Colloquial Malaysian English
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Colloquial Malaysian English
1 Background
The use of English in Malaysia can be traced back to the British settlement of Penang in the 18th century. The
influence of English increased along with English-medium education, missionary work and the need for English in the administrative and commercial sectors in the Straits Settlements of Penang, Singapore and Melaka,
and subsequently Malaya (Haji Omar 1992, Lee et al 2010, Talbot 1989). However, upon independence, Malay
was accorded national language status, and gradually replaced English as the language of public administration as provided for in Article 152 of the Federal Constitution and the National Language Act 1963/1967. By
the early 1970s, Malay began replacing English as the medium of instruction in national schools and public
universities; at the primary level, Tamil and Chinese (Mandarin) medium schools continue to exist even to
this day. English is still a compulsory subject up to the fifth form in secondary schools. In an attempt to address the declining standards of English and to enable Malaysians to access the world of Science and Technology, subjects like engineering, science and medicine were allowed to be taught in English at the tertiary
level. Subsequently, the teaching of Science and Mathematics in English was introduced in stages at the primary and secondary levels in 2002. However, this policy has since been scrapped, and English is being replaced by Malay from 2012.
The debate over the use of English as a medium of instruction and the focus given to it in the education
system continues to be discussed. To a certain extent, the debates highlight the existence of a group of Malaysians, albeit a minority one, who use English as their first or as one of their dominant languages. This
group cuts across ethnic groups and is likely to comprise those from higher educational and socio-economic
backgrounds. The call for an increased use of English in education also echoes employers’ laments over the
lack of English proficiency among Malaysian graduates. The need for graduates who are proficient in English
is not surprising given that the private sector in Malaya largely functions in English. At the same time, there
is a dearth of Malaysians who are proficient users of English. This is despite the fact that English is taught in
schools for a minimum of eleven years.
Many blame the decline in English language proficiency on the education system. However, the declining
domains in which English is used amidst the dominance of Malay in public education and the public sector
set against the multilingual canvas of Malaysia has contributed to the contracting numbers of English speakers, concentrating them mainly in urban areas and among higher socio-economic groups. Further, the use of
a more standard form of English competes alongside a more user-friendly colloquial variety, and unlike Singapore where there is more delineation between the colloquial and standard variety, the use of CMalE permeates many contexts of use in Malaysia (Pillai 2008a). The use of CMalE is generaly seen as an indication of
‘bad’ English or poor proficiency in English. Yet it is also used by fluent speakers who seamlessly switch from
CMalE to a more standard variety for a number of reasons, including the signalling of intimacy and shared
identity, and accommodating other Malaysian speakers (Pillai 2006). Thus, whilst there is a need to enhance
the level of English proficiency among Malaysians, Colloquial Malaysian English (CMalE) cannot be dismissed as a deficient variety as it is inextricably linked to one’s identity as a Malaysian. Moreover, it is clearly
a variety with a system of its own, having adopted and adapted linguistic features from Malay, Chinese and
Tamil, among others.
Early descriptions tended to categorise Malaysian English (MalE) into two or three sub-varieties. Platt and
Weber (1980), for example, divided MalE into two categories based on whether speakers had been to English medium schools (Malaysian English Type 1) or to Malay medium schools (Malaysian English Type 2). The
former sub-variety was considered similar to SgE and indeed many early studies tended to treat MalE and Singapore English (SgE) as one entity. Given the different routes both countries have taken in terms of education
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and language policies, it is inevitable that the current role and status of English is quite different in Malaysia
and Singapore, although the geographical proximity and shared cultural aspects also mean that there will be
similar features in both varieties of English, and that these will be particularly salient in the colloquial subvarieties in Malaysian and Singapore English.
In terms of statistics, approximately 80 % of Singaporeans speak English, 16 % of them as a first language
(Singapore Census 2010), whilst only about a quarter of Malaysia’s population is said to speak English, 5 % of
them being first language users (Crystal 2005). The English used in Malaysia comprises many sub-varieties
and is spoken with a multitude of accents and at different levels of fluency depending on social (e.g. age, educational background, ethnicity), economic (e.g. level of income) and geographical factors (e.g. urban or
rural, location in Malaysia) (cf. Morais 2001, Pillai 2008b, Rajadurai 2006). The multilingual environment of
Malaysia means that most Malaysians are at least bilingual if not multilingual, and within this context English could be a first, second or other language to Malaysians.
2 Common features between CMalE and Colloquial SgE
The features described in the overview of all attested WAVE features (see appendix) are those that are pervasively found (i.e. A-rated features in the overview) in CMalE1 and hence are likely to be similar to colloquial
SgE. However, like the latter, CMalE is also a fluid entity and proficient speakers of MalE may not display all
of the features mentioned. For example, speakers that are more proficient are less likely to use non-StE verb
forms. The features described should not be considered as deviations from StE but rather as features which
are commonly used in informal contexts. These include spoken, mobile and online contexts (e.g. in text messages, Facebook and chat platforms).
As mentioned in the previous sections, despite having taken different social, economic and political
paths, the geographical proximity and shared cultural heritage means that there are bound to be similar linguistic features between CMalE and Colloquial SgE (CollSgE). The following sections examine some of the
common features between the two varieties with examples from CollSgE to supplement those from CMalE
provided in the overview. It is worth remembering that many of the features presented below are likely to be
more pervasive among speakers with a lower proficiency in English, and being a collloquial variety is more
likely to be used in informal contexts.
2.1 Pronouns
F43–F44: The dropping of subject pronoun for referential pronouns and for dummy pronouns occurs in both
CMalE and CollSgE. The following are examples from CollSgE:
Always late! ‘You are always late!’
Must buy for him, otherwise he not happy. ‘We must buy a present for him, otherwise he won’t be happy.’
(Wee 2008: 598)
Yeah, can cycle, not very well but can cycle … ‘Yeah, I can cycle; not very well by I can cycle.’ (Low and
Brown 2005: 106)
1 Examples were derived from my own usage and from Baskaran (2005), Pillai (2006), Sim (1993) and Wu (2003).
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2.2 Noun Phrase
F48 and F55: A common feature in both CMalE and CollSgE is the use of -s to Standard English (StE) irregular
plurals (e.g. deers and phenomenons), while there is a tendency to use the plural form for uncountable nouns
like, equipments, informations, luggages and staffs (Low and Brown 2005, Wee 2008). Such usage sometimes
finds its way into the written form, such as in public notices, which suggests that the users do not know the
correct forms of these nouns or that there is no delineation between colloquial and standard use of these forms
(see Pillai 2008a). Based on a study of English newspapers in Malaysia and Singapore over a two year period
in the early nineties, Lim (2001: 127–129) suggests that there are more “grammatical and stylistic infelicities” in
Malaysian newspapers compared to the ones in Singapore due to the effect of different levels of use and functions of English in these two countries. It would have been interesting to trace the frequency if such ‘infelicities’ over the last four to five decades2 to determine if the contracted use of English in Malaysia accounts
for an increase in non-standard use of grammatical forms. Among the forms found in the Malaysian English
newspaper is F62, that is, the tendency not to use articles where StE has a definite article (Lim 2001: 128):
The business community can supplement and complement Governments’ efforts to combat social problems
among youths.
This form, however, is to be expected in CMalE, and also in CollSgE such as in the following examples:
(A) new girl, is it?
This one really becoming like (a) Cantonese picture. (Low and Brown 2005: 185)
May I apply for (a) car licence?
You got to have (a) proper system here. (Tay 1993: 32)
2.3 Verb Phrase
F99, F109: The levelling of tense and aspect is prevalent in both colloquial varieties. This includes using the
simple past form for StE present perfect with a preference for lexical marking of time and aspect with words
like already.
She ate lunch already (Alsagoff 2001: 84)
F100: The use of present perfect for StE simple past can also be found in both CMalE and CollSgE, especially
among less proficient speakers:
We seen Tarzan last night. (Tay 1993: 33)
F132: Less proficient MalE speakers tend not to mark the past tense form of regular verbs, and this can also be
found in colloquial SgE:
She shop here yesterday. (Alsagoff 2001: 80)
He eat here yesterday. (Wee 2008: 594)
This feature is often attributed to first language influence such as from Malay and Chinese (Alsagoff, 2001:
Baskaran, 2005). For example, in Malay, the verb is not marked for tense. Temporal information is obtained
from context or from the use of temporal markers like today, everyday, yesterday (Baskaran, 2005). This is
similar to Cantonese and Mandarin as illustrated below:
2 Singapore was expelled from Malaysia, which it had joined in
1963, in 1969, subsequently becoming an independent nation.
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Malay:
Cantonese:
Mandarin:
Malay:
Cantonese:
Mandarin:
Saya
datang
sini
I
come
here
Ngoh mooi yat
dou
Wo
mei tian
dou
I
everyday also
‘I come here every day.’
setiap
every
lei
lai
come
hari.
day.
ni do.
zhe li.
here.
Saya
datang
sini
I
come
here
Ngoh kam yât
lei
Wa
zuo tian
lai
I
yesterday come
‘I came here yesterday.’
semalam.
yesterday.
ni do.
zhe li
here.
However, the influence of a substrate language does not always account for patterns of use in nativised varieties of English like MalE and SgE. For instance, Ho (2003: 46) suggests that there is a particular pattern of
use related to the lack of past tense marking in Colloquial SgE such as the use of adverbs of frequency and
“non-punctual verbs” which refer “to an action that takes place over a period of time or to a habitual activity”
(Ho 2003: 40).
2.4 Negation
F165–F166: MalE and SgE both use invariant tags such as isn’t it and can or not. Examples from SgE are as follows:
You can speak Malay, isn’t it? ‘You can speak Malay, can’t you?’ (Low and Brown 2005: 108)
I want to go home, can or not? ‘Can I go home?’
Answer the question, can or not? ‘Do you know the answer to the question?’(Wee 2008: 599)
The main effect of the isn’t it tag is to seek agreement from the interlocutor and therefore, the tag does not
need agree with the verb in the main clause for type, tense and number (e.g. They are driving, isn’t it?; The concert started late, isn’t it?). The can or not tag has a different effect as it connotes permission and possibility
(Wee 2008: 599).
2.5 Agreement
F170: Similar to CMalE, zero marking for 3rd person singular resulting in the use of the invariant present tense
form can also be found in CollSingE, and again, such features are likely to be more prevalent among speakers
with lower proficiency in English:
He eat here yesterday.
He not yet eat lunch. (Wee 2008: 594)
The lack of number agreement also applies to singular subjects in both varieties of English such as in the following examples from CollSingE:
The teacher shout a lot. ‘The teacher shouts a lot.’ (Wee 20084: 594)
So now settle lah but still those minor minor things my mother do herself. ‘ It’s settled now, but my mother
still does minor things by herself.’ (Bradshaw and Hew 1998: 107)
Both varieties display the deletion of copula be before the following contexts:
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Colloquial Malaysian English
F174:
progressives e.g.
We waiting for the flight to come in. ‘We are waiting for the flight to arrive.’ (Ho 1993: 96)
F176:
noun e.g.
The one the wife lah. ‘That is the wife.’ (Low and Brown 2005: 91)
F177:
adjectives e.g.
I very scared. ‘I am very scared.’ (Ho 1995: 91)
I damn naughty. ‘I am very naughty. (Low and Brown 2005: 91)
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2.6 Complementation
F205: Existential got is a common feature of both Colloquial MalE and SgE:
Where got enough time. ‘There isn’t enough time.’
Here got so many American teachers. ‘There are many American teachers here.’ (Tay 1993: 34)
Got instructions. ‘There are instructions’ (Pakir 1995: 7)
This verb is also used as a perfective and possessive marker essentially in place of have (Wee 2008: 595–596).
He got go to Japan. ‘He has been to Japan.’
You got nice shirt. ‘You have a nice shirt.’
2.7 Discourse organization and word order
F228–F229: There is generally no inversion or auxiliaries in wh-questions and in main clause yes/no questions
in both colloquial varieties as shown in the following examples from SgE:
You want pao or not? ‘Do you want a pao (a type of bread with a sweet or savoury filling)?/‘Would you like
a pao?’ (Harrison and Lim 1988: 149)
What you doing tonight? ‘What are you doing tonight?’
What you want? ‘What do you want?’
Why she want to be like that? ‘Why does she want to be like that?’/‘Why is she like that?’
What is it you want ha? ‘What is it that you want?’/‘What do you want?’ (Tay 1993: 33–34)
As previously mentioned, the use of the invariant tag is it/isn’t it is also common in both varieties. In addition,
other tags like can or not and or not as well as well as particles, such as ah and hah, are also employed:
You’ve got married is it? ‘Did you get married?’ (Low and Brown 2005: 108)
The Director is busy now, is it? ‘Is the Director busy now/at the moment?’ (Tay 1993: 33).
The food good or not? ‘Is the food delicious?’
You busy or not? ‘Are you busy?’ (Wee 2008: 599)
3 Conclusion
The features described in this chapter are frequently found in colloquial MalE and SgE. Since the late sixties,
the two varieties, whilst still very similar and mutually intelligible, have established particular linguistic features of their own. This is especially noticeable for lexical items and has been noted in pronunciation features
as well. The extent to which the morpho-syntactic features described in this chapter are used in both MalE
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Stefanie Pillai
and SgE largely depends on factors like level of proficiency and ethnic background of the speakers. Thus, the
colloquial variety is a fluid entity, and more proficient speakers of English will be able to weave in and out of
the colloquial variety and the standard one (Govindan and Pillai 2009). The colloquial forms of MalE and SgE
tend to be reduced and simplified forms of StE, and thus, coupled with orthographic representation of localised pronunciation (e.g. wif for with, de for the), lend themselves more naturally to short and quick forms of
text, such as text messages or Facebook updates (compare a Facebook update like Check in also so long to It
took a long time to check in or a text message like Can I borrow your car? to can borrow car?). The use of such
forms in more public online platforms, such as Facebook, can lead to the dilemma about the use of colloquial
forms of English. For example, is it appropriate for English language educators to use CMalE in their Facebook
status updates and comments when their students are on their friends’ list?
In both Malaysia and Singapore, those who can only function in the colloquial variety can find themselves handicapped by their inability to use the more standard form as it may, and face reduced job and scholarship opportunities. This issue is more pressing in Malaysia as it is more geographically spread out, more linguistically diverse and has a more complex educational context. There is, therefore, a great need to ensure
that there is adequate access and that there are resources and opportunities for Malaysians to learn the standard form so that they are not socio-economically disadvantaged because of their lack of English proficiency.
Such a need is not unique to Malaysia. Any context that has a non-standard form operating alongside a standard one will be faced with the challenge of empowering people with the latter, and at the same time reconciling this process with the fact that non-standard varieties like CMalE and CollSgE act as identity markers.
Appendix:
Overview of WAVE features attested in Colloquial Malaysian English
#
13
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18
10
14
16
34
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
47
Feature
MalE example
I. Pronouns, pronoun exchange, nominal gender
alternative forms/phrases for referential
Give me five minute to pack the thing for you. (Referring to items
(non-dummy) it
to be packed in a shop.)
me instead of I in coordinate subjects
My girlfriend and me went for dinner last night.
myself/meself instead of I in coordinate
There was myself and my friend at the party. ‘My friend and I
subjects
were at the party’
no gender distinction in 3rd person
Siti Nurhalizah ah, when he sing Malay song so nice. ‘Siti
singular
Nurhalizah, she sings Malay songs really well’
no number distinction in reflexives (i.e.
We did it ourself. ‘We did it by ourselves.’
plural forms ending in -self)
emphatic reflexives with own
I hit my own self on the door. ‘I hit myself on the door.’
(especially among less proficient speakers of MalE)
forms or phrases for the 2nd person plural
I’ll meet you all at the Cheras toll. ‘I’ll meet all of you at the
pronoun other than you
Cheras toll booth.’
plural forms of interrogative pronouns:
Who all came for the wedding? ‘Who came for the wedding?’
using additional elements
plural forms of interrogative pronouns:
Who who made noise about the food? ‘Who complained about
reduplication
the food?’
singular it for plural they in anaphoric use
You want all the things in your list, right? I take it for you now.
(with non-human referents)
object pronoun drop
Okay lah just give me one bottle. If Ø no good, I return Ø ah.
‘Okay, just give me one bottle. If it is not good, I will return it.’
subject pronoun drop: referential
Buy this brand lah. Ø Very cheap!
pronouns
subject pronoun drop: dummy pronouns
Raining already. ‘It is raining’.
insertion of it where StE favours zero
As I explained it to her, this is not the right way.
deletion of it in non-referential it
Compulsory to attend the workshop, okay. ‘It is compulsory to
is-constructions
attend the workshop.’’
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153
154
155
156
157
158
162
163
164
171
178
179
II. Noun phrase
regularization of plural formation:
extension of -s to StE irregular plurals
associative plural marked by postposed
other elements
group plurals
different count/mass noun distinctions
resulting in use of plural for StE singular
absence of plural marking only after
quantifiers
plural marking generally optional: for
nouns with human referents
plural marking generally optional: for
nouns with non-human referents
use of zero article where StE has definite
article
use of zero article where StE has indefinite
article
use of definite article where StE favours
zero
no number distinction in demonstratives
double comparatives and superlatives
109
regularized comparison strategies:
extension of synthetic marking
regularized comparison strategies:
extension of analytic marking
comparative marking only with than
III. Verb phrase: tense and aspect
other non-standard habitual markers:
synthetic
levelling of present perfect and simple
past: simple past for StE present perfect
levelling of present perfect and simple
past: present perfect for StE simple past
simple present for continuative or
experiential perfect
perfect marker already
113
loosening of sequence of tenses rule
116
117
come-based future/ingressive markers
present tense forms for neutral future
reference
V. Verb phrase: verb morphology
levelling of past tense/past participle verb
forms: regularization
levelling of past tense/past participle verb
forms: unmarked forms
levelling of past tense/past participle verb
forms: past tense for past participle
zero past tense forms of regular verbs
double marking of past tense
use of gotten instead of got
was for conditional were
VII. Negation
invariant don’t for all persons in the
present tense
never as preverbal past tense negator
180
184
192
199
100
101
128
129
130
132
133
145
147
158
159
All assets including aircrafts would be shifted to the new base.
A
Aunty Betty and gang are here. ‘Aunty Betty and her family are
here.’
Neither of my two sister-in-laws speak to me much.
A lot of the staffs are unable to attend the dinner.
B
Give me five minute to pack the thing for you.
A
When I see those tow truck operator, I get cheesed off.
B
Want to buy biscuit or not? ‘Would you like to buy biscuits?’
B
Vocabulary is very important at Ø elementary level.
A
We got Ø new promotion for this one. ‘We have a promotion on
this item.’
The most thing that I hate is the detox tea. ‘The thing that I hate
the most is detox tea.’
Let me finish this letters first …
Women are more smarter than men. (especially among less
proficient speakers)
Yan is the handsomest guy on or team.
B
Hana is the most clever girl in the class.
B
I prefer durian than jackfruit.
B
They goes to the Pasar Tani every Saturday. ‘They go to the
Farmers’ Market every Saturday.’
You went there before? Have you been there before?
B
Ben has return back the product yesterday. ‘Ben returned the
product yesterday.’
I work for them since I was fifteen.
A
He got five summonses already you know. ‘He has been issued
five tickets (by the police).’ (alternatively before)
A Customs spokesman said an enforcement team chased the
lorry after the department received information that the vehicle
was carrying boxes of firecrackers.
I’m coming to see you. ‘I’m on my way to see you.’
We visit her this Raya lah. ‘We will visit her during Raya (Id).’
A
The game was broadcasted over ASTRO.
A
I gave her the key already. ‘I have already given her the keys.’
B
I have ran this workshop before. ‘I have run/organised this
workshop before.’
Here are things you order yesterday.
They didn’t made it this time.
If you haven’t gotten the new iPhone4 yet, you better hurry.
If I was single, I would have worked overseas long time ago.
A
She don wanna come home now. ‘She does not want to come
home now.’
I never broke it.
A
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invariant non-concord tags (including
eh?)
invariant tag can or not?
non-standard system underlying
responses to negative yes/no questions
VIII. Agreement
invariant present tense due to zero
marking for the 3rd person singular
existential / presentational there’s/there
is/there was with plural subjects
deletion of auxiliary be: before
progressive
deletion of auxiliary be: before gonna
deletion of copula be: before NPs
deletion of copula be: before AdjPs
IX. Relativization
relativizer that or what in non-restrictive
contexts
which for ‘who’
resumptive/shadow pronouns
postposed one as sole relativizer
196
correlative constructions
197
“linking relative clauses” (without direct
antecedent)
deletion of stranded prepositions in
relative clauses (“preposition chopping”)
X. Complementation
as what / than what in comparative
clauses
existentials with forms of get
addition of to where StE has bare
infinitive
XI. Adverbial subordination
conjunction doubling: correlative conjs.
166
169
170
172
174
175
176
177
185
198
204
205
209
215
220
221
222
224
227
228
229
231
235
XII. Adverbs and prepositions
degree modifier adverbs have the same
form as adjectives
other adverbs have the same form as
adjectives
too; too much; very much ‘very’ as
qualifier
He scolded you, isn’t it?
A
Wait for me, can or not. ‘Please wait for me’
You don’t mind helping me? Yes [=No I don’t mind]/ No [=Yes I
mind]
A
A
Every month, he/my father spend all his pay gambling.
A
There’s four of us in the family.
A
They Ø coming tomorrow night.
B
I Ø gonna leave now.
She Ø good girl one. ‘She’s a good girl.’
You Ø happy like anything. ‘You are so happy.’
B
B
B
Jingkli Nona, that I like to sing, is very popular in the Portuguese
Settlement.
The guy which is new is hopeless.
That is the lady I introduce her to you before.
The lady make cake one very action. ‘The lady who makes cakes
is very stuck up.’
The one I made, that one is good. ‘The ones I made are the good
ones.’
They were going on a bus which I know they never take the bus at
home
You remember the swing that we all used to sit together (on)?
B
It‘s never as easy as what we want. ‘It’s never as easy as we want
it to be.’
Got no water in the toilet. ‘There is no water in the toilet.’
He make me to sign the cheque. ‘He forced me to sign the
cheque.’ (especially among Malaysians of South Indian origin)
A
Although the wardens at the hostel were very nice but it wasn’t
the same as being at home.
A
She lives in a real huge house. (especially among younger
Malaysians)
She speaks so soft. I can’t hear her at all.
A
My husband is too stingy one. Five sen also ask so many question.
‘My husband is very stingy. Even if it costs five sen/is five sen
extra, he asks so many questions.’
XIII. Discourse organization and word order
other possibilities for fronting than StE
That boy is from which school? ‘Which school is that boy from?’
inverted word order in indirect questions
He asked why is Wong‘s working so different. ‘He asked why the
way Wong arrived at the (Math) solution was different.’
no inversion/no auxiliaries in
What you doing tonight? Why he called?
wh-questions
no inversion/no auxiliaries in main clause
You wanna eat something?
yes/no questions
superlative marker most occurring before
The most thing that I hate is the detox tea. ‘The thing that I hate
head noun
the most is the detox tea.’
like as a quotative particle
We were like, “What’s up with her!”
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