Earth Surface Processes and Landforms
Earth Surf. Process. Landforms 29, 00–00 (2004)
LANDSLIDE INCIDENCE ZONATION
Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/esp.1056
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LANDSLIDE INCIDENCE ZONATION IN THE RIO MENDOZA
VALLEY, MENDOZA PROVINCE, ARGENTINA
STELLA M. MOREIRAS*
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Instituto Argentino de Nivología, Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales (IANIGLA)-CONICET, Casilla de Correo 330, CP 5500,
Mendoza, Argentina
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Received 2 September 2002; Revised 26 March 2003; Accepted 14 May 2003
ABSTRACT
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This paper presents a landslide incidence zonation map showing the percentage of underlying material involved in massmovement processes in the Rio Mendoza valley, Argentina. The landslide incidence zonation map was derived from an
inventory map of landslides and reveals that many areas of the Rio Mendoza valley are implicated in this kind of process.
A correlation has been found between the occurrence of landslides, earthquakes, and rainfall. The relation between lithology
and landslides is clear: areas covered by friable sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Choiyoi Group are prone to debris
flows and complex landslides. The slope map has been ranked and a general relation between slope and type of event is
shown. Falls commonly develop in high-angle slopes. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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KEY WORDS: landslides triggering factors incidence inventory map conditioning factors.
INTRODUCTION
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Landslides are among the most common natural geologic events in the Andes, and are generally unpredictable,
which is why they often result in natural disasters. Landslides have caused important economic impacts in South
America affecting roads, railroads, communication systems, homes and human lives. The largest historic landslide disaster in the Andes was the rock avalanche of 1970 in the Nevados of Huascarán (Peru); it was triggered
by a M 7·75 earthquake and caused the destruction of the town of Yungay killing 20 000 people.
Landslides and the consequent economic losses will tend to be larger in the future because of increasing
population, expansion of urban areas, infrastructure established in unstable areas, and deforestation. The Institute
for World Resources has estimated that tropical forests are disappearing at a rate of 16 –20 × 106 ha per year
(Collier, 1997).
Specific studies are necessary to determine the potentially unstable areas for the implementation of measures
to avoid, prevent, and control landslides.
The present work presents landslide inventory and incidence zonation maps of the Rio Mendoza valley of
Argentina, to be used in future territorial planning studies (e.g. construction of roads and bridges, installation
of tourist facilities, extension of electric lines).
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STUDY AREA
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Location
The study area is located in western Mendoza Province, Argentina, at latitude 32° 30′ south. It extends about
30 km along the Rio Mendoza valley, from the tributary of Rio Picheuta to the locality of Guido, covering an
area of approximately 1600 km2 (Figure 1). Access to the area is by National Road No. 7, an international road
connecting Argentina and Chile. The international Transandino railway also linked the two countries along the
Rio Mendoza valley from 1910 to 1993 and it will probably be restarted in 2005.
* Correspondence to: S. M. Moreiras, Instituto Argentino de Nivología, Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales (IANIGLA)-CONICET, Casilla
de Correo 330, CP 5500, Mendoza, Argentina. E-mail: [email protected]
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Figure 1. Location map showing study area and localities mentioned in the text
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Regional geology
The study area embraces the Cordillera Frontal, the Precordillera, and the Uspallata Depression geological
provinces. The Bonilla Group (Lower Palaeozoic) and Devonian metamorphic rocks are the oldest stratigraphic
units in the area and they appear in the Precordillera. Carboniferous marine or glacio-marine formations continue
in erosive or tectonic contact. A Permian–Triassic volcanic-intrusive complex, the ‘Choiyoi Group’, commonly
outcrops with lithologies that are predominant in the area. The Triassic appears exclusively in the Precordillera,
represented by the Uspallata Group (Rio Blanco, Cacheuta, Potrerillos, Las Cabras and Rio Mendoza Formations), consisting of sedimentary rocks with some basalt and volcanic intercalations. Tertiary continental sedimentary formations and andesitic, dacitic and dioritic hypabyssal bodies appear in the area. Quaternary deposits
are formed by alluvial, colluvial, outwash and glacial deposits along the Rio Mendoza valley.
This sector is structurally characterized by thrust tectonics along the eastern margin of the Cordillera Frontal.
The southwestern border of the Uspallata valley is limited by thrust, overthrust, and normal faults of the La
Carrera Fault System (Cortes, 1993).
Climate
The region is prevalently arid and semi-arid; however, a heterogeneous mosaic exists with different ‘bioclimatic
situations’. Precipitation varies considerably with elevation (Minetti, 1986). Most of the area receives 100 to
150 mm annually, reaching 300 mm at the highest elevation of the Cordillera Frontal. The absolute maximum
temperature has occurred in the month of February (34·8 °C) and the absolute minimum in July (−15 °C) in the
Uspallata valley (1884 m).
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Topography
The Cordillera Frontal is a mountainous system generally with a north–south trend, with peaks reaching to
6000 m elevation. The Precordillera Mendocina, an older orographic system with lower topography than Cordillera
Frontal, has a general north–south trend and rises to 3000 m above sea level.
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Vegetation
Because of the climatic elevation succession, different ecological floors and vegetation formations have been
distinguished (Roig and Carretero, 1998).
(a) Alto Andina constituted by gramineous, stocky species and poorly developed bushes (Stipa sp., Azorrea sp.,
Adesmia sp.); it occurs mainly in the mountain range.
(b) Puna appearing in the valley of Uspallata surrounded by the El Monte Formation. The climax occurs in the
Paramillos–Precordillera area (Stipa humilis var. ruziana, Senecio uspallatensis, Aphylloclados sanmartinianus,
Adesmia uspallatensis, etc.)
(c) El Monte xerophilus formation (Prosopis sp., Larrea sp., Bacharis sp.) is observed along the Rio Mendoza
near the Villa of Uspallata.
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It is important to know of the existence of other vegetation communities such as Cortaderia rudiuscula (xerophitic),
Juncus balticus (hygrophyte) and Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (hydrophilous) along the riversides, in the
streams or on the saturated floors. Exotic vegetation also exists produced by human activity (forestation, cultivation,
etc.); this is more evident along the corridor of the international road to Chile.
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Soil
Incipient pedogenesis and weak soil development characterize the Quaternary deposits of the study area due
to arid and semi-arid climatic conditions. Precordilleran Quaternary soils are poor in nitrogen and calcium
carbonate, rich in potassium, and have medium phosphate contents. Soils derived from weathering of the rock
in situ are rich in clay fraction and salines (Roig and Carretero, 1989). Cryoturbation is common in the whole
area during the winter season. Along the Uspallata valley, the hydrological conditions change and as a result,
Entisol soils have been described (INTA, 1990).
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Pre-historic and historic landslides that have occurred in the Rio Mendoza valley were identified and classified,
and mapped to provide their distribution and incidence. The applied methodology was based on air-photo
interpretation, digital analysis of satellite images, and field control. Aerial photographs from the year 1963, a
Spot image from 1985, and three Landsat Thematic Mappers (1986, 1997 and 2000) were analysed.
The term ‘landslide’ denotes movement of material down and out of a slope, composed of rocks, debris,
soil, or combinations of these geologic materials. Landslide processes are events that involve combinations of
materials and triggering agents; they are transitional phenomena in which all the gradations exist.
The landslides were classified according to the system proposed by Cruden and Varnes (1996), based on a
combination of movement type and type of material. The type of movement can be fall, slide, flow and complex;
the latter includes events with characteristics of more than one of the other three groups.
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METHODOLOGY
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CONDITIONING FACTORS
A landslide is a geologic process resulting from diverse factors, that can broadly be classified as: (a) the
geomorphic setting and environment; and (b) the physical properties of the earth materials (Selby, 1982). All
of these variables, however, may not play an equally important role in a particular area.
Lithology
The areal distribution of landslides in the Rio Mendoza valley is associated with outcropping lithologies.
Many landslide processes are linked to friable volcanic rocks of the Choiyoi Group (Figure 2). The lithology
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Figure 2. Landslide rate values per unit area of lithology category
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Characteristics of the rock
In the Rio Mendoza valley it can be observed that fall versus flow occurrence is associated with rock jointing
and degree of weathering in the granite. Circular areas 1 m in diameter were selected along the granite outcrops;
for these areas the degree of weathering and numbers of joints were analysed. The weathering degree of an area
was considered to be 50 per cent or more when its exposed surface exhibits single grain mineral relief; a partially
weathered area is one in which less than 50 per cent of the surface is weathered; and a fresh area exhibits no
roughness to the touch and feels smoother.
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of this group is variable; hence, material behaviour also varies. A rhyolitic porphyry that intrudes the Permian
Triassic volcanites has been involved in 98 landslides; three correspond to active ‘rockfall areas’ at tunnels 4,
5, 6, 7 and 8 of the international road to Chile.
Metamorphic rocks are prone to small-scale rockfalls, with blocks up to 2 m in diameter, and topples; both
usually affect the provincial roads leaving the village of Uspallata. Debris flows have also been observed, but
in lower numbers. Carboniferous sediments have an extension similar to that of the metamorphic rocks; however,
only a few landslides have been detected in these rocks. Triassic and Tertiary sedimentary rocks have developed
small flows.
A granite outcrop in the Guido area is the source of rockfalls; nevertheless, the more numerous and important
slope movements occur as debris flows. They originate from significant unstable accumulation of granitic debris
flowing under certain conditions, mainly by water saturation due to rainfall.
Figure 3. Toe of debris flow, west valley wall, Rio Mendoza Valley. This debris flow, which was triggered by a summer rainstorm in 1996,
passed above the retention wall and damaged the international road to Chile
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As the number of joints in the outcrop increased, the size of the blocks became smaller, resulting in a tendency
for the occurrence of debris flows. In addition, if the degree of weathering was less than 10 per cent, indicating
relatively fresh granite, falls of large blocks were observed. When the weathering degree increased, to say
between 10 and 50 per cent, the size of the falling blocks became smaller; and if the weathering degree was
more than 50 per cent, debris flows were generated. When the weathering degree was more than 70 per cent,
intense disintegration occurred and the rubble generated did not exceed 1 cm in diameter. With the presence of
water, this rubble commonly moved as a flow (Figure 3). Furthermore, it is also mobilized by the action of
winds, causing great inconvenience to the traffic on the international road.
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Slope aspect
Landslide potential increases with the degree of the slope but there is a complex relationship between slope
gradient and slope stability. In this study the slopes were divided into the following classes: class I (0–15°);
class II (15–30°); class III (30–45°); class IV (45–60°); and class V (>60°) (Figure 4). Terrains with small
gradients are more stable and less vulnerable to landslide activity than steep ones. The most notable slopes are
those with active falls as can observed in the Guido locality, Negro peak, and the tunnels located in the
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Figure 4. Map showing slope ranking in the Rio Mendoza valley. The highest-ranked slopes in this valley are associated with active
rockfalls in the road cuts including construction of the international road to Chile
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Figure 5. Directions of movement of landslides in Precordillera and Cordillera Frontal geological provinces by percentage
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Geomorphology
In the Cordillera Frontal mass movement events are associated with U-shaped valleys with unstable walls that
were eroded by Pleistocene glacier advances. In addition many small debris flows are related to rock glaciers
or moraines.
Alluvial fans and alluvial cones exhibited debris flows deposits. These debris flows have caused damage to
vehicles on the international road that is located in the distal part of some alluvial fans. Furthermore, human
establishments have taken place in those sectors during recent years disregarding the danger of those areas.
Certain processes, such as solifluction, in the highest areas of the major tributaries of the Rio Mendoza are
also linked to minor slope movements. Fluvial erosion at the toe of the slope is another process related to the
landslides. Furthermore, it is important to determine the type of erosion in crown and source areas; generally,
mass-movement events are linked to rill incision and not to the sheet-flow erosion.
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porphyries. Generally, intermediate slopes (30° to 60°) are subjected to flows and slides, while class I slopes
are associated with alluvial fans and torrents in the alluvial plain of the Rio Mendoza valley.
The directions of movement are markedly different between the Cordillera Frontal and the Precordillera.
Southeastern principally, northeastern, southern and eastern directions predominate in the Cordillera Frontal, in
spite of the fact that the most common directions in the Precordilleran area are to the southwest, northwest and
west (Figure 5). This difference seems to be related to differences in trends of the major tributary valleys in the
two geological provinces. Nevertheless, south-facing slopes have a greater tendency to landslide activity in the
nascent areas of the Cordillera Frontal; this is probably due to shadier and colder south-facing slopes that lead
to accumulation of snow and greater physical weathering due to freeze–thaw. On the other hand, north-facing
slopes receive more solar radiation; as a result, they are drier before rainstorms occur, thus taking longer to reach
the same degree of saturation.
Surficial hydrology
Flows generally occur in main streams or in gullies that experience ephemeral torrents. These flows commonly take advantage of the existing paths, thus extending over longer distances.
Human activity
The main conditioning factors have already been described in the previous discussion; however, slope
instability has frequently been increased many times by human activity.
In the Rio Mendoza valley, construction of the international road to Chile resulted in several major cut slopes.
In addition, explosions carried out in making the cuts have produced intense breaking of the rock, weakening
it, and making the rock outcrops prone to instability.
The international Transandino railroad embankments also are subject to landslide activity. Vibrations caused
by the heavy vehicular traffic on the international road, and in the past as a result of the mining activity in
Precordilleran areas, also may have been a factor in triggering landslide activity.
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TRIGGERING FACTORS
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Precipitation
Precipitation is apparently the main triggering factor in the study area. Some of the meteorological records
for the region have been collected from presently existing meteorological stations, while other records are not
continuous because the stations no longer exist. In the Precordillera and areas at lower elevations, the most
intense precipitation occurs in the summer months, associated with rainstorms. On the other hand, in the
highest areas of the Cordillera Frontal, precipitation during the winter (May–July) occurs mainly as snowfall
(Figure 6).
Landslide occurrence in the area is associated with torrential rainfall or snowmelt during the spring at the
headwaters of some basins. One hundred and forty events have been correlated with rainfall by historic data,
newspaper recompilation, and villagers’ stories. However, the minimum precipitation intensity required to
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Figure 6. Mean monthly precipitation and temperature records for meteorological stations. Precipitation is presented by bars, temperature
by the line
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produce landslides is difficult to determine because the rainstorms are usually very local, and in several cases
they are not recorded at nearby meteorological stations; but the rainfall occurrence has been documented by
records of government institutions or local observers. In general, events triggered by precipitation have been
more local, while those triggered by earthquakes have been regional with several simultaneous events occurring
along the valley.
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Seismicity
Seismic movements are acknowledged to be one of the main factors in landslide initiation (Keefer, 1984). The
study area is situated at latitude 32° and 33° south where the Benioff zone has a low subduction angle associated
with important earthquakes. Earthquakes with M > 7·4 have occurred in the area.
The complementary regional seismic map was compiled with the seismic information gathered from the
beginning of the 20th century until 2000 (Figure 7).
A definite relationship exists in the study area between the occurrence of earthquakes and landslides. The
triggering relationship has been established by reports of technicians who visited the province to analyse the
damage caused by earthquakes, travellers’ books, records of government institutions, and the compilation of
newspapers. In spite of a shortage of historic records, 80 landslide events have been identified as having been
triggered by earthquakes.
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LANDSLIDE PROCESSES
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In this study 300 pre-historic or historic landslides have been identified in the Rio Mendoza valley (Figure 8).
The events considered were all at least 1000 m long. In those sectors of interest for the conservation of National
Road No. 7, landslide events shorter than 1000 m were grouped as ‘flow areas’ or ‘fall areas’. Debris flows
prevailed due to the properties of rock in the contribution areas. However, rockfalls were common along this
international road and were associated with massive rocks. In the Precordillera, rockfalls and topples affected
smaller areas. Espizúa et al. (1993) have already noted the relation between friable materials that resulted in
flows and massive rocks associated with rockfall occurrence in the west of the study area.
Landslide activity was classified as inactive and active according to morphology, drainage, and vegetative
evidence (Crozier, 1984). Forty-seven per cent of the landslides in the Rio Mendoza valley are currently active,
including their first movement and reactivations. Rockfalls have been considered reactive due to historic events
that could be determined (Figure 9).
The relative ages of the landslides was considered as Pleistocene–Holocene according to their stratigraphic
relationship with glacio-fluvial terraces, moraines or rock glaciers dated by Espizúa (1993) and Wayne (1980).
The material volumes displaced in most of the multiple or successive events were smaller for the younger
deposits. The largest deposits were observed in older flow events.
INCIDENCE ZONATION
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Incidence represents the percentage of material on the earth’s surface involved in landslide events. The percentage of area covered by landslide deposits was calculated from the landslide inventory map using an overlapping
200 × 200 m grid. Four categories were determined for the incidence zonation map:
(a)
(b)
(c)
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very high incidence: more than 50 per cent of each grid is affected by landslides;
high incidence: from 15 to 50 per cent of each grid is involved in landslides;
moderate incidence: from 1·5 to 15 per cent of each grid is implicated; and
low incidence: less than 1·5 per cent of the grid is affected.
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The areas most affected by landslide processes are headwaters of the Rio Ranchillos and the Seca Gully
(Figure 10). Other high-incidence areas associated with National Road No. 7 and the Transandino railway are
observed in the vicinity of Guido, near Negro Peak and at tunnels 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10. In these sectors the
danger is even greater because the landslides are active and recent.
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Figure 7. Regional seismic map with epicentres and magnitudes of earthquakes from 1575 to 2000. Data provided by the National Institute
of Seismic Prevention (INPRES, San Juan, Argentina), the Department of Geology of the University of Chile, and the Seismological Institute
Ingeniero Fernando Volponi
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Figure 8. Landslides distribution map for the Rio Mendoza valley
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Figure 9. Bar chart showing types of landslides in the Rio Mendoza valley
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LANDSLIDE INCIDENCE ZONATION
Figure 10. Landslide incidence zonation map of the Rio Mendoza valley based on coverage of a 200 × 200 m grid
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The incidence map shows that to a certain degree, a large part of the study area is affected by landslides, a
fact that should be considered when planning land use in the Province of Mendoza.
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CONCLUSIONS
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This work identifies landslides triggered by precipitation and earthquakes in the valley of the Rio Mendoza,
Argentina. The tendency found was that those triggered by precipitation associated with summer rainstorms
predominated. The importance of certain conditioning factors as lithology, slope, geomorphology, hydrology and
human activity was verified by slope instability and movements. Rock characteristics, such as weathering and
jointing in massive lithologies, suggest which kinds of processes predominate.
A landslide distribution map indicates the large amounts of mass movement in the study area. The presence
of active landslides emphasizes even more the degree of danger and notes a higher risk in those sectors with
engineering infrastructures.
An incidence zonation map that shows areas affected by landslides is of value in planning land use in the
study area.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Dr Lydia Espizúa from Argentine Institute for Snow and Glacier Research (IANIGLACRICYT) who reviewed the original manuscript. The field checks were conducted with the useful assistance of
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Collier 1997. Collier’s Encyclopedia, Vol. 10, p. 189.
Cortes JM. 1993. El frente de corrimiento de la Cordillera Frontal y el extremo sur del Valle de Uspallata, Mendoza. XII Congreso
Geológico Argentino y II Congreso de Exploración de Hidrocarburos. Actas. T° III: 168–178.
Crozier MJ. 1984. Field assessment of slope instability. In Slope Instability, Brunsden D, Prior DB (eds). 103–142.
Cruden DM, Varnes DJ. 1996. Landslide types and processes. In Landslides: Investigation and Mitigation, Turner AK, Schuster RL (eds).
Transportation Research Board Special Report 247. National Research Council: Washington DC: 36–75.
Espizúa LE. 1993. Quaternary glaciations in the Rio Mendoza Valley, Argentine Andes. Quaternary Research 40: 150–162.
Espizúa LE, Bengochea JD, Aguado C. 1993. Mapa de riesgo de remoción en masa en el valle del Río Mendoza. XII Congreso Geológico
Argentino y II Congreso de Exploración de Hidrocarburos. Actas T° VI: 323–332.
INTA. 1990. Atlas de suelos de la República Argentina. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria. Proyecto PNUD ARG. 85/019.
Tomo II: 71–106.
Keefer DF. 1984. Landslides caused by earthquakes. Geological Society of America Bulletin 95: 406– 421.
Minetti J. 1986. El régimen de precipitaciones en San Juan y su entorno. Centro de Investigaciones Regionales de San Juan (CIRSAJ)(CONICET), Informe Técnico No. 8.
Roig FA, Carretero EM. 1998. La vegetación puneña en la provincia de Mendoza, Argentina. Phytocoenología 28(4): 565– 608.
Selby MJ. 1982. Hillslope Material and Processes. Oxford University Press: Oxford.
Wayne WJ. 1981. La evolución de los glaciares de escombros y morenas en la cuenca del Río Blanco, Mendoza. VIII Congreso Geológico
Argentino, San Luis. Actas IV: 153–166.
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REFERENCES
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Rafael Bottero and Hugo Videla (IANIGLA). This work has been possible thanks to a CONICET (Consejo
Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas) postgraduate scholarship. Dr R. Schuster and an anonymous reviewer are thanked for their helpful comments.
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Query Refs.
killing OK?
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