamadou
Kouyate and The First Kings of Mali." Sundiata, An Epic of Old Mali. Trans. G. D. Pickett.
Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex England: Pearson Education Limited, 1965. 1-3. Sundiata, An
Epic
of
Old
Mali.
Missouri
State
University.
Web.
11
Aug.
2013.
<http://clio.missouristate.edu/jabidogun/niane1965.pdf>.
166
THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN [KONG JI],
ATTRIBUTED TO CONFUCIUS
The text is attributed to Zisi (also known as Kong Ji), the only grandson of Confucius. It was
published as a chapter in the Classic of Rites. The phrase Doctrine of the Mean (zhōng yōng)
first occurs in Book VI, verse 26 of the Analects of Confucius. Analects never expands on what
this term means, but Zisi's text, Doctrine of the Mean, explores its meaning in detail, as well as
how to apply it to one's life. Although it was studied during the Han Dynasty, it became part of
the learning required for the Confucian scholar’s exam resurrected during the Tang Dynasty
and continued until the twentieth century. The text was adopted into the canon of the NeoConfucian.
Big Picture Question: The Master [Confucius] said, “The virtue embodied in the doctrine
of the Mean is of the highest order. But it has long been rare among people.” What are the
characteristics of the “superior man” and why is he so rare?
That Heaven has conferred is called The Nature; an accordance with this nature is called The
Path of duty; the regulation of this path is called Instruction.
The path may not be left for an instant. If it could be left, it would not be the path. On this
account, the superior man does not wait till he sees things, to be cautious, nor till he hears things,
to be apprehensive.
There is nothing more visible than what is secret, and nothing more manifest than what is
minute. Therefore the superior man is watchful over himself, when he is alone.
While there are no stirrings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, or joy, the mind may be said to be in the
state of Equilibrium. When those feelings have been stirred, and they act in their due degree,
there ensues what may be called the state of Harmony. This Equilibrium is the great root from
which grow all the human actings in the world, and this Harmony is the universal path which
they all should pursue.
Let the states of equilibrium and harmony exist in perfection, and a happy order will prevail
throughout heaven and earth, and all things will be nourished and flourish.
Chung-ni said, "The superior man embodies the course of the Mean; the mean man acts contrary
to the course of the Mean. The superior man's embodying the course of the Mean is because he is
a superior man, and so always maintains the Mean. The mean man's acting contrary to the course
of the Mean is because he is a mean man, and has no caution."
The Master said, "Perfect is the virtue which is according to the Mean! Rare have they long been
among the people, who could practice it!
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The Master said, "I know how it is that the path of the Mean is not walked in: The knowing go
beyond it, and the stupid do not come up to it. I know how it is that the path of the Mean is not
understood: The men of talents and virtue go beyond it, and the worthless do not come up to it.
There is no body but eats and drinks. But they are few who can distinguish flavors."
The Master said, "Alas! How is the path of the Mean untrodden!"
The Master said, "There was Shun: He indeed was greatly wise! Shun loved to question others,
and to study their words, though they might be shallow. He concealed what was bad in them and
displayed what was good. He took hold of their two extremes, determined the Mean, and
employed it in his government of the people. It was by this that he was Shun!"
The Master said "Men all say, 'We are wise'; but being driven forward and taken in a net, a trap,
or a pitfall, they know not how to escape. Men all say, 'We are wise'; but happening to choose
the course of the Mean, they are not able to keep it for a round month."
The Master said "This was the manner of Hui:-he made choice of the Mean, and whenever he got
hold of what was good, he clasped it firmly, as if wearing it on his breast, and did not lose it."
The Master said, "The kingdom, its states, and its families, may be perfectly ruled; dignities and
emoluments may be declined; naked weapons may be trampled under the feet; but the course of
the Mean cannot be attained to."
Tsze-lu asked about energy.
The Master said, "Do you mean the energy of the South, the energy of the North, or the energy
which you should cultivate yourself? To show forbearance and gentleness in teaching others;
and not to revenge unreasonable conduct:-this is the energy of southern regions, and the good
man makes it his study. To lie under arms; and meet death without regret: this is the energy of
northern regions, and the forceful make it their study.”
"Therefore, the superior man cultivates a friendly harmony, without being weak.-How firm is he
in his energy! He stands erect in the middle, without inclining to either side. How firm is he in
his energy! When good principles prevail in the government of his country, he does not change
from what he was in retirement. How firm is he in his energy! When bad principles prevail in the
country, he maintains his course to death without changing. How firm is he in his energy!"
The Master said, "To live in obscurity, and yet practice wonders, in order to be mentioned with
honor in future ages: this is what I do not do. The good man tries to proceed according to the
right path, but when he has gone halfway, he abandons it: I am not able so to stop. The superior
man accords with the course of the Mean. Though he may be all unknown, unregarded by the
world, he feels no regret. It is only the sage who is able for this." The way which the superior
man pursues, reaches wide and far, and yet is secret.
Common men and women, however ignorant, may intermeddle with the knowledge of it; yet in
its utmost reaches, there is that which even the sage does not know. Common men and women,
168
however much below the ordinary standard of character, can carry it into practice; yet in its
utmost reaches, there is that which even the sage is not able to carry into practice. Great as
heaven and earth are, men still find some things in them with which to be dissatisfied. Thus it is
that, were the superior man to speak of his way in all its greatness, nothing in the world would be
found able to embrace it, and were he to speak of it in its minuteness, nothing in the world would
be found able to split it.
It is said in the Book of Poetry, "The hawk flies up to heaven; the fishes leap in the deep." This
expresses how this way is seen above and below. The way of the superior man may be found, in
its simple elements, in the intercourse of common men and women; but in its utmost reaches, it
shines brightly through Heaven and earth.
The Master said "The path is not far from man. When men try to pursue a course, which is far
from the common indications of consciousness, this course cannot be considered The Path.
"In the Book of Poetry, it is said, 'In hewing an ax handle, in hewing an ax handle, the pattern is
not far off. We grasp one ax handle to hew the other; and yet, if we look askance from the one to
the other, we may consider them as apart. Therefore, the superior man governs men, according to
their nature, with what is proper to them, and as soon as they change what is wrong, he stops.
“When one cultivates to the utmost the principles of his nature, and exercises them on the
principle of reciprocity, he is not far from the path. What you do not like when done to yourself,
do not do to others. In the way of the superior man there are four things, to not one of which
have I as yet attained.-To serve my father, as I would require my son to serve me: to this I have
not attained; to serve my prince as I would require my minister to serve me: to this I have not
attained; to serve my elder brother as I would require my younger brother to serve me: to this I
have not attained; to set the example in behaving to a friend, as I would require him to behave to
me: to this I have not attained. Earnest in practicing the ordinary virtues, and careful in speaking
about them, if, in his practice, he has anything defective, the superior man dares not but exert
himself; and if, in his words, he has any excess, he dares not allow himself such license. Thus his
words have respect to his actions, and his actions have respect to his words; is it not just an entire
sincerity which marks the superior man?"
The superior man does what is proper to the station in which he is; he does not desire to go
beyond this. In a position of wealth and honor, he does what is proper to a position of wealth and
honor. In a poor and low position, he does what is proper to a poor and low position. Situated
among barbarous tribes, he does what is proper to a situation among barbarous tribes. In a
position of sorrow and difficulty, he does what is proper to a position of sorrow and difficulty.
The superior man can find himself in no situation in which he is not himself.
In a high situation, he does not treat with contempt his inferiors. In a low situation, he does not
court the favor of his superiors. He rectifies himself, and seeks for nothing from others, so that he
has no dissatisfactions. He does not murmur against Heaven, nor grumble against men.
Thus it is that the superior man is quiet and calm, waiting for the appointments of Heaven, while
the mean man walks in dangerous paths, looking for lucky occurrences.
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The Master said, "In archery we have something like the way of the superior man. When the
archer misses the center of the target, he turns round and seeks for the cause of his failure in
himself."
The way of the superior man may be compared to what takes place in traveling, when to go to a
distance we must first traverse the space that is near, and in ascending a height, when we must
begin from the lower ground.
It is said in the Book of Poetry, "Happy union with wife and children is like the music of lutes
and harps. When there is concord among brethren, the harmony is delightful and enduring. Thus
may you regulate your family, and enjoy the pleasure of your wife and children." The Master
said, "In such a state of things, parents have entire complacence!"
The Master said, "How abundantly do spiritual beings display the powers that belong to them!
We look for them, but do not see them; we listen to, but do not hear them; yet they enter into all
things, and there is nothing without them. They cause all the people in the kingdom to fast and
purify themselves, and array themselves in their richest dresses, in order to attend at their
sacrifices. Then, like overflowing water, they seem to be over the heads, and on the right and left
of their worshippers.
"It is said in the Book of Poetry, 'The approaches of the spirits, you cannot sunrise; and can you
treat them with indifference?' Such is the manifestness of what is minute! Such is the
impossibility of repressing the outgoings of sincerity!"
The Master said, "How greatly filial was Shun! His virtue was that of a sage; his dignity was the
throne; his riches were all within the four seas. He offered his sacrifices in his ancestral temple,
and his descendants preserved the sacrifices to himself. Therefore having such great virtue, it
could not but be that he should obtain the throne, that he should obtain those riches, that he
should obtain his fame, that he should attain to his long life. Thus it is that Heaven, in the
production of things, is sure to be bountiful to them, according to their qualities. Hence the tree
that is flourishing, it nourishes, while that which is ready to fall, it overthrows.
"In the Book of Poetry, it is said, 'The admirable amiable prince displayed conspicuously his
excelling virtue, adjusting his people, and adjusting his officers. Therefore, he received from
Heaven his emoluments of dignity. It protected him, assisted him, decreed him the throne;
sending from Heaven these favors, as it were repeatedly.' We may say therefore that he who is
greatly virtuous will be sure to receive the appointment of Heaven."
The Master said, "It is only King Wan of whom it can be said that he had no cause for grief! His
father was King Chi, and his son was King Wu. His father laid the foundations of his dignity,
and his son transmitted it. King Wu continued the enterprise of King T'ai, King Chi, and King
Wan. He once buckled on his armor, and got possession of the kingdom. He did not lose the
distinguished personal reputation which he had throughout the kingdom. His dignity was the
royal throne. His riches were the possession of all within the four seas. He offered his sacrifices
in his ancestral temple, and his descendants maintained the sacrifices to himself.
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"It was in his old age that King Wu received the appointment to the throne, and the duke of Chau
completed the virtuous course of Wan and Wu. He carried up the title of king to T'ai and Chi,
and sacrificed to all the former dukes above them with the royal ceremonies. And this rule he
extended to the princes of the kingdom, the great officers, the scholars, and the common people.
If the father were a great officer and the son a scholar, then the burial was that due to a great
officer, and the sacrifice that due to a scholar. If the father were a scholar and the son a great
officer, then the burial was that due to a scholar, and the sacrifice that due to a great officer. The
one year's mourning was made to extend only to the great officers, but the three years' mourning
extended to the Son of Heaven. In the mourning for a father or mother, he allowed no difference
between the noble and the mean.
The Master said, "How far-extending was the filial piety of King Wu and the duke of Chau!
Now filial piety is seen in the skillful carrying out of the wishes of our forefathers, and the
skillful carrying forward of their undertakings. In spring and autumn, they repaired and
beautified the temple halls of their fathers, set forth their ancestral vessels, displayed their
various robes, and presented the offerings of the several seasons. By means of the ceremonies of
the ancestral temple, they distinguished the royal kindred according to their order of descent. By
ordering the parties present according to their rank, they distinguished the more noble and the
less. By the arrangement of the services, they made a distinction of talents and worth. In the
ceremony of general pledging, the inferiors presented the cup to their superiors, and thus
something was given the lowest to do. At the concluding feast, places were given according to
the hair, and thus was made the distinction of years.
"They occupied the places of their forefathers, practiced their ceremonies, and performed their
music. They reverenced those whom they honored, and loved those whom they regarded with
affection. Thus they served the dead as they would have served them alive; they served the
departed as they would have served them had they been continued among them. By the
ceremonies of the sacrifices to Heaven and Earth they served God, and by the ceremonies of the
ancestral temple they sacrificed to their ancestors. He who understands the ceremonies of the
sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, and the meaning of the several sacrifices to ancestors, would find
the government of a kingdom as easy as to look into his palm!"
The Duke Ai asked about government.
The Master said, "The government of Wan and Wu is displayed in the records,-the tablets of
wood and bamboo. Let there be the men and the government will flourish; but without the men,
their government decays and ceases. With the right men the growth of government is rapid, just
as vegetation is rapid in the earth; and, moreover, their government might be called an easilygrowing rush. Therefore the administration of government lies in getting proper men. Such men
are to be got by means of the ruler's own character. That character is to be cultivated by his
treading in the ways of duty. And the treading those ways of duty is to be cultivated by the
cherishing of benevolence. Benevolence is the characteristic element of humanity, and the great
exercise of it is in loving relatives. Righteousness is the accordance of actions with what is right,
and the great exercise of it is in honoring the worthy. The decreasing measures of the love due to
relatives, and the steps in the honor due to the worthy, are produced by the principle of propriety.
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"When those in inferior situations do not possess the confidence of their superiors, they cannot
retain the government of the people. Hence the sovereign may not neglect the cultivation of his
own character. Wishing to cultivate his character, he may not neglect to serve his parents. In
order to serve his parents, he may not neglect to acquire knowledge of men. In order to know
men, he may not dispense with a knowledge of Heaven. The duties of universal obligation are
five and the virtues wherewith they are practiced are three. The duties are those between
sovereign and minister, between father and son, between husband and wife, between elder
brother and younger, and those belonging to the intercourse of friends. Those five are the duties
of universal obligation. Knowledge, magnanimity, and energy, these three, are the virtues
universally binding. And the means by which they carry the duties into practice is singleness.
"Some are born with the knowledge of those duties; some know them by study; and some
acquire the knowledge after a painful feeling of their ignorance. But the knowledge being
possessed, it comes to the same thing. Some practice them with a natural ease; some from a
desire for their advantages; and some by strenuous effort. But the achievement being made, it
comes to the same thing."
The Master said, "To be fond of learning is to be near to knowledge. To practice with vigor is to
be near to magnanimity. To possess the feeling of shame is to be near to energy. He who knows
these three things knows how to cultivate his own character. Knowing how to cultivate his own
character, he knows how to govern other men. Knowing how to govern other men, he knows
how to govern the kingdom with all its states and families.
"All who have the government of the kingdom with its states and families have nine standard
rules to follow; viz., the cultivation of their own characters; the honoring of men of virtue and
talents; affection towards their relatives; respect towards the great ministers; kind and
considerate treatment of the whole body of officers; dealing with the mass of the people as
children; encouraging the resort of all classes of artisans; indulgent treatment of men from a
distance; and the kindly cherishing of the princes of the states. By the ruler's cultivation of his
own character, the duties of universal obligation are set forth. By honoring men of virtue and
talents, he is preserved from errors of judgment. By showing affection to his relatives, there is no
grumbling nor resentment among his uncles and brethren. By respecting the great ministers, he is
kept from errors in the practice of government. By kind and considerate treatment of the whole
body of officers, they are led to make the most grateful return for his courtesies. By dealing with
the mass of the people as his children, they are led to exhort one another to what is good. By
encouraging the resort of an classes of artisans, his resources for expenditure are rendered ample.
By indulgent treatment of men from a distance, they are brought to resort to him from all
quarters. And by kindly cherishing the princes of the states, the whole kingdom is brought to
revere him.
"Self-adjustment and purification, with careful regulation of his dress, and the not making a
movement contrary to the rules of propriety this is the way for a ruler to cultivate his person.
Discarding slanderers, and keeping himself from the seductions of beauty; making light of
riches, and giving honor to virtue-this is the way for him to encourage men of worth and talents.
Giving them places of honor and large emolument. and sharing with them in their likes and
dislikes-this is the way for him to encourage his relatives to love him. Giving them numerous
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officers to discharge their orders and commissions: this is the way for him to encourage the great
ministers. According to them a generous confidence, and making their emoluments large:-this is
the way to encourage the body of officers. Employing them only at the proper times, and making
the imposts light:-this is the way to encourage the people. By daily examinations and monthly
trials, and by making their rations in accordance with their labors: this is the way to encourage
the classes of artisans. To escort them on their departure and meet them on their coming; to
commend the good among them, and show compassion to the incompetent: this is the way to
treat indulgently men from a distance. To restore families whose line of succession has been
broken, and to revive states that have been extinguished; to reduce to order states that are in
confusion, and support those which are in peril; to have fixed times for their own reception at
court, and the reception of their envoys; to send them away after liberal treatment, and welcome
their coming with small contributions: this is the way to cherish the princes of the states. All who
have the government of the kingdom with its states and families have the above nine standard
rules. And the means by which they are carried into practice is singleness.
"In all things success depends on previous preparation, and without such previous preparation
there is sure to be failure. If what is to be spoken be previously determined, there will be no
stumbling. If affairs be previously determined, there will be no difficulty with them. If one's
actions have been previously determined, there will be no sorrow in connection with them. If
principles of conduct have been previously determined, the practice of them will be
inexhaustible.
"When those in inferior situations do not obtain the confidence of the sovereign, they cannot
succeed in governing the people. There is a way to obtain the confidence of the sovereign; if one
is not trusted by his friends, he will not get the confidence of his sovereign. There is a way to
being trusted by one's friends; if one is not obedient to his parents, he will not be true to friends.
There is a way to being obedient to one's parents; if one, on turning his thoughts in upon himself,
finds a want of sincerity, he will not be obedient to his parents. There is a way to the attainment
of sincerity in one's self; if a man do not understand what is good, he will not attain sincerity in
himself.”
"Sincerity is the way of Heaven. The attainment of sincerity is the way of men. He who
possesses sincerity is he who, without an effort, hits what is right, and apprehends, without the
exercise of thought;-he is the sage who naturally and easily embodies the right way. He who
attains to sincerity is he who chooses what is good, and firmly holds it fast. To this attainment
there are requisite the extensive study of what is good, accurate inquiry about it, careful
reflection on it, the clear discrimination of it, and the earnest practice of it.”
"The superior man, while there is anything he has not studied, or while in what he has studied
there is anything he cannot understand, Will not intermit his labor. While there is anything he has
not inquired about, or anything in what he has inquired about which he does not know, he will
not intermit his labor. While there is anything which he has not reflected on, or anything in what
he has reflected on which he does not apprehend, he will not intermit his labor. While there is
anything which he has not discriminated or his discrimination is not clear, he will not intermit his
labor. If there be anything which he has not practiced, or his practice fails in earnestness, he will
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not intermit his labor. If another man succeed by one effort, he will use a hundred efforts. If
another man succeed by ten efforts, he will use a thousand.
"Let a man proceed in this way, and, though dull, he will surely become intelligent; though
weak, he will surely become strong. When we have intelligence resulting from sincerity, this
condition is to be ascribed to nature; when we have sincerity resulting from intelligence, this
condition is to be ascribed to instruction. But given the sincerity, and there shall be the
intelligence; given the intelligence, and there shall be the sincerity. It is only he who is possessed
of the most complete sincerity that can exist under heaven, who can give its fun development to
his nature. Able to give its full development to his own nature, he can do the same to the nature
of other men. Able to give its full development to the nature of other men, he can give their full
development to the natures of animals and things. Able to give their full development to the
natures of creatures and things, he can assist the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven
and Earth. Able to assist the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven and Earth, he may
with Heaven and Earth form a ternion.
Next to the above is he who cultivates to the utmost the shoots of goodness in him. From those
he can attain to the possession of sincerity. This sincerity becomes apparent. From being
apparent, it becomes manifest. From being manifest, it becomes brilliant. Brilliant, it affects
others. Affecting others, they are changed by it. Changed by it, they are transformed. It is only he
who is possessed of the most complete sincerity that can exist under heaven, who can transform.
It is characteristic of the most entire sincerity to be able to foreknow. When a nation or family is
about to flourish, there are sure to be happy omens; and when it is about to perish, there are sure
to be unlucky omens. Such events are seen in the milfoil and tortoise, and affect the movements
of the four limbs. When calamity or happiness is about to come, the good shall certainly be
foreknown by him, and the evil also. Therefore the individual possessed of the most complete
sincerity is like a spirit.
Sincerity is that whereby self-completion is effected, and its way is that by which man must
direct himself. Sincerity is the end and beginning of things; without sincerity there would be
nothing. On this account, the superior man regards the attainment of sincerity as the most
excellent thing. The possessor of sincerity does not merely accomplish the self-completion of
himself. With this quality he completes other men and things also. The completing himself
shows his perfect virtue. The completing other men and things shows his knowledge. But these
are virtues belonging to the nature, and this is the way by which a union is effected of the
external and internal. Therefore, whenever he-the entirely sincere man-employs them, that is,
these virtues, their action will be right.
Hence to entire sincerity there belongs ceaselessness. Not ceasing, it continues long. Continuing
long, it evidences itself. Evidencing itself, it reaches far. Reaching far, it becomes large and
substantial. Large and substantial, it becomes high and brilliant. Large and substantial; this is
how it contains all things. High and brilliant; this is how it overspreads all things. Reaching far
and continuing long;-this is how it perfects all things.
So large and substantial, the individual possessing it is the co-equal of Earth. So high and
brilliant, it makes him the co-equal of Heaven. So far-reaching and long-continuing, it makes
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him infinite. Such being its nature, without any display, it becomes manifested; without any
movement, it produces changes; and without any effort, it accomplishes its ends. The way of
Heaven and Earth may be completely declared in one sentence. They are without any
doubleness, and so they produce things in a manner that is unfathomable. The way of Heaven
and Earth is large and substantial, high and brilliant, far-reaching and long-enduring.
The Heaven now before us is only this bright shining spot; but when viewed in its inexhaustible
extent, the sun, moon, stars, and constellations of the zodiac, are suspended in it, and all things
are overspread by it. The earth before us is but a handful of soil; but when regarded in its breadth
and thickness, it sustains mountains like the Hwa and the Yo, without feeling their weight, and
contains the rivers and seas, without their leaking away. The mountain now before us appears
only a stone; but when contemplated in all the vastness of its size, we see how the grass and trees
are produced on it, and birds and beasts dwell on it, and precious things which men treasure up
are found on it. The water now before us appears but a ladleful; yet extending our view to its
unfathomable depths, the largest tortoises, iguanas, iguanodons, dragons, fishes, and turtles, are
produced in it, articles of value and sources of wealth abound in it.
It is said in the Book of Poetry, "The ordinances of Heaven, how profound are they and
unceasing!" The meaning is, that it is thus that Heaven is Heaven. And again, "How illustrious
was it, the singleness of the virtue of King Wan!" indicating that it was thus that King Wan was
what he was. Singleness likewise is unceasing.
How great is the path proper to the Sage! Like overflowing water, it sends forth and nourishes all
things, and rises up to the height of heaven. All-complete is its greatness! It embraces the three
hundred rules of ceremony, and the three thousand rules of demeanor. It waits for the proper
man, and then it is trodden. Hence it is said, "Only by perfect virtue can the perfect path, in all its
courses, be made a fact."
Therefore, the superior man honors his virtuous nature, and maintains constant inquiry and study,
seeking to carry it out to its breadth and greatness, so as to omit none of the more exquisite and
minute points which it embraces, and to raise it to its greatest height and brilliancy, so as to
pursue the course of the Mean. He cherishes his old knowledge, and is continually acquiring
new. He exerts an honest, generous earnestness, in the esteem and practice of all propriety.
Thus, when occupying a high situation he is not proud, and in a low situation he is not
insubordinate. When the kingdom is well governed, he is sure by his words to rise; and when it is
ill governed, he is sure by his silence to command forbearance to himself. Is not this what we
find in the Book of Poetry, "Intelligent is he and prudent, and so preserves his person?"
The Master said, Let a man who is ignorant be fond of using his own judgment; let a man
without rank be fond of assuming a directing power to himself; let a man who is living in the
present age go back to the ways of antiquity; on the persons of all who act thus calamities will be
sure to come.
To no one but the Son of Heaven does it belong to order ceremonies, to fix the measures, and to
determine the written characters. Now over the kingdom, carriages have all wheels, of the-same
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size; all writing is with the same characters; and for conduct there are the same rules. One may
occupy the throne, but if he have not the proper virtue, he may not dare to make ceremonies or
music. One may have the virtue, but if he do not occupy the throne, he may not presume to make
ceremonies or music.
The Master said, "I may describe the ceremonies of the Xia dynasty, but Chi cannot sufficiently
attest my words. I have learned the ceremonies of the Yin dynasty, and in Sung they still
continue. I have learned the ceremonies of Chau, which are now used, and I follow Chau." He
who attains to the sovereignty of the kingdom, having those three important things, shall be able
to effect that there shall be few errors under his government.
However excellent may have been the regulations of those of former times, they cannot be
attested. Not being attested, they cannot command credence, and not being credited, the people
would not follow them. However excellent might be the regulations made by one in an inferior
situation, he is not in a position to be honored. Unhonored, he cannot command credence, and
not being credited, the people would not follow his rules.
Therefore the institutions of the Ruler are rooted in his own character and conduct, and sufficient
attestation of them is given by the masses of the people. He examines them by comparison with
those of the three kings, and finds them without mistake. He sets them up before Heaven and
Earth, and finds nothing in them contrary to their mode of operation. He presents himself with
them before spiritual beings, and no doubts about them arise. He is prepared to wait for the rise
of a sage a hundred ages after, and has no misgivings.
His presenting himself with his institutions before spiritual beings, without any doubts arising
about them, shows that he knows Heaven. His being prepared, without any misgivings, to wait
for the rise of a sage a hundred ages after, shows that he knows men. Such being the case, the
movements of such a ruler, illustrating his institutions, constitute an example to the world for
ages. His acts are for ages a law to the kingdom. His words are for ages a lesson to the kingdom.
Those who are far from him look longingly for him; and those who are near him are never
wearied with him.
It is said in the Book of Poetry, "Not disliked there, not tired of here, from day to day and night
tonight, will they perpetuate their praise." Never has there been a ruler, who did not realize this
description, that obtained an early renown throughout the kingdom. Chung-ni handed down the
doctrines of Yao and Shun, as if they had been his ancestors, and elegantly displayed the
regulations of Wan and Wul taking them as his model. Above, he harmonized with the times of
Heaven, and below, he was conformed to the water and land.
He may be compared to Heaven and Earth in their supporting and containing, their
overshadowing and curtaining, all things. He may be compared to the four seasons in their
alternating progress, and to the sun and moon in their successive shining.
All things are nourished together without their injuring one another. The courses of the seasons,
and of the sun and moon, are pursued without any collision among them. The smaller energies
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are like river currents; the greater energies are seen in mighty transformations. It is this which
makes heaven and earth so great.
It is only he, possessed of all sagely qualities that can exist under heaven, who shows himself
quick in apprehension, clear in discernment, of far-reaching intelligence, and all-embracing
knowledge, fitted to exercise rule; magnanimous, generous, benign, and mild, fitted to exercise
forbearance; impulsive, energetic, firm, and enduring, fitted to maintain a firm hold; selfadjusted, grave, never swerving from the Mean, and correct, fitted to command reverence;
accomplished, distinctive, concentrative, and searching, fitted to exercise discrimination.
All-embracing is he and vast, deep and active as a fountain, sending forth in their due season his
virtues. All-embracing and vast, he is like Heaven. Deep and active as a fountain, he is like the
abyss. He is seen, and the people all reverence him; he speaks, and the people all believe him; he
acts, and the people all are pleased with him. Therefore his fame overspreads the Middle
Kingdom, and extends to all barbarous tribes. Wherever ships and carriages reach; wherever the
strength of man penetrates; wherever the heavens overshadow and the earth sustains; wherever
the sun and moon shine; wherever frosts and dews fall: all who have blood and breath
unfeignedly honor and love him. Hence it is said, "He is the equal of Heaven."
It is only the individual possessed of the most entire sincerity that can exist under Heaven, who
can adjust the great invariable relations of mankind, establish the great fundamental virtues of
humanity, and know the transforming and nurturing operations of Heaven and Earth;-shall this
individual have any being or anything beyond himself on which he depends?
Call him man in his ideal, how earnest is he! Call him an abyss, how deep is he! Call him
Heaven, how vast is he! Who can know him, but he who is indeed quick in apprehension, clear
in discernment, of far-reaching intelligence, and all-embracing knowledge, possessing all
Heavenly virtue?
It is said in the Book of Poetry, "Over her embroidered robe she puts a plain single garment,"
intimating a dislike to the display of the elegance of the former. Just so, it is the way of the
superior man to prefer the concealment of his virtue, while it daily becomes more illustrious, and
it is the way of the mean man to seek notoriety, while he daily goes more and more to ruin. It is
characteristic of the superior man, appearing insipid, yet never to produce satiety; while showing
a simple negligence, yet to have his accomplishments recognized; while seemingly plain, yet to
be discriminating. He knows how what is distant lies in what is near. He knows where the wind
proceeds from. He knows how what is minute becomes manifested. Such a one, we may be sure,
will enter into virtue.
It is said in the Book of Poetry, "Although the fish sink and lie at the bottom, it is still quite
clearly seen." Therefore the superior man examines his heart, that there may be nothing wrong
there, and that he may have no cause for dissatisfaction with himself. That wherein the superior
man cannot be equaled is simply this, his work which other men cannot see.
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It is said in the Book of Poetry, "Looked at in your apartment, be there free from shame as being
exposed to the light of Heaven." Therefore, the superior man, even when he is not moving, has a
feeling of reverence, and while he speaks not, he has the feeling of truthfulness.
It is said in the Book of Poetry, "In silence is the offering presented, and the spirit approached to;
there is not the slightest contention." Therefore the superior man does not use rewards, and the
people are stimulated to virtue. He does not show anger, and the people are awed more than by
hatchets and battle-axes.
It is said in the Book of Poetry, "What needs no display is virtue. All the princes imitate it."
Therefore, the superior man being sincere and reverential, the whole world is conducted to a
state of happy tranquility.
It is said in the Book of Poetry, "I regard with pleasure your brilliant virtue, making no great
display of itself in sounds and appearances." The Master said, "Among the appliances to
transform the people, sound and appearances are but trivial influences. It is said in another ode,
'His Virtue is light as a hair.' Still, a hair will admit of comparison as to its size. 'The doings of
the supreme Heaven have neither sound nor smell. 'That is perfect virtue."
Source: Yong, Zhong. "Doctrine of the Mean." East Asian History Sourcebook. Database on
Line: Internet History Sourcebook Project. New York: Fordham University, 1996. Web. 11 Aug.
2013. <http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/core9/phalsall/texts/docmean.txt>.
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TALE OF GENJI: CHAPTER 9, AOI (HEARTVINE)
The Tale of Genji (Genji Monogatari) is a classic work of Japanese literature written by the
Japanese noblewoman and lady-in-waiting Murasaki Shikibu in the early years of the 11th
century, around the peak of the Heian period. It is sometimes called the world's first novel, the
first modern novel, the first psychological novel or the first novel still to be considered a classic.
Notably, the novel also illustrates a unique depiction of the livelihoods of high courtiers during
the Heian period. While universally considered a masterpiece, its precise classification and
influence in both Western and Eastern canon has been a matter of debate.
Big Picture Question: Describe the Heian Japanese society depicted in this chapter of the
Tale of Genji.
The Emperor has at last abdicated his throne, as he has long intended, in favor of the Heirapparent, and the only child of the Princess Wistaria is made Heir-apparent to the new Emperor.
The ex-Emperor now lived in a private palace with this Princess in a less royal style; and the
Niogo of Kokiden, to whom was given the honorary title of ex-Empress, resided in the Imperial
Palace with the Emperor, her son, and took up a conspicuous position. The ex-Emperor still felt
some anxiety about the Heir-apparent, and appointed Genji as his guardian, as he had not yet a
suitable person for that office.
This change in the reigning Emperor, and the gradual advancement of Genji's position, gave the
latter greater responsibility, and he had to restrain his wandering.
Now, according to usage, the Saigû and Saiin were selected; for the latter the second sister of the
Emperor was chosen, and for the former the only daughter of the Lady of Rokjiô, whose husband
had been a Royal Prince.
The day of the departure of the Saigû for Ise was not yet fixed; and the mind of her mother, who
had some reasons for dissatisfaction with Genji, was still wavering in her indecision, whether or
not she should go to Ise with her daughter.
The case of the Saiin, however, was different, and the day of her installation was soon fixed. She
was the favorite child of her mother as well as of her father, and the ceremonies for the day of
consecration were arranged with especial splendor. The number of persons who take a share in
the procession on this occasion is defined by regulations; yet the selection of this number was
most carefully made from the most fashionable of the nobles of the time, and their dresses and
saddles were all chosen of beautiful appearance. Genji was also directed by special order to take
part in the ceremony.
As the occasion was expected to be magnificent, every class of the people showed great
eagerness to witness the scene, and a great number of stands were erected all along the road. The
day thus looked forward to at last arrived.
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Lady Aoi seldom showed herself on such occasions; besides, she was now in a delicate state of
health, near her confinement, and had, therefore, no inclination to go out. Her attendants,
however, suggested to her that she ought to go. "It is a great pity," they said, "not to see it; people
come from a long distance to see it." Her mother also said, "You seem better to-day. I think you
had better go. Take these girls with you."
Being pressed in this way, she hastily made up her mind, and went with a train of carriages. All
the road was thronged by multitudes of people, many dressed in a style which is called TsuboShôzok. Many of great age prostrated themselves in an attitude of adoration, and many others,
notwithstanding their natural plainness, looked almost blooming, from the joy expressed in their
countenances—nay, even nuns and aged women, from their retreats, were to be seen amongst
them. Numerous carriages were also squeezed closely together, so that the broad thoroughfare of
the Ichijiô road was made almost spaceless. When, however, the carriages of the Lady Aoi's
party appeared, her attendants ordered several others to make way, and forced a passage to the
spot where the best view could be obtained, and where the common people were not allowed.
Among these happened to be two ajiro carriages, and their inmates were plainly incognito and
persons of rank.
These belonged to the party of the Lady of Rokjiô. When these carriages were forced to give
place, their attendants cried out, "These carriages do not belong to people who ought to be so
abruptly forced away." But the attendants of the Lady Aoi, who were slightly under the influence
of drink, would not listen to their expostulations, and they at last made their way and took up
their position, pushing the other two back where nothing could be seen, even breaking their
poles.
The lady so maltreated was of course extremely indignant, and she would fain have gone home
without seeing the spectacle, but there was no passage for retiring. Meanwhile the approach of
the procession was announced, and only this calmed her a little.
Genji was as usual conspicuous in the procession. There were several carriages along the roads
on whose occupants his glance was cast; that of Lady Aoi, however, was the most striking, and
as he passed by the attendants saluted him courteously, which act Genji acknowledged. What
were the feelings of the Lady of Rokjiô, who had been driven back, at this moment!
In due course the procession passed, and the exciting scene of the day was over. The quarrels
about the carriage naturally came to the ears of Genji. He thought that Lady Aoi was too modest
to be the instigator of such a dispute; but her house was one of great and powerful families
famous for overweening pride, a tendency shared by its domestics; and they, for other motives,
also of rivalry, were glad to have an opportunity of mortifying the Lady of Rokjiô.
He felt for the wounded lady, and hastened to see her; but she, under some pretext, refused to see
him.
The day of the hollyhock fête of the same temple came. It was especially grand, as it was the first
one after the installation of the new Saiin, but neither Lady Aoi or the Lady of Rokjiô was
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present, while Genji privately took Violet with him in a close carriage to see the festival, and saw
the horse-races.
We have already mentioned that the mind of the Lady of Rokjiô was still wavering and unsettled
whether or not she should go to Ise with her daughter; and this state of mind became more and
more augmented and serious after the day of the dispute about the carriages, which made her feel
a bitter disdain and jealousy towards the Lady Aoi. Strange to say, that from about the same
time, Lady Aoi became ill, and began to suffer from spiritual influences. All sorts of exorcisms
were duly performed, and some spirits came forth and gave their names. But among them was a
spirit, apparently a "living one," which obstinately refused to be transmitted to the third party. It
caused her great suffering, and seemed not to be of a casual nature, but a permanent hostile
influence. Some imagined this to be the effect of fearful jealousy of someone who was intimately
known to Genji and who had most influence over him; but the spirit gave no information to this
effect. Hence some even surmised that the wandering spirit of some aged nurse, or the like, long
since dead, still haunted the mansion, and might have seized the opportunity of the lady's delicate
health, and taken possession of her. Meanwhile at the mansion of Rokjiô, the lady, when she was
informed of the sufferings of Lady Aoi, felt somewhat for her, and began to experience a sort of
compassion.
This became stronger when she was told that the sufferings of the Lady Aoi were owing to some
living spirit. She thought that she never wished any evil to her; but, when she reflected, there
were several times when she began to think that a wounded spirit, such as her own, might have
some influence of the kind. She had sometimes dreams, after weary thinking, between slumber
and waking, in which she seemed to fly to some beautiful girl, apparently Lady Aoi, and to
engage in bitter contention and struggle with her. She became even terrified at these dreams; but
yet they took place very often. "Even in ordinary matters," she thought, "it is too common a
practice, to say nothing of the good done by people, but to exaggerate the bad; and so, in such
cases, if it should be rumored that mine was that living spirit which tormented [151]Lady Aoi,
how trying it would be to me! It is no rare occurrence that one's disembodied spirit, after death,
should wander about; but even that is not a very agreeable idea. How much more, then, must it
be disagreeable to have the repute that one's living spirit was inflicting pain upon another!"
These thoughts still preyed upon her mind, and made her listless and depressed.
In due course, the confinement of Lady Aoi approached. At the same time, the jealous spirit still
vexed her, and now more vigorous exorcising was employed. She became much affected by it,
and cried out, "Please release me a little; I have something to tell the Prince."
Hereupon he was ushered into the room. The curtain was dropped, and the mother of the lady left
the room, as she thought her daughter might prefer to speak to him in private. The sound of the
spells performed in the next chamber ceased, and Hoke-kiô was read in its place. The lady was
lying on her couch, dressed in a pure white garment, with her long tresses unfastened. He
approached her, and taking her hand, said: "What sad affliction you cause us!" She then lifted her
heavy eyelids, and gazed on Genji for some minutes.
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He tried to soothe her, and said, "Pray don't trouble yourself too much about matters. Everything
will come right. Your illness, I think, will soon pass away. Even supposing you quit this present
world, there is another where we shall meet, and where I shall see you once more cheerful, and
there will be a time when your mother and father will also join you."
"Ah! no. I only come here to solicit you to give me a little rest. I feel extremely disturbed. I never
thought of coming here in such a way; but it seems the spirit of one whose thoughts are much
disconcerted wanders away unknown even to itself.
Oh, bind my wandering spirit, pray,Dear one, nor let it longer stray."
The enunciation of these words was not that of Lady Aoi herself; and when Genji came to
reflect, it clearly belonged to the Lady of Rokjiô. Always before, when anyone had talked with
him about a living spirit coming to vex Lady Aoi, he felt inclined to suppress such ideas; but
now he began to think that[152] such things might really happen, and he felt disturbed. "You
speak thus," said Genji, as if he was addressing the spirit, "but you do not tell me who you are.
Do, therefore, tell me clearly." At these words, strange to say, the face of the Lady Aoi seemed
momentarily to assume the likeness of that of Rokjiô. On this, Genji was still more perplexed
and anxious, and put a stop to the colloquy. Presently she became very calm, and people thought
that she was a little relieved. Soon after this, the lady was safely delivered of a child.
Now, to perform due thanksgiving for this happy deliverance, the head of the monastery on
Mount Hiye and some other distinguished priests were sent for. They came in all haste, wiping
off the perspiration from their faces as they journeyed; and, from the Emperor and Royal princes
down to the ordinary nobles, all took an interest in the ceremony of Ub-yashinai (first feeding),
and the more so as the child was a boy.
To return to the Lady of Rokjiô. When she heard of the safe delivery of Lady Aoi, a slightly
jealous feeling once more seemed to vex her; and when she began to move about, she could not
understand how it was, but she perceived that her dress was scented with a strange odor. She
thought this most surprising, and took baths and changed her dress, in order to get rid of it; but
the odor soon returned, and she was disgusted with herself.
Some days passed, and the day of autumn appointments arrived. By this time, Lady Aoi's health
seemed progressing favorably, and Genji left her in order to attend the Court.
When he said good-by to her, there was a strange and unusual look in her eyes. Sadaijin also
went to Court, as well as his sons, who had some expectation of promotion, and there were few
people left in the mansion.
It was in the evening of that day that Lady Aoi was suddenly attacked by a spasm, and before the
news of this could be carried to the Court, she died.
These sad tidings soon reached the Court, and created great distress and confusion: even the
arrangements for appointments and promotion were disturbed. As it happened late in [153]the
evening there was no time to send for the head of the monastery, or any other distinguished
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priest. Messengers of inquiry came one after another to the mansion, so numerous that it was
almost impossible to return them all answers. We need not add how greatly affected were all her
relations.
As the death took place from a malign spiritual influence, she was left untouched during two or
three days, in the hope that she might revive; but no change took place, and now all hope was
abandoned. In due course the corpse was taken to the cemetery of Toribeno. Numerous mourners
and priests of different churches crowded to the spot, while representatives of the ex-Emperor,
Princess Wistaria, and the Heir-apparent also were present. The ceremony of burial was
performed with all solemnity and pathos.
Thus the modest and virtuous Lady Aoi passed away forever.
Genji forthwith confined himself to his apartment in the grand mansion of Sadaijin, for mourning
and consolation. Tô-no-Chiûjiô, who was now elevated to the title of Sammi, constantly bore
him company, and conversed with him both on serious and amusing subjects. Their struggle in
the apartment of Gen-naishi, and also their rencontre in the garden of the "Saffron Flower," were
among the topics of their consoling conversation.
It was on one of these occasions that a soft shower of rain was falling. The evening was rendered
cheerless, and Tô-no-Chiûjiô came to see him, walking slowly in his mourning robes of a dull
color. Genji was leaning out of a window, his cheek resting on his hand; and, looking out upon
the half-fading shrubberies, was humming—
"Has she become rain or cloud?' Tis now unknown."
Tô-no-Chiûjiô gently approached him. They had, as usual, some pathetic conversation, and then
the latter hummed, as if to himself—
"Beyond the cloud in yonder sky,From which descends the passing rain,Her gentle soul
may dwell,Though we may cease to trace its form in vain."
This was soon responded to by Genji:—
"That cloudy shrine we view on high,Where my lost love may dwell unseen,Looks gloomy
now to this sad eyeThat looks with tears on what has been."
There was among the faded plants of the garden a solitary Rindô-nadeshko. When Tô-no-Chiûjiô
had gone, Genji picked this flower, and sent it to his mother-in-law by the nurse of the infant
child, with the following:—
"In bowers where all beside are dead Survives alone this lovely flower, Departed
autumn's cherished gem, Symbol of joy's departed hour."
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Genji still felt lonely. He wrote a letter to the Princess Momo-zono (peach-gardens). He had
known her long. He admired her, too. She had been a spectator, with her father, on the day of the
consecration of the Saiin, and was one of those to whom the appearance of Genji was most
welcome. In his letter he stated that she might have a little sympathy with him in his sorrow, and
he also sent with it the following:—
"Many an autumn have I pastIn gloomy thought, but none I weenHas been so mournful as
the last,Which rife with grief and change hath been."
There was, indeed, nothing serious between Genji and this princess; yet, as far as correspondence
was concerned, they now and then exchanged letters, so she did not object to receiving this
communication. She felt for him much, and an answer was returned, in which she expressed her
sympathy at his bereavement.
Now, in the mansion of Sadaijin every performance of requiem was celebrated. The forty-ninth
day had passed, and the mementoes of the dead, both trifling and valuable, were distributed in a
due and agreeable manner; and Genji at length left the grand mansion with the intention of first
going to the ex-Emperor, and then of returning to his mansion at Nijiô. After his departure,
Sadaijin went into the apartment occupied till lately by him. The room was the same as before,
and [155]everything was unchanged; but his only daughter, the pride of his old days, was no
more, and his son-in-law had gone too.
He looked around him for some moments. He saw some papers lying about. They were those on
which Genji had been practising penmanship for amusement—some in Chinese, others in
Japanese; some in free style, others in stiff. Among these papers he saw one on which the words
"Old pillows and old quilts" were written, and close to these the following:—
"How much the soul departed, still May love to linger round this couch, My own heart
tells me, even I Reluctant am to leave it now."
And on another of these papers, accompanying the words, "The white frost lies upon the tiles,"
the following:—
"How many more of nights shall I On this lone bed without thee lie; The flower has left
its well-known bed, And o'er its place the dews are shed."
As Sadaijin was turning over these papers a withered flower, which seems to have marked some
particular occasion, dropped from amongst them.
Return we now to Genji. He went to the ex-Emperor, to whom he still seemed thin and careworn.
He had some affectionate conversation with him, remained till evening, and then proceeded to
his mansion at Nijiô. He went to the western wing to visit the young Violet. All were habited in
new winter apparel, and looked fresh and blooming.
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"How long it seems since I saw you!" he exclaimed. Violet turned her glance a little aside. She
was apparently shy, which only increased her beauty.
He approached, and after having a little conversation, said, "I have many things to say to you, but
now I must have a little rest," and returned to his own quarters.
The next morning, first of all he sent a letter to Sadaijin's, making inquiry after his infant child.
At this time he confined himself more than usual to his own house, and for companionship he
was constantly with Violet, who was now approaching womanhood. He would sometimes talk
with her differently from the manner in which he would speak to a mere girl; but on her part she
seemed not to notice[156] the difference, and for their daily amusement either Go or Hentski was
resorted to, and sometimes they would play on till late in the evening.
Some weeks thus passed away, and there was one morning when Violet did not appear so early
as usual. The inmates of the house, who did not know what was the reason, were anxious about
her, thinking she was indisposed. About noon Genji came. He entered the little room, saying,
"Are you not quite well? Perhaps you would like to play at Go again, like last night, for a
change;" but she was more than ever shy.
"Why are you so shy?" he exclaimed; "be a little more cheerful—people may think it strange,"
said he, and stayed with her a long time trying to soothe her; but to no effect—she still continued
silent and shy.
This was the evening of Wild Boar's day, and some mochi (pounded rice cake) was presented to
him, according to custom, on a tray of plain white wood.
He called Koremitz before him and said, "To-day is not a very opportune day; I would rather
have them to-morrow evening. Do send in some to-morrow. It need not be of so many colors."
So saying, he smiled a little, and sharp Koremitz soon understood what he meant. And this he
accordingly did on the morrow, on a beautiful flower-waiter.
Up to this time nothing about Violet had been publicly known, and Genji thought it was time to
inform her father about his daughter; but he considered he had better have the ceremony of Mogi
first performed, and ordered preparations to be made with that object.
Let us here notice that the young daughter of Udaijin, after she saw Genji, was longing to see
him again. This inclination was perceived by her relations. It seems that her father was not quite
averse to this liking, and he told his eldest daughter, the reigning Emperor's mother, that Genji
was recently bereaved of his good consort, and that he should not feel discontented if his
daughter were to take the place of Lady Aoi; but this the royal mother did not approve. "It would
be far better for her to be introduced at Court," she said, and began contriving to bring this about.
Source: Wilson, Epiphanius. Japanese Literature: New York: P.F. Collier, 1900. 147 – 156.
Print.
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HAGAKURE: THE WAY OF THE SAMURAI
Hagakure is a practical and spiritual guide for a warrior, drawn from a collection of
commentaries by the samurai Yamamoto Tsunetomo, former retainer to Nabeshima Mitsushige,
the third ruler of what is now Saga prefecture in Japan. Tsuramoto Tashiro compiled these
commentaries from his conversations with Tsunetomo from 1709 to 1716; however, it was not
published until many years afterwards. Hagakure is also known as The Book of the Samurai,
Analects of Nabeshima or Hagakure Analects. The book records Tsunetomo's views on bushido,
the warrior code of the samurai. Hagakure is sometimes said to assert that bushido is really the
"Way of Dying" or living as though one was already dead, and that a samurai must be willing to
die at any moment in order to be true to his lord. His saying "the way of the warrior is death"
was a summation of the willingness to sacrifice that bushido codified. Although written at the
very end of the Age of Samurai this book represents a tradition going back 700 or more years.
Big Picture Question: Bushido is a synthesis of Chinese, Buddhist and older Japanese
traditions. Identify these traditions within Hagakure. Predict the type of culture a historian
would encounter in Japan of the Shoguns. Be prepared to support your answer.
Although it stands to reason that a samurai should be mindful of the Way of the Samurai, it
would seem that we are all negligent. Consequently, if someone were to ask, "What is the true
meaning of the Way of the Samurai?" the person who would be able to answer promptly is rare.
This is because it has not been established in one's mind beforehand. From this, one's
unmindfulness of the Way can be known. Negligence is an extreme thing.
The Way of the Samurai is found in death. When it comes to either/or, there is only the quick
choice of death. It is not particularly difficult. Be determined and advance. To say that dying
without reaching one's aim is to die a dog's death is the frivolous way of sophisticates. When
pressed with the choice of life or death, it is not necessary to gain one's aim.
We all want to live. And in large part we make our logic according to what we like. But not
having attained our aim and continuing to live is cowardice. This is a thin dangerous line. To die
without gaining one's aim is a dog's death and fanaticism. But there is no shame in this. This is
the substance of the Way of the Samurai. If by setting one's heart right every morning and
evening, one is able to live as though his body were already dead, he pains freedom in the Way.
His whole life will be without blame, and he will succeed in his calling.
A man is a good retainer to the extent that he earnestly places importance in his master. This is
the highest sort of retainer. If one is born into a prominent family that goes back for generations,
it is sufficient to deeply consider the matter of obligation to one's ancestors, to lay down one's
body and mind, and to earnestly esteem one's master. It is further good fortune if, more than this,
one has wisdom and talent and can use them appropriately. But even a person who is good for
nothing and exceedingly clumsy will be a reliable retainer if only he has the determination to
think earnestly of his master. Having only wisdom and talent is the lowest tier of usefulness.
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According to their nature, there are both people who have quick intelligence, and those who must
withdraw and take time to think things over. Looking into this thoroughly, if one thinks selflessly
and adheres to the four vows of the Nabeshima samurai, surprising wisdom will occur regardless
of the high or low points of one's nature.' People think that they can clear up profound matters if
they consider them deeply, but they exercise perverse thoughts and come to no good because
they do their reflecting with only self-interest at the center.
It is difficult for a fool's habits to change to selflessness. In confronting a matter, however, if at
first you leave it alone, fix the four vows in your heart, exclude self-interest, and make an effort,
you will not go far from your mark.
Because we do most things relying only on our own sagacity we become self-interested, turn our
backs on reason, and things do not turn out well. As seen by other people this is sordid, weak,
narrow and inefficient. When one is not capable of true intelligence, it is good to consult with
someone of good sense. An advisor will fulfill the Way when he makes a decision by selfless and
frank intelligence because he is not personally involved. This way of doing things will certainly
be seen by others as being strongly rooted. It is, for example, like a large tree with many roots.
One man's intelligence is like a tree that has been simply stuck in the ground.
We learn about the sayings and deeds of the men of old in order to entrust ourselves to their
wisdom and prevent selfishness. When we throw off our own bias, follow the sayings of the
ancients, and confer with other people, matters should go well and without mishap. Lord
Katsushige borrowed from the wisdom of Lord Naoshige. This is mentioned in the
Ohanashikikigaki. We should be grateful for his concern. Moreover, there was a certain man
who engaged a number of his younger brothers as retainers, and whenever he visited Edo or the
Kamigata area, he would have them accompany him. As he consulted with them everyday on
both private and public matters, it is said that he was without mishap.
Sagara Kyuma was completely at one with his master and served him as though his own body
were already dead. He was one man in a thousand. Once there was an important meeting at
Master Sakyo's Mizugae Villa, and it was commanded that Kyuma was to commit seppuku. At
that time in Osaki there was a teahouse on the third floor of the suburban residence of Master
Taku Nut. Kyuma rented this, and gathering together all the good-for-nothings in Saga he put on
a puppet show, operating one of the puppets himself, carousing and drinking all day and night.
Thus, overlooking Master Sakyo's villa, he carried on and caused a great disturbance. In
instigating this disaster he gallantly thought only of his master and was resolved to committing
suicide.
Being a retainer is nothing other than hemp a supporter of one's lord, entrusting matters of good
and evil to him, and renouncing self-interest. If there are but two or three men of this type, the
fief will be secure. If one looks at the world when affairs are going smoothly, there arc many
who go about putting in their appearance, being useful by their wisdom, discrimination and
artfulness. However, if the lord should retire or go into seclusion, there are many who will
quickly turn their backs on him and ingratiate themselves to the man of the day. Such a thing is
unpleasant even to think about. Men of high position, low position, deep wisdom and artfulness
all feel that they are the ones who are working righteously, but when it comes to the point of
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throwing away one's life for his lord, all get weak in the knees. This is rather disgraceful. The
fact that a useless person often becomes a matchless warrior at such times is because he has
already given up his life and has become one with his lord. At the time of Mitsushige's death
there was an example of this. His one resolved attendant was I alone. The others followed in my
wake. Always the pretentious, self-asserting notables turn their backs on the man just as his eyes
are closing in death. Loyalty is said to be important in the pledge between lord and retainer.
Though it may seem unobtainable, it is right before your eyes. If you once set yourself to it, you
will become a superb retainer at that very moment.
To give a person one's opinion and correct his faults is an important thing. It is compassionate
and comes first in matters of service. But the way of doing this is extremely difficult. To
discover the good and bad points of a person is an easy thing, and to give an opinion concerning
them is easy, too. For the most part, people think that they are being kind by saying the things
that others find distasteful or difficult to say. But if it is not received well, they think that there is
nothing more to be done. This is completely worthless. It is the same as brining shame to a
person by slandering him. It is nothing more than getting it off one's chest.
To give a person an opinion one must first judge well whether that person is of the disposition to
receive it or not. One must become close with him and make sure that he continually trusts one's
word. Approaching subjects that are dear to him, seek the best way to speak and to be well
understood. Judge the occasion, and determine whether it is better by letter or at the time of
leave-taking. Praise his good points and use every device to encourage him, perhaps by talking
about one's own faults without touching on his, but so that they will occur to him. Have him
receive this in the way that a man would drink water when his throat is dry, and it will be an
opinion that will correct faults. This is extremely difficult. If a person s fault is a habit of some
years prior, by and large it won't be remedied. I have had this experience myself. To be intimate
with alt one's comrades, correcting each other's faults, and being of one mind to be of use to the
master is the great compassion of a retainer. By bringing shame to a person, bow could one
expect to make him a better man?
It is bad taste to yawn in front of people. When one unexpectedly has to yawn, if he rubs his
forehead in an upward direction , the sensation will stop . If that does not work, he can lick his
lips while keeping his mouth closed, or simply hide it with his hand or his sleeve in such a way
that no one will know what he is doing. It is the same with sneezing. One will appear foolish.
There are other things besides these about which a person should use care and training.
When a certain person was saying that present matters of economy should be detailed, someone
replied that this is not good at all.
It is a fact that ash will not live where the water is too clear. But if there is duckweed or
something, the fish will hide under its shadow and thrive. Thus, the lower classes will live in
tranquility if certain matters are a bit overlooked or left unheard. This fact should be understood
with regard to people's conduct.
Once when Lord Mitsushige was a little boy and was supposed to recite from a copybook for the
priest Kaion, he called the other children and acolytes and said, "Please come here and listen. It's
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difficult to read if there are hardly any people listening." The priest was impressed and said to
the acolytes, "That's the spirit in which to do everything."
Every morning one should first do reverence to his master and parents and then to his patron
deities and guardian Buddhas. If he will only make his master first in importance, his parents will
rejoice and the gods and Buddhas will give their assent. For a warrior there is nothing other than
thinking of his master . If one creates this resolution within himself, he will always be mindful of
the master's person and will not depart from him even for a moment. Moreover, a woman should
consider her husband first, just as he considers his master first.
According to a certain person, a number of years ago Matsuguma Kyoan told this story: In the
practice of medicine there is a differentiation of treatment according to the Yin and Yang of men
and women. There is also a difference in pulse. In the last fifty years, however, men's pulse has
become the same as women's. Noticing this, in the treatment of eye disease I applied women's
treatment to men and found it suitable. When I observed the application of men's treatment to
men, there was no result. Thus I knew that men's spirit had weakened and that they had become
the same as women, and the end of the world had come. Since I witnessed this with certainty, I
kept it a secret.
When looking at the men of today with this in mind, those who could be thought to have a
woman's pulse are many indeed, and those who seem like real men few. Because of this, if one
were to make a little effort, he would be able to take the upper hand quite easily. That there are
few men who arc able to cut well in beheadings is further proof that men's courage has waned.
And when one comes to speak of kaishaku, it has become an age of men who are prudent and
clever at making excuses. Forty or fifty years ago, when such things as matanuki were
considered manly, a man wouldn't show an unscarred thigh to his fellows, so he would pierce it
himself.
All of man's work is a bloody business. That fact, today, is considered foolish, affairs are
finished cleverly with words alone, and jobs that require effort are avoided. I would like young
men to have some understanding of this.
The priest Tannen used to say, ''People come to no understanding because priests teach only the
doctrine of 'No Mind.' What is called 'No Mind' is a mind that is pure and lacks complication.'
This is interesting.
Lord Sanenori said, "In the midst of a single breath, where perversity cannot be held, is the Way.
' If so, then the Way is one. But there is no one who can understand this clarity at first. Purity is
something that cannot be attained except by piling effort upon effort.
There is nothing that we should be quite so grateful for as the last line of the poem that goes,
"When your own heart asks." It can probably be thought of in the same way as the Nembutsu,
and previously it was on the lips of many people.
Recently, people who are called "clever" adorn themselves with superficial wisdom and only
deceive others. For this reason they are inferior to dull-wilted folk. A dull- wilted person is
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direct. If one looks deeply into his heart with the above phrase, there will be no hidden places. It
is a good examiner. One should be of the mind that, meeting this examiner, he will not be
embarrassed.
The word gen means "illusion" or "apparition." In India, a man who uses conjury is called a
genjutsushi ["a master of illusion technique"]. Everything in this world is but a marionette show.
Thus we use the word gen.
To hate injustice and stand on righteousness is a difficult thing. Furthermore, to think that being
righteous is the best one can do and to do one's utmost to be righteous will, on the contrary, brig
many mistakes. The Way is in a higher place then righteousness. This is very difficult to
discover, but it is the highest wisdom. When seen from this standpoint, things like righteousness
are rather shallow. If one does not understand this on his own, it cannot be known. There is a
method of getting to this Way, however, even if one cannot discover it by himself. This is found
in consultation with others. Even a person who has not attained this Way sees others front the
side. It is like the saying from the game of go: "He who sees from the side has eight eyes." The
saying, "Thought by thought we see our own mistakes," also means that the highest Way is in
discussion with others. Listening to the old stories and reading books are for the purpose of
sloughing off one's own discrimination and attaching oneself to that of the ancients.
A certain swordsman in his declining years said the following: In one's life. there are levels in
the pursuit of study. In the lowest level, a person studies but nothing comes of it, and he feels
that both he and others are unskillful. At this point he is worthless. In the middle level he is still
useless but is aware of his own insufficiencies and can also see the insufficiencies of others. In a
higher level he has pride concerning his own ability, rejoices in praise from others, and laments
the lack of ability in his fellows. This man has worth. In the highest level a man has the look of
knowing nothing. These are the levels in general;. But there is one transcending level, and this is
the most excellent of all. This person is aware of the endlessness of entering deeply into a certain
Way arid never thinks of himself as having finished. He truly knows his own insufficiencies and
never in his whole life thinks that he has succeeded. He has no thoughts of pride but with selfabasement knows the Way to the end. It is said that Master Yagyu once remarked, "I do not
know the way to defeat others, but the way to defeat myself. ''
Throughout your life advance daily, becoming more skillful than yesterday, more skillful than
today. This is neverending.
Among the maxims on Lord Naoshige's wall there was this one: ''Matters of' great concern
should be treated lightly.'' Master lttei commented, "Matters of small concern should be treated
seriously." Among one's affairs there should not be more than two or three matters of what one
could call great concern. If these are deliberated upon during ordinary times, they can be
understood. Thinking about things previously and then handling them lightly when the time
comes is what this is all about. To face an event anew solve it lightly is difficult if you are not
resolved beforehand, and there will always be uncertainty in hitting your mark. However, if the
foundation is laid previously, you can think of the saying, "Matters of great concern should be
treated lightly," as your own basis for action.
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A certain person spent several years of service in Osaka and then returned home. When he made
his appearance at the local bureau, everyone was put out and he was made a laughingstock
because he spoke in the Kamigata dialect. Seen in this light, when one spends a long time in ado
or the Kamigata area, he had better use his native dialect even more than usual.
When in a more sophisticated area it is natural that one’s disposition be affected by different
styles. But it is vulgar and foolish to look down upon the ways of one's own district as being
boorish, or to be even a bit open to the persuasion of the other place's ways and to think about
giving up one's own. That one's own district is unsophisticated and unpolished is a great treasure.
Imitating another style is simply a sham. A certain man said to the priest Shungaku, "The Lotus
Sutra Sect's character is not good because it's so fearsome." Shungaku replied, "It is by reason of
its fearsome character that it is the Lotus Sutra Sect. If its character were not so, it would be a
different sect altogether." This is reasonable.
At the time when there was a council concerning the promotion of a certain man, the council
members were at the point of deciding that promotion was useless because of the fact that the
man had previously been involved in a drunken brawl. But someone said, "If we were to cast
aside every man who had made a mistake once, useful men could probably not be come by. A
man who makes a mistake once will be considerably more prudent and useful because of his
repentance. I feet that he should be promoted.''
Someone else then asked, "Will you guarantee him?" The man replied, "Of course I will." The
others asked, "By what will you guarantee him?" And he replied, "I can guarantee him by the
fact that he is a man who has erred once. A man who has never once erred is dangerous." This
said, the man was promoted.
At the time of a deliberation concerning criminals, Nakane Kazuma proposed making the
punishment one degree lighter than what would be appropriate. This is a treasury of wisdom that
only he was the possessor of. At that time, though there were several men in attendance, if it had
not been for Kazuma alone, no one would have opened his mouth. For this reason he is called
Master Commencement and Master Twenty-five Days.
A certain person was brought to shame because he did not take revenge. The way of revenge lies
in simply forcing one's way into a place and being cut down. There is no shame in this. By
thinking that you must complete the job you will run out of time. By considering things like how
many men the enemy has, time piles up; in the end you will give up. No matter if the enemy has
thousands of men, there is fulfillment in simply standing them off and being determined to cut
them all down, starting from one end. You will finish the greater part of it. Concerning the night
assault of Lord Asano's ronin, the fact that they did not commit seppuku at the Sengakuji was an
error, for there was a long delay between the time their lord was struck down and the time when
they struck down the enemy. If Lord Kira had died of illness within that period, it would have
been extremely regrettable. Because the men of the Kamigata area have a very clever sort of
wisdom, they do well at praiseworthy acts but cannot do things indiscriminately, as was done in
the Nagasaki fight.
Although all things are not to be judged in this manner, I mention it in the investigation of the
Way of the Samurai. When the time comes, there is no moment for reasoning. And if you have
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not done your inquiring beforehand, there is most often shame. Reading books and listening to
people's talk are for the purpose of prior resolution. Above all, the Way of the Samurai should be
in being aware that you do not know what is going to happen next, and in querying every item
day and night. Victory and defeat are matters of the temporary force of circumstances. The way
of avoiding shame is different. It is simply in death.
Even if it seems certain that you will lose, retaliate. Neither wisdom nor technique has a place in
this. A real man does not think of victory or defeat. He plunges recklessly towards an irrational
death. By doing this, you will awaken from your dreams.
There are two things that will blemish a retainer, and these are riches and honor. If one but
remains in strained circumstances, he will not be marred.
Once there was a certain man who was very clever, but it was his character to always see the
negative points of his jobs. In such a way, one will be useless. If one does not get it into his head
from the very beginning that the world is full of unseemly situations, for the most part his
demeanor will be poor and he will not be believed by others. And if one is not believed by
others, no matter how good a person he may be, he will not have the essence of a good person.
This can also be considered as a blemish.
There was a man who said, "Such and such a person has a violent disposition, but this is what I
said right to his face… This was an unbecoming thing to say, and it was said simply because he
wanted to be known as a rough fellow. It was rather low, and it can be seen that he was still
rather immature. It is because a samurai has correct manners that he is admired. Speaking of
other people in this way is no different from an exchange between low class spearmen. It is
vulgar.
It is not good to settle into a set of opinions. It is a mistake to put forth effort and obtain some
understanding and then stop at that. At first putting forth great effort to be sure that you have
grasped the bastes, then practicing so that they may come to fruition is something that will never
stop for your whole lifetime. Do not rely on following the degree of understanding that you have
discovered, but simply think, "This is not enough."
One should search throughout his whole life how best to follow the Way. And he should study,
setting his mind to work without putting things off. Within this is the Way.
Source: Yamamoto, Tsunetomo. "Hagakure: The Way of the Warrior." Internet Archive. Internet
Archive, 2001. Web. 19 Aug. 2013. <http://archive.org/details/Hagakure-BookOfTheSamurai>.
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