Introduction
1
Introduction
1
UNECE Convention on the Protection and Use of
Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes
ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE IN RIVER
BASINS OF DAURIA: ECOLOGY AND
WATER MANAGEMENT
By Eugene Simonov, Oleg Goroshko, Evgeny Egidarev,
Olga Kiriliuk, Vadim Kiriliuk, Natalia Kochneva,
Victor Obyazov, and Tatiana Tkachuk.
PEOPLE'S DAILY PRESS
BEIJING 2013
2
Editor of the original Russian publication Olga K.Kiriliuk (Daursky Biosphere
Reserve)
English version editor and translator Eugene Simonov (Rivers without
Boundaries Coalition)
English language editor Douglas Norlen ( Pacific Environment), Jennie Sutton
(Baikal Environmental Wave)
© Oleg Goroshko, Evgeny Egidarev, Vadim and Olga Kiriliuk, Natalia
Kochneva, Victor Obyazov, Eugene Simonov and Tatiana Tkachuk
© STATE BIOSPHERE RESERVE DAURSKY, WWF RUSSIA,
I N T E R N AT I O N A L C OA L I T I O N 《 R I V E R S W I T H O U T
BOUNDARIES》, 2013
Introduction
3
Suggested citation: Eugene Simonov, Oleg Goroshko, Evgeny
Egidarev, Olga Kiriliuk, Vadim Kiriliuk, Natalia Kochneva, Victor
Obyazov, and Tatiana Tkachuk. Adaptation to climate change in the
river basins of Dauria: ecology and water management. The extended
abstract eponymous Russian edition prepared by Eugene Simonov –
Beijing: PEOPLE'S DAILY PRESS, 2013. - 104p, 55ill.
Abstract: This report presents the first results of the Research
and Conservation Program “Influence of Climate Changes on the
Ecosystems of Dauria Ecoregion and Nature-protecting Adaptation”,
which is implemented at Dauria International Protected Area (DIPA).
The report is dedicated to stopping degradation of the natural
ecosystems in Dauria and preserving globally endangered species
under conditions of intensified economic development and periodic
water deficit caused by climatic cycles. The report primarily covers
the Northeast of Dauria Steppe Ecoregion its geography, climate,
ecosystems and their dynamics, anthropogenic impacts on natural
processes, ecological monitoring, protected areas planning and
management, water resources management and threats to aquatic
ecosystems. This publication was funded by WWF Russia and UNECE
Water Convention.
4
图书在版编目（ＣＩＰ）数据
ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE IN RIVER
BASINS OF DAURIA: ECOLOGY AND
WATER MANAGEMENT/Eugene Simonov, Oleg Goroshko, Evgeny Egidarev,
Olga Kiriliuk, Vadim Kiriliuk, Natalia Kochneva, Victor Obyazov, and Tatiana
Tkachuk. 编 .-- 北京 : 人民日报出版社 , 2012.12
ISBN 978-7-5115-1479-0
Ⅰ . ① A… Ⅱ . ① O… Ⅲ . ①科学技术－环境－文集Ⅳ . ① G222.3-53
中国版本图书馆 CIP 数据核字 (2012) 第 281894 号
Title: Adaptation To Climate Change In River Basins Of Dauria: Ecology And
Water Management
Author: Eugene Simonov, Oleg Goroshko, Evgeny Egidarev, Olga Kiriliuk, Vadim
Kiriliuk, Natalia Kochneva, Victor Obyazov, and Tatiana Tkachuk.
Publisher: People’s Daily Press
Address: 2th Jintaixilu Road Chaoyang District Beijing
Editor: Chen Zhiming
Price: 32.00（RMB）
ISBN：978-7-5115-1479-0
Introduction
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………… 6
I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate……………………………… 9
II.Conservation and Monitoring ……………………………………………… 34
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management………………………… 43
Bibliography………………………………………………………………………… 90
Appendix……………………………………………………………………………… 106
5
6
Introduction
T
his report presents the first outcomes of the Programme "The
impact of climate change on ecosystems of Dauria ecoregion
and environmental adaptations to them" and an important part
of it – the “Dauria Going Dry” Pilot Project initiated by Daursky
Biosphere Reserve ( part of Dauria International Protected Area DIPA) and WWF-Russia under auspices of the UNECE Convention
on Transboundary Waters and the Ramsar Convention. The key
question that the Project considers is how to prevent destruction of
Daurian natural ecosystems, enhance their resilience and save globally
endangered species in circumstances of intensive economic development
and water deficit caused by periodic climate change. The Programme
collects and analyses scientific information on natural climatedependent ecosystems processes, their actual conditions and dynamics
and anthropogenic influence on them. These data are the scientific basis
for environmental-friendly social and economic development in Dauria
Introduction
7
Ecoregion. This report is an abridged translation from Russian of a
collection of research papers published in 2012 by Express Publishing
House, Chita, Russia (Kiriliuk O. editor, 2012). Chapters were
contributed by the core team of researchers including: Oleg Goroshko
(research and monitoring system), Vadim Kiriliuk(research program
and ecosystem dynamics), Tatiana Tkachuk (ecosystem dynamics and
monitoring system), Natalia Kochneva (overview of international law),
Victor Obyazov (climate dynamics and hydrology), Evgeny Egidarev
(water management and cartography), Eugene Simonov ( research
program and water management, executive summary in English), Olga
Kiriliuk (ecosystem dynamics, protected areas network and overall
book editing).This Report edited by Eugene Simonov summarizes key
findings presented in this Russian publication.
The first part of the Report summarizes geography, climate,
biological diversity and ecosystem dynamics of Dauria with emphasis
on rivers and wetlands. The focus of our attention is dynamics of
ecosystems of Dauria under cyclical climate change. The second part
shortly summarizes history and plans for development of protected
areas and a comprehensive ecosystem monitoring network. The third
part of the report starts with general overview of climate adaptation
principles and challenges in Dauria, using the water sector as its focus.
The Argun River basin example is used to exemplify and analyze
potentially unsustainable water resource use at basin-scale. Besides
the basin–wide Argun River example case-studies are presented for
coal industry, interbasin water-transfers, hydropower, gold mining and
border demarcation. Short conclusions are drawn on international policy
8
and technical approaches to solving environmental problems in water
sector in Dauria.
The Project formed partnerships with the Ministry of Natural
Resources of Zabaikalsky Province, International Crane Foundation,
East Asian-Australasian flyway Partnership, Rivers without Boundaries
Coalition, Institute of Natural Resources, Ecology and Cryology of
Russian Academy of Sciences (Siberian Branch), and a number of
Mongolian and Chinese NGOs and researchers. Daursky BR and
WWF provided most of the funding for multi-year work, while some
activities were supported in 2011 from UNDP\GEF “Russian Steppe
Conservation” Project and the Whitley Fund for Nature..
This publication reflects solely the views of its authors. The views,
conclusions, and recommendations are not intended to represent the
views of the conventions' secretariats or other entities supporting the
project.
This publication in 3 languages was made possible due to
collaboration of all Project partners and generous support from
the UNECE Convention on Transboundary Waters. The English
version was prepared by Eugene Simonov, the coordinator of Rivers
without Boundaries Coalition. Please send inquiries to coalition@
riverswithoutboundaries.org
I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate
9
I. Dauria Ecoregion:
Ecosystems and Climate
Geography and climate. In the last decades considerable climate
change of a global character is taking place. However, at the regional
level it differs considerably from the general global pattern, and has
peculiar features in each region. Even greater differences between
regions are observed in the ecosystems’ reactions to climatic variability,
which to a great extent depend on the natural and economic conditions
of the regions.
One of the regions strongly ecologically dependent on climate
changes is the Daurian steppe (Dauria). Dauria lies in the northern part
of Inner Asia. Most of the Daurian steppe area is situated in NorthEast China and the Eastern Mongolia; the Russian part is confined to
Zabaikalsky Province and the Buryat Republic. The area possesses a
very high level of biodiversity for the steppe zone, and it is included
in the Global 200 Ecoregions of the World (Fig.1) as “Dauria Steppe”
which according to WWF covers the Nenjiang River grassland, the
Daurian forest-steppe, the Mongolian-Manchurian steppe, and the
10
Selenge-Orkhon forest-steppe ecoregions. This book is dedicated
primarily to North Eastern Dauria.These grassland areas are united
by geographic location, annual and multi-year rhythms in ecological
factors, and structure and composition of communities (Kiriliuk et
al.2012).
Fig. 1. "Daurian Steppe» Global 200 Ecoregion (№ 96) on the world map
(by Olson et al., 2001)
In terms of freshwater ecosystems, the Eastern Dauria is divided
into 3 principal freshwater ecoregions: Shilka River, Argun River and
Endorheic Basins (Abel et al. 2008) of which Torey Lakes\Ulz River
Basin is the most prominent (see Fig. 2.)
Most of the region lies at 600-800 meters above sea level,
comprises mainly plains and rolling relief, and has an ultra-continental
Fig.2. Principal transboundary river basins of Dauria
I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate
11
12
climate. Low winter temperatures (in the Russian part the average
January temperature is –25 ) result in deep freezing of the soils
and the formation of permafrost pockets. The spring is cold, windy
and dry, while most of the rainfall coincides with the highest annual
temperatures during the second half of summer (Fig. 3). This leads to a
highly intensive cycling of nutrients in the short summer period and, as
a result, to the formation of primarily poor, shallow soils.
In the period 1951 to 2009 the average annual temperature in the
study area increased by 1.9 ℃ , and in different parts of the study area
the linear trend showed increases from 1.5 up to 2.2 ℃ during 59 years
(Fig.4). It led to an increase of the period with positive temperatures
in the northern part of the Daurian steppe from 165 - 167 to 173 - 179
Precipitation, mm
120,0
100,0
80,0
60,0
40,0
20,0
0,0
Jan
Feb
March
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
Fig. 3. Annual distribution of the precipitation in the Onon-Argun interriver area
I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate
T,C°
13
0,0
1
-0,5
2
-1,0
-1,5
-2,0
-2,5
-3,0
-3,5
-4,0
-4,5
-5,0
1950
1960
1970
1980
Year
1990
2000
2010
Fig.4. Long-term changes in average annual air temperature for the
Onon-Argun inter-river area in the period 1951 – 2009. 1 original
series, 2 linear trend
days. The strongest increase has been registered in February and only
slightly lower in March and April. These three months represent half of
the total increase in average annual temperatures. The lowest figures of
increase are for the period of October – December. Thus the strongest
increase is observed in spring, the least in autumn. For the cold period
of the year (October – April) the rise in average air temperature
amounts to 2.4℃ over 59 years; for the warm period of the year (May –
September) to 1.3℃ .
Long-term changes in precipitation are cyclic, and in South-eastern
Transbaikalia cycles are most vividly apparent within the time span of
a century (Obiazov 1994). From 1955 to 1963 there was a period with
above average precipitation, followed, up to 1982, by a below average
14
period. In 1983 a wet period started again, lasting until 1998. 1999 was
the beginning of a new dry period, that has probably ended by 2012, but
it is still uncertain.
Thus, up to two full cycles in precipitation occurred in the area
over the past 60 years (Fig.5). Apart from these decennia-long cycles
other cycles of another wave length occur in the area, including a 4 –
5 year cycle (Obiazov 1994). Cycles identified are based on classical
statistical methods for analyzing climate change, in particular by the
construction of residual mass curves (Vladimirov 1990).
The inter–annual flow changes in the warm period of the year (May
– September) are strongly determined by the amount of precipitation
in this period. Inter–year changes in precipitation and flow occur
8
Σ (К-1)/СV
1
2
6
4
2
0
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Year
Fig. 5. Long-term flow changes of the Shilka river (1) and precipitation totals
(2) generalized for the Onon-Argun inter-river area (residual mass curves)
I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate
15
synphasically (Fig.5) and the correlation coefficient between the
observation series of flows of all the rivers in the Shilka basin and the
average total of precipitation exceeds 0.7.
Lake levels also directly depend on precipitation and correlate
with river flows. For instance, Fig.6 shows clear phases in measured
water levels in the Torey lakes. It should be noted that by June 2009
Lake Barun-Torey had completely dried up, while just before its floor
contained only shallow large puddles, which appeared after rains.
Level, m asl
600
599
598
597
596
595
594
593
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
years
Fig. 6. Long-term changes in the level of Lake Barun-Torey
Plant communities. The Central Asian Steppe Sub-Region
of the Eurasian Steppe Region (Lavrenko 1970) has a flora that is
notably different from that of the steppes to the west. The most typical
steppe communities are dominated by feather grass (Stipa krylovii, S.
16
Fig. 7. Changes in area of Lake Barun-Torey (left) and Lake Zun-Torey
(right) from 2001 to 2009
baicalensis) and Leymus chinensis, Artemisia frigida, etc. Shallow salt
lakes with halophytic vegetation around them are also characteristic of
the region. Grass-dominated grassland communities are intermingled
with other vegetation types (wetlands, saline vegetation, forest groves,
bush, etc.) and should be described and preserved only in a broader
landscape context.
In floodplain wetlands (Fig. 8) meadows with grasses (of the genus
Calamagrostis) and tussock sedges (Carex schmidtii and others) prevail
as well as groves of willows (Salix spp), reeds (Phragmites australis)
communities and several species of wild fruit trees (Crataegus sp.,
Padus avium, Malus baccata, etc.) are also common.
I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate
17
The bottoms of small depressions and shores of salt and brackish
lakes are occupied by salines. Patches of small salines are also spread
in steppe areas. Their vegetation is dominated by annual chenopods
(Suaeda corniculata, Kochia densiflora, Atriplex sibirica, A. patens,
etc.), perennials such as Artemisia anetifolia and A. laciniata, and the
dwarf shrub Kalidium foliatum. In big depressions they are surrounded
by meadows with Puccinellia spp., Hordeum brevisubulatum, Leymus
chinensis and Iris lactea and also L. chinensis steppes. Communities
of the large tussock grass Achnatherum splendens are common in
depressions and may also fringe lower slopes of steppe hills, where
ground water is shallow. Achnatherum steppes usually include some
Fig. 8. Floodplain meadow of Hui River, Hulunbeier.
18
halophytic species (Limonium aureum, Saussurea amara, Iris lactea).
As the pattern of vegetation types mentioned closely depends
on small differences in relief and some related habitat conditions,
fluctuations in climate considerably affect the temporal and spatial
diversity of vegetation , changing distribution and species composition
of plant communities over time in a cyclic manner.
Principal wetlands of Eastern Dauria
Argun River Floodplain. Argun (Erguna, Hailaer in Chinese) River
is the largest watercourse in Dauria Steppe, with globally significant
network of wetlands. For 940 kilometers it serves as Sino-Russian
borderline, and the westernmost part has at least 200 000 ha of wide
floodplain rich in biodiversity.
Hui and Moergol River Floodplains (approx 70 000 ha). These are
small tributaries of Argun River system in Hulunbeier Prefecture of Inner
Mongolia in China, which possesses large floodplain wetlands with reed
beds known as breeding areas for significant numbers of endangered
cranes and geese.
Dalai Lake and Ulan Lake. The shallow Dalai (Hulun) Lake in
Hulunbeier Prefecture receives waters of Kherlen and Wuershun (Orxon)
rivers coming from Mongolia and is connected to Argun River. The
750000 ha Ramsar site is a complex of lakes, rivers, marshes, shrublands,
grasslands and reed beds typical of arid steppe wetlands, stretching
north-south from the Russian to the Mongolian border. The lakes are
important breeding, molting, and stopover sites for waterbirds including
endangered geese.
Buir Lake (61500 ha) shared by Mongolia and China is fed by
I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate
19
Fig.9. Largest wetlands of Eastern Dauria.
Khalkh River, with headwaters in China. This river forks at 104000 ha
Mongolia Ramsar site and supplies water to Buir Lake and Dalai Lake
via Wuershun River. The lake is an important breeding, molting, and
stopover site for waterbirds including endangered geese.
Torey Lakes and Ulz River. Endorheic Ulz River coming from
Mongolia into Russia terminates into 3 large lakes of the Torey
depression. The basin has many globally important biodiversity
features and is protected by Daursky (172 500 ha) and Mongol Daguur
(210000ha) Biosphere reserves, both listed as Ramsar wetlands.
20
Influence of climate cycles on habitats. The Dauria Steppe’s
natural climate cycle, with a span of 25-40 years, is the major force
shaping regional ecosystems and peoples’ lifestyles. Climate changes in
the Daurian eco-region, especially humidification cycles and continuing
warming, cause habitat alteration and even habitat disappearance.
The most intensive changes occur in wetlands, which are important
intrazonal biotopes of the steppe zone. In dry phases of the cycles all
small rivers and most of the springs and up to 90 – 98 % of the lakes
dry up. Such large rivers as the Kherlen, the Onon, and the Hailaer/
Argun lose most of their tributaries and also become shallow. At that
time the levels of Lakes Dalai, Buir, and Khukh also fall considerably.
Each water body has its own drying and filling dynamics depending
on its depth, volume, hydrogeology and location. Giant Dalai Lake
at maximum covers 2300 sq. km., but sometimes becomes a chain of
shallow pools. “Pulsating” water bodies provide higher but uneven
biological productivity than stable ones. The alternation of the wet and
dry phases as well as the diversity in water bodies creates a dynamic
mosaic of habitats and triggers migration and changes in species
populations. In 1999 Torey lakes yielded thousand tons of fish, and
in 2011 the meadow at Barun-Torey Lake bottom was a pasture for
Mongolian Gazelle （Procapra gutturosa）. River floodplains have
much more frequent flooding events and thus preserve more stable
habitat in times of drought. Once in 30 years in the wettest phase
thousands of ephemeral lakes scattered throughout the steppe provide
the most productive habitat for birds and semi-aquatic species, however,
I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate
21
several most stable wetlands serve as life-support systems for wildlife
and humans through all phases of climate cycles.
In Lake Barun-Torey the saline flats that formed after drying
up gradually are getting overgrown and turning into a meadow and
steppe. The lake depression, devoid of water (551 km2 in 1999), instead
of being an aquatic ecosystem inhabited by aquatic organisms and
organisms that live near water, including thousands of tons of fish,
became part of the terrestrial ecosystem. Presently, it harbors animals
that are absolutely not associated with water, for example, Mongolian
gerbils and gazelles. Disappearance of water sources in steppes makes
steppe habitats unsuitable for animal species that are dependent on
water. Following disappearance of the lakes, or their substantial
shallowing and salinization, near-water macrophytes also degrade, in
particular reeds (Phragmites australis), and shrubs wither. The same
occurs in the drying rivers. Thus, tall shore and floodplain vegetation
turns into meadow and steppe habitats. Islands and spits of the lakes
that were nesting areas for loads of waterfowl and near-water birds,
including colonial ones (on the Torey lakes alone in wet periods there
were up to 17 islands inhabited by bird colonies), cease to be such and
lose their significance.
We studied vegetation dynamics along a fixed transect between
the Torey lakes in the Daursky Biosphere Reserve during 2002 – 2010
(Tkachuk & Zhukova 2010). The transect is about 4 km long, and
includes steppe, halophytic meadows, pioneer halophytic vegetation and
dense stands of hydrophytes (Phragmites australis and Bolboschoenus
planiculmis). The lowest, recently dried-up parts of the transect carry
22
halophytic pioneer vegetation with patches of hydrophytes. The 1st
lake terrace and lake shores, which became dry 2 - 4 years ago, support
halophytic meadows, and the highest part of the transect, on the 2nd
and 3rd terraces, steppe vegetation. The vegetation belts are much wider
at the Barun-Torey depression than at that of Zun-Torey. Vegetation
dynamics along this transect over 9 years is illustrated in (Fig. 10). The
main trends are the area increase of all vegetation types together and the
disappearance of the shore line vegetation. The strong increase of pioneer
vegetation and hydrophytes in 2004 is caused by the rapid retreat of the
shore-line and connected elongation of the transect. The hydrophytes
later decrease as the ground water level falls. Halophytic meadows
increase from year to year, especially since 2005. This sudden increase
comes with a lag of one year behind that of the pioneer vegetation. The
increase in steppe vegetation is insignificant.
4500
4000
3500
3000
m
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
2002
Steppe
2003
2004
2005
Halophytic meadow
2006
2007
2008
Pioneer vegetation
2009
2010
Hydrophytes
Fig. 10. Change of different vegetation types in the monitored transect in
the period 2002 – 2010.
I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate
23
Fig. 11. Geese migrating through smoke from burning grass above Argun
River floodplain. Starotsurukhaitui-Heishantou border crossing. Photo by
Guo Yumin
The dynamic successional vegetation pattern between the Torey
lakes (as well as at other drying lakes) is similar to that of other salty
steppe lakes in Inner Asia (Vostokova 1983; Fengjun 2010), though
some details are typical for the Daurian steppe region.
In the beginning of dry periods tall herbaceous vegetation,
including floodplain vegetation, disappears faster due to the increasing
intensity of wild fires (Fig.11). Thus, in 1996 - 1997 50 – 70 % of the
steppes and floodplains burned. Large tussock grasses and bushes regrow slowly after fires. Increasing evaporation on burnt areas in dry
periods contributes to further drying of floodplains, and the level of
groundwater falls as well. Therefore, restoration of the lake’s level and
24
of the river’s flow with the start of a wet phase slows down.
It is extremely difficult to assess whether all these changes are
due to natural factors or not, as considerable parts of the steppes of the
Daurian ecoregion are under severe grazing pressure. Numbers of freegrazing livestock, though subject to regulation by natural factors, are
also artificially maintained at high levels by humans, and this harms the
ecosystems.
With the beginning of a wet phase rivers and lakes fill with water,
and this process goes much faster than drying. Then ground vegetation,
growing densely in river beds and on lake floors, is flooded and rots.
The processes of destruction of large amounts of organic matter with
simultaneous re-filling and warming up of the water in the shallow
basins give a sharp rise in the reproduction of plants and animals of all
trophic levels. In the steppe zone many intra-zonal aquatic and nearwater habitats with rich foraging bases re-appear. The foraging capacity
of the steppe biotopes sharply increases, many water sources appear,
and shelter conditions improve. In the most humid part of the steppe
zone the area with bush and tree vegetation starts increasing.
On the whole, the habitats of the Daurian eco-region are subject
to cyclic changes with wide amplitudes. Accordingly, the amount
of biomass of living organisms differs many-fold between dry and
wet phases. Thus, food supply and other conditions for life and
reproduction differ. During the dry phase, which is the most critical
for many vertebrate species, a few habitat refugia remain, e.g. large
rivers and river floodplains, lakes that don’t dry up, southern slopes
of hills with outcrops of rocks and ravines in the north of the steppe
I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate
25
zone and northern in the south of it. In the unbroken landscapes of the
steppe such relatively favorable habitats depend on variation in local
conditions.
The high dynamics in habitats in the Daurian eco-region are
accompanied by strong leaps in biological productivity, and these
support the high biodiversity of the Daurian steppes, including the
abundance of many mammal and bird species.
Fauna and climate.
The animal world of Dauria is diverse. There are species here
whose main distribution area is much farther to the east, west or south
(Japanese or Red-crowned crane (Grus japonensis)(see Fig. 12).
Manchurian zokor (Myospalax psilurus epsilanus), Mongolian gerbil
Fig. 12. Red-crowned Crane in reeds of the Argun River floodplain (Photo:
Oleg Goroshko)
26
(Meriones unguiculatus), Common crane (Grus grus), etc.). Among
the endemics of Dauria are Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa)
(up to 90 % of the world population of the species live here), Daurian
hedgehog (Mesechinus dauuricus), Daurian souslik (Spermophilus
dauricus), Mongolian lark (Melanocorypha mongolica) and others.
Fish fauna, adapted to climate cycles, is comprised of more than 60
species, three of which are believed to be endemic to Dauria, and giant
Kaluga Sturgeon (Huso davhuricus)(Fig.13) is likely migrating to the
Mongolian border all the way from the Pacific Ocean. A peculiar feature
of the animal world is its variety of bird species determined by the
narrowing of the global migration routes of birds in the Dalainor-Torey
depression (Goroshko, 2009). The number of transitory migrants in the
region’s bird fauna is not less than 45 %. More than 40 bird species
registered here are listed in the Red List of IUCN and many more in
Fig.13 Endemic Kaluga
Sturgeon still inhabits
Shilka River (Photo by
Yu.Dunsky)
I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate
27
Fig. 14. Dead fish on the Torey lakes shore in the dry period of climate
cycle
national Red Data Books of Russia, Mongolia, and China.
Climate change influences vertebrate animals both through
transformation of habitats and directly. A convincing example of
indirect impact is the drying up and shallowing of water basins and
courses, which are the natural habitat for aquatic animals and the
main habitat for animals that live near water. In such cases aquatic
organisms, including fish, die completely (Fig.14.) or survive in neardormant regenerative stages, including larvae and roe at remaining
survival stations. Also the Prussian Carp (Carassius auratus gibelio)
can preserve its vitality for some time after the water basin has dried up
by burying itself in the silt. In the Ulz river basin, where in fact no fish
28
is left due to drying, carp remain so far only in Lake Khukh-Nor – the
deepest reservoir of the basin.
Changes in depth and mineralization of the water of the lakes and
rivers also lead to the loss of suitable nesting sites, including islands,
and changes in the availability of foraging items. This actually caused
considerable changes in the composition of waterfowl and near-water
birds nesting at the Torey lakes (Fig.15).
With transformation of the lake ecosystem numbers of individuals
change at even higher rates than species composition, including the
numbers of the very rare Relict Gull (Larus relictus), for which lowwater periods in the filling stage are more favorable. Great Cormorants
(Phalacrocorax carbo), whose numbers on the Torey lakes reached a
maximum of more than 2,200 in 2001 (Tkachenko & Obyazov 2003),
35
number of species
30
Lari
25
Charadrii
20
Gruiformes
Anseriformes
15
Ciconiiformes
Pelecaniformes
10
Podicipediformes
5
0
1994
1998
2000
2003
2005
2008
2009
Fig. 15. Change in species composition of the nesting fauna for the main
groups of waterfowl and near-water birds at the Torey lakes in the period
1994 – 2009
I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate
29
had stopped nesting altogether by 2010. This was due first to the dying
of fish (2006 - 2007) and then to the disappearance of the last island.
After that cormorants spread without forming large colonies over
the vast area of forest-steppe and southern taiga, up to Baikal where
they hadn’t been seen for some decades. With the disappearance of
islands and the impoverishment of forage availability at the Torey
lakes other colonial birds have stopped nesting too: Gray Heron (Ardea
cinerea), Herring Gull (Larus cachinnans), Caspian Tern (Hydropogne
caspia), Black-winged Stilt (Himantopus himantopus), Black-capped
Avocet (Recuvirostra avosetta), White-winged Tern (Chelidonias
leucopterus, Common Tern (Sterna hirundo), the rare Little Gull (Larus
minutus), Gull-billed Tern (Gelochelidon nilotica) and Whiskered Tern
(Chelidonias hybrida).
During the wet phases millions of waterfowl pass through the
Daurian steppes using thousands of forage-rich lakes for resting and
feeding before rushing across the taiga to the tundra. But as the lakes
dry up the broad steppe zone becomes almost insurmountable for
waterfowl, and their migration routes change. The total numbers of all
ducks in 9 steppe districts of Zabaikalsky Krai decreased 59-fold from
1999 to 2009, which is caused by the shift of migration routes to the
east, to the foothills of the Great Hingan, and to the west, to the Hentii
region (Goroshko 2011). These ridges stretch far south and, thanks to
their rivers, provide waterfowl with suitable conditions for a stop-over
during their migration. It makes the flight across dry steppe and desert
shorter.
With the rivers and lakes drying up almost all White-naped Cranes
30
Percentage of breeding birds
60
50
40
% 30
20
10
0
1999
2000
2001
2007
years
Fig.16. Change in percentage of breeding White-naped Cranes (Grus vipio)
in the region in 1999 - 2007 (Goroshko O., unpublished data)
(Grus vipio) have moved from the steppe to the forest-steppe for
nesting. Total numbers of nesting White-naped Cranes during the last
dry cycle fell sharply (Fig.16), which led to a general reduction of the
western population of the species.
During dry periods the distribution areas and patterns of many
mammal species changes considerably. The home range of the Raccoon
Dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) very strongly so. This species
expanded to the eastern part of the Daurian steppes in the middle of the
20th century having moved from the east (Peshkov 1967). By 1999, the
Raccoon Dog, though preferring rivers and lakes, was common almost
everywhere and occupied meadow steppe, forest and shrub habitats in
I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate
31
the Russian and adjacent parts of the eco-region. At the Torey lakes its
numbers amounted to some thousands. By 2008 there were no dogs left
there. On the whole their numbers and distribution in this part of Dauria
reduced very drastically and the Raccoon Dog now only inhabits the
floodplains of large rivers, such as the Onon and the Argun. Moreover,
its population density in survival stations has not increased.
The most important limiting factor for many non-migrating and
non-hibernating animals is the (height of the) snow cover. Areas with
a continuous snow cover of 20 or more cm thick, and areas with a firm
Fig.17. Southern limit of the range of the Siberian Roe Deer (Capreolus
pygargus) in 1996 and in 2007
32
and ice-encrusted snow cover of 10 - 12 cm thick, are uninhabitable for
most steppe species.
The Siberian Roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) penetrated deep
into the steppe zone in wet periods, and depending on the availability
of water it occurred not only in insular forests, groves and floodplains,
e.g. along the Ulz River, but also in hilly herbaceous steppes with
willow-scrub in depressions. By 2007 - 2008 the limits of its range
had moved up to 100 km to the north (Fig. 17). Similarly, following
the disappearance of habitat fragments with trees and shrubs, as well
as shallow waters with Phragmites and Salix, the southern limits of
Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), Red Deer (Сervus elaphus), Eurasian Lynx
(Lynx lynx) and Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus) have noticeably shifted
northward.
Summary of region’s peculiarities
• An important peculiarity of the region is that the amount of
endemic natural communities in Dauria, which have been formed
with participation of different floras and faunas under conditions of
permanent climate change, is much higher than the amount of endemic
species. Under the conditions of global warming and the cyclic changes
in moisture availability characteristic for the region, appreciable
changes in species composition, abundance and spatial distribution of
wildlife take place.
• Due to cyclic changes in humidity habitats in the Daurian
eco-region change. During dry phases habitats with tall plants, which
provide much foraging capacity and good protection, reduce in area,
I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate
33
and most of the wetlands vanish completely, while in wet phases they
appear again and provide a sharp rise in biological productivity.
• The vegetation of Dauria is adapted to cyclical climate changes
and resiliently reacts with fluctuations and cyclical succession.
•
Most of the species, both aquatic and terrestrial, survive
drought using different adaptation strategies. The most important are:
surviving in a few refuge habitats; persisting in the dormant phase
of the life cycle; survival of non-reproductive adult individuals. The
distribution areas of many ground vertebrates pulsate in concord with
the cyclic changes in humidity. But the continuing warming gradually
destroys the complete reversibility of these processes and leads to
aridization.
• On the whole, in Dauria the dry phase of the 30-year humidity
climate cycle, which occurs against the background of global warming,
causes remarkably strong changes in nature with mostly negative
consequences: the level of biological diversity falls, as well as the
sustainability and productivity of natural ecosystem complexes, the
biomass of living organisms decreases, the borders of the ranges and
migration routes of mammals and birds shift. Many vertebrate species
find themselves on the brink of survival.
34
II. Conservation and Monitoring
Protected areas network: challenges and opportunities.
The Russia-Mongolia-China Dauria International Protected Area
(DIPA) was founded at the junction of the borders between Russia,
Mongolia and China on 29 March 1994(Fig.18). Three protected
areas of the three countries (belonging to the I category by IUCN PA
classification) were combined to create DIPA:
• Daursky Biosphere Reserve (national strict nature reserve in
then Chitinskaya oblast (presently Zabaikalsky Krai) )of Russia;
• Mongol Daguur national strictly protected nature area in
Dornod aimag of Mongolia, which borders on the Russian reserve;
• Dalai Lake (Dalaihu) National Nature Reserve in the Inner
Mongolia Autonomous Region, China.
The creation of this trilateral protected area, consisting of
functionally connected wetland and steppe habitats, was of special
importance for biodiversity conservation in Dauria, particularly for
II.Conservation and Monitoring
35
Fig.18. DIPA area and emblem.
the protection of migrant species of birds and mammals. Besides
biodiversity and ecosystems conservation, the main target of the
international protected area is monitoring of natural processes and
phenomena in the Dauria steppe ecosystem.
Despite the differences in nature protection regimes and in the
management and staff of the three areas, DIPA as a united international
36
reserve has been a conservation success. Since the first years of DIPA’s
existence, the area was managed to promote cooperation, first in
science and later in environmental education. Cooperative activities
included a joint inventory of animals and plants within the reserves
and throughout Eastern Dauria. Since DIPA establishment, more than
300,000 km² of the region have been investigated by joint scientific
expeditions spanning the region from the Hentii to the Great Hingan
Mountains and from the Gobi Desert to Siberian taiga forests. This
enormous tri-national survey has been a great opportunity to acquire
data on biodiversity and distribution of rare species, define conditions
of regional ecosystems, and also to select key areas for conservation of
a number of species.
The Ramsar Convention recognized the region’s importance
and listed all three reserves comprising the DIPA as wetlands of
international importance. Lake Buir and Khurh-Khuiten wetlands are
also listed as Ramsar Sites in Mongolia, but lack formal protection.
Other globally important wetland areas have been identified, including
the transboundary Argun (Erguna), Chinese Moergol and Hui River
floodplains, Russian Aginsky lake-steppe complex. All sites have
special importance with respect to Ramsar Convention implementation.
Careful analyses of ecosystems and populations of rare species
in relation to natural and anthropogenic factors enabled DIPA workers
to propose a number of conservation measures. These included: (i)
an interconnected multi-level regional network of protected areas;
(ii) programs for conservation of critically threatened species, and
(iii) integration of economic development planning with conservation
II.Conservation and Monitoring
37
planning to achieve sustainability. DIPA personnel played a key role
in establishment of several protected areas: the Valley of Gazelles
National Wildlife Refuge, Aginskaya Steppe Regional Wildlife Refuge
in Russia and Onon Balj National Park in Mongolia. Further work on
development of an ecological network requires establishment of new
protected areas, improvements and adjustments in protection regime
and management of existing protected areas and development of explicit
transboundary forms of protected areas.
Development of a nature reserve network should provide for
migration and breeding of species in all phases of region-wide drought
cycle and preserve key hydrological features and all important refugia
(fragmentation avoidance, promoting connectivity, and protection of
climate refuge with especially resistant habitats). Riverine wetland
conservation is an essential component in any basin-wide adaptation
Programme and should first of all focus on protecting natural
refugia during most unfavorable climate conditions and sustaining
environmental flows.
Network design also requires understanding the interplay of
permafrost, fire regime, drought cycles, agriculture, infrastructure
development in changing landscapes, with special attention to the
forest-steppe transition zone and freshwater ecosystems.
Specific suggestions for establishment of new protected
areas, improvements and adjustments in the protection regime and
management of existing protected areas and development of certain
transboundary protected areas were made by DIPA to relevant
authorities. (see Fig. 19)
38
Fig.19. Territories requiring establishment of protected areas in the Dauria
Steppe Ecoregion
II.Conservation and Monitoring
39
40
Action-oriented Ecosystem Monitoring
Multi-year research conducted by DIPA staff resulted in
accumulation of a considerable body of knowledge on ecosystems and
species of Dauria and spurred development of a new comprehensive
ecological monitoring system that is oriented towards integration
of science and development of sound science-based policies in
conservation and natural resource management.
Now all activities are integrated into one program of research and
nature conservation called "Impact of climate change on ecosystems
of Daurian ecoregion and ecosystem-based adaptations to them".
Fig.20.Inner Mongolian Hulietu Nature Reserve spans the floodplain of the
transboundary Argun River near Kuti Village on the Russian side.
The key element of the Program is a system of long-term ground
and remote-sensing monitoring of wetlands in the transboundary upper
Amur-river basin. The main tasks of the monitoring system are
1) to study the influence of climate variability on the upper Amur
II.Conservation and Monitoring
41
basin wetlands;
2) to develop a scientific basis for sustainable adaptation of
national and international policies of nature resources management to
climate change and biodiversity conservation.
3) to use monitoring results to guide development of specific
adaptation measures.
The monitoring network includes more than 200 plots at
floodplains and at lake shores on an area of about 200,000 sq.km
(Fig.21). Most of them are designed for monitoring both vegetation and
animal populations. This wide network allows the Project to get data on
spatial and temporal dynamics of ecosystems.
Fig.21. Location of the monitoring stations network in wetlands of Dauria
Ecoregion (marked by triangles))
42
The key outputs of the Project are policy-relevant knowledge on
the natural dynamics of ecosystems which can be part of the basis of
sustainable development of the region including sustaining globally
valuable biodiversity in the face of climate change. Now we already
know some general principles of climate cycles in the region and,
connected to them, spatial and temporal differentiation of biota, the
main factors and adaptations that help species to survive during critical
multi-year periods. Monitoring results will guide the development of
specific adaptation measures such as:
1. new protected areas planning and region-wide spatial planning
to secure refugia and corridors for species movements
2. prediction of possible adverse impacts of water infrastructure
and adjustment of water infrastructure schemes
3. development of allowable limits of anthropogenic impacts
to improve environmental flow requirements in changing climate
conditions
4. better planning of land-use and water consumption
5. development of other climate adaptation measures increasing
resilience of traditional activities of local communities
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
43
III.Climate Adaptation
and Water Management
Fig. 22. Herders’ camp at Huihe, Inner Mongolia
Climate adaptation is not a new theme for people of Dauria Mongolian nomadic tribes were adapted to temporal and spatial change
44
in availability of water and other resources due to climate cycle. (Fig.22).
However, the current mode of development, associated with stationary
settlements/production facilities and linear growth in economic output is
inevitably leading to severe competition for water and other resources in
times of drought. Human induced “Climate Change” may make cycles
even more pronounced and affect the duration of phases, but is likely to
bring problems similar to those already experienced by society poorly
adapted to periodic drought. Meanwhile drought is nowadays perceived
as “climate change scarecrow” and very questionable water engineering
solutions are proposed to “protect environment and society” from
climate change. Poorly planned human activities initiated in anticipation
of climate change (including some adaptation measures) may drastically
hurt ecosystems much earlier and more severely than the consequences
of actual global climate change(Simonov and Wickel, 2009).
Recent rapid socio-economic changes and loss of nomadic heritage
in Dauria Steppe make ecosystems and local communities less resilient
to naturally fluctuating resources and to droughts and floods that are
made more extreme through climate change (Fig.23 ). Drastically
different cultures, population density and an unsustainable mode of
economic development and water use in Russia, China and Mongolia,
make it very difficult to build a transboundary mechanism to protect
common water resources. Meanwhile risks for wetland ecosystems and
dependent population are further exacerbated by recent proposals for
several inter-basin water transfer projects and other infrastructure in the
Argun River Basin. A water management crisis is actively developing
in all three countries – China, Mongolia and Russia. The Argun-
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
45
Fig.23 . Concrete yurts of tourist camp in Gen river floodplain. Inner
Mongolia. Photo by Daniel Hanisch.
Hailaer, Khalkh-Halaha, Kherlen-Kelulun, Ulz, Onon, Imalka rivers –
virtually all notable watercourses of Dauria - are transboundary. The
greatest potential threat is unfolding when competition for water among
countries is made the implicit goal of national policies thus forcing
them to store waters on national territories and this leads to demolition
of transboundary wetlands of global importance.
Therefore, any adaptation to climate change in Dauria must first
of all occur through the prevention and removal of maladaptive water
management practices that do not succeed in reducing vulnerability but
increase it instead. Adaptation may be achieved through the use of best
water-saving technologies and appropriate resource-use practices. Here
46
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
47
Fig. 24. Water infrastructure
projects and principal protected
areas in transboundary Dauria
48
Table 1. Existing and planned water infrastructure in headwaters of Amur River in Dauria.
(source: www.arguncrisis.ru/ )
# on
map
Name and
Location
Reservoir
volume in
km³
Water
Diverted
Annually, in
km³
Purpose
Notes
RUSSIA
2009 withdrawal
f ro m t h e A rg u n
River
1,2
Transsibirskaya
Hydro on Shilka
river
15
3-7
Hydropower
4 -20
cascade on Argun
River
0,009
Industry,
Likely
agriculture,
underestimated
municipal supply
no
Hydropower,
navigation,
Proposed by EN+
Yangtze Power in
2011
no
Hydropower,
Proposed in SinoRussian Amur and
Argun Water
Management
Scheme in 1994.
No data
Water transfer
Built in 1960, fell in
from Dalai lake disrepair
to Argun River
1.05
Water supply to Built and
Manzhouli, Dalai functioning since
Lake
2009
replenishment,
irrigation
CHINA
8
Xinkaihe Channel
no
9
Hailaer-Dalai Canal Dalai Lake
serves as
reservoir
10
Direct canal from
Halaha River to
Orxon River that
cuts off Buir Lake
11
Water diversion
facility to Xilingol
mining operation,
Khalhingol
(Halaha) River
12
Zhaluomude
Water
Management
System, Hailaer
River
unknown
0.7
“restoration of
Dalai Lake and
Orxon River”
Suggested in
2010-11 at
Sino Mongolian
negotiations
>0.1
Thermal electric In 2010 –EIA held
power plant and
water supply
to industrial
facilities
up to 0.5
Flood control,
hydroelectric
power, water
supply, irrigation.
Project approved
and financed by the
Ministry of Water
Management
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
# on
map
Name and
Location
Reservoir
volume in
km³
Water
Diverted
Annually, in
km³
Purpose
49
Notes
13
Zhashuhe -Yakeshi 0.1
City Hydropower
Plant,
0.05?
Hydroelectric
Project approved by
power, irrigation the Ministry
of Water
Management,
tender held in 2011
14
Huihe Reservoirs, 0.1 and 0.2
Huihe River
0.1-0.2
Irrigation
Completed by 2006.
15
Honghuaerji Water 0.3
Management
System, Yimin
River
0.2
Water supply,
Huaneng
Corporation
thermal
power plant,
flood control,
irrigation, etc.
Completed by 2010
10 small reservoirs
in Yakeshi area
>0.05
Multipurpose
In planning
Daqiao and other
reservoirs
>0.4
Water supply,
irrigation
Project mentioned
in long-term
infrastructure plans
0.015
Industry,
data unreliable
agriculture,
municipal supply
MONGOLIA
Water withdrawal
from Dauria Rivers
16
Hydropower on
Onon River
No data
17,
18
Togos Ovoo
Reservoir for
Kherlen-Gobi
Water Transfer
Project
0.6
Hydropower,
« 1 0 % o f Supply to
river flow
thermal
power plant,
coal washing,
industry,
irrigation,
municipal
Listed in National
“Water”
Programme (2010)
Feasibility Study by
“Prestige Group” in
2010-2012
50
the countries have different comparative advantages and a lot to share.
Mining seems to be one of the most fast-growing of water consumers
among growing economy sectors in all 3 countries.
Water management in the Argun River basin. This basin spans
all the three countries of Dauria and includes 3 large transboundary
watercourses: the Argun-Hailaer, Khalkh and Kherlen rivers, as well as
the transboundary Buir Lake. While water use pattern in each of the 3
countries is unsustainable and has its peculiarities, China has the key
role in this basin due to greater population and economic activity.
In the middle of 20 century during wet phase of climate cycle
the first notable piece of water infrastructure
- the Xinkaihe Channel
from Dalai Lake to Argun River was built to protect property built
inside pulsating wetlands from flooding (Fig.25). Nowadays the water
management component of the program "Revival of Old Industrial
Bases in Northeast China" in Inner Mongolia (2003-2030) contains
detailed justification for rapid water diversion and flow regulation in
the Argun River basin (called Hailar in the upper reaches), including
construction of two large canals for water diversion and 10 reservoirs
(Honghuaerji, Zhaluomude, Daqiao, Zhashuhe and others – see Fig. 24
and Table 1 ). This will ensure water supply for growing cities (Hailar,
Yakeshi, Manzhouli), development of irrigated agriculture, building of
thermal power plants that use of local coal (Dayankuangqu deposit and
coal-fired power plants in the valley of the Yimin River see Figure 26
and "Thirsty Coal" Box e.g.) and others (China Engineering Academy,
2007, Thirsty Coal…2012). All water infrastructure projects are
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
51
Fig.25. Now dysfunctional Xinkaihe Channel built in the 1960s to bring
water from Dalai Lake to Argun River. Hulunbeier
interrelated and implementation of one of them increases probability of
implementation of other projects to deal with negative consequences.
Simultaneously China is also developing programs for "waterconserving irrigation”, air cooling systems and circulating water
supply systems in industry, etc. Nevertheless from 2003 to 2015
in four prefectures in eastern Inner Mongolia a 10-fold increase in
industrial water use was planned, mainly through the creation of coal
energy complexes, as well as substantial growth of water consumption
in agriculture and for "environmental" purposes like tree planting in
grasslands and converting lakes into reservoirs (e.g. “environmental
transfer” into the Dalai Lake). The planned increase in the average longterm water consumption just by the already constructed or approved for
construction reservoirs in the Hailar River basin will be up to 1-1,5 km3
52
of water per year. In addition, the canal Hailar-Dalai is designed to
transfer more than 1 km3 / year. In total this will take more than 60%
of the average long-term run-off of the Hailar -Argun River.
“THIRSTY COAL”
GREENPEACE WARNING ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF COAL
INDUSTRY EXPANSION (after Thirsty Coal, 2012)
Coal mining is an extremely water-intensive industry, as are coalfired power plants and coal chemical industries. Through Greenpeace
East Asia commissioned research report prepared by the Institute
of Geography of Chinese Academy of Science, it is estimated that
in 2015, the water demand of coal power bases in Inner Mongolia,
Shaanxi, Shanxi and Ningxia will either severely challenge or exceed
the respective areas’ total industrial water supply capacity. Thus, the
development of coal-related industries in these areas will take up a
significant amount of water currently allocated to non-industrial uses,
such as farming, drinking water and ecological conservation. Report
findings show high potential for coal industry impacts on transboundary
river basins shared with Russia, Mongolia and Kazakhstan.
Inner Mongolia is a key region for the expansion of the coal-power
bases as outlined in the 12th Five-Year Plan. Presently Hulunbeier
Prefecture alone has 22 lager thermal power plants in operation and
under construction that have a generation capacity of 48960MWt. But
the region faces a harsh reality: while it is blessed with 26% of China’s
coal reserves, it only has 1.6% of the country’s water resources. The
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
53
thirsty Coal Report estimates that in 2015, the major coal-power bases
in the region will demand a water volume 139.5% of its industrial water
consumption in 2010. Eastern Inner Mongolia -Mengdong coal-power
base is China’s largest coal-producing area and the fastest growing
region in terms of coal yield is located in Dauria steppe primarily in the
Argun River basin. Its coal output is predicted to reach 520 million tons
by 2015 and 693 million tons by 2020, if it develops as planned.
The Hulunbeier Grassland Supervision Station and the Inner
Mongolia Grassland Survey and Design Institute found that the area
suffering from grassland degradation, desertification and salinization
was 3.982 million hectares at the beginning of this century, increasing
two-fold from the 1980s when the number was 2.097 million hectares.
Greenpeace predicts that by 2015 the annual water demand from Inner
Mongolia’s coal mining industry will reach 2.218 billion m3. Another 606
million m3 of water will be consumed for coal-fired power generation
within the region, and 329 million m3 for its coal chemical industry. That
means a total of 3.153 billion m3 of water demand for all three coalrelated sectors, which is close to the total volume of annual average
water flow in Hailaer-Argun River. The development of coal power bases
has caused a fundamental change to the distribution of the grasslands’
water resources: groundwater is pulled out, and reservoirs are built
to trap surface water. Pumping out groundwater (mine dewatering) is
a prelude to coal extraction. In fact, it is estimated that for every ton
of coal extracted, 2.54 m3 of groundwater is pumped and wasted. In
open-cast coal mining areas in Inner Mongolia, aquifers have dried up
54
and groundwater levels have fallen, leaving the regions’ main water
resources depleted. Further long-term effects of this include degradation
of topsoil into sand, lowered soil fertility grassland degradation and drying
of wetlands, accelerating desertification contributing to sandstorms. It
also seriously impacts crop and animal farming.
The China Huaneng Group has built the Honghuaerji Reservoir
which dams the Yimin River- principal tributary to Hailer-Argun River.
The Yimin River, which provides water for the southeastern part of
the Hulunbeier grassland but is now cut off and dammed by Huaneng,
has tragically dried up - even in flood season. Decreasing surface and
ground water supply will result in degradation of forests and wetlands.
Regional water pollution is also a serious problem. The mining,
transport, processing, and burning of coal produce large amounts
of waste water and industrial waste, which is often directly dumped
into rivers, causing serious surface water pollution. Previous scientific
studies found that in China’s northwest, the mining of every ton of coal
results in contamination of an average of about 7 m3 of water resources.
The Report concludes that strict assessment should be conducted
on the impact of the the coal-power bases on the local water
resources, especilly when carrying out the “Strategic EIA on Regional
Development”. The principle of “development in accordance with
water” should be upheld, which entails limiting the scale of coal-power
bases according to the local situation of water resources. Industry
should adopt water-saving technologies, improve industrial processes,
and conserve and use water more efficiently.
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
55
Fig.26 . New coal mining operation in Moergol River valley, Hulunbeier,
Inner Mongolia
In Mongolia the Argun basin is primarily represented by Kherlen
River, stronghold of Genghis Khan, where sparse population and
cultural tradition of nomads for long ensured protection of water
resources (Fig.27), but development of modern mining industry and
infrastructure may quickly destroy a fragile river ecosystems already
stressed by climate change (Fig. 28). The Mongolian National Water
Program stipulates that measures include, along with sound waterconservation projects, an excessive amount of planned reservoirs for
“adaptation”, hydropower, irrigation, supply to mining sites, etc.
56
Fig.27.Well used by herders.
Dornod. Mongolia
Fig. 28.Gold mining in Mongolia. Photo by UMMRL
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
57
Fig.29. Wastewater discharge from Zhalainor town into Mutnaya
watercourse 15 kilometers upstream from Molokanka water sampling
station. Hulunbeier
Fig.30. Nighttime wastewater
discharge into Huihe River at
Modamudji. Hulunbeier
58
In the depopulated Russian part of the Argun River basin
consumption of water is minimal and most concerns arise in relation
to mineral extraction and processing, with a large Priargunsky uranium
mine being of the most concern. Nevertheless Argun is perceived by
Russians as the most polluted river in Amur River basin.
Water quality in the transboundary Argun River deteriorated sharply
after 2000. This is partly connected with the advance of a long-term
dry period (reduced volume of water in the river resulted in increased
concentrations of dissolved pollutants), and partially - with the rapid
development of industry in China (Fig. 29, 30). During approximately
the last ten years there have been continuing discussions of this problem
between the Government of Zabaikalsky Province and Inner Mongolia.
These discussions have not yielded any tangible results, as the Russian
side has no effective tools to influence the Chinese side. In connection
with development plans for water use, industry and irrigation, as well as
with population growth, the situation in the Argun River basin should
be expected to worsen in the near future.
Hailaer-Dalai Water Transfer. Hulunbeier Prefecture (Inner
Mongolia, China) has completed construction of a canal to divert
water from the Hailar River (upper reaches of the Argun River) to
Lake Dalai for "environmental purposes”. The obvious purpose of the
canal construction is to provide water for fish farming, tourist facilities,
municipalities and mining industry. (Fig. 31, 32) The project has passed
the necessary approvals in the Ministry of Water Resources, Ministry of
Environmental Protection and other relevant departments in China.
The average long-term run-off of the Argun River in the place
Fig.31. Infrastructure development in the Hailaer-Dalai Water Transfer Project area .
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
59
60
where the Argun-Hailaer River reaches the Russian-Chinese border is
about 3.5 km3 per year, and in the dry period the runoff hardly exceeds
1.5 km3 per year. The projected average long-term water transfer is 1,05
km3 without use of pumping and regulation by reservoirs upstream.
If the flow is regulated by water reservoirs and/ or installed pumping
equipment, water allocation can be increased. At the length of 200-300
km downstream from the planned water intake, the Hailar River is the
only significant source of water for the Argun River.
The water transfer project was suspended in summer 2007, after
Fig.32. Hailaer-Dalai Canal construction. May 2009
expression of concern from the Russian side at the official negotiations
of the heads of two states. The matter was passed for discussion at the
meetings of relevant water authorities, at which the Chinese Ministry
of Water Resources expressed an unambiguous opinion that the canal
construction is a purely internal matter of China, and it is not to be
discussed at bilateral meetings.
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
61
Fig.33. Hailar-Dalai Canal construction in May 2009. Image by
“Transparent World”
The threat to Dalai Lake Ramsar site from mining was even
mentioned in the Resolution X.13 of the COP10 of the Ramsar
Convention in 2008. Construction of the canal diverting water from the
Hailar River may become a new justification for water allocation from
Dalai Lake to many mines and factories around (Fig. 31).
Despite negotiations with Russia and concerns expressed by
international organizations the canal was nevertheless built and started
operating in August 2009 (see Fig.33.34,35). It is expected that by
2012-2015 water diversion through the canal will cut floods feeding the
Argun River floodplain and in general substantially change the volume
of the river runoff.
62
Fig.34. Water intake structure at Hailar River. 2011
The following consequences are possible as a result of water
regime alterations in the transboundary part of the Argun River valley
due to upstream reservoirs and canal(Fig. 37,38):
•
Regulation of river flow will disturb the existing flood cycle,
leading to drainage of wetlands;
• River meandering will stop, and the natural braided channel
will degrade, leading to degradation of wetland habitats structure;
• Reduction of wetland areas threatens populations of migrating
and nesting birds, including 19 globally threatened species listed in the
International Red List;
Fig.35. Water started flowing through Hailar-Dalai Canal in August 2009. Image by “Transparent World”
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
63
64
Fig.36. Hulungou watercourse that channels transferred water to Dalai
Lake.2011
• Migration routes of certain animals will be disrupted in the
entire area of Dauria steppes;
• Flood control will disturb flooding and replenishment of soil
with nutrients in floodplains, and thus will reduce the pastures and
hayfields on which people’s survival depends during droughts;
• Aridization of climate in the Argun River valley will occur, which
will worsen conditions for growing crops and cause desertification;
• Concentrations of pollutants in the waters of the Argun River
will increase;
• There will be worsened water supply conditions for Zabaikalsk
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
65
Fig.37.Comparison of water levels in conditions of natural
flow in 2004 (1) and such flow reduced by 1 cubic kilometer
water withdrawal (2) in Argun River at Kuti village
(Assessment of impacts.., 2009)
Fig.38. Argun River curve near Genhe River mouth during
flood and in low water. Photo by Daniel Hanisch
66
settlement with the largest customs checkpoint, Priargunsky mining
chemical factory, settlements along the river, etc.;
• The deteriorating conditions will force inhabitants of the
settlements located in the border areas of China and Russia to move to
other places.
Consequences of the water transfer for Dalai Lake in China may
also be negative (Fig. 36):
• Increase of the inflow from the Hailar-Argun River will lead to
concentration of pollution in the lake, posing a threat to public health,
fisheries and tourism;
• Disturbance of the natural cycle of water level fluctuation will
affect diversity and productivity of the lake that has been converted into
human-made reservoir.
These negative consequences may take effect in the course of the
next 2 cycles in Dauria climate fluctuation, and in-depth study is needed
to plan how to minimize damage resulting from this canal and new
planned water infrastructure in Argun River basin. In 2011 the Chinese
side invited a delegation of Russian officials to visit the canal and start
discussion on the consequences of its functioning.
Meanwhile there are other water diversion projects planned in the
region:
• from the Kherlen River (Kerulen, Kelulunhe) to Gobi in
Mongolia to supply the South Gobi mining industry, export-oriented
thermal power plant at Shivee Ovoo and exports of added-value
products (washed coal) from Sainshand. (#17-18 at Fig.24, Fig.39,40)
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
67
• from the Khalkh Gol River (Halahahe) to Xilingol coal mining
areas in China to support development of coal-burning thermal power
plants(#11 at Fig.24).
Hydropower Plans. Dauria has very poor and risky conditions
for hydropower development due to highly variable flow with dramatic
climate cycles, remoteness from large industrial consumers and other
limitations. Despite several dozen perspective dam locations suggested
here during the last century not a single hydropower plant has been
built.
Nevertheless, “EuroSibEnergo-En+”, the largest independent
power producer in Russia, and China Yangtze Power Co. (”CYPC”), the
largest Chinese listed hydroelectricity producer, now prepare for joint
investment into power plant construction projects in Eastern Siberia.
The owner of “EuroSibEnergo-En+”, the Russian billionaire Deripaska
claims that China and Russia could jointly develop large hydropower
in Siberia to reduce Chinese dependence on coal. “EuroSibEnergoEn+” proposed Trans-Sibirskaya Hydro in Zabaikalsky Province, on
the Shilka River – the source of the Amur River with a 450 kilometer
long reservoir, that in length will occupy roughly a half of the Shilka
River proper (Fig. 42). It will fully block the Shilka River watershed,
disrupt important migration corridor between the Amur river and
northern Dauria, exterminate floodplain communities unique for Dauria,
drown 130 important historic sites and 20 settlements(Fig. 41, 43). The
reservoir will be contaminated with rotting wood and toxic substances
from mining complexes upstream, it will exterminate local fish
Fig.39. Orkhon-Gobi and Kherlen-Gobi water transfer schemes (after: Long distance …, 2007)
68
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
69
Fig.40. Gun-Galuut Nature Reserve on the Kherlen River to be destroyed
by Kherlen-Gobi water transfer
Fig.41. Old settlements in Shilka River valley would be drowned by
Transsibirsky Reservoir
70
including giant Kaluga Sturgeon–endemic of the Amur(Fig.14). CYPC
and Three Gorges Co. eye this project in the headwaters of the Amur
as a first step to build dams on the Amur River main transboundary
channel. Over the last 20 years that plan to dam the Amur River main
channel，jointly schemed by Russian and Chinese water agencies in the
1980-s，has been continuously rejected by Russian officials, scientists
and environmentalists . Completely removed from the development
agenda in Russia, but it remains as centerpiece of the long-term
hydropower development Scheme for Northeast China and is supported
by Chinese authorities despite huge environmental and social risks.
Right now “EuroSibEnergo”(En+) is developing a feasibility study to
obtain investment from EXIM Bank of China and other sources.
Already existing hydropower has significant negative impact on
the Amur River Basin and adding a new plant on Shilka River may
significantly worsen the situation in the whole river basin (see Fig.
44). Therefore the Shilka project has been continuously questioned
by regional scientists and environmentalists. In March 2012 a wave
of actions in defense of the Shilka River initiated by WWF and local
NGOs rolled through the cities and towns of the Amur River basin and
it forced the hydropower company to start a dialogue with NGOs. On
World Water Day En + Group and WWF Russia signed an agreement to
hold a joint comprehensive study to assess the impact of hydroelectric
plants on the ecosystem of the Amur River Basin. The purpose of the
study is to produce a balanced account of all the key factors, including
environmental and socio-economic, that should be considered when
deciding on the possible development of the hydro potential of the
Fig.42. Planned reservoirs of Transsibirsky hydropower cascade on the Shilka River
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
71
72
Fig.43. St.Prokopy Church that would be flooded in Gorbitsa Village. Photo
by D.Plukhin
Amur basin and construction of new hydroelectric plants. Such a
comprehensive strategic basin-wide environmental assessment will be
conducted for the first time in the history of hydropower in Russia and
the Soviet Union.
Prior to the completion of studies and discussion of its conclusions
with the public En+ EuroSibEnergo promised to suspend all planning
and negotiations on the Trans-Siberian hydropower project on the Shilka
River. The decision on the future of the Trans-Siberian hydropower
project should be based on the conclusions of a comprehensive
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
73
environmental assessment.
If such an assessment was conducted in Dauria river basins
only, it would not make much sense, since much better conditions for
hydropower development exist in adjacent basins to the North (the
Lena River), West (the Yenisey River), East (the Zeya and Bureya
tributaries of the Amur).
Gold Mining. The mining industry is on the rise in Dauria and its
impacts on rivers are very obvious. Among mining activities, extraction
of placer gold has the longest history and widest distribution among
mined minerals and has profound impacts on Dauria’s natural systems.
Placer gold mining transforms the relief, the hydrological regime, the
destroys plant and animal communities (Fig.28,45,46). It is also known
to induce disease and abnormal development in humans and animals.
Besides devastation of a key element of the habitat - stream valleys, the
mining process may bring mercury and other pollution. Fig. 49 presents
findings of a survey carried out in 2011-2012 in the Amur River basin,
which resulted in in the production of an Electronic Atlas of Gold
Mining in the Amur River basin, an assessment of the degree of placer
gold mining impacts on river valley ecosystems, and an assessment of
potential pollution in streams below mining sites. In China placer gold
mining has resulted in degradation of significant parts of wetland and
riverine habitat that requires science-based ecosystem management and
restoration measures, while in Russia and Mongolia it is also causing
on-going destruction in previously pristine river valleys (see Fig47).
In cooperation with a project led by Dr.Guo Yumin of Beijing
74
Fig.44 . Areas of influence of hydroelectric dams on river basins
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
75
76
Fig.45. Chinese gold-mining vessel at work Fig.46. Kirkun River valley at confluence with the Vereya
River devastated by gold mining
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
77
Fig.47. Gold mining consequences on Onon River tributaries
in Russia
Fig.48. Protest by Mongolian environmentalists in Ulaan
Baatar in 2011
78
Forestry University and supported by Whitley Fund for Nature we also
explored gold mining policies in Russia, China and Mongolia. China
issued strong forest conservation policies and has already stopped
a “gold rush” in forested regions but still has to deal with profound
consequences and bears the costs of habitat restoration and developing
alternative livelihood opportunities for local people. Mongolian society
has just realized the tremendous threats to nature and people and in
2009 the government under strong pressure from the expert community
and civil movements adopted the “Law on prohibiting mineral
extraction in forest areas, river headwaters and water protection zones”
and started implementing measures to limit mining in environmentally
valuable areas. Russia is boasting the greatest amount of rivers already
destroyed by mining and is on the verge of starting new mining
operations. Due to the economic crisis there was some slow-down in
expansion of Russian placer mining operations in the 1990s and then
a significant shift to hard-rock ore mining of gold. This is because of
complicated regulations, lack of new accessible deposits, depopulation
of Eastern Russian and the bad attitude of local communities towards
placer-mining operations. But in 2010 the placer mining companies
successfully lobbied to boost development of “micro-deposits” in
small valleys with under 10 kilograms of gold in each, and that had
not interested larger companies in the past. It is presented to the public
as a “social measure” to help local people to make a living in harsh
economic times by killing their environment. In reality it will have
ultimate effects similar to “ninjia mining” in Mongolia where people
are loosing health and culture in the process of devastation of their
the Amur River basin
Fig. 49.Gold mining impacts on rivers of Dauria. Map derived from the Electronic Atlas of Gold Mining in
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
79
Fig.50.. Gold mining in transboundary Onon River basin
80
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
81
own environment. Demonstration of effective conservation limitations
imposed on placer mining in two neighboring countries would help to
introduce similar measures in Russia, where many pristine rivers are
now targeted for accelerated gold prospecting.
Downstream pollution from placer gold mining on Onon River
tributaries Ashinga, Balj and Kirkun in Zabaikalsky Province of Russia
threatens the well-being of local citizens, cattle breeding and fishing
tourism and the integrity of Onon-Balj National Park in Mongolia
(Fig.50,51) . Gold mining on transboundary rivers has already led to
official complaints by Mongolian authorities and civil society to Russian
Fig.51.Downstream impacts of gold mining. Polluted Ubyr-Shinia River
confluence with transboundary Ashinga River
82
officials in 2010-2011(Fig.48). Several licenses were withdrawn from
“Balja” Mining Company in 2011, but despite that in June 2012 new
pollution reached Mongolia from placer mining on the Kirkun River.
Embankments on the Transboundary River. The relation
between the state border line and natural changes of the riverbed
(erosion and sedimentation processes) is a hot issue in Sino-Russian
negotiations. In the present situation the agreed border follows “the
center of transboundary watercourse” and each party independently
decides the issue of preserving stability of riverbanks on the demarcated
state border, including undertaking artificial bank protection which
Fig.52. Embankment built on the China side of the Mutnaya and the Prorva
watercourses’ confluence
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
83
may lead to erosion of the opposite bank, destruction of the natural
floodplain dynamics at this section, loss of natural retention areas in
floodplain reservoirs that reduce the risk of catastrophic floods, loss of
spawning grounds, etc. (Fig.52,53)
This issue is most relevant for the Argun River, where negative
environmental impacts of river bank protection have never been
formally evaluated by governments. Natural riverbed processes
(meandering) are cyclical in time and are limited by floodplain areas
(i.e., they may cause only local and temporary loss of limited areas).
A sound common regime for the protection and use of floodplains and
for demarcation of state border should be elaborated, that preserves the
Fig.53. Erosion of the Argun River Bank in Russia provoked by embankment
of the opposite riverbank. Starotsurukhaitui
84
natural floodplain processes. The coordinated establishment of a system
of protected wetlands on transboundary rivers in the long term may
also help to solve the problem. Resolving this problem has enormous
long-term environmental, economic and political effects, because the
ecological integrity of the river will be maintained, enormous costs to
control riverbed processes will be reduced, the damage to fisheries will
be eliminated, ability to self-purification will be maintained, and damage
from floods to downstream areas will be prevented (not increased).
Obviously, the mutual claims of both parties that regularly arise under
the present regime of border demarcations will be eliminated.
International cooperation on water and climate. Uncoordinated
water resource development aimed at securing water on the individual
national territories would have devastating effects on the transboundary
wetlands. While conflict is possible, the countries have different
comparative advantages and have a lot of reasons to share experience.
There are hopeful developments in each country: China has a strong
National Wetlands Protection Policy and Action Plan that prescribes
water allocation to important wetlands (2003). Russia adopted a new
Water Code prescribing development of “Standards of acceptable
impact” (SAI) for environmental flows, as well as chemical, thermal,
radioactive and microbial pollution (2007), Mongolia adopted a new
law “Law on prohibiting mineral extraction in forest areas, river
headwaters and water protection zones”(2009).
Amongst the many multilateral conventions the Ramsar
Convention is one of the most relevant policy tools in the Amur-Heilong
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
85
Fig.54. Sand storm in Argun River Valley near Huliyetu Nature Reserve,
Hulunbeier, Inner Mongolia. Photo by Guo Yumin
River basin with 17 wetlands already listed under the convention, five
of them located in Dauria Steppe. The Ramsar Convention Regional
Initiative approach provides a suitable framework for multilateral
cooperation on transboundary water management and transboundary
environmental flows for wetland conservation, but the three countries
are slow to realize it.
All three countries also have bilateral agreements on Use
and Protection of Transboundary Waters, which lack clear mutual
obligations and their implementation so far has not led to appropriate
integration of water management across the borders.
It is necessary to initiate the establishment of a Chinese-Russian-
86
Mongolian intergovernmental commission on economic and ecological
adaptation of nature resource management policies in Dauria to climate
change with the aim to ensure a favorable environmental and political
situation. The Commission is needed primarily for the development and
implementation of water management regimes, mutual endorsement of
economic projects that might have a significant impact on transboundary
ecosystems, as well as for the joint application of best technologies and
management practices.
One of the most needed international tools is an Agreement on
environmental flow norms for transboundary rivers of Dauria river
basins and provisions for sustaining natural dynamics when planning
water allocation to wetlands.
Fig.55. Argun River Valley near Russian Kuti village across from Inner
Mongolian Hulietu Nature Reserve on the China side. Photo by O.Goroshko
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
87
E-Flow
Design of Environmental Flow Requirements
Environmental flows describe the quantity, timing, and quality of
water flows required to sustain freshwater and estuarine ecosystems
and the human livelihoods and well-being that depend on these
ecosystems (Brisbane Declaration 2007). The goal of environmental
flow management is to restore and maintain the socially-valued benefits
of healthy, resilient freshwater ecosystems through participatory
decision-making informed by sound science. Sound environmental flow
management hedges against potentially serious and irreversible damage
to freshwater ecosystems from climate change impacts by maintaining
and enhancing ecosystem resiliency.
Scientific research is being undertaken by DIPA on the
environmental flow requirements of the transboundary Argun and Ulz
rivers during different phases of the climate cycle. Considerations on
selection of critical components and parameters of environmental flow
in conjunction with Hailar-Dalai water transfer are presented below.
(Table2)
When developing environmental flow norms we should also
consider climate change effects on water temperature and flow
volume, etc. Over the last 50 years the average thickness of ice cover on
Dauria rivers has decreased by 22 centimeters.
To protect and manage wetlands we should consider flow
dynamics interplay with other factors such as wildfires, overgrazing,
88
Table 2. Critical components and parameters of environmental flow
Critical Components
Measurable parameters to be monitored
I
For Argun River:
1
Sustaining floodplain
habitat for waterbirds
and fish, meadow
productivity
Timing of floods, flooding frequency, duration of rise
and fall
Flooded area (wetted perimeter)
Density and breeding success of indicator species of
birds and fish
Area and productivity of meadows (ton/hectare)
related to flooding frequency
2
Sustaining
geomorphological
processes
Reporduction of important stream habitats and
meandering processes, braided channels.
Frequency and magnitude of flow events necessary
to reproduce habitat features
Additional condition: limitations on length and
location of embankements and other engineering
structures
3
Biota survival in low
flow periods and
changing concentration
of pollutants (minimal
flow)
Timing, frequency and duration of low flow (and noflow freezing) periods
Critical low-flow discharge ( still sufficient for survival
of biota)
Species composition, abundance and productivity of
plankton and benthos, dynamics of fish populations,
invasion of exotic species
II
For Dalai Lake:
1
Sustaining cyclical
habitat dynamics
Fluctuation of water level (magnitude, timing, speed,
frequency)
Habitat succession and acreage and abundance of
indicator species
2
Sustaining geochemical
dynamics of lake
ecosystem
Cyclical change in water chemistry (salinity, PH, etc)
Succession and abundance in indicator species,
absence of exotic species
Additional condition: limitations on pollutant
discharge through diversion canal
III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management
89
waterfowl hunting and egg collection, thermal power plant impact, and
embankment construction.
Lack of field observations is the greatest impediment to
developing environmental flow norms and therefore DIPA concentrates
on data collection and management. In 2010 DIPA developed a
monitoring system and established 3 field monitoring transects with
more than 100 standard observation plots, which allow to discern
changes in, water surface, and plant communities succession under
climatic fluctuations. Wetland monitoring in both Argun and Ulz River
basins is enhanced by developing combined remote-sensing and fieldtransect monitoring methods in transboundary wetlands. This will allow
scientists to measure the effects of climate change and other impacts
on water levels and ecosystem health, and will help improve water
management for human use and economic development.
This research, when completed, may provide the technical
foundation for harmonizing bilateral water management policies
with Mongolia and China. Results will be used to promote the
implementation of the existing Sino-Russian provincial Agreement on
the Conservation of the Argun River Basin and development of bilateral
Agreement on environmental flow norms for transboundary rivers of
Argun basin and provisions for sustaining natural the dynamics of water
allocation to wetlands.
90
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vegetation cover: Desertification in Dauria” Botanical Garden of
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69. E.A.Simonov, S.A.Podolsky, Yu.A.Darman. Water resource
utilization in Amur River Basin and possible environmental
consequences: an early warning. P133-138. In: Problems of
sustainable use of transboundary territories. Proceedings of the
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70. Simonov Eugene, Kiriliuk Vadim.. “Design of environmental
flow requirements of Argun River and opportunities for their
introduction into transboundary management” Second workshop
on water and adaptation to climate change in transboundary basins:
challenges progress and lessons learnt, held on 12-13 April 2011
in Geneva. http://www.dauriarivers.org/unece-loooks-into-argunriver-environmental-flow-requirements/
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Lake: Agenda for international negotiations. “Cooperation in
nature conservation between Chita Province and Inner Mongolia
Autonomous Region.” October 29-31.2007. Proceedings. Chita
2007.(in Russian).
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Igor Glushkov, Vadim Kiriliuk. . Transboundary conservation of
wetlands in Dauria and adaptation to climate change. International
102
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Society for Conservation Biology. Beijing, China 11-16 July 2009.
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Vadim Kiriliuk. Trans-boundary conservation in Dauria and
adaptation to climate change. Biodiversity and Humanity
Cooperation Forum. ECBP Hulunbeier project. Hailaer. June 2009.
(in English)
74. Sukhgerel Dugersuren, Mining in Mongolia and possible
transboundary impacts of water transfers from Orkhon and Herlen
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106
107
Appendix
I.Climate
II. Rivers and Landscapes
III. Dauria Zoo
IV. Landuse
V.Dauria People
CLIMATE
108
109
i
ii
iii
i | Dry salt lake in Dornod, Mongolia by V.Kiriliuk
ii | Hummocks in Erguna floodplain by Dan Hanisch
iii | Dry Ulz River at Erentzaav in 2007 by V.Kiriliuk
iv | Swaeda invading dry lake bottom by V.Kiriliuk
v | Wet Duroy lake in Argun floodplain by Simonov
v
iv
110
111
i
ii
i | Halophyte by V.Kiriliuk
ii | Dry Duroy lake in Argun floodplain by Simonov
112
113
i
iii
ii
iv
v
vi
vii
i | In dry years a bar connects island with shores of Zun Torey Lake
ii | A Cormorant and Gull colonies on the island are devastated as soon as it becomes accessible to predators
iii | Halophyte by Oleg Korsun
iv | First ice on Onon river in N.Tsasuchei by Simonov
v | Thick snow cover makes grazing difficult by Guo Yumin
vi | Floodplain of Argun river by T.Tkachuk
vii | In dry years spring fires facilitate encroachment of steppe into forest zone by V.Kiriliuk
114
115
i
ii
iii
i ii iii | Dance on new ice by A.Barashkova
116
117
i
ii
iii
iv
vii
viii
v
vi
i | Degraded oxbow bog in Erguna Wetland Reserve by Simonov
ii | Sand on a road in Huliyetu Erguna valley by Simonov
iii | Moving sand blocking road in Hulubuir by Simonov
iv | Sandstorm by Simonov
v | Soil on floodplain meadow during draught by Simonov
vi | Spring in Dornod by Simonov
vii | Kids of Erguna by Dan Hanisch
viii | Flood on Genhe River by Dan Hanisch
ix | Dry wetland by Guo Yumin
x | Shade is precious on Torey Lakes in dry summers by V.Kiriliuk
ix
x
118
119
i
ii
iii
i | Hills at the northern shore of Zun-Torey Lake are refugia for
many species in dry periods by V.Kiriliuk
ii | Elm groves sheltered by rock outcrops - important refugia
for many species by E.Kokukhin
iii | Roe Deer can survive in steppe if water and woody plant
shelter is available by E.Kokukhin
iv | Simonov blown with the wind - thumbleweed is well
adaptated to steppe climate by O.Kiriliuk
iv
120
121
i
i ii | Winter flowers by A.Barashkova
ii
122
i | Pallas cat in winter by A.Barashkova
ii | Local cattle is adapted to year-round grazing by A.Barashkova
123
i
ii
124
125
Rivers and Landscapes
126
127
ii
i
iii
i | Ad u n - c h e l o n r o c k s i n
Daursky BR by V.Kiriliuk
ii | A p r i co t s i n O n o n - B a l j
National Park by Simonov
iii | Argun floodplain across
fom Genhe River Mouth in
Russia by Simonov
128
129
ii
iii
i | Cliffs overlooking Zun Torey Lake in Daursky Biosphere Reserve by V.Kiriliuk
ii | Erka Wetland connecting Dalai lake and Argun River by Simonov
iii | Confluence of Kirkun and Bukukun rivers in Onon headwaters in Mongolia
by Simonov
iv | Cranes stop-over at Daursky BR by O.Goroshko
i
iv
130
131
i
ii
iii
iv
v
i | Head of Xinkaihe Canal at Zhalainor by Simonov
ii | Herders camp on Argun River in Russia by Simonov
iii | Fieldwork in dry year on Barun Torey lake in Daursky BR by V.Kiriliuk
iv | Horseshoe-shaped oxbow lake on Argun River floodplain across
from Huliyetu reserve by Simonov
v | Huihe wetland in bloom by Simonov
132
i | Ice on Barun Torey Lake by V.Kiriliuk
133
i
134
135
dauria zoo
136
137
i
ii
iii
v
i | Bean and White-fronted geese by Guo Yumin
ii | Daurian hedgehog by V.Kiriliuk
iii | Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) by O.Goroshko
iv | Flying swans by Guo Yumin
v | Demoselle crane (Anthropoides virgo) By V.Kiriliuk
vi | Gallinago gallinago by O.Goroshko
iv
vi
138
139
i
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
vii
i | Hooded cranes return from the south very early by Guo Yumin
ii | Gazelle migration is often triggerred by snowfall by Barashkova
iii | Gazelle injured by border fence by V.Kiriliuk
iv | Lenok from Balj River by Simonov
v | Grayling (Thymallus arcticus) by Oleg Korsun
vi | Great Bustard by Guo Yumin
vii | Kaluga Sturgeon by Yu Dunskii
140
141
i
ii
iii
iv
v
i | Loach(Barbatula toni) by Oleg Korsun
ii | Mongolian toad(Bufo raddei) by Oleg Korsun
iii | Marmota sibirica by V.Kiriliuk
iv | Otter by V.Solkin
v | Pallas cat by V.Kiriliuk
vi | Mongolian Gazelle by V.Kiriliuk
vi
142
143
iii
i
ii
i | Pallas kittens by V.Kiriliuk
ii | Red fox by Egidarev
iii | Rat snake (Elaphe dione) by Oleg Korsun
iv | Red-crowned crane (Grus japonensis) by O.Goroshko
v | Migrating geese at Argun river by Guo Yumin
vi | Racoon dog by V.Solkin
v
vi
iv
144
145
i
ii
v
viii
vi
ix
iii
iv
vii
xi
x
i | Ruddy shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea) by Oleg Korsun
ii | Siberian crane by Guo Yumin
iii | Wader by Oleg Korsun
iv | White-naped crane (Grus vipio) by O.Goroshko
v | Relic gulls by Guo Yumin
vi | Tree frog (Hyla japonica) by Oleg Korsun
vii | Tern (Sterna hirundo) by Oleg Korsun
viii | Wolf by V.Solkin
ix | Swans come in early spring by V.Kiriliuk
x | White-tailed Sea-eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) by Oleg Korsun
xi | Swan goose (Anser cygnoides) hiding in reeds by O.Goroshko
146
147
landuse
148
149
iii
i
ii
v
iv
i | Construction of Hailaer-Dalai water transfer canal in 2009 from RwB archive
ii | Coal prospecting well at Old Heishantou village at Erguna wetland edge by
Simonov
iii | Discharge channel and meadow flooded with water from coalmine
Chenbaerhu bnner, China from RwB archive
iv | Barbwire-promiinent landscape feature in Argun Valley in Russia by Simonov
v | Elm tree shelterbelt in Erka nature reserve wetland China by Simonov
vi | E.Simonov at Hailaer-Dalai canal 2011
vi
150
151
iv
v
vii
vi
i
viii
ii
iii
i | Good Morning in Heishantou village Erguna China by Simonov
ii | Gully erosion in Erguna China by Daniel Hanisch
iii | Herder camp in Dornod Mongolia by V.Kiriliuk
iv | Evening on Argun River by Simonov
v | Gold miners from Balja company discharge polluted water into Kirkun River floodplain by Simonov
vi | Gold mining water cannon of Balja Company destroys river valley, Kirkun River, Russia by Simonov
vii | Honghuaerji Huaneng coal-energy complex on Yimin River from RwB archive
viii | Gold prospecting also destroys river valley, Kirkun River, Russia by Simonov
152
153
v
iii
i
ii
iv
vi
i | Lamb in fenced pasture of Erguna China by Simonov
ii | Moergol fisheries, Hulunbeier China by Simonov
iii | Horse breeding in biuffer zone of Daursky BR by V.Kiriliuk
iv | In Moergol wetlands herders often travel by boat Hulunbeier China by Simonov
v | Horses are used for transportation, sports and food in Dauria
vi | Khudzhertai River destroyed by Balja Company miners in 1998 from RwB archive
154
155
ii
i
i | Old Heishantou village at Erguna wetland edge by Simonov
ii | Tractor grazing Argun floodplain in Abagaitui, Russia by Simonov
iii | Pig herd in Norovlin Henti by Simonov
iv | Old boundary fortification on Argun by Simonov
v | Sheepyard Erka NR China by Simonov
vi | Reed of Moergol floodplain transported to paper-making factory - one of
main water polluers in Hulunbeier China by Simonov
vii | Overgrazing in Huihe natue reserve China by
Simonov
viii | Overgrazed floofplain in Erguna by Simonov
ix | Two coalmines at Moergol valley by Simonov
iv
ix
iii
vi
v
vii
viii
156
157
iii
iv
i
ii
i | Vereya River destroyed by Balja Company miners in 2010 from RwB archive
ii | Wetland edges are severely affected by grazing in dry years Huihe floodplain
Hulunbeier China by Simonov
iii | Wildfire eats grassland by Simonov
iv | Wild egg collection at Huliyetu China by Chen Liang
v | Wetland is not an ideal pasture Hulunbeier China by Simonov
v
158
159
dauria people
160
161
i | As gazelle grow in numbers in Daursky and vicinity rangers have to do more and more patrolling by E.Kokukhin
ii | Bowl of Genghis Khan in Aginsky steppe reserve-Russia by Simonov
iii | Barbers' shop on Kherlen River floodplain at Togos-Ovoo. Herders do not welcome plan to build reservoir
there. Mongolia by Simonov
iv | Binder-ovoo at Khurkh -Khuiten Ramsar site in Henty-Mongolia by Simonov
i
ii
iii
iv
162
163
i | Cowboys of Hulunbuir by Simonov
ii | Cows a base of economy in Heishantou village at
Genhe River mouth
iii | Daursky Biosphere reserve has brave rangers
iv | Dr.Goroshko and his workload by V. Kiriliuk
i
ii
iii
iv
164
165
ii
iii
i
i | Dr.Korsun in search of grassland bugs by O.Goroshko
ii | Water delivery by truck to Daursky BR ranger station by Simonov
iii | Eugene Simonov befriending Daurian herder at Derbugan river, Hulunbeier China by Dan Hanisch
166
167
iv
v
i
ii
iii
vi
i | Gorbitsa village resident - They threaten us with reservoir on Shilka River each
decade by Simonov
ii | Observation post at the border on Argun River by Simonov
iii | Interview with a herder in Erguna, China by Simonov
iv | Herder's holiday at Moergol wetland by Simonov
v | Herding wild cats with radiometry in Daursky BR by A.Barashkova
vi | Local herder riding through marsh in Erguna China by Dan Hanisch
168
169
iii
i | Local moving by boat through the Moergol wetland by Simonov
ii | Mudhut construction by Simonov
iii | Monument of Mongolian-Russian Friendship at Kherlen river in
Choibalsan by Simonov
iv | Nomadic birdwatch by Simonov
iv
i
ii
170
i | Ovoo at Torey lakes by V.Kiriliuk
171
i
172
173
i
ii
iii
iv
i | Summer huts used by Russians for recreation in
Argun River floodplain by Simonov
ii | Hydro-meteorology station at Gorbitsa village on
Shilka River by Simonov
iii | Swan goose chick by O.Goroshko
iv | Utochi research station at Daursky BR in 2006
before renovation by V.Kiriliuk
v | Ritual on the road Dornod by Simonov
v
174
175
ii
iii
i
i | Watchful ornithologists of DIPA by V.Kiriliuk
ii | Ovoo overlooking Kherlen valley at BaganuurMongolia by Simonov
iii | Sacred Alkhanay Mountain in Russia by Simonov
176
177
i
ii
i | Ranger station at Zun-Torey Lake Daursky BR by V.Kiriliuk
ii | Parking lot in Dadal Mongolia by Simonov
iii | Protect the Taimen sign in Dadal Soum on Onon river Mongolia by Simonov
iii
Introduction
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