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Literature and Arts C-42
Constructing the Samurai
MIDTERM 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
THE TALE OF THE HEIKE .................................................................................................................... 2
THE FOUNDING OF THE KAMADURA SHOGUNATE.................................................................... 5
THE CULTURE OF WAR ........................................................................................................................ 7
YOSHITSUNE ............................................................................................................................................ 9
ATSUMORI .............................................................................................................................................. 12
RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE KAMAKURA BUSHI............................................................................. 13
FUJITO ..................................................................................................................................................... 15
THE TAIHEIKI ....................................................................................................................................... 16
THE CULTURE OF LAWLESSNESS .................................................................................................. 21
THE SPLENDOR AND MISERY OF THE MUROMACHI CENTURY: ......................................... 23
FOURTEENTH-CENTURY JAPANESE WARFARE ........................................................................ 24
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The Tale of the Heike
Part I
[ Week 3. Yui ]
Kiyomori was Governor of Aki until he was transferred to Governorship of Harima, granted in
recognition of his services at the time o the 7th month of the 1st year of hogen. During various Hogen and
heiji discrepancies, he ascended through the ranks remarkably fast until he was named a Chancellor.
His job consisted of being a preceptor to the Emperor, and also keeping order of the state. He held the
country in the palm of his hand and any objections from the community were futile. People said the Heike
favor was due to the divine favor of the Kumano gods. There was a tale of Kiyomori in which a huge sea
bass jumped into his boat. He was blessed by one stroke of luck after another, which was probably why
he rose through the ranks to Chancellor so quickly. No one spoke out against Kiyomori because he hired
14-year-old boys with “page-boy haircuts’ to spy on the townspeople. If anyone spoke out against the
Heike, the boys told Kiyomori and took their belongings before arresting them. Kiyomori’s sons shared
his good fortune, and became Regents while one daughter even became an empress.
Kiyomori liked two shirabyoshi performers, Gio and Ginyo, and gave them food and money for their
performances, as well as building a house for their mother, Toji. Shirabyoshi dances were called “male
dancing” because the female performers were clad in oversized shirts and high caps. Hotoke, 16, was
another shirabyoshi performer in the capital. She wondered why Kiyomori never called on her to perform,
so she decided to go to his home and present herself. Kiyomori was upset she showed up without being
summoned, and also for visiting when he already had a performer as a mistress (Gio). He dismissed her.
Gio said Hotoke was young, and it would be rude to not see her perform, so Kiyomori called her back.
Hotoke sand and danced, and Kiyomori was dazzled by her, so he asked her to stay in his company.
Hotoke said she couldn’t since it would be disrespectful to Gio. Kiyomori said he would dismiss Gio, if
that were Hotoke’s sole reasoning. Gio, Ginyo, and Toji were dismissed, and were upset not only because
gio cared for Kiyomori but also because they would no longer be receiving his funds. It was hotoke’s time
to prosper.
A year later, kiyomori asked gio to return in a letter, since Hotoke seemed bored. He asked her to perform
a imayo (song) for them. Gio was embarrassed from his dismissal, and did not want to see Kiyomori,
however she is convinced by her mother, Toji, to go regardless, since her absence would give Kiyomori
reason to banish them. The selfish mother pleaded to stay in the capital, so Gio was forced to go.
Kiyomori enjoyed the imayo, and asked Gio to stay in his company again. Gio considered committing
suicide by drowning herself, so she wouldn’t have to stay, but after Ginyo said that she would follow in
gio’s steps were she to commit suicide, Toji once again pleaded with them to reconsider as there would be
no one to take care of her. So gio left the capital and became a nun at the age of 21, and ginyo and toji
went to worship with her for the rest of their days.
Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa plotted against Kiyomori because he feared he was growing too powerful
and no longer respected his authority. He plotted with a few men in his service, namely Narichika and
Saiko. They began holding secret consultations but there seemed little chance of a successful revolt to
oust kiyomori. Yukitsuna was at these consultation, but he began to regret his involvement, since the
Heike were very powerful and if the revolt were unsuccessful, he would be killed. Yukitsuna went to
Kiyomori and revealed the retired emperor’s plan and Kiyomori began to assemble his samurai. Kiyomori
summoned and arrested narichika and has his samurai catch Saiko. Saiko remained defiant until he end
but was tortured, forced to confess, and executed along with most of his family.
Narichika was executed for his role in the rebellion. Kiyomori was still unhappy with the Retired emperor,
since he felt that if the Heike were ever weakened, Go-Shirakawa would undoubtedly try to eliminate
them. Kiyomori wanted to exile the Retired Emperor. Shigemori (Kiyomori’s son) spoke out against
Kiyomori, explaining that violence against the Retired Emperor was cruel and not characteristic of the
man he once knew.
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Soon, Shigemori dies and Kiyomori is upset by the Emperor’s careless behavior in response to
shigemori’s death, as Shigemori had been an important help to the Go-Shirakawa at times. Kiyomori
speaks to the Dharma Seal Joken Dharma is touched by Kiyomori’s speech and promises to tell the
Retired Emperor.
Kiyomori’s luck gets worse and worse. Shigemori died, there was an earthquake, a mighty tree fell at Hill
Palace, and Kiyomori is convince he saw a ghost one night. He set up 100 Taira guards to keep watch,
since it was suggested that his abode was plagued by goblins. A young samurai in Minamoto masayori’s
faction has a dream that reveals that Yoritomo should get the Sword of Commission of the Heike clan.
Kiyomori heard this, and immediately his subjects began murmuring that the weakening Heike was not as
respected as it once was and that a new warrior, yoritomo, was favored.
Part II
Monks of the southern capital enrage the Heike royal court in the capital by siding with the enemy, Prince
takakura. This enrages Kiyomori, who initially sends troops to dissuade them without violence but settles
on a slaughter after monks decapitate unarmed troops and insult him by trampling on an effigy of him. A
battle at Nara ensues between 7000 monks and 40,000 Heike horsemen.
The capital is in chaos and many think the Heike will lose the Gempei War. Some generals switch sides
and ally with the Genji. Kiyomori dies a painful death of overheating. His only request before his death is
that Yoritomo’s head be hung outside his grave as his only dedication. Kiyomori is cremated and
described as going to hell.
Yoritomo compelled by a monk Mongaku to head a revolt against Taira, as the monk obtains a royal edict
from Go-Shirakawa to go ahead with plans. There is then trouble between Yoritomo and his cousin
Yoshinaka. In ode to avoid confrontation, Yoshinaka sends his son and heir as a good sign of faith.
Yoritomo accepts this sign of good faith.
Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa appoints Yoritomo to the post of Barbarian-subduing commander and
Yoritomo accepts. Heike commander Shigehira is questioned by Yoritomo about his role in the burnings
of Nara. While a prisoner, Shigehira falls in love with a maid, Senju-no-Mae. He is soon executed and she
becomes extremely pious and attains the goal of rebirth.
Rokudai had been forced to become a religious monk by his mother so that he wouldn’t arouse
Yoritomo’s suspicion. Years later, Rokudai was in the capital and tried to appoint an emperor who was
unpopular with Yoritomo. His plot was discovered and he was banished to the Oki province by Retired
Emperor Go Toba. He was later executed.
[ Week 4. Appolonia ]
Stage set during the Genpei war.
The Minamoto troops are trying to make their way in the mountains towards the Taira camp.
Yoshitsune asks advice of local hunters to know if he can expect to go on the deer track.
He takes the decision of attacking the camp from that track = battle of Ichi-no-tani
Then Yoshitsune leads his troops to Shikoku where he defeats the Taira in the battle of Yashima.
Yoshitsune quarrels with Kagetoki over leadership and time of a battle → provokes the hatred the
Kagetoki against Yoshistune
The Dannoura battle takes place “Genji and the Heike attacked and fought in reckless disregard of their
lives, shouting and yelling”
The nun of second rank commits suicide with the emperor.
In the aftermath of the battle, Yoritomo under the influence of Kagetoki, disregards the oaths of loyalty
Yoshitsune give him.
Yoritomo suspects that Yoshitsune could be prepared a rebellion.
Yoshitsune sets to leave since he is not trusted anymore.
Goes eventually towards the northern provinces.
An official – from the Kamakura – edict is promulgated to kill Yoshitsune.
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[ Week 5. Brendan ]
The Death of Atsumori.
Kumagae no Jiro Naozane, "nobody of any importance," is walking his horse on the beach while the
Taira nobles flee to rescue vessels. He spots a fancily-dressed Commander in Chief (Atsumori) and calls
him to return, as "it is dishonorable to show your back to an enemy." A short combat ensues, Naozane
winds and dehelmets his adversary, discovering a young boy. He offers to spare the boy (as his own
young son was recently wounded), asking his name. The boy refuses and tells Naozane to ask around he
will be known. Allies show up, forcing Naozane's hand. He beheads the boy, then discovers a flute (an
heirloom) in his bag - all cry at the thought of such a refined young man's life being ended. Naozane
thinks about becoming a monk. See 14 for a Noh play about him, as a monk, encountering the boy's ghost.
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The Founding of the Kamadura Shogunate
1180-1185: With Selected Translations from the Azuma Kagami
By Shinoda, Minoru, “Selections”
[ Week 3. Laura ]
This reading is set in the Heian period and is about the Genpei war (1180-1185), which was a war
between the Taira and Minamoto conglomerates
•
Minamoto Yorimasa has been planning the overthrow of the lay priest and chancellor Taira
Kiyomori. They draw in other people to help achieve this goal, including Minamoto Yoritomo.
They are not happy with Kiyomori’s rule for the last 20 years while Yoritomo has been in exile –
it has been despotic and capricious. -> Yoritomo decides to raise an army to overthrow Kiyomori.
•
Yoritomo had wanted to and was in the middle of reciting 1000 passages of the “Lotus Sutra;”
the war interrupts this so a Buddhist priest excuses him and says he only has to recite 800
passages – Yoritomo admires the priest a lot and presents him with a gift
•
Yoritomo was mainly based in the Eastern part of Japan; Kiyomori’s in the West.
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Yoritomo’s supporters advise him to gain full control of the east before going to western Japan.
•
Minamoto Yoshitsune comes to find his older brother and rejoin him. Yoshitsune had been
taken away as an infant by his stepfather, and placed in a temple.
•
Yoritomo is humane – he had been going to execute Takiguchi Tsunetoshi; Tsunetoshi’s mother
came and pleaded with Yoritomo. Although Tsunetoshi’s offence was hardly excusable (it does
not say what the offence is), Yoritomo granted him an immediate pardon, moved by the grief of
the old mother and out of consideration of the exploits of Tsunetoshi’s predecessors.
•
Yoritomo prays for peace and tranquillity in the country, and for wealth and prosperity of the
people.
•
Yoritomo is fair – he rewards Kumagaya Jiro Naozane’s constant loyalty and bravery.
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Yoritomo’s favourite concubine, Kizen, is found quarters. Yoritomo’s wife finds out and is very
angry. She orders Kizen’s quarters to be destroyed. Yoritomo is very angry with Maki
Munechika, the man who is responsible for Kizen’s actions. Kizen is moved to different quarters.
Yoritomo is suspicious of his son in law’s, Shimizu Yoshitaka, because was an object of
suspicion too.
•
Yoritomo is suspicious of a “supporter,” Ichijo Tadayoshi. Tadayoshi is executed, and
Yoritomo leaves. The samurai / regular people start fighting. One of them is punished the next
day by having his finger cut
•
Yoritomo is also humble – he scolds a man beneath him for wearing such good clothes for being
wasteful and excessive. The man agrees to change – a sign of Yoritomo’s great influence.
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[ Week 4. Luke ]
This document provides the story of Yoshitsune battling the Heike from 1184-1185, covering much the
same material as the previous reading, Tale of the Heike. However, this reading offers a historical,
rather than narrative, perspective of the events.
Recall the important people: Minamoto no Yoshitsune is Yoritomo’s younger brother. The former is a
commander of Genji armies. Yoritomo is a leader of the Genji, who face the Heike (aka the Taira)
in the Genpei War.
The battle at Ichinotani, 1184.
The Genji, led byYoshitsune, face the Heike at their castle in Ichinotani. Yoshitsune leads a surprise
attack from a nearby precipice (the Hiyodori Impasse), catching the Heike off-guard. Yoshitsune’s
forces are thus victorious. The heads of Taira commanders killed at this battle are publicly displayed.
Yoshitsune is given court appointments, in light of his recent victories. Yoritomo is unhappy with this,
and postpones Yoshitsune’s promotion.
In 1185, Yoshitsune sails from Watanabe to Katsura in Awa Province, despite storms. He makes the 3day trip in 4 hours with 150 men. He attacks Yoshito’s (a younger brother of Nariyoshi) castle and is
victorious. Yoshitsune heads to Yashima, for a battle on the sea.
In 1185, in a large naval battle at Dannoura, the Genji are again victorious. (This is separate from the
battle at Yashima, which isn’t really covered in this reading.) Genji forces board the ships and take
loot and prisoners. (The article gives some history of a particular piece of Taira loot, the Sacred
Mirror.)
Later in 1185, Kajiwara Kagetoki, who was assigned by Yoritomo to look over Yoshitsune, accuses
Yoshitsune of being overly ambitious. Yoritomo also expresses displeasure with Yoshitsune’s
behavior.
A couple months later, Yoritomo is sufficiently suspicious and angry that he takes away Yoshitsune’s
land. Yoshitsune responds by joining Yukiie, Yoritomo’s uncle and ex-sovereign, against Yoritomo.
Yoritomo sends soldiers to attack Yoshitsune, but Yoshitsune and his retainers defend until Yukiie can
help. Yoshitsune and Yukiie receive Imperial authorization to proceed against Yoritomo. In
particular, Yoritomo loses some of his land to Yoshitsune.
After false rumors of Yoshitsune’s death and persuasion by the upset Yoritomo, the court reverses its
decision and now issues a warrant for Yoshitsune.
Yoshitsune’s mistress, Shizuka, surrenders herself near the end of 1185. She claimed she was sent away
by Yoshitsune, and then robbed in the forest by her guards. She reveals Yoshitsune has been hiding
in the mountains, and so troops are sent out to find him.
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The Culture of War
Samurai, Warfare and the State in Eartly Medieval Japan
By Karl Friday
[ Week 3. Diana ]
Introduction
• William Wayne Farris proposed that early samurai warfare could be compared to ritual
intraspecific-species combat in the animal kingdom, as opposed to predatory fighting. However,
this is a common misconception that ties in closely to the idealistic sterotype of the samurai:bushi
warfare ties in much more closely with real predatory fighting.
Reputaion, Honor and Warrior Personality
• Honor, pride & reputation were a warrior’s central concerns.
• Lives would be taken and sacrificed for the sake of honor and nothing else.
• Slights to someone’s honor could spark huge battles.
• Conceptually, one’s honor, or lack thereof, would be all that remained once the warrior
had passed away, which is why it concerned them so.
• N.B. The samurai’s concept of honor was very different from our own. They saw honor
as wining --> thus, almost any behavior could be justified in the name of preserving
honor.
• Samurai, contrary to popular belief, were very much family men, and initially didn’t like fighting,
being away from home and their wives and children etc. However, they would endure this for
pragmatic reasons.
• Samurai subscribed to the belief of supernatural powers to quite a great extent.
• Medieval Japanese saw ‘gods’ everywhere (i.e. everything was the result of the actions of
some god or another)
• Victories and defeats would often be attributed to the assistance or lack thereof of the
gods.
• Great store was put in “auspicious events” --> however, as warriors, samurai also had to
be practical.
• Deception, Guile and Surprise
• The preferred strategy of the bushi was surprise attack - similar to guerilla warfare.
Challenges were rarely issued, and even more rarely honoured. Deception was a key
battle tactic.
• Killing unarmed men and catching enemies unaware was very common - there were no
‘chivalry rules’ - any opportunity to strike down opposition was taken.
• The ends justified almost any means.
Battle cries and Self-Introduction
• Legends propose that samurai announced themselves and announce their ancestry to their
opposition before engaging in battle - however, this is highly unlikely.
• The element of surprise, which was very important, would be lost.
• Practically, it’s unlikely that samurai would stop fighting once they’d killed an enemy,
and then walk about, introducing themselves to an assortment of other enemies, until they
found one worthy of engaging with. It’s just dumb.
• The only feasible thing that samurai would have shouted in battle would be their own
names, to bolster their own courage, or scare the opposition. An introduction, however, is
highly romantic and unlikely.
Prisoners of War
• There was no such thing as a “Prisoner of War”.
• To be pardoned was to lose all honor.
• Most captured enemy were killed (sometimes after all possible information had been
extracted from them.) However, it was shameful to be captured, and a warrior would
commint suicide before letting himself be captured, if he could help it.
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• Prisoners were viewed as liabilities.
• Head-Hunting
• Warriors were recompensed for the heads of the men they killed. The more important the
person, the more they would be paid. Thus, they would “head-hunt”.
• Heads would be washed, hair combed and dressed into a top-knot, cuts
concealed with rick-paste and make-up applied to the face before presentation.
• Warriors would go to extremes to record those who they’d killed in battle (from making
custom arrowheads to paying monks to record their battle exploits as they fought.)
• Heads were also used to intimidate political enemies.
• However, even though head-hunting began to phase out by the 14th century, it only
really died out completely after WW2.
• Non-combatants
• Samurai were not too worried about differentiating between warriors and ‘civillians’
when they were killing people. During raids, women, children and “innocents” were
slaughtered along with everybody else.
• Women who survived were often robbed and raped - survivors would commit
suicide to avoid this.
• The theory is that this rose from the bushi’s detachment rather than savagery. Being
attached, compassionate, and sentimental was a weakness.
• Conclusion
• The bushi were the “grandfathers” of the Samurai, and their behaviour shaped samurai
behavior in years to come. The “real” image of the samurai is less fun than the popular
one, but what it boils down to that “they were professionals; no more, no less.”
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Yoshitsune
A Fifteenth Century Japanese Chronicle
[ Week 4. James L ]
Yoshitsune’s story begins with the story of one of his retainers, and amazing warrior by the name of Saito Musashibo Benkei, the son of Kumano Abbot Bensho, descendent of the Middle Regent Toryu, and of
the august line of Amatsukoyane.
Benkei’s Birth
• Great Counselor of Second Rank has a beautiful daughter
• Minister of State Moronaga convinces the counselor of his intent to marry his daughter.
• The daughter journeys to Kumano to pay her respects
• The abbot of Kumano falls in love with the girl, and steals her away from Moronaga.
• She gives birth to a child eighteen months after her pregnancy.
• He is christened Oniwaka (later known as Benkei).
• He is a bit of a monster by looks.
Benkei’s Childhood at Enryakuji Temple
• Because Oniwaka is so ugly, the abbot wants to kill him but later decides to relinquish him to his
sister
• Oniwaka proves to be quite the scholar.
• He also enjoys being very physical and disturbed many of the other children.
• Those who dwell at the temple really dislike Benkei and turn against him.
• Oniwaka decides to leave the temple, and renamed himself after the wild monk Saito Msashibo,
and for his true name, he settled on Benkei.
The fire at Mount Shosha
• Benkei visits Mount Shosha to pay his respects to the portrait of the holy Shogu
• The monks, led by Kaien, later accost Benkei in his sleep, write humiliating things on his
forehead, and laughs when he steps outside.
• Benkei got really angry, threw Kaien onto a roof, seriously injuring him, and accidentally setting
fire to the building.
• Believing that he is a true enemy of Buddhism, and since he already dug his hole, he decides to
burn down the entire temple and every quarter within.
• Benkei heads out for the capital, and ingeniously turns the blame to Kaien, who blames his
enemy monks, and they are all executed by the state.
Benkei steals swords in the capital, meets Yoshitsune
• He amasses 999 swords, going for his last prize blade
• Tries to steal Kuro Yoshitsune’s sword, but realizes that he’s met quite the formidable
opponent.
• Benkei follows Yoshitsune around like a pest, and keeps bugging him for his sword.
• They agree to fight for it.
• Benkai is no match for Yoshitsune, and upon beating him, Yoshitsune takes Benkai in as his
retainer.
• Benkai and Yoshitsune fight together against the Heike, and fall together in the last battle at
Koromogawa in Oshu
Yoritomo’s Rebellion
• Minamoto Yoritomo rebelled against the Taira with a night assult upon Izumi Hangan
Kanetaka (1180).
Yoshitsune escapes to the Yoshino Mountains
• Yoshitsune sends his mistress Shizuka back to the capital, tearfully
• However, the five escorts, fearing capture, decide to ditch the mistress and save themselves
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[ Week 4. Bo ]
“A man can do no worse than trust a woman” – Kaya plots Tadanobu’s death (116)
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•
•
•
Brings in Kajiwara, says that Tadanobu is going to Oshu and that he can send him to the Lord of
Kamakura and get a reward
Kajiwara basically says no way; not selfish enough and thinks it’s disgraceful
Kaya goes to Rokuhara and finds Hojo Yoshitoki, who tells Tokimasa, and 200 horses come aknockin’
Tadanobu is sleeping due to wine that Kaya gave him
“I won’t die like a dog” – Tadanobu meets his end (116)
•
•
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•
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•
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Tries to get away on the rooftops
They see him, but they lose sight of him
Instead of running away and maybe getting killed by a random arrow, he goes to Yoshitsune’s
old house to take a stand; gets a suit of armor and a quiver from inside
Fights like a beast, and freaks out the enemy
Kills “innumerable men and horses”
Gets arrowed; starts to die, so he asks to be able to kill himself; then talks for a long time about
how he’s going to die and how he’s devoted to Yoshitsune (longest. Death scene. Ever.)
Finally kills himself, they date the year as 1186
His head is brought back to Rokuhara (119)
•
•
Yoritomi is super excited, and it is an event of uncommon importance
“he was a brave man. That is the sort of spirit I should like to see in every warrior.” (119)
Memorial for Tsuginobu and Tadanobu (120)
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•
•
Yoshitsune is very gracious and lavishes praise upon the families of the dead, tells the tales of
their bravery and gives the sons new suits of armor
Tells Tsuginobu’s son to think of him as his father from now on, weeps a lot
The nun tells the sons to be honourable
Hidehira’s Death (121)
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•
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Hidehira gets really sick; he tells this followers not to go after Yoshitsune after his death, even if
they’re bribed; cut of the head of anyone from Kamakura, then he dies; Yoshitsune comes to pay
his respects
Hidehira’s sons plot against Yoshitsune; Yoritomo gets the ex-emperor to decree Yoshitsune’s
execution and to promise Hitachi province to Yasuhira and his descendents
Yasuhira plans a hunt and Yoshitsune comes; too bad the hunt was to identify Yoshitsune so
they could go after him
Yoshitsune is tipped off by Motonari, the Provisional Assistant Vice-Manager of Popular Affairs
Yoshitsune says he won’t be able to avoid an imperial decree and that it would be better to kill
himself
Yoshitsune’s wife is very sad about it
Suzuki Saburo signs up with Yoshitsune (124)
•
•
He gives up the land that Yoritomo gave him to come with Yoshitsune
Yoshitsune gives him some armor to help him
“I shall kill myself rather than trade arrows with an eastern retainer” (124)
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Battle of koromogawa vs. Hidehira’s sons’ retainers
30,000 vs 10
Benkei and the Suzukis beat the crap out of the 30,000
The younger one, Kamei Rokuro, announces himself and jumps into the battle. Kills a bunch of
guys, and as he’s mortally wounded, kills himself
Benkei fights like a nutcase even though he’s beeding heavily, everyone is afraid of him
Basically everyone kills lots of enemies and dies or kills himself. Finally it’s just Benkei and
yoshitsune
They promise to meet up in the next world
Benkei and Kataoka charge; Kataoka attacks seven warriors, and then kills himself. Benkei then
goes totally berserk and kills a ton of people, singlehandedly holding everyone at bay
Again he freaks everyone out; they all hide, but it turns out that Benkei had died on his feet
Yoshitsune kills himself (127)
•
He asks Kanefusa how to do it; he disembowels himself and then summons his wife so that she
can run away; tries to get Kanefusa to kill his wife and he does it after a little egging on, and
then kills the children; Yoshitsune tells Kanefusa to burn the place
Kanefusa burns the place down; he faces Nagasaki Taro and jiro, and makes Jiro burn in the place with
him
Yoritomo then decides that Yasuhira and company were being dishonourable and sends a massive group
to kill them off; the lesson is that honour and filial piety are good things.
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Atsumori
The No Plays of Japan
By Seami
[ Week 5. Steve ]
Background - Kumagai finds the young Atsumori prone on the batttlefield and goes to behead him.
First he asks his name, but is rebuffed. Kumagai notices the youth of Atsumori, and has pity for him, but
cannot stay his hand in front of hoards of his compatriots. So distraught by his acts in war, Kumagai
becomes a priest and changes his name to Rensei.
Action - Rensei goes to the place where he slew Atsumori in order to pray for his soul. A group of
reapers play music nearby, and Rensei's attention turns to them. He begins speaking to them, when all of
them leave but one. This reaper is actually the ghost of Atsumori in disguise. Atsumori asks for the Ten
Prayers to Amida Buddha. After Rensei begins praying, Atsumori reveals himself, and he and Rensei
relive the night before the battle, where Atsumori and the Taira danced, sung, and played music, which
Kumagai could hear in his camp. As the rememberence of Atsumori's trapping and death reemerge, he
resolves to kill Kumagai for revenge, but stops when he realizes that Rensei has prayed for him and has
thus attained salvation for himself and Atsumori. "They shall be re-born together on one lotus seat."
[ Week 5. Tyler ]
ATSUMORI:
There is a young warrior, of about 16 yrs old, who is in battle and rides away
during battle. An opposing warrior rides after him and yells for him to stop,!
come back and fight. Atsumori fights him, and gets knocked off his horse. The
man stands over him, takes of Atsumori's helmet, and realizes he's only a young
boy. He says he doesn't want to kill Atsumori, but he has to. He requests to
know Atsumori's name. Atsumori says, "Cut off my head. They will tell you who I
am." The warrior ends up killing him, and then later he becomes a "buddhist
priest" and prays for his salvation.
IMPORTANT THINGS ABOUT THIS STORY/PLAY:
- Atsumori was just a young boy, obviously
- Naozane was the name of the man that killed Atsumori
- It took place around the time of the Gempei War (1185)
- The plays showed the darker side of the samurai (I think, correct me if I'm
wrong) and depict the samurai as a lost soul, in this case, as a spirit
condemned to hell.
- The plays definitely encouraged piety among those who viewed the play.
- Naozane was a "middle of the road" samurai, very average.
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Religious Life of the Kamakura Bushi
Miyazaki Fumiko, pgs. 435-467
[ Week 5. Ebony ]
Introduction:
- Introduction gives us an insight into what the article will be about- delineating the religious life
characteristic of early medieval bushi, particularly that of the Kamakura bakufu.
- The bushi worshipped deities indigenous to Japan, but also Buddhist deities. In addition, the
Bushi played a big role in the development of religion in the medieval times. Their religious
beliefs also helped popularize these beliefs to all of society.
- Bushi use religion for the benefits. For example, the Bushi would wear undershirts with the
names of six deities inscribed before going into battle in hopes of receiving their protection.
- The article chooses to shed light on the bushi religion by analyzing the internal structure of the
religious life of one particular bushi. Miyazaki chooses to use Naozane as his general case for
his argument.
Why Naozane?
- He was an average bushi from a socio-economic view
- He lived in the late Heian period to the early Kamakura period, so he experienced most of the
major political, social and cultural changes
- He and his family left considerable information that can reconstruct their religious life in
comparison to other bushi
- His family preserved a considerable amount of documents concerning their financial situation
and religious life
Kumagai Naozane and His Family:
- Naozane entered the service of Minamoto Yoshitomo at a young age
- Serviced Yoshitomo until his death, then became the retainer of Taira Kiyomori
- Naozane soon switches forces and joins Minamoto Yoritomo’s cause
- Naozane and Yoritomo have a falling out b/c Naozane does not agree with some of his decisions
and rebels
- Claims that Naozane was not inspired to pursue the Way of the Buddha because of
killing Atsumori, but after his disappointment over a legal case
- Eventually Naozane retires from society and goes to live as a lay monk
Religious Affiliations :
- Naozane and his descendents were involved in at least three different types of religious
organizations or cults
o worship of their family ujigami, the cults of the deities enshrined in their landholdings,
the worship of the Hachiman deity and Buddhism (particularly Hōnen’s teachings)
- Each religious organization that a man was involved with corresponded with each of the roles he
played in bushi society
Ujigami:
- Tutelary deities of the members of the social unit called uji
- Few venerated their ancestors as their ujigami; only those bushi who were descended from
imperial or high-ranking court lineage could worship their ancestral deities as their ujigami
The Functions of Ujigami Worship:
- Each (male) member was connected to the ujigami by a special tie when his coming-of-age
ceremony was held at the ujigami’s shrine (regarded as quasi-blood tie, never to be broken)
- Before setting out to battle and on the battlefield members begged their deity to protect them and
help them distinguish themselves
- Generally strengthened the unity within a bushi house
o Families have blood connection, but also the collective management of the shrine of
their common tutelary deity
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-
Relationship not always stable- when a family moved they might worship the same deity, but
eventually within one or two generations they will usually stop worshiping the old deity and be
devoted to those deities of their new area
Thus, ujigami did not permanently bind together members of the bushi house who lived in
different and distant regions
Shrines in the Bushi Landholdings:
- In many cases the deity introduced by the proprietors took the place of the locally influential
deity and the shōen
- People accepted many other kinds of deities who were supposed to protect various aspects of
their lives and bring happiness
- Hachiman-gū was one of the shōen’s two major shrines- this deity was popular in the region
and regarded as having special influence over agriculture
- Jiōto derived profit from exercising managerial authority over the shrines- their participating in
the religious ceremonies together with the inhabitants and their playing active roles in shrine
management helped to integrate them as a part of the local shōen community
The Cult of Hachiman:
- Gokenin often took part in religious ceremonies organized by the bakufu
- Yoritomo developed the relationship between Hachiman and his house by making the deity his
ujigami
- Hachiman cult developed in bushi society because it was linked to the Seiwa-Minamoto’s
military tradition in the eastern provinces
- Hachiman recognized not only as the ujisha of Yoritomo’s house but also as the shrine of the
bakufu’s guardian deity, an official government institution
- Yoritomo stressed the shine’s importance as a symbol of unity among the eastern bushi and
made everyone worship the shrine when they came to Kamakura
- Gokenin rendered service to the shrine daily- they were also responsible for maintaining the
shrine, such as repairing the buildings, cleaning, etc.
- Bakufu regarded the gokenin’s participation in this ceremony as a way for them to regulate the
gokenin’s behavior; they could also punish those who did not do the tasks assigned to them
Amida Buddha:
- Newly rising Buddhist movement led by Hōnen, which later developed into the Jōdo sect
- During Heian period, Buddhism infiltrated more deeply into the provincial areas
- Fear of hell is popular feature of Buddhism
- Believed that the Amida Buddha could save people from the sufferings of hell and carry them
into the eternal bliss of the Pure Land
- Belief in rebirth in the Pure Land gave rise to the practice of the nembutsu
- Naozane was probably attracted to the Amida cult because Hōnen taught that everyone had the
possibility of being reborn into the Pure Land in spite of living in the degenerate age, and that
faith in Amida and the recital of the nembutsu were the only prerequisites of salvation
- Some people regard Nembutsu as the way of salvation for the ignorant
- Hōnen teaches that there are no distinctions among believers, but Naozane wanted to do the most
remarkable things and thus surpass others- so their beliefs kind of conflict
- Bushi houses constructed family temples, which served as spiritual centers
o This helped to strengthen ties among the family within the bushi house
Conclusion:
- A vassal was simultaneously involved in three or more cults
o As members of a bushi house they jointly worshipped their ujigami: this helped
strengthen unity among members of a bushi house
o As jitō of a landholding, they exercised managerial authority over its shrines and
participated in their ceremonies: enabled bushi to effectively control the local
inhabitants
o As gokenin, they took part in ceremonies at Hachiman and rendered service to its deity
- Most bushi could not worship their ancestors as their ujigami- only court nobles
- Social class affects religious beliefs- bushi worshipped military deities
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Fujito
Monumenta Nipponica
[ Week 5. Brad ]
1) Noh play
a) popular w/samurai and written w/samurai audience in mind
b) became popular in 15th century
2) Characters
a) Fisherman
b) Fisherman’s mother
c) Sasaki Moritsuna
d) follower of Sasaki Moritsuna (not important)
3) Story
a) Starts off w/Sasaki and his follower singing samurai verse and basically serves as an
introduction for Sasaki – i don’t think there is any important meaning to what they are actually
singing
b) A woman enters and it is apparent that she is upset w/sasaki b/c she says he has “sank my child
into the sea” – apparently he killed her son
c) Sasaki then goes into the story of her son’s, the fisherman’s, last hours
i) Sasaki wanted to cross a sea by horse
(1) He came upon a man on the shore and asked him if there was anywhere shallow enough
that he could cross – the man was the fisherman and this woman’s son
(2) The fisherman said yes, so the fisherman and sasaki set out and the fisherman shows
him where the spot is
(3) Sasaki is greatful, but stabs and kills the fisherman b/c he doesn’t want the fisherman to
tell anyone else about the spot
*** in lecture prof. Bolitho said the minamoto wanted to attack an enemy on an island but
they didn’t have any boats....so someone befriended a fisherman and gets help from the
fisherman, but then kills him….i didn’t see any evidence of this in the reading though,
maybe I missed it
ii) Sasaki says he wanted to keep the death a secret but the waves washed the body up
d) Fisherman’s mother says all deeds are shown
i) Mother questions why this has happened and for what previous sin
ii) Mother wonders why life is worth living and wants sasaki to kill her and send her on the
same path as her son
e) Sasaki does not kill her, I think sasaki feels guilty about killing her son, but even if he doesnt, he
says that he will hold services for the fisherman that he killed, and he will also take care of the
fisherman’s wife and children
f) the mother is still spiteful and sasaki tries naively to calm her by saying that b/c he crossed the
island by horse he was rewarded w/land so her son’s death wasn’t useless – material gain for
sasaki
g) ends w/spirit of fisherman saying that although he was killed and thrust into the sea, he has now
been saved by Buddha and reached buddhahood
i) there may have been some symbolic thing w/the sea, a boat, and buddhahood but I don’t
think it was too important
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The Taiheiki
A Chronicle of Medieval Japan
[ Week 6. David ]
Chapter 3 (243-256)
The Taiheiki begins with a central problem: no warlord will pledge his allegiance to the supreme highness
for fear of the ruling military body. This problem is addressed in a dream the emperor has which he
interprets to mean that soon he will be able to assert power over the realm once more. To carry out this
mission he summons a warrior named Kusunoki Masashige. He is a warrior of noble decent who lives
among the common people and whose birth was of mythical proportions (he was conceived in a dream).
The supreme highness petitions Kusunoki to help him and Kusunoki responds without even considering
the advantages or disadvantages. He is portrayed as a supremely loyal servant of the supreme highness.
What follows is an extended game of cat and mouse at Akasaka Castle during which Kusunoki fights
large armies amassed by contending warlords. While his force is clearly outnumbered, he nonetheless
fights off the warriors and then retreats only to reappear with an even greater force. In this way,
Kusunoki allows his opponents to feel relaxed and let their guard down right before he strikes. He uses
great strategy to outsmart cocky warlords. He also demonstrates an understanding of honor when he
meets a foe that is his match. Instead of confronting him and both of them dying, he instead avoids him
so that they both can maintain their honor and reputation as warriors. At times Kusunoki also shows great
faith in the valor and hearts of his fellow samurai and an indifference to life and death that Zen is usually
characterized by.
Chapter 11 (257-265)
The Betrayal of ASHIKAGA
• The narrator notes that both Utsunomiya and Kusunoki retreated with other and that “there was
none who did not praise them” (253).
• The narrator explains why Kusunoki was so successful in garnering the support of many
soldiers: he prohibited the destruction of commoner property and treated his warriors with
nothing by “the strictest propriety” (253).
• Upon making a sacrificial offering, he inquires as to the possibility of looking in the book A
Forecast of the Future of Japan to learn of his prospects for success in the battles to come. The
monk, explaining that it is actually the Chronicle of Antiquity to which Kusonuki refers, agrees
to show it to him in secret. From the Chronicle, he learns that Go Taigo will be disposed.
• The narrator proceeds to describe the great honor Kusunoki showed in his subsequent meeting
with the Go Taigo.
• There are many references to “imperial virtue” – praise for both the ex-emperor and Kusonuki.
• The Sagami lay monk asks Ashikaga Takauji to come to battle for him, despite the fact that he
is still mourning his father’s recent death and is himself not very well. For these reasons, as well
his linage – a descendent of the house of Genji – he resolves to fight on behalf of the ex-emperor.
• Words gets around that Ashikaga is bringing him family with him to the capital – because this
would clearly be dangerous as a loyal Sagami lay monk fighter, the Sagami lay monk asks that
he leave his family and write a written pledge of his allegiance. As a latch ditch effort to ensure
his allegiance, he offers Ashikaga a special banner and various other accoutrements - horses and
silver-lined armor.
• Because of his ties to the Sagami lay monk, Ashikaga has access to strategic information that
he then uses against his new adversary.
• The Governor of Owari, a bold warrior allied with the Sagami lay monk, rises agaisnt imperial
forces, only to be slain by Norrie, instigating fear, confusion, suicide, and retreat among the his
troops.
• On Loyalty: Nuka, a Kamakura warrior, learns of Ashikaga’s treachery and wants to battle with
him even though the odds were no where near in his favor – but he is advised that it is “bettered
to be remembered as men who understood the meaning of loyalty” than those who died by way
of “a foolish act” (260).
• Various groups join Ashikaga in his treachery.
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•
Ashikaga prays before going to battle – he avows his commitment to do away with the wicked
rule that has “unjustly” governed Japan for the past nine generations.
[ Week 6. Cat ]
The Taiheiki (pg 245-262)
The revolt of Nitta Yoshisada, How a goblin summoned the armies of Echigo:
• Nitta Yoshisada had returned to his province from Chihaya, pretending to have a disease but was
actually obeying the former emperor’s mandate
• He secretly gathered together trustworthy men to plan a revolt
• Meanwhile the sagami lay monk who knew nothing of Nitta's plans summoned the armies of 6
provinces (Musashi, Kozuke, Awa, Kazusa, Hitachi and Shimotsuke) to the capital to calm the
disturbances in the home provinces and western lands. He also levied a heavy tax on the
neighboring provinces to supply the armies.
• He sent two men, Izumo Nosuke Chikatsura and the lay monk Kuronuma Hikoshiro to Nitta's
estate to demand money
• When he heard of this Nitta bound up Izumo Nosuke and cut of the Kuronuma monks’ head and
strung it up in Serada village
• The sagami monk was greatly angered by this, so he sent word to the armies of Musashi and
Kozuke to kill Nitta and his younger brother Wakiya Jiro Yoshisuke
• Nitta heard this and his trusted kinsmen suggested that they should make the Nemada Estate a
stronghold to protect themselves and to cross into the Tsubari district to raise an army of all the
dwellers in the land of Echigo
• However Wakiya objected to this plan and said that they should remain honorable and face death,
for it was cowardly to run away. He said that instead they should travel to the provinces to gain
support and then try to capture Kamakura.
• Yoshida decided it was best to hurry with this plan and set off to Kasagakeno. Yoshida only
managed to amount a mass of 150 men, however later that day kinsmen 2000 men strong form
the province of Echigo came to his help.
• When another 5000 men joined his force, a newly optimistic Yoshisada crossed in the province
of Musashi. Gradually the army grew to over 200000 men
• Word of this army reached the people of Kamakura which prepared to meet Lord Nitta with an
army of 60000 men
• The Genji (Yoshida's army) and the Heike (Kamakura) fought all day then withdrew for the
night. When they resumed the next day few Genji were slain but many of the Heike perished
• Before the end of the night Yoshisada advanced against the men of Kamakura unaware that they
had strengthened themselves with a host of fresh soldiers.
• The Heike encompassed Yoshida's army, forcing them to retreat, however foolishly they did not
pursue Yoshida to destroy him. This was a sign that the luck of the Heike was ended.
Miura Ottawa Speaks of warfare:
• A warrior by the name of Miura Ottawa Saemon Yoshikatsu had admired Yoshisada for a long
time and one evening he galloped to the camp of the Genji with 6000 riders from the province of
Sagami. Yoshisada received him joyfully and then asked him about the fighting.
• Respectfully Heiroki Saemon told Yoshisada of how the realm was divided into two camps and
there was no peace unless one side was victorious over the other.
• Yoshikatsu suggested that his and Yoshisada’s army be joined together. Although Yoshisada was
at first skeptical Yoshikatsu assured him
• As Yoshikatsu had said, they took the weary Heike army by surprise and they fled in disorder
towards Kamakura.
• The lay monk Shiro Sakon-no-taifu, defended himself honorably and left a name for generations
to come as did his two retainers
• Nagasaki Jiro Takashige ordered lowly soldiers to carry the heads of the enemy that he had
grappled in the battle of the Kume River and came to the mansion of lord Kamakura who praised
Takashige's valor
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The battle of Kamakura:
• When news of Yoshida’s victories reached abroad, the warriors of eight eastern provinces joined
themselves to him
• From the record number of people who came to join him Yoshida made 3 armies with two grand
marshals in charge of each. The first army was sent forth to Gokurakuji Passage.
• The general and assistant general of the second army was Horiguchi Saburo Sadamitsu and
Oshima Moriyuki respectively, this army went to Kobukurozaka
• The third army traveled to Kamakura. However the enemy took them by surprise and set fire to
the city causing the warriors to run blindly in every direction
• As the Genji attacked from three directions, the Heike also divided their warriors into three
armies
• The attackers kept advancing forward with new men, but the defenders defended stubbornly.
Those involved knew that this battle was to decide great things which would be remembered for
many generations, and the valiance of all the warriors was so great even though there were a
million casualties and many positions were lost that it was impossible to tell when the battle
would subside
The suicide of the Akahashi Governor of Sagami Homma’s suicide:
• The fighting was furious at Susaki, 65 times during the day and night warriors came together
until all but 300 of the myriads of Akahashi’s followers had fallen or fled
• At last Akahashi spoke to Nanjo Saemon Takanao saying how he did not think that the day
would end the Hojo’s prosperity, however he would kill himself without waiting to know the
fate of the houses that he might be able to draw back form the place he was defending without
dishonor.
• He then proceeded to cut open his belly, Nanjo followed suit, as did more than 90 other warriors
• On the evening of the 18th day Susaki was beaten down and Yoshida’s army went as far as
Yamanouchi
• On the 19th day Homma Yamashiro no Saemon heard that the enemy was breaking through at
the Gokurakuji passage and he and his soldiers set forth into the centre of 30000 riders of Odachi
Jiro Muneuji whom they chased until the riders drew back to Koshigoe
• Homma killed Odachi and rejoiced brought back his head to Sadano’s camp. He then proceeded
to cut his own belly whilst saying he would be unable to live in the world knowing that he had
killed Odachi.
The beach Appears at Inamura Cape:
• Men came to Nitta Yoshida telling him of how Odachi Jiro Muneuji and been slain by Homma
and his warriors had been drawn back to Katase and Koshigoe.
• Yoshida immediately went down to Katase and Koshigoe with 28000 men to observe the enemy
camp. To the north he saw a steep mountain path with 50 thousand warriors lined up in the way
with shields.
• To the south at Inamura Cape there was a narrow beach covered by many obstacles with ships
lined up to the shore ready to shoot arrows
• Yoshida prayed and threw his gold mounted sword into the sea, at which point a broad beach
appeared and the thousands of ships were carried out to sea by the tide
• Yoshida commanded his warriors to cross the beach and they entered riotously into Kamakura.
• The Heike then faced the problem of if they fell into the enemy in their rear the attackers would
follow and break through but if they defended in front the hosts in the back would strike them
down.
• Shimazu Shiro was a man renowned for his great strength and the Sagami lay monk summoned
him to fight for him. The Heike warriors regarded Shimazu as one warrior equal to a thousand.
• When Yoshida’s warriors saw Shiro, they each wanted to be the one to fight him and so many
rode towards him shouting out obnoxious statements.
• However Shimazu leapt off his horse stripped off his helmet and declared his allegiance to the
Genji side. After Shimazu had become the first member of the Heike side, in the years to come
many warriors followed suit abandoning their masters and fathers to become enemies.
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War fires in Kamakura; The bravery of Nagasaki and his son:
• Fires were lighted among the commoners’ homes along the beach as well as east and west of the
Inase River.
• The Genji warriors entered amongst the flames and shot the bewildered enemy with arrows,
grappled and stabbed them
• They captured prisoners, and chased the women and children back into the flames
The suicide of the steward of Ushi-ga-hara in Echizen:
• During the fighting in the capital, Aikawa Ukyo-no-suke Tokiharu went to the province of
Echizen to subdue risings in the northern land
• However the armies soon fled when they heard that Rokuhar had fallen leaving Tokiharu and his
family to save themselves
• On hearing this the monks of the Hei Senji Temple urged rebellion on the warriors of the
province in the hope of receiving Tokiharu’s land as a reward.
• With an army 7000 strong they descended on Ushi-ga-hara
• Tokiharu and his family shaved their heads and performed rites to attain buddahood.
• Tokiharu told his wife of how she was safe from the enemy because she was a woman however
he and his two sons were not, consequently they should flee
• However his wife refused, referring to the vows she made when she married Tokiharu and
vowed to die with him and her sons
• Tokiharu ordered that his two sons should be drowned, and their mother followed suit. Tokiharu
then slew himself and it was said that his thoughts became flame thoughts consuming him in hell
The suicide of the protector of Etchu: the matter of the unquiet spirits:
• Men came to the protector of Etchu telling him of armies came were journeying from Dewa to
Echigo to attack the capital. The protector Nagoya Tokiari governor of Totoi decided to stop
them on the way.
• At this time news reached them that Rokuhara had been beaten down by armies in the east
provinces to go forth against Kamakura. When the warriors heard the news all but 79 of
Tokiari’s closest kinsmen deserted him, leaving him in despair
• Tokiari decided that he should send the wives and children out in a boat to drown in the sea and
that the warriors would take their lives in the castle
• It is said that the spirits of the dead remained there and some time later a boatman who was
forced to drop anchor in the waters heard the sound of women weeping and men’s voices calling
him from the shore.
The Punishment of the besiegers of Mount Kongo; the matter of Sakai Sadatoshi:
• The Heishi warriors had scattered in 10 directions, there were more than 50000 horsemen left in
the southern capital
• Under imperial command Utsunomiya went up to the capital with the Ki and Kiyowara; 700
riders who had been the guard of the outer gateway of the southern capital of the southern capital
at the Hannyaji temple
• In the era of Heiji, Akugenta Yoshihira was taken prisoner and beheaded by the Heike, while
Genryaku Lord Munemori and the great subject of the Interior was captured by the Genji and
made to travel over the highroads
• Even today these men are mocked for they merely gave themselves up to the enemy, which was
considered to be the ultimate act of cowards
• On the 9th day of the 7th month the men were executed at Amida peak.
• Their bodies were sent to temples and prayers were said for their enlightenment fo9r the new life.
• Sakai Sakyo-no-suke Sadatoshi was a man who had high regard for himself but because the
sagami monk did not hold any appreciation for him Sadatoshi joined the besiegers of Mount
Kongo with anger in his heart, but when the Chigusa Middle Marshall told him to join the armies
of the court he made his way back to the capital
• Sadatoshi was sent to the province of Awa and his suffering increased, when he asked about the
Kanto he was told that although the Sagami monk had perished the whereabouts of his women
and children were unknown, so Sadatoshi could trust no one
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•
•
Sadatoshi was seized and no longer cherished his life but he begged a holy man to take a dagger
to his wife. Sadatoshi rejoiced and chanted the name of Amida Buddha 10 times as he was told
to, and tranquilly had his head severed.
The holy man sought out Sadatoshi’s wife who killed herself instantly at the news of her
husbands death
The rites for the pacification of the state, and the rewards given to the grand marshals:
• Around spring in the 3rd year of Genko Kiku Kamon no suke Takamasa and Itoda Sakon no
Taifu Sadayoshi gathered together surviving men and traitors.
• Rebels in the province of Kawachi built a fortress on Iimori Mountain
• Iimori castle was brought down by Masashige, Tate-eboshi castle was conquered by Doi and
Tokuno and the rebels in Tsukushii were defeated by Otomo and Shoni
• All the warriors of the provinces filled the capital and Shirakawa including Nitta Sama-no-suke
Yoshida and his brother Hyogo-no-suke.
• The armies were rewarded and those who did the greatest deeds were given provinces. However
the lay monk Akamatsu Enshin was only given a single state, and he was angered by this, so he
quickly changed his heart and became an enemy of the court In the disturbance of Kemmu.
• For the rest confiscated lands and great estates were given to them until they became as rich and
powerful as T’ao Chu (the name adopted by Fan Li who became very wealthy in later life)
The extravagance of lord Chigusa and the monk reformer monkan:
• Chigusa Middle marshal Tadaaki, the grandson of lord Arifusa (the great subject of the interior
of the 6th ward) had a great taste for unseemly things and became so addicted to gaming and
lechery that his father disowned him. Perhaps it was to do with Tadaaki’s karma from the past
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The Culture of Lawlessness
The Culture of Civil War in Kyoto
Berry, Mary Elizabeth
[ Week 6. Rex ]
Helpful Chart (the Western Camp was mostly aligned with the existing shogun)
Western Camp
Hatakeyama Yoshinari
Shiba Yoshikado
Ashikaga Yoshihisa
Yamana Sozen
Eastern Camp
Hatakeyama Masanaga
Shiba Yoshitoshi
Ashikaga Yoshimi
Hosokawa Katsumoto
*The Onin War*
War fought mostly in Kyoto from 1467 to 1477 (though it began to diminish after 1473) between a
"Western Camp" (comprised of Hatakeyama Yoshinari, Shiba Yoshikado, Ashikaga Yoshihisa, and
Yamana Sozen) and an "Eastern Camp" (Hatakeyama Masanaga - Yoshinari's cousin, Shiba Yoshitoshi Yoshikado's 'cousin,' Ashikaga Yoshimi - Yoshihisa's uncle, and Hosokawa Katsumoto). The war is
most notable for the way in which it diminished the authority of the shogunate to prevent and regulate
inter-house violence. Partial destruction of the city of Kyoto is another consequence of the war. As a
military campaign it was poorly fought, with the bulk of armies in rear positions, backing up small
frontal assaults. Following a skirmish victory, however, reinforcements rarely came to finish up the
job. Only a handful of battles lasted more than a day, with the emphasis instead on small "terror raids."
The violence within three families - Hatakeyama, Shiba, and Ashikaga - broke out over succession
disputes.
*Ashikaga*
Shogunal house reigning during the Onin war. Had controlled the military administration of Japan since
1338. Yoshimasa was the shogun during the Onin War, but his father used unorthodox and unethical
tactics to get his way, which created a lot of distrust when his son came along. Yoshimasa himself was a
poor shogun, irresponsible and irresolute, who relied very heavily on his advisors. Yoshihisa and
Yoshimi emerged as rival successors.
*Ashikaga Yoshimasa*
Shogun during the Onin War. Went down in history as a pretty bad shogun, notably for his negligence
during the famine of 1461, in which 80,000 supposedly died. After this episode, Yoshimasa
was reprimanded by the Emperor. Also flip-flopped on the succession issue, depending on the advice of
his counsellors.
*Hatakeyama*
Family related to the shogunal line, split by the Onin war (1467-1477). Most of the family preferred the
*original* heir of the incumbent (Masanaga), who was an adopted nephew. The shogun, however,
backed Yoshinari, a child born to the incumbent late in his life. Hostilities in the war began when
Yoshinari attacked Masanaga on Kyoto's Kamo River.
Yamana Sozen
Advisor to shogun Ashikaga Yoshimasa. Convinced the shogun to transfer support from Hatakeyama
Masanaga to Yoshinari. In the first battle of the Onin War, between Masanaga and Yoshinari, Sozen
defied the shogun's objections and sent troops to back up Yoshinari.
*Shiba*
Old family related to the shogun. Another succession dispute split this family and each side became
belligerents in the Onin War. The head of their family died in 1452 without leaving a
successor. Yoshitoshi and Yoshikado - distant relatives of the old family head - ended up fighting it out
for the title.
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Rules of Succession under the Shogunate
Basically, the important thing to realize here is that it's *extremely* complicated. There were no formal
"rules" governing the selection of heirs to head up a house - or the shogunate for
that matter. Negotiation played an enormous role, and there were no guarantees that an incumbent's (or
the shogunate's) "first choice" would actually turn out to be the successor. In the years before the Onin
War, this system of compromise started to break down for a number of reasons: First, the houses became
overextended, thereby permitting more autonomy and assertiveness to provincial governors; these
people gained power and became potential threats to "legitimate" heirs. Second, the respect afforded the
shogun started to decline under Yoshimasa (the living shogun)'s Machiavellian father, and under
Yoshimasa himself, who was "quite a bad shogun." Finally, the law of the shogunate itself, when it came
to inter- family violence, was quite ambiguous and provided no penalty for "self-defense," a rather
subjective claim in and of itself.
*ran*
Japanese word translated sometimes as "upheaval." Used to describe the outbreak of hostilities in the
Onin War. The Onin War was notable for the way it adulterated the social and economic geography of
Japan, with armories and shops being burned and looted, streets turned into defensive ditches and moats,
barricades being put up, trade routes abandoned, laborers turning to soldiery and privateering,
etc. Important to realize that this was not only a political upheaval, but a social and economic one as
well.
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The Splendor and Misery of the Muromachi Century:
New Uprisings, New Culture
The World Turned Upside Down: Medieval Japanese Society
Souyri, Pierre Francois
[ Week 6. Tony ]
The standard of living rose, trade expanded, and social mobility became easier during the
Muromachi period, but such rapid growth causes problems.
o New welthy merchant class, the utokunin accumulates huge fortunes and the rural
peasants in Kinai was hurt by the cash economy.
• After the assassination of the shogun in 1441, the inability of the bakufu to reestablish a strong
regime incited the shugo to form factions that fought for power.
• The Onin War started in Kyoto in 1467 between supporters of the Hosokawa and Yamana
clans.
•
Ikki: association of people sharing a common objectives.
•
In the period around 1430-1470, especially the years after really bad famines, there were many
successful rebels of the peasants demanding to cancel the debts they owed, and the government
had to give in.
•
The murder of Yoshinori caused a lot crisis in the different samurai families. Because the
families now choose one heir, there are a lot of power struggles within all the clans. Clan
quarrels dominated the politics of the bakufu. One by one, the great warrior families fell victim
to fight over succession.
•
One of the major fight was that between Katsumoto and Sozen in 1467, the Onin War. In 1473,
the coincidental deaths of both Katsumoto and Sozen cooled the fight, and in 1477, the
compromised the war with no winners or losers.
•
Because many warrior clans struggle internally, they lost local power to their vassals, and the
world had turned upside down—everywhere the “lower commanded the upper.”
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The Culture of Force and Farce:
Fourteenth-Century Japanese Warfare
Occasional Papers in Japanese Studies
Conlan, Thomas
[ Week 6. Wonhee ]
Thesis: The war influenced the long-term process of history.
•
•
The analysis of wars can illuminate details of a particular age.
Warfare can constitute a tidal force that transforms the state and society.
Facts about the 14C medieval Japanese warriors
•
•
•
The essence of war was recognition and honor, fame, and rewards.
o Opulent attire indicated that the warriors stood out from the crowd and were expected
to perform outstandingly on the field.
o The armor served as a means to recognition as well as bodily defense, because
distinction between the allies and the enemies was done through the distinction of
armors.
In the 14C, status distinction outweighed those of gender.
o Women fought on horseback, were considered equal matches for men, and could
receive rewards.
o No criticism was evoked from other warriors from female participation.
o Courtiers dismissed warring women, and their viewpoint dominated historical discourse.
14C social order – no class hostility
o Courtiers
o Warriors: independent, had authority and freedom to start battles.
o The rest: obligated to fight for the warrior lords, tried to climb the ladder of social status
through extraordinary performance in the wars
Why 14C Japan as subject?
•
•
•
Background for imperial succession dispute
o The new political entity created after Genpei war – the Kamakura bakufu –
supplemented the court rather than supplanting it.
o Kamakura’s judicial decisions and edicts stabilized the realm, functioning as a cushion
to contain violence.
Proceedings
o Late 13C, an imperial succession dispute arose between the Daikakuji and Jimyoin lines,
which ultimately coalesce into two separate courts vying for hegemony from 1331 until
1392.
o The Kamakura bakufu brokered a compromise in which each imperial line served
alternately, which was hated for the comproise. Go Daigo, the reigning emperor
overthrew the Kamakura bakufu in 1333.
Consequence: extensive war
o Two divergent attitudes regarding the state and society: absolutist – all power and
authority flowed from the center v. political rights and prerogatives are autogenic –
once achieved, they can not be taken away.
o Authority had to be flexed in order to be preserved, as the need to create and supply an
army overloaded existing economic and political arrangements. The authority devolved
to the periphery, to provincial magnates or to warriors who no longer obeyed codified
laws.
o The costs of war eroded the autonomy of the warriors, and fiscal powers devolved to
the periphery as regional lords assumed prerogatives.
ƒ Social status became determined by the wealth instead of investitures. (The
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ƒ
impoverished warriors sold their investitures.)
The state lost its monopoly over coercive violence.
How did the war influence the state and society?
1.
Changes in the culture of warriors
A.
B.
The warriors fought with an idealized memory of the 12C century, modeling their
behaviors on the semi-fictional heroes of the 12C epic.
The 14C war is often described as a farce in Taiheiki
The sense of farce served to reinforce the performance culture of the age that actions
were supposed to conform to an ideal. At the same time, by laughing at the idealistic
behaviors, the warriors came to grips with the ideals and discarded them.
ii.
The battles of the 14C were fought with waning intensity. War was fought out of a
desire for personal glory, not for any higher cause.
i.
2.
C.
The act of war represented an inversion of existing norms of political and moral order;
ultimately, the state abandoned its monopoly on violence, and began to actively mediate
the feuds.
D.
The warriors could switch sides and suffer no ill-effects, as loyalty was not expected to
independent, land-holding warriors, who did not have any lord in actuality.
i.
The army was usually little more than a haphazard conglomeration of individuals who
arrived and departed as they saw fit.
ii.
The warriors who fought in a battle submitted petitions for reward.
E.
Head-hunting was very popular in the war, because the rewards for the service were
usually given for physical, tangible proofs of service and the heads were thought to have
otherworldly powers.
i.
As the warriors focused too much on head-hunting and backed off whenever they had
enough heads, an order was issued to stop head-hunting, which did not have much
effect.
ii.
Later, in the 16C, decapitation of the dead became a criminal act liable for
punishment.
Changes in society
A.
The document that granted rewards for military services served as investiture.
As the document was frequently issued, there was an expansion of warrior class after
the outbreak of war.
ii.
When the warriors were overwhelmed by the expanses of the war, they sold their
documents. The social status thus became based on wealth and not investiture.
i.
B.
Religions were not separate from spheres of politics and war.
The divine functioned as a mechanism for explaining causality.
As Japanese believed that prayers could influence and alter the chain of causality,
they asked the priests to pray for destruction of the enemies, who demanded petitions
of reward for their service.
iii.
Later, some Zen monks began criticizing such practices by the Tendai and Shingon
sects.
i.
ii.