Military Art and Science
245
TENDENCIES CONCERNING NORTHATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION’S
COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH IN THE
PROCESS OF TRANSITION TO FULL
AFGHAN SECURITY RESPONSIBILITY
Aurelian RAŢIU [email protected] Oana­Bianca BOIER [email protected] “Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu, Romania A BSTRACT
The Comprehensive Approach concept has been adopted i n
numerous domains with great success. Its adoption in conflict and
crisis management seems to be the following secret weapon to fight
against the threats to security. We think that it is important to study
this concept because of its possibility to change the perception of the
crisis and to explore in finding ways of implementation.
The research will be a study of ISAF’s (International Securit y
Assistance Force) strategy for the Afghanistan post-conflict period,
the strategy which includes a Comprehensive Approach of the
situation as the framework where all the decisions are made.
KEYWORDS: integration, comprehensive approach, comprehensive integration, holistic approach, coherent integration 1. Theoretical and Methodological
Considerations
Fighting against today’s security
challenges involves “a broad partnership
with the international community … based on
a shared sense of openness and cooperation
as well as determination on all sides” [1].
All the actors have “to act in a coordinated
way, and to apply a wide spectrum of civil
and military instruments in a concerted effort
that takes into account their respective
strengths and mandates” [2]. This is what a
comprehensive approach for
crisis
management should be.
Within NATO, the comprehensive
approach concept was introduced for the
first time by the North Atlantic Council at
the Riga Summit of 2006. In April 2008,
with the occasion of the Bucharest Summit,
the implementation of a comprehensive
approach was announced. In November
2010, at the Lisbon Summit 2010 NATO’s
new Strategic Concept was adopted.
“Allied leaders agreed at Lisbon to
enhance NATO’s contribution to a
comprehensive
approach
to
crisis
management as part of the international
community’s effort and to improve NATO’s
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ability to contribute to stabilization and
reconstruction” [3]. In M arch 2012, to
update its Comprehensive Approach Action
Plan, NATO presents a list of tasks
implemented later by a civilian-military
task force which involves NATO bodies
and commands.
From a different perspective the
Comprehensive Approach could be “…the
synergy amongst all actors and actions of
the International Community through the
coordination and de-confliction of its
political, development and
security
capabilities to face today’s challenges
including complex emergencies” [4].
The concept of Comprehensive
Approach has to be understood as a concept
and not as a document process or
capability. Therefore, “a” comprehensive
approach is better to speak of rather than
“the” comprehensive approach. In an ideal
phase it raises awareness among all people
affected by the crisis and also combines
short term crisis response with long term
assistance and reconstruction [5].
It is obvious that a Comprehensive
Approach has to use a Civil-M ilitary
Cooperation (CIM IC), especially because
of the extension of crisis management in
terms of duration, tasks carried out, actors
involved and social, economic and
environmental factors.
Afghanistan is the perfect groundwork
for the analysis of the concept approach,
implementation, evolution and identification
of future tendencies. The country has been
presented as “a story of epic tragedy and
hardship that has caused its members to live
a long cycle of survival” [6]. Timing, stability
and safeness have never been suitable words
for the country’s status, which has been
characterised with “a sense of helpless
abandonment toward future potential and
success” [7].
Solving a contemporary conflict
requires more than just military means
alone. The army is not capable of carrying
out civil tasks. Therefore, it needs the help
from civilian agencies. In addition to that,
the government needs to cooperate with
international organizations and NGOs.
A comprehensive approach is essential in
having a complex view of the engagement
space. It is important to have a shared
understanding of the situation to establish a
commonly agreed end-state and to avoid
interference that might affect the mission.
The significance of the Comprehensive
Approach Concept and its meanings are
diverse and sometimes confusing because of
their general approach. To have a better
understanding of the concept, a strong
attention has to be made to the context in
which it is implemented.
In order to achieve the goal of the
research we used a panoramic view of the
perspectives of all actors involved in the
Afghanistan conflict especially on NATO
and Afghan government views. Each actor
has its own way of analyzing the situation
and implementing its strategy. We try to
identify how NATO has implemented the
Comprehensive Approach and also try to
analyze the consequences followed by the
establishment of the concept. At least a
minimal analysis of the partnerships
between actors is necessary.
In order to achieve the goal of the
paper we focused on the process of
transition to full Afghan security
responsibility and tried to make a
connection with the implementation of
NATO’s Comprehensive Approach.
2. Understanding the Evolution of
Post-Conflict Afghan Security
Building effective Afghan security
forces by strong governance and rule of law
helps reversing the current situation in
Afghanistan. It requires the degradation and
destruction of insurgents’ capacity to attack
the general population, international forces
and assets and to retain and recruit new
members
into
their
organizations.
Economic development and successful
reconstruction is required to give
confidence for Afghan people [8].
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Deployed in 2001 and mandated by
the UN, ISAF begins to assist the Afghan
government in maintaining security as
requested by the democratically elected
government of the country.
The NATO/ISAF mandate is to
support the legitimate Afghan authorities to
express their authority to the country.
NATO and the Government of the
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan signed a
declaration on an Enduring Partnership at
th
the NATO Summit in Lisbon, on the 20 of
November, 2010. The Declaration presents
the framework on which NATO will build
its long term engagement to “a sovereign,
independent, democratic, secure and stable
Afghanistan …” [9].
By signing the Declaration of
Enduring Partnership NATO marks its
continued commitment to Afghanistan,
especially in the field of ANSF capacitybuilding and security sector reform.
The
cooperation
within
the
framework of the Enduring Partnership
includes the following tasks [10]:
● Capacity-building
efforts
like
programmes for professional military
education.
● Courses to promote the fight against
corruption and good governance
initiatives, including under theBuilding Integrity-programme.
● Assisting the Afghan civil aviation
sector in meeting international
standards.
● An Afghan First Policy to identify
Afghan companies eligible for ISAF
contracts.
● The SILK-Afghanistan [11] project
which provides affordable, high-speed
Internet access via satellite and fibre
optics to Afghan universities and
governmental institutions in Kabul.
247
● Training in civil emergency planning
and disaster preparedness.
● Public diplomacy efforts to promote a
better understanding of NATO and its
role in Afghanistan.
The transition to full Afghan security
responsibility was launched in 2011 and
with the end of ISAF’s mission it is due to
be completed at the end of 2014.
After that, NATO plans to train,
assist, advice and continue the cooperation
with the ANSF (Afghan National Security
Forces) within the framework of the
NATO-Afghanistan Enduring Partnership.
In discussing the way forward to the
Partnership, the Afghan and NATO Foreign
M inisters endorsed a list of activities in
order to establish “the framework on which
NATO is building its long-term engagement
with Afghanistan” [12], at their meeting in
th
Berlin, on the 14 of April, 2011.
On 14 M arch 2012, “following a
request by NATO Defence Ministers, the
North Atlantic Council endorsed a plan to
reduce the risk of attacks on ISAF by ANSF
personnel” [13]. The aim of the plan is to
improve ISAF security measures and enrich
cultural awareness training.
NATO Allies and ISAF partners
agreed to a NATO-led mission showing
their strong commitment by continuing to
support the development of the Afghan
forces, after NATO forces withdrawal, at
NATO’s Summit in Chicago in M ay 2012.
The following figure, comprising
important territorial changes and political
events in Afghanistan beginning with 2011,
satisfy the need of having an overview of
the Afghan security evolution.
It presents a list of dates and events in
chronological order which records the main
incidents during the post-conflict period of
Afghanistan.
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2011
22nd March 2011
President Karzai
announces the first set
of Afghan provinces
and districts to start
the transition process.
2012
1st April 2012
The Regional
Police Training
Centre in
Mazar-e Shari f
is handed over
to the Afghans.
17th July 2011
The first
transition
ceremony takes
place in Bamyan
Province.
13th May
2012
President
Karzai
announces the
third tranche
of transition.
1st August 2012
English teaching at
the Kabul Military
Training Centre
(KMTC) is now
entirely carried out by
Afghan instructors.
2013
2014
4th January 2013
The 209th Corps
combat engineers
run an operation
fully independently
for the first time.
16th July 2012
The Afghan
Army Special
Operations
Command is
stood up.
5th
The Afghan
National Army
acquires 406
Mobile Strike Force
vehicles.
1st February 2013
The Afghan Ground Forces
Command is inaugurated.
This new operational
headquarters oversees all
operations in Afghanistan.
In 2014, the Afghan forces
reached their full strength of
352,000 soldiers and the
police have taken the lead for
security across the whole
country
27th November 2011
President Karzai
announces the second set
of Afghan provinces,
districts and cities to start
the transition process.
26th July 2012
The first ever
Afghan-panned/
Afghan-led
night air assault
operation takes
place.
31st December 2012
President Karzai
announces the fourth set of
Afghan provinces. The
Regional Police Training
Centre in Mazar-e Sharif is
handed over to the
Afghans.
1st April 2013
The Afghan National
Defence University is
inaugurated. It will
train the future officers
of the Afghan National
Army.
18th June 2013
President Karzai announces the fi fth and final
group of Afghan provinces, cities and districts
to undergo transition in the coming months.
Afghan soldiers and police will take the lead
for security across the whole country.
Fig. no. 1 Key Dates in Afghanistan Security Transition from 2011 to 2014 [14]
3. Requirement for NATO Strategic
Change Plan
The success of a comprehensive
approach depends on mutual understanding
and collaboration, and appropriate resources.
This is necessarily established by political
agreement on the desired final situation, the
outcome, reached through intervention or as a
result of some other form of influence.
NATO’s Comprehensive Approach is
a response to the challenges that have
affected the Alliance’s operations. Irregular
warfare in Afghanistan is a political struggle
in which the ability to provide everything
that is necessary for the population
determines victory, and in which bad
governance and social injustice drives
militant requirements.
NATO adopted the Comprehensive
Approach to satisfy the need for proactive
engagement,
to
foster
cooperation,
coordination and contribution of all actors,
before and during a crisis. Peace requires
good governance, development, rule of law
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and local ownership, all this in addition to
military security. NATO highlights that the
approach should be “done in a way that does
not compromise any organisation’s independence.
Nor must it infringe on the humanitarian space
to which NGOs understandably attach great
importance” [15].
NATO’s
contribution
to
Comprehensive Approach should enhance the
improvement of public messaging and public
diplomacy. It cannot be effective without
sustained and coherent public messages.
249
In 2008, the strategic vision of ISAF
emphasizes the idea of a Comprehensive
Approach as a solution to bring civil and
military efforts together. The interaction
between civilian and military reaches
certain levels among the evolution or
involution of the crisis. The following
image offers explanations regarding the
exact meaning of each level of civilmilitary interaction.
Fig. no. 2 The Levels of Civil-military Interaction [16]
The concept has influenced NATO’s
steps being a “crucial precondition for
effectiveness of international support for
Afghanistan” [17]. To enabling security,
governance and development NATO pledge
to provide PRTs (Provincial Reconstruction
Team) as long as needed.
Aspiring to a long-term regional
approach to security challenges, NATO
encourages Afghanistan’s neighbours to
support Government’s efforts to improve
security and build a stable country with
secure borders. On the need to implement
the concept, the Alliance stresses the need
for closer partnerships with UN and EU.
Adopting
the
Comprehensive
Approach concept gratify the need for
achieving deployable capabilities, for the
“development of options for comprehensive
missile defence architecture, the role of arm
control,
disarmament
and
non-
proliferation” [18] and for a new cyber
defence policy. NATO tends to improve the
Alliance Ground Surveillance capability
and to stress the importance of the NATO
Response Force.
All the aspirations that came with the
adoption of the Comprehensive Approach
concept were meant to improve the status of
counterinsurgency
operations
in
Afghanistan and also to improve NATO’s
reputation and its credibility in succeeding
to stabilize Afghanistan.
4. Challenges for Afghan-Led
Security
The major obstacle for peace in the
Afghanistan is the Taliban leaders’
cooperation with international terrorist
organizations. The Alliance has to ensure
that a stable Afghan government is able to
handle its security requirements.
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Although
the
Comprehensive
Approach was implemented in theory, there
is still insufficient coordination between
national and regional levels and between the
actors. In some areas of governance, such as:
respect for human rights, freedom of speech,
and the existence of an independent,
transparent judicial system are the main
impediments
in
achieving
security
stabilization, good governance, fostering
economic growth and reducing poverty.
The challenge that makes Afghanistan
different to other countries refers to
problems like poverty, drugs, corruption
and religion which are so interdependent.
Focusing on one, it starts to expose the
gravity of the others. Poverty, disease and
hunger aggravate the security environment.
Poverty in Afghanistan is overwhelming.
The World Bank notes that “private
investment, on the other hand, has played a
rather small role” [19]. The Asian
Development Bank affirms that “tax and
customs revenues have declined while
industry and services have weakened” [20].
In Afghanistan, the major challenge for
the Afghan government is terrorist violence
conducted in asymmetric guerrilla warfare.
Terrorism is not characteristic only for the
Afghans, it has now mutated “into a global
franchise”. To fight against terrorism, NATO
has to engage in a wide array of political,
operational,
conceptual,
military,
technological, scientific and economic
initiatives. The Alliance tries to intensify its
cooperation with the other members, allies
and partners, having as results the
development of new capabilities to defend
against international terrorism and to help
local forces to fight terrorism themselves.
In our opinion, another challenge for
Afghan security can be found in the
relationships between actors. Following
NATO’s conception in this domain,
planning and carrying out the future
operation will need an increase of the role
of comprehensive approach, as well as an
increase of the level of coordination
between the components of all the military
forces and more significant involvement of
the governmental agencies and of the NGOs
in the multilateral effort.
The NGOs in Afghanistan are involved
in provision of emergency relief and in
running of health, education, human rights
and peace building, as a result of the critical
analysis we have identified some of the
factors considered to be inhibitors of efficient
operation. The integration of the NGOs
across all levels of command is a highly
effective force multiplier, but each actor has
to understand when he has to interfere,
otherwise the mission is compromised.
According to the information provided
by Special Inspector General for Afghanistan
Reconstruction, through Quarterly Reports to
the United States Congress, the drug industry
is the main problem in Afghanistan. About
90 % of the world production of opium and
heroin comes from Afghanistan. “The opium
economy lies at the heart of the challenges
Afghanistan faces in state building,
governance, security, and development” [21].
In order to respond in the appropriate
way to the new security environment and to
the numerous threats associated to it,
NATO has started multiple transformations
in the activities specific to military
operations, from the one based on the
known threats, to one that is more flexible
and adaptable, based on capabilities.
To continue fulfilling the tasks, the
Alliance has to invest in capabilities which
are necessary to deal with the risks and
challenges for this country’s security.
Unfortunately, due to the high threat
levels, improving the close relationships
among NATO member and partner countries
is extremely important. In order to have the
right tools and structures to meet these
challenges, NATO has to consider a
cooperative and comprehensive approach
involving all the actors. “Drawing on existing
mechanisms, it aims to better coordinate
defence efforts by aligning national and
Alliance capability priorities” [22].
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M embers should contribute fairly to a
mutual commitment to manage all the
challenges which affect Afghan-led
security.
5. NATO’s Comprehensive Approach
Outcomes in Afghanistan After 2011
NATO’s
contribution
to
a
comprehensive approach happens by
making improvements in four areas of
work: planning and conduct of its
operations, application of NATO’s lessons
learnt, enhancement of cooperation with
external actors and area of public
messaging and public diplomacy.
For the first area (planning and
conduct of its operations), there is a lack of
coordination between the security forces, in
both, Afghan army and police, which has
expanded opportunities for infiltration of
the Taliban. Green-on-blue attacks are
strong examples of the widening trust
deficit between the heavily factionalized
ANSF and coalition command/forces.
Comprehensive
approach
was
managed to improve NATO’s operations
but the withdrawal of the troops
demonstrate a different fact. By the end of
2012, Canada, France, United Kingdom and
Australia started or announced to withdraw
their troops from Afghanistan. Although
NATO emphasized the intention to
maintain this process through the end of
2014, significant troop reductions have
been anticipated from Germany, Spain and
Italy which started in 2013.
As a part of a NATO Comprehensive
approach, CIM IC has to be incorporated in
operational planning and it has to work with
personnel from operations, logistics,
information and all the other military and
civilian players. NATO focuses on ensuring
security in a strongly process that spans the
tactical, operational, strategic, and politicalmilitary levels.
For the area of application of
lessoned learnt, NATO is focusing on the
civilian sector. ISAF found out that a
251
problem to engage with the local population
was finding ways to engage women.
Therefore, ISAF applied an innovative
technique by using Female Engagement
Teams in reaching out to Afghan females
“in a culturally acceptable manner
resulting in enhanced cultural and
situational awareness” [23].
The National Action Plan for the
Women of Afghanistan (NAPWA) is a 10
years plan of action provided under the
Afghan Constitution to implement its
commitment to women constituents. Its aim
is to ensure continuity and consistency in
government efforts through empowerment
and equality. Its vision is “to build a
peaceful and progressive Afghanistan
where women and men both enjoy security,
equal rights and opportunities in all aspects
of life” [24].
For the third area concerning the
cooperation with external actors, by
signing the Declaration on an Enduring
Partnership, NATO established a long term
partnership with the Afghan government
which is in line with broader UN-led
international efforts. The Treaty of Lisbon
was an opportunity for international and
Afghan stakeholders to meet and to create a
new government structure, the Afghan
Transitional Authority.
In 2010, the international Kabul
conference took place and it was “one of
the most high-profile summits the history of
the region with up to 75 foreign ministers
and other dignitaries in attendance” [25].
In December 2011, in Bonn, the
international donor community pledged
comprehensive political and financial
support over the transformation decade
(2015-2024 period).
In M ay 2012, at NATO’s Chicago
Summit, its leaders affirmed their intention
to a continuum support for the Afghan
government in the transformation decade.
As a result, in July 2012, at the Tokyo
conference, the international community
pledged an annual supplement of four
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billion US-Dollars for the Afghan security
forces and also the same amount for
economic assistance and development [26].
For the area of public messaging and
public diplomacy, a number of bilateral and
multilateral events took place in Afghanistan.
The conflict was an important discussion
topic for almost each bilateral visit conducted
between leaders of the regional powers,
especially the withdrawal of the forces.
How to form security institutions,
what tasks to be assigned and how
numerous the security forces should be,
“the effect of a naturally difficult
compromise between host government and
external donors” [27] Therefore, adopting a
Comprehensive Approach concept plays a
crucial role in providing successful
outcomes for security.
Ten million kids going to school, 67 %
of the population has access to basic health
services, 12,000 km of roads were
constructed, even though there are questions
about the quality in all these areas [28] After
years of struggling, efforts and suffering, a
massive progress has been made by the
international community and the Afghan
government as a result of a comprehensive
approach including the quality of life.
The outcome of the 2014 year’s
presidential election and the fate of the
Bilateral Security Agreement are essential
for the future of Afghanistan.
The election is a turning-point
because its results could take Afghanistan
to the next decade of democracy, peace and
state-building, if negative, we may go back
to early 1990s – internal conflict and
devastation.
An important problem is whether the
Afghan society will stay and continue the
process of building a stable environment
and a prosper country. Winning the
confidence of the Afghans is more
important than a certain level of the military
tactical battle. This could be considered as
the main factor for success in winning
against the Taliban.
6. Conclusions
Today security challenges can’t be
solved without a broad approach. It is clear
that the future of crisis and conflict
management will need a Comprehensive
Approach as a policy for guidance.
The concept has already been successfully
applied in many cases, in spite of a lot of
obstacles.
According to the our research, it is a
fact that NATO has required for a strategic
change of plans involving the international
community to reflect the lesson learnt
which stresses the idea that winning cannot
be an accomplishment without the
continuum cooperation with external actors.
In a situation where threats are not anymore
conventional military attacks, it is essential
to have a wider approach of everything that
could be or is already affected.
Therefore, Comprehensive Approach
has become NATO’s official guidance.
A lot of aspirations and a different
perspective for what stable and secure means
have come along with the adoption of the
concept. NATO achieving its goal in
Afghanistan means having a successful
transition process with an Afghanistan
defined by good governance, development,
rule of law, local ownership, public diplomacy
and most important military security.
The Riga, Bucharest and Lisbon
Summits pointed out the importance of the
civilian security in order to have a secure
and stable country against the Taliban.
Combined military resources with institution
building are required. According to the
research, to have successful civil-military
cooperation, six levels have to be reached:
coexistence, awareness, de-confliction,
cooperation, coherence, integration.
A crucial precondition for an effective
Comprehensive Approach is the need for
international support. Without cooperation
with external actors a Comprehensive
Approach is never going to be fulfilled.
A challenge for implementation of the
Comprehensive Approach and for Afghan
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government is the insufficient coordination
between national and regional level and
between the actors. NATO has to cooperate
with different actors to develop military,
operational, conceptual, scientifically,
economic and technological capabilities for
ANSF to fight against the threats which
affects the country status.
The presence of NGOs in the theatre
is increasing, but the lack of coordination
between them and the government is far
from having an effective infrastructure.
Also, ineffective law enforcement and lack
of government control leads to corruption.
Corruption leads to a bad perception from
the population side. If the people cannot
trust in those who lead them, their support
will not be an existing or positive one.
NATO’s Comprehensive Approach
has the tendency to improve the operations
and public opinion, the cooperation with
other actors and the application of lessons
learnt. The public diplomacy is the most
successful key area for implementing
Comprehensive Approach.
According to the NATO homepage,
the Comprehensive Approach is in a
continuum progress that accompanies
Alliance’s steps; the transition process is a
success with the Afghan forces reaching the
desired number and proving its capabilities
as time passes.
But NATO has tried to perform tasks
with limited military resources, having a
strategy
bereft of civilian support.
The relevant civilian agencies and
organisations have shown little interest in
developing support for Afghan population
and if they did, it was for personal interest
and not for national government’s interest.
The area of cooperation with other
actors is not a profitable one, but is promising
especially on economical level because of the
launched economic programmes.
253
The Alliance has identified lessons
learnt from the mission of Afghanistan and
promises for the application of them
abound the strategic level. Those
concerning Afghan quality of life and
women emancipation have been a success.
By
adopting the concept of
Comprehensive Approach, NATO enlarged
its political function and overcame the
security threats and having an effective
transition process. A lot of debates are made
about the opportunity to apply this concept,
but the Comprehensive Approach has to be
implemented on the territorial level and not
on the policy level. NATO is working at the
conceptual part of the situation, but it has to
establish what it really wants to achieve in
Afghanistan. Furthermore, the Alliance has to
be completely convinced that there is no more
need to assist and train the ANSF, in the
capability which today’s challenges requires.
The final goal for ISAF in Afghanistan
is that ANSF takes over full security
responsibility for the country. Without
implementing a CA this goal is not possible
to achieve. Afghanistan’s challenges affect a
full spectrum of areas, not only the security
one. Therefore, the tendencies concerning
NATO’s CA in the process of transition to
full Afghan security responsibility will take
place on the decision-making process, at the
policy level. What derives from this is the
fragmentation of the Alliance approach in a
system of systems working together to ensure
that Afghan security is a work in progress.
The process of full Afghan security
responsibility is not complete until all the
international armed forces withdraw from
the country and the ANSF prove that they
are capable to control all the threats
concerning the security level. M oreover the
Afghan government shows its commitment
to the Afghan population and the country
begins to develop in normal ways.
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REFERENCES
1. Bucharest Summit Declaration, Issued by the Heads of State and Government
participating in the meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Bucharest, 2008, paragraph no. 4.
2. Ibidem, paragraph no. 11.
3. A “Comprehensive Approach” to Crisis Management, http://www.nato.int/cps/
en/natolive/topics_51633.htm (accessed M ay 19, 2014).
4. Civil-M ilitary Cooperation Centre of Excellence, CIMIC Field Handbook, 2013, 30.
5. Ibidem, 30.
6. Russell Hampsey and Sean M cKenna, “Afghanistan’s Unique Surge. The Fight Can
Only Be Won by Listening to Afghan Voices”, Armed Forces Journal, 10, (2010), 3,
Washington, DC, Article.
7. Ibidem, 3.
8. Anthony H. Cordesman, Adam M ausner and David Kasten, Winning in Afghanistan:
Creating Effective Afghan Security Forces, (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic &
International Studies, 2009), 28.
9. Homepage of NATO, NATO M edia Backgrounder, Afghanistan and NATO’s
Enduring
Partnership,
http://www.nato.int/nato_static/assets/pdf/pdf_2011_04/20110414
_110414-AfghanPartnership.pdf (accessed M ay 20, 2014).
10. NATO and Afghanistan, http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_8189.htm
(accessed M ay 20, 2014).
11. Author’s note: The SILK-Afghanistan project is named after the Great Silk Road
trading route linking Asia and Europe which provides high-speed internet to 18 Afghan
universities and some governmental institutions in Kabul.
12. Homepage of NATO, http://www.nato.int/cps/ro/natolive/news_72775.htm
(accessed April 4, 2014).
13. NATO M edia Backgrounder, Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF): Training
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